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CYCI.OPKDIA   OF   AMERICAN   AGRICULTURE 


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Cyclopedia  of 
American  Agriculture 


A   POPULAR  SURVEY  OF 

AGRICULTURAL   CONDITIONS,  PRACTICES  AND 

IDEALS   IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

AND   CANADA 


EDITED    BY 

L.   H.   BAILEY 


D^  one  fmnbreb  full-page  platetf  anb  more  tfjan  tkno  tboutfanli 
iftnatvatiatui  in  tte  text 


7^-  FOUR    VOLUMES 
VOL,  lU—ANIMAl^ 


SECOND  EDITIOK 


J^eta)  Igorb 
THE    MACMILLAX    COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &  CO.,   Ltd. 
1910 

TKt  righU  of  production  and  of  irantlation  art  ttrittlt/  retervrd 


CorTBtGRT.    1908 

Bt  the  macmilian  company 

8«t  up  and  electrotyped.    Pabltebed  June.  IBoe 
aeprintod  April.  1*10 


.***.  a*!**!!.*!         *•••'•*••       •!*••      • 


Jidstint  Pleattnt  l^rcM 

J.  Horice  McFiiland  C«. 
HuiiibBit.  Pa. 


CONTENTS 

PART  1— THE  ANIMAL  AND   ITS  RELATIONS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAOI 

The  Domestication  of  Anihals.  W.  H.  Brewer 4 

The  Place  of  the  Domestic  Animal  in  Onr  CWilization.  Thomas  F.  Hunt 7 

CHAPTER   II 

Physiology  of  the  Animal 15-26 

Physiology  of  Domestic  Animals.    S.  J.  J.  Harger 17 

■ 

CHAPTER   HI 

The  B&ebding  op  Animaia  Eugene  Davenport 26-55 

Some  of  the  Principles  of  Animal-Breeding.  Frederick  B.  Mnmford 28 

Animal  Types  and  Score-Cards.  Frederick  B.  Mumford 44 

CHAI>TER   IV 

The  Feeding  of  Animai^.  W.  H.  Jordan 56-122 

Principles  of  Stock-Feeding.   Henry  Prentiss  Armsby 5)1 

Feeding  and  Computation  Tables 92 

Method  of  Exact  Balancing  of  Rations.  J.  T.  Willard 103 

Computing  Balanced  Rations.  John  L.  Stone 106 

Stock-Poisoning,  N.  S.  Mayo 118 

Poisonous  Weeds  and  Their  Eradication.  E.  V.  Wilcox 119 

CHAFFER   V 

Diseases  and  Management  of  Animals.    James  Law 122-151 

Infections  Diseases  of  Animals.  Veranua  A.  Moore 124 

Some  Details  of  Stock  Management.  N.  S.  Mayo  and  H.  W.  Mumford 146 

CHAPl'EU   VI 

The  Exhibiting  of  Animals 152-162 

Fitting  and  Exhibiting  Live-stock.    C.  S.  Plumb 153 

Marketing  Farm  Stock.   C.  S.  Plumb 158 

CHAPTER   VII 

Wild  Life  and  Its  Relation  to  Faeming 163-173 

Wild  Mammals  in  Their  Relations  with  Agriculture.  Clarence  M.  Weed 163 

Birds  in  Their  Relations  with  Agriculture.   Edward  Howe  Forbush 169 


(») 


Tl  CONTENTS 

PART   II— THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 

CHAin'ER   VIII 

FAUK 

Dairy  Products 175-246 

Milk  as  a  Market  Product.   Raymond  A.  Pearson 176 

Bacteria  of  Milk.   W.  A.  Stocking,  Jr. 187 

Manufacture  of  Condensed  Milk.  0.  F.  Hunziker 190 

Milk-Powder.  Geo.  W.  Cavanaugh 194 

Manufacture  of  Ice-Cream  and  Other  Frozen  Products.   H.  E.  Van  Norman 195 

Butter-Making.  Edwin  H.  Webster 198 

The  Making  of  Cheddar  Cheese.  J.  A.  Ruddick 208 

Other  Varieties  of  Hard  Cheese.    Charles  Thorn,  and  others 218 

Soft  Cheeses  in  America.  Charles  Thorn 220 

Creameries  and  Skimming  Stations.  H.  L.  Ayres 226 

Refrigeration  of  Dairy  Products.  Oscar  Erf 232 

CHAPTER   IX 

Meats  and  Related  Products.  W.  D.  Hoard 246-272 

Dressing,  Caring  for  and  Preserving  Meats.    Andrew  Boas 248 

Shipping  Meat  and  Hides.    W.  H.  Tomhave 260 

The  Canning  of  Meat  and  Fish.   W.  D.  Richardson 261 

Meat :  Its  Nutritive  Value,  Selection  and  Preparation.    Flora  Rose 263 

Tanning  Hides.  John  F.  Porter 271 

The  Leather  and  Hide  Industry 272 

PART   III— NORTH   AMERICAN  FARM   ANIMALS 

Needs  in  Animal  Husbandry.  James  Wilson 274 

Asa.    C.S.  Plumb 276 

Bees.   W.  K,  Morrison 278 

Bison  and  Cattalo 287-292 

Bison.   E.  H.  Baynes 287 

Cattalo 289 

Buffalo  or  Water-Bnffalo.  F.  Lamson-Scribner 292 

Camels  in  North  America.    G.  A.  Mack 296 

Cat 299 

Cats  and  Their  Care.  E.  R.  B.  Champion 299 

Cattle 301 

Origin  of  Domestic  Cattle.   Frederick  B.  Mumford 302 

Selection  and  Management  of  the  Dairy  Herd.  J.  M.  Trueman 303 

The  Production  of  Milk.  H.  H.  Wing 309 

Feeding  Dairy  Cattle.   F.  W.  Well 313 

Feeding  Beef  Cattle.   Howard  R.  Smith 317 

Determining  the  Age  of  Cattle.   H.  H.  Wing 321 

Common  Ailments  of  Cattle.  John  R.  Mohler  and  George  H.  Hart 321 

Aberdeen-Angus  Cattle.   John  S.  Goodwin 330 

Ayrshire  Cattle.  Harry  Hayward 333 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle.   Charles  D.  Nixon '.33^ 

Devon  Cattle.   L.  P.  Sisson 339 


CONTENTS  Tti 

PAOK 

Dotch  Belted  Cattle.   Frank  R.  Sanders 341 

French-Canadian  Cattle.  G.  E.  Day 343 

Galloway  Cattle.  Charles  Gray 345 

Guernsey  Cattle.   William  H.  Caldwell 348 

Hereford  Cattle.  Charlee  Gadgell 351 

Double-Standard  Polled  Herefords 355 

Holstein-Friesian  Cattle.    Solomon  Hoxie 355 

Jersey  Cattle.   M.  A.  Scovell 361 

Oxen.   C.  S.  Plumb 366 

Red  Polled  Cattle.  H.  A.  Martin .367 

Shorthorn  Cattle.  Herbert  W.  Mumford 369 

Polled  Durham  Cattle 375 

Sussex  Cattle.  Overton  Lea 376" 

Some  of  the  Lesser  Known  Breeds  of  Cattle.  C.  S.  Plumb 377 

Black  Welsh  Cattle 377 

Brahmin,  Sacred  Cattle  or  Zebus 378 

Breton  or  Brittany  Cattle 379 

Holdemess  Cattle 379 

Kerry  and  Dexter-Kerry  Cattle 379 

Longhorn  Cattle     380 

Normandy  Cattle 381 

Simmenthal  Cattle 381 

Texas  Longhorn  Cattle 381 

Weet  Highland  Cattle 382 

Dogs,  Farm 383 

The  Collie  Dog.  Herbert  W.  Mumford 383 

The  Old  English  Bobtail  Sheep-dog.  Frederick  Freeman  Lloyd 386 

Sheep-dog  Trials.    Frederick  Freeman  Lloyd 388 

Fish 390 

Fish-culture.    W.  E.  Meehan 390 

Fish  Food  and  Feeding-grounds.    James  G.  Needham 392 

Plankton-cnlture.    Julius  Nelson 393 

Carp.    James  G.  Needham 393 

Progs.    W.  E.  Meehan  and  E.  A.  Andrews 394 

Fur-Bearing  Animals  of  North  America.    E.  T.  D.  Chambers 395 

Goats 405 

Angora  Goats.    E.  L.  Shaw , 405 

Milch  Goata.    William  C.  Clos 408 

Hare,  Belgian.    U.  G.  Conover 412 

Horse 415 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Horse.    Frederick  B.  Mumford 418 

The  Education,  Harnessing  and  Gaits  of  the  Horse.    Thomas  F.  Hunt 421 

Practical  Horse-training  and  Handling.    Merritt  W.  Harper 424 

Feeding  the  Horse.    Merritt  W.  Harper 428 

Determining  the  Age  of  Horses.    H.  H.  Wing 433 

Common  Ailments  of  Horses.    John  R.  Mohler  and  George  H.  Hart 436 

Arab  Horse.    Homer  Davenport 446 

Barb  and  Turk  Horses.    Carl  W.  Gay 449 

The  Turk  Horse 451 

Belgian  Draft  Horse.    W.  L.  Cariyle 451 

Cleveland  Bay  and  Yorkshire  Coach  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 463 

Clydesdale  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 455 

French  Coach  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 4.'>8 


TiU  CONTENTS 

French  Draft  Horse.    W.  L.  Carlyle 460 

Ardennais  Horse 460 

Bonlonnais  Horse 461 

Breton  Horse 461 

NiTemaise  Horse 462 

German  Coach  Horse.  Merritt  W.  Harper 462 

Hackney  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 464 

Hunter  Horse.    W.  C.  Bacon 468 

Steeple-chase  Horse 470 

Military.  Horae 470 

Orloff  Trotting  Horse.    C.  S.  Plnmb 474 

Pacing  Horse,  Standardbred.    John  A.  Craig 476 

Percheron  Horse.    Charles  F.  Cnrtiss  and  John  A.  Craig 478 

Ponies.    S.  B.  Elliot 481 

Polo  Pony 482 

Mustang 483 

Other  American  Ponies 484 

Ponies  of  the  British  Isles 484-488 

Shetland  Pony 484 

Welsh  Pony .  486 

Ezmoor  and  Dartmoor  Ponies 487 

New  Forest  Pony 487 

Hackney  Pony 487 

Ponies  of  Scotland 488 

Galloway 488 

Connemara,  or  Pony  of  Ireland 488 

Celtic,  or  Pony  of  Iceland 488 

Arabian  Pony 488 

Russian  Pony 488 

Scandinavian  or  Norwegian  Pony 488 

Miscellaneous  Ponies • .   .    .    .  489 

Saddle  Horse,  American.    David  Castleman 489 

Shire  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 493 

Suffolk  or  Suffolk  Punch  Horse.    John  A.  Craig 494 

Thoroughbred  Horse.    Carl  W.  Gay 496 

Trotting  and  Pacing  Horse,  American  Standardbred.    John  A.  Craig 600 

Mule.    Charles  Wm.  Bnrkett 507 

Ostrich.    Watson  Pickrell 511 

Pets.    C.  H.  Ellard 514 

Poultry 525 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Fowl.    Charles  B.  Davenport 628 

Breeding  of  Poultry.    Charles  B.  Davenport 529 

Feeding  Poultry.    James  E.  Rice 533 

Feeding  Water-fowl.    George  H.  Pollard 536 

Fattening  Poultry.    W.  R.  Graham 538 

Capons  and  Caponizing.    T.  Greiner 540 

Incubation  and  Brooding.    Charles  A.  Cyphers 542 

Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  Products.    D.  J.  Lambert 544 

Judging  Poultry.    T.  E.  Orr 547 

Common  Ailments  of  Poultry.    Prince  T.  Woods 552 

Poultry-House  Construction.    James  E.  Rice 556 

Breeds  and  Types  of  Chickens.    T.  B.  Orr 563 

Ducks.    Charles  McClave 569 


CONTENTS  iz 

PASS 

Geeee.    Cfaarlee  McClave 572 

Grooae,  Domestication  of  the  Rnffed.    C.  F.  Hodge 576 

Gninea-fowl.    T.  P.  McGrew 578 

Pheasants  and  Related  Fowls.    Homer  Davenport 579 

Pigeons  and  Sqoabs.    Thomas  Wright 582 

Qoail,  Domestication  of  the  Bobwhite  or  American.    C.  F.  Hodge 534 

Swan.    Charles  MeClave 585 

Turkeys.    T.  P.  McGrew 586 

Beindeer.    C.  C.  Georgeson 588 

Reindeer  for  Labrador.    D.  W.  Prowse 592 

Sheep 592 

Origin  of  Domestic  Sheep 596 

Wool-  and  Hntton-Prodoction.    G.  C.  Humphrey 698 

The  Feeding  of  Sheep.    John  A.  Craig 600 

Determining  the  Age  of  Sheep.    H.  H.  Wing 603 

Common  Ailments  of  Sheep.    Lonis  A.  Klein 603 

Cheviot  Sheep.    David  McCrae 609 

Cotswold  Sheep.    David  UcCrae 611 

Dorset-Horn  Sheep.    H.  P.  Miller 612 

Hampshire  Down  Sheep.    H.  P.  Miller 614 

Leicester  Sheep.    David  MeCrae 615 

Lincoln  Sheep.    David  McCrae 617 

Merino  Sheep.    Joseph  E.  Wing 618 

American  Merino 621 

Delaine  Merino    .       622 

Rambonillet  or  French  Merino 623 

Oxford  Down  Sheep.    H.  P.  Miller 624 

Shropshire  Down  Sheep.    H.  P.  Miller 626 

SoQthdown  Sheep.    H.  P.  Miller 627 

Suffolk  Down  Sheep.  David  McCrae 629 

Miscellaneous  Breeds  of  Sheep 631 

Shell-fish 634 

Clam.    Julias  Nelson 634 

Crab.    Julius  Nelson 634 

Crayfish.    E.  A.  Andrews '. 635 

Lobster.    Julias  Nelson 635 

Oyster.    Julius  Nelson 636 

Shrimp.    Julius  Nelson 640 

Silkworm.    L.  0.  Howard 640 

8p(mges.  Julius  Nelson 643 

Swine 644 

Origin  of  Domestic  Swine 646 

Lard-  and  Bacon-Production.    Merritt  W.  Harper 647 

The  Feeding  of  Swine.    W.  J.  Kennedy,  Wayne  Dinsmore  and  J.  A.  McLean 649 

Determining  the  Age  of  Swine.   H.  H.  Wing 653 

Common  Ailments  of  Swine.  John  R.  Mohler  and  George  H.  Hart 653 

Berkshire  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 658 

Cheshire  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 660 

Chester-White  Swine.   G.  E.  Day 661 

DurocJersey  Swine.  0.  E.  Day 663 

Essex  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 666 

Hampshire  or  Thin  Rind  Swine.   G.  E.  Day 667 

Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  White  Swine.    G.  E.  Day 669 


X  PLATES 

PA«S 

Poland-China  Swine.    G.  E.  Day 671 

Small  Yorkshire  or  Small  White  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 674 

Suffolk  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 675 

Tamworth  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 676 

Victoria  Swine.    G.  E.  Day 678 

MiscellaneoDS  Breeds  of  Swine.  G.  E.  Day 679 

Turtlea  and  Tartle-Farming.    E.  A.  Andrews 681 

Index 683-708 


I.  The  American  bison Prontispi^e 

II.  The  American  turkey 26 

III.  Cattle-feeding  scene  in  the  Par  West 80 

IV.  Fairfield  dairy,  where  certified  milk  was  first  produced  (see  p.  175) 174 

V.  A  modem  sanitary  dairy  stable     224 

VI.  A  farm  apiary,  and  forma  of  honey-making  bees 279 

VII.  Forms  of  the  cattalo 287 

VIII.  Types  of  beef  cattle 302 

IX.  Types  of  dairy  cattle 320 

X.  Galloway  cow  and  Guernsey  bull 345' 

XI.  Jersey  cow 361 

XII.  Shorthorn  bull  and  cow 369 

XIII.  Shahwan,  a  famous  Arab  horse 415 

XIV.  Draft  horses 460 

XV.  Hackney  and  Saddler.    Courtesy  of  Breeders'  Gazette 468 

XVI.  Shetland  pony  and  broncho 481 

XVII.  Morgan  horse  and  trotter.  Trotter  photogragh  from  T,  A.  Knight     500 

XVIII.  Poultry  establishment ;   turkeys 525 

XIX.  Prominent  breeds  of  fowls 546 

XX.  Prominent  breeds  of  fowls 563 

XXI.  Sheep  range  in  Par  West 592 

XXII.  Breeds  of  long-wool  sheep 609 

XXIII.  Merino  sheep  at  pasture 618 

XXIV.  White  hogs     644 

XXV.  Colored  hogs 672 

VOL.    Ill 

First  MSS.  sent  to  printer  August  17,  1907 
Date  of  publication  June  22,  1908 
A.  R.  Mann,  Editor's  Secretary 
W.  C.  Baker,  Artist 


COLLABORATORS 


UST  OF  CONTRIBl'TORS  TO  V()I.i;.ME  III 

Many  tff  the  rontribviitrs  have  ar»Uifii  la  reading  proqf  and  iw  i>tJi<r  ways 


AnDIBWS.  R  a.,  Ansociale   PruruKKor    in    Bmliii;y.   Thi- 

JahM   Hoiikitu   Upiv«ntity,  Biiltimnm,   Md.     (^Vi^4, 

in  ronjum-tiflti  with  W.  R.  Mechan.    (>aj|^.   Tmiltt 

and  Tarltf -farming.) 
Asasei,  Hexkt  PuKNTisa,  Dinirtor,  luritltaln  of  Animal 

Ntttrition.  The  renn^lvania  State  College,  State  Col- 

lef^.  Pa.   I  Prineiplet  cf  Statk^fteding.) 
Ayris,  H.  L..  Cir^iBKn'man.  New  York  St&le  College  €f 

Agriculluro    at    Cumuli    Univertity.   Ithwu.    N.   Y. 

(Creamtrift  aW  Skimming  Slaiioiu.) 
Bapos,  W.  C,  AMixtant   Mftnagfr,  N«-vf  Fnjjlnnd   Farm 

Stock  Company,  <>ruentlt'!cl,  Mnsx-    [flunlrr  Horitt.) 
BArHta,Snst:sT  Harold, S«(;rAtn.ry  of  tho  Am^^ricaii  Binon 

Sodety,  Meridtn,  N.  H.  (Bi'wn.l 
Bow,  AKDRKW.ProfMBorof  AjcriciilCDre  and  Animal  Hna- 

bandry,  C-ollege  of  Acri^uUura  and  Expenmenl  Sta- 

tkn,  Univrntity  of  Minn^toCa.  i^t.  Aiithoiiy  r.-irh,  Minn. 

(Dretting,  Oirinfffor  anH  frttfrnnii  Mfatt.) 
Breves.  W.  H..  Proft'ti'or,  S^hnilltiM  Scientillc  Schon!  of 

Yale  Tniwrwity.  S*w  Hav^n.  Conn.    (Tht  DomtttUa' 

tion  of  Aninali.\ 
BURKBTT,  CUARLES  Wb.,  Dirwtor,  Kansas  Experiment 

8Utioiu,  ManhuttoD.  KanH.   (.tfui!^.) 
CaIawrli,,  Wm.  H.,  S««retATy  and  Treasurer,  The  Ain«ri- 

ran  Ga«nuey  CattU  Clufc,  P»terboro,  N.  B.  ((tiwrn- 

aey  C«/(^.) 
CkXL.y\Ji,  W.  U,  I>»an  of  Agricullar*,  Thi-  Stste  Agrirul- 

tarti  Coll«il«  of  Colorado,  tod  AgricQlturiat,  A^rieul- 

toral  Experiment  Station.  Fort  Collin*.  Cob.  (BWjjvan 

T>T«fi  Horn,  Frtnch  Ih-aft  Horn.  Ryeland  Skr^p.i 
CastLEHAK.  Vx\ni,  Clifton  f'arm,  P1«a«ant  Ui1l,  Mender 

Coanty.  Ky.    [SaddU  Uartt,  Antriean.) 
CATASAirotr.  Ceo.  W..  AMiatant  Profwsor  of  ChemiBtry, 

New  York  SUU  College  of  AgricoUure.  Ithaca.  N.  Y. 

Cn4lllRM,  E.  T.  D..  Seerctary-Tnsearer,  North  AmerlcRB 
Pbk  and  Gtmo  Prot«ctiirc  A^HKiatioa,  Quc<bvc,  Can.: 
Lfbrariso,  Uterary  and  Historical  8u{.'itrt.v  of  Quubac. 
Can.    (Fur-^fttnnj  Animatt  of  Sorlit  Amtriea.) 

OlAJirutK,  Mtss  Ethei.  R.  E..  Recorder.  Cut  Panoiera' 
AModatioo.  Manor  Koaj.  :^tat«>n  IsLincJ,  N.  Y.   iCait.) 

CUM,  W.  C.  lR«p«ctor  of  liratiDg.  Forest  .'iervtce.  Wiuh- 
instoR,  D.  C.  {Milfh  GmIs.) 

OoMOTn,  U.  G..  Proprietor,  The  Pl«uiant  Btdgc  lUbbitry. 
Co8«<Mb)«,  Ohio.   {Hart,  Btlgian.) 

Craig,  JoHK  A..  Oakmorv  Farm.  .Sun  Antonio,  Texas.  Ez- 
D^aa  tuid  Director,  Texfu  Airricultural  Gx|M-riinont 
Statioa.  College  Station,  TKxaa.  [Clrvriand  H'ljt  and 
Ytrk^irt  Coaek.  (Iviiminte,  FrentA  riweft.  Haekneif, 
SJirr,  Stiffotk,  Amrrinn  Standanibrfd  Trottinff  aad 
Pifxiiy  Hortti.  PrrcHtrm  Uorie.in  conjunction  with 
Charlei  P.  Curtis*.  iTkr  Ferding  y  iibtrp.  Biaek- 
/«fe  Highlamd,  Wintlepdcit,  Romnrg  Marth,  Htrd- 
WllkSkMp.) 


CuRTiSS,  CMAitLEfl  F-,  Dean  <if  Agriculture,  Iowa  State 
Cnllff;c.  iind  Din^i'tor,  Iowa  A^ricultaral  Experiment 
Stuiion.  hm-*,  la.  {Ptrekeron  Hone,  in  conjanrtion 
with  John  A.  Craig.) 

CypHKK.s,  (!haki.es  A.,  Preaident.  Model  [ncubalor  Com- 
pany, Buffalo,  N.  V.    (fiuubafion  nnfj  Branding.) 

UAVE.vroRT,  C1URI.E8  B.,  Dir\?ctor  of  Di-partinLint  of  Ex- 
perimentRl  Gvoltilion.  Ciimc|;iu  InntituLi!  of  Washin);- 
loii,  CoW  Spring'  Harlior,  N.  Y.  (Oriffin  qf  the  Dame*- 
fif  Po»f.   Brreding  of  PovUrn.) 

Davenport,  Eur.BNB,  Diinn  of  the  {lollpge  of  Ap-icnlture, 
and  ririKilor  of  the  .<^f:Ttcnkiiral  Experiment  Station 
of  thrt  Unlvfiraity  of  Illinois,  L'rbana, 111.  {Thr  Brrtd- 
ing  of  AnimaU.) 

DAVKsroHT.  HoMBR.  President,  Duvenport  Diwu-rt  Aruhinn 
Stud.  Morris  Plains,  N.  J.  {Arab  Horir.  Pkfa$a.nla 
and  Rrlate-i  FavjU.) 

Dav,  G.  E..  ProfemtHjr  of  Animal  Hunhandry  and  Farm 
Superintendent,  Ontaflo  Atrricultural  College,  ClDfilph, 
Onl*ri(>,  Can.  (Frfneh-Canitdian  Cattle.  De^riptive 
nrticW  on  thfl  Brerdt  of  Swine.) 

Decker,  John  W..  State  Prflfejisor  of  Dairying.  College 
of  Agricullurv,  Ohio  State  University.  CoJnmbuH.  Ohio, 
iGottda,  Coa)favallti.  liuioHf,  Brick  and  Limbargfr 
Chette.i 

DiNauoxE,  Wayme.  Asaoci3t«  Profuior  of  Animal  Hus- 
bandry, Iowa  State  College  of  Agri<!ulCDrv^  and  Uechanio 
Arttt,  Amee,  la.  ( Tht  Fttding  t^  Bvint.  in  conjunction 
with  W.  J.  Kennedy  and  J.  A.  Mclifian.) 

Ellarp,  C.  H.,  Socrelary-Treaaurer,  American  Pnr- 
Fancieiu'  .\WDciation,  Gmat  Neck,  N.  Y.    (P<'i<.) 

Elliot,  S.  B..  Proprietor.  Belle  Meade  Farm,  Bedford. 

MoDd.     (/'ciRif<.> 

Erf,  Oscar,  Profewor  of  Dairying,  College  of  Agri- 
cnLtare  and  Domestic  Science  of  Ohio  State  Vnl- 
venlty,  Coliimbai>,  0hi9.  {Rtfrismtitm  <^  Dairy 
PrcdutU.) 

FoEBUsa.  E.  H..  Stale  Oraithologixt  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture. BDtt«n,  Mass.;  Organlier  tn  New  England  for 
the  National  Aaaoclation  of  Audubon  Societies  for  the 
Protection  of  Wild  Bird*  and  Animala-  [Birds  in  Thrir 
Rehtioni  wilA  Agrieuiiure.) 

Gat.  CaEL  W.,  Profeaaor  of  Animal  Huabandry,  Uni»er- 
eity  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia.  Pa.  In  charge  of 
honte-  breeding;.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Hairiiibarg. 
(Barb  and  Turk  Horitt.   Thoroughhrtd  Horie.) 

Oeori'.ehox.  C.  C,  Spn-ial  Agvnt  in  Choree  of  Alaska 
Inv^tigatinns,  I'nited  Stated  Department  of  Agricot- 
tun^,  Sitka,  Alaaka.   (.Reindttr.t 

i;<Hii)wiK.  Ji>Hy  S.,  of  Black  A  Goodwin,  LawyerB,  304 
The  Temple,  Chicago.  1"-   iAbrrdfrn-AnjfUi  Cottl*.) 

Uraium.  W.  K.,  Manager  and  LocturiT.  Poultry  Depart- 
nrenL,  Ontario  Agricultural  College.  Guelph,  Can. 
(Fatleninff  Poii!tr}f.) 


<xi) 


xU 


COLLABORATORS 


Gur,  Chaki£(i,  Secretaor,  American  Aberdeen-Angus 
Breeders'  Aaeociation,  17  Kxchongo  Are.,  (Thk^a^o, 
III.;  forowrly  Secretauy  of  the  Americait  Galloway 
Breetiers'  Asaociation.   (ilaUomaj/  tWie.} 

GbRIHBR,  T.,  Ktlitar,  LaSalEe,  N.  Y.  {L\ipinuand  (Jafoit- 
iting.) 

GVDGBLU,  Charles,  of  (iudgotl  &  Simpeon,  Bmsisni  of 
Hervfurd  Catllv, Indupendunt'c,  Ho.   {.Hrrrjord  Cattle.) 

HasGBR,  S.  J.  J.,  VtiUTiniiriiiTi,  VuC*'riniiry  LVpHrlitipnt, 
Univernity  of  Pcniwylvania,  A<Uri'<iji,  2108  LtK^UHt  St., 
PhiladelF^Mft,  Pn.   (Ph^tiaiag^  a^  Domtttie  AnimaU.) 

HAKFSK, U.  W.,  AsiistaRt  Prnf&Aaor  nf  Animal  HiHlnkndry, 
New  York  Stite  (TollegB  of  AKrifulture  nt  rivmfill 
llniv*'niity.  Ithara,  N.  Y.  {Praetieal  Har»e-I mining 
and  Handiing.  Feeding  the  Hone,  (ierman  (.'oaeh 
Horte-   Lard'  and  Baton' Prod  net  ion.) 

Habt,  GraKGB  K.,  AflBbtant,  Patholoxicnl  Dimioti,  Bnreati 
of  Animal  rndoslry,  Dppartmunt  o{  Asriirultare,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  (Cnmmon  Aitmenft  qf  Oatilt.  thrset 
and  Swine,  in  conjunction  with  Jihn  R.  Mnhlcr.) 

Hay  WAxn.HARRr,  I>(>an  <if  th«  Oopimmttnl  of  A^ricti1tor«, 
«nd  Director  of  tha  Aj^ncaltural  Ex[n>rimpnt  Station, 
DelawKr«  Co\Wign,  Newark,  Dul.   (.■iymkire  Cattle,) 

HOAHD,  W.  D.,  Editor, "  Hoard's  Dairyman."  Fort  AtkiiuoD, 
Wis.   (MtatM  and  Rttattd  Produett.) 

EoaoK,  C.  P.,  Profftssor,  Biology,  Clark  Univ^mity,  Wor- 
c«8t«r,  Maaa.  {DorruttiealioH  of  th<  Rttffrd  CrouK. 
Domfttieittion  of  the  B»l)whU€  or  AmtricuJi  Quaii.) 

Howard,  L,  0,,  Chi«r,  Uurt;au  of  EntomoLogy.  Depart- 
tiuial  of  Agriculture.  Wautnington.  0,  C.    (Silhporm..) 

EoxiE,  S.,  Ex-Siip«riQti-nd«iit  of  the  Advaact^d  U«gj«lry. 
Tin  HQli9tt*tD-Pri*MUui  AiwocLittion  of  AmunL';i.  Ad- 
drew.  6ft49  Wciodlawn  Avfl..  Chicugo,  lit.  {Hdittin- 
Friftian  CaUlt.) 

BCHTUREY.  GeoKRK  C.  Pn>fuMor  of  Animal  Hmliandry. 
College  of  AKricultarc  and  .^^ictillnral  Ex[>eriaient 
Station,  Madiaun,  Wih.  I  Wool-  and  .VaHon-Prod\ielion.) 

Hunt.  Thohas  F.,  Dean  of  the  School  of  Agriculturo.  and 
Dir«tor  of  tho  AKricolliiral  Experiment  Statign  of 
lilt)  Pvniusylviuiia  Sutu  Collage,  Stute  C(4I«g«,  Pa. 
(The  Piau  tf  tkt  Domt^it  Animal  in  our  Cit^tM* 
tion.  TKt  BivxtUien,  Hartutting  and  GtiU  iff  the 
Horn.) 

HtrsziKEB,  0.  F.,  Prwfpfwor  of  Dairying.  School  of  Agri- 
ciiltnre  of  Purdue  I'nivoreity  and  Ai^rkultural  Experi- 
ment Station  of  Indiana,Lafayet.te,Ind.  {Mani^aeture 
t^  Condrnted  Milk.) 

JoRDAS,  WitiniAN  K.,  Director,  New  York  Stale  A|,'rii!ul- 
lurul  Ez]>erinien(,  Station,  Geneva,  N.  Y.  ( TItt  Feeding 
^AnimaU.) 

KrmkroV,  W,  J.,  Profemor  of  Animal  Hosbandrj*.  Iowa 
St^tf  Collir^o  of  A^iriitturv  anil  Mfhiinlc  Art«,  and 
Vii'^-Diret.'tot,  Iowa  Affrirnlturai  Exyinnment  Station, 
Ames,  Inwa,  (TAe  Fefdiny  */  Supine,  in  conjunction 
with  Wayne  Uinamore  and  J.  A.  McLean.) 

Klein,  Uiuls  A..  Deputy  Sute  Veterinarian,  Slate  Live- 
Stuuk  Sanitary  Board,  HarrUbur^,  Pa.  iCommon  Ail- 
menii  tf  Shrrp. ) 

Lamhert,  D.  J,.  iRKtructor  in  Poultry  Busbandry,  Rhndo 
hiand  Colle(!*>  of  A^kulturw  and  Mwhanic  Art«. 
Kingaton,  R.  I.  (Preparing  and  Markelinjj  Pnultry 
ProdtieU,  and  The  Carr  e^  iJgsi-) 

La»',  Jamks,  Director,New  York  >State  Veterinary Coll««ce 
at  CorneM  t'oivereity,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  {Di»t/uet  and 
ifanagement  of  Amimais.) 


Lka,  Overton,  Lualand  Farm,  Nashville,  Tenn.  {Siutx 
QiHU.) 

Lix>rii.  y.  Frremak,  Willow  Mount,  Nurwood.N.  J.  (Tkt 
Old  Knglitk  Bobtail  ifhtffi-dog.   SkrepJog  Trialt.) 

Mack,  G.  A.,  Plcaiuintville,  H.  Y.  {CameU  in  Sorth. 
A  meriea. ) 

Uartin.  H.  A.,  Secretary,  Kcid  Polled  Cattle  Ctnb  of 
America,  tloLham,  WU.    {Ked  Palltd  Callle.) 

Ma  TO,  N.  &..  ('hiof  of  Department  of  Animal  Indoatry,  Re- 
pulilic  of  Cuba,  SantiBKo  do  las  Vegan,  Cuba,  i^oek- 
Poisoning.  Sojiir  Ddaila  qf  Sloek  Managrmmt.  in 
conjunction  with  H.  W.  Mumford.) 

HiX^L-iVE,  CHARLEfl,Linwood  Poultry  YanU,N>w  London, 
Ohio.   (Zhjrijt,   Getse.   Siran.) 

M^-Crae,  I.iEtrT.-CoL.  David,  ItreiHlw  and  Importer  of 
Galloway  Cattle,  ClydoftdaU  Horses  and  Cotawold 
Sheep,  Guetph,  Can.  [Cheviot,  QXm'oM,  Leteetler, 
Itincoln,  St^ffoik  Down  and  Tunis  Sheep.) 

McGrkw,  T.  F.,  AsBociate  Editor  of  "The  Feather." 
Washington,  D.  C.  tb'uiiwa-jW/.    Turkt]i$.) 

McLkan,  J.  A-,  Aaaociat*  Profeswr  of  Animal  Hu«b«idry, 
Iowa  State  C^Lillege  of  AgncDltur«  and  Mechanic  Arts, 
and  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Ames,  Iowa. 
(7^f  Feeding  qf  Swinr,  in  conjonction  with  W.J. 
Kennedy  and  Wayne  Din»more.) 

Ubciiam,  W.  E.,  Coramiaaioner  of  Fishertea,  Department 
of  Fisheries.  Qarrisburg.  Pa.  iFisk-Cutttirt.  Frogi. 
in  conjunction  with  E.  A.  Andrews.) 

MilXER,  II.  P.,  Secrtrlary,  The  Ohio  Sheep  Bro*d«ra'  and 
Wool  Growers'  .^SBOciutlon.WesterviLle.Ohio.  {Dorirt- 
Hartt,  Hampthire  Dov^n,  Oxford  Dovn,  Shropshire 
Dotcn,  SotUhdvwn  Sheep.) 

MoiiLLR,  John  H.,  Chief,  Patholopcal  Division,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Indaetry,  Department  of  .Agriculture.  Wasb- 
ington,  D.  C,  (Common  AiimtHt^  of  Cattle,  Uortts 
and  iSicintt  in  coftjunction  with  George  EI.  Hart.) 

-MooEE,  Verasus  a..  Department  of  Comparative  Pathol- 
ogy and  Bacteriology  and  Meat  Inspection,  New  York 
State  V'ettirinar)*  College  at  Corncrll  I'niversity,  Ithaca. 
N,  Y.   Unfrcfioat  Disease*  i^  Animals.) 

MOBRISOK,  W.  K..  Dfparlinenl  Editor,  "Gleanings  in  Bee 
Culture,"  Uedina,  Ohio ;  formerly  Bee-Expert.  Imperiil 
Department  of  Agriculture  (]lritiiili> ;  part  anlhor  of 
the  ABO  and  X  Y  '/.  of  U^e  Ottlture :  utlior  of 
Bee-keeping  in  the  West  Indues,  etc.   (Bttt,) 

Mukforu,  F,  B..  Animal  Breeder,  Uiwouri  Agricultural 
CullegQ  Eiperimi>nl  Station,  Cmlunihiu,  Mm.  (Snsu  tf 
the  Prineipitt  of  Anima!  -  breeding.  Am'ndl  Tppe* 
and  Stvrr-eards.  Origin  (jf  Dvmettit  Oittlt.  Origin 
of  the  DomeMie  Hitrse.) 

MuuK>Rii.  HrRHRRT  W.,  Profecwor  of  Animal  Husbandry 
in  the  College  of  Agriculture,  and  Chief  in  Animal 
HuBb.itidry,  Experiment  Staticn  of  the  tioivenily  of 
Illinois,  I'rliana,  Hi.  I.Sbmf  Details  t^  Stoek  Manage- 
menl,  in  conjunction  with  N.  S.  Mn)ir.  Shorthorn 
Cattle.    The.  Collie  Dog.) 

Nkkuham,  Jamk8  G.,  A»^ielnnt  Profceaor  of  Limnology, 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell 
rnlvcfrlty,  Ilhaca,  N.  Y.  (Fish  Food  and  Feeding- 
grounds.    Carp.) 

Nbij^os,  Jm.<n8,  Profeasor  of  Biology,  Rutgera  College 
and  Rutgers  SclentlAc  School,  and  Biologist,  New 
Jersey  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Stntioa,  New 
Bmnswick,  N.  J.  iPlanJeton-<.^Uurt.  CIosi-  On*. 
lA)bsier.    OgsUr.   Shrimp,    i^ponge.) 


COLLABORATORS 


xiii 


(.  C.  Dn  Secretaij.  Bromi.  Swim  Bretidore'  Aiwocia- 
Uoii.Owq^  N.  Y.   {Brmn  Switi  CattU.i 

Out,  T.  £.,  Late  SecreUry-Troasaner.  Anii^rtcan  Poultry 
AsAOciatioD,  Beaver,  Pa.  {Judging  /'oitUry.  Brttdt 
tmi  Tfpti  </  aitteiu.) 

PSAUOK.  R.  A..  ProfeMor  of  Dairy  Industry,  New  York 
Stale  College  ot  Aini'Ciiltare  nt  ComuU  Univunity, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.   {Hiik  at  a  ilarktt  Product.) 

PiczuELL,  Watson,  LuU>  Pnwiduat,  Tsfflpti  Ostricb  Farm, 
Tifropo.  Aril.    tOtirifk.) 

Pi.rilB,  CHAM.IU  S..  Profenaor  of  Animal  Hitttbandry, 
Coltofce  of  AgncBlluni  of  Ohio  StuU<  VnivontiLy, 
ColuaboR,  Ohio.  iFiUinjfand  Kzhibiiing  lAvf-itodc. 
MarktttHf  Farm  Sloek.  Am.  Some  qf  the  I^tittr 
K»awnBrtttlaitfCaUlt.  Oxen.  Orie^TraiHrig  Horit.) 

PoLLARO. Gdokgb  H..  tir^Qitbtifh,  Mass.    {Ftrdin^  Wattr- 

PrwTBB.  J.  P..  Robe  and  PorTannar.  AtDDiy.  Wia.    {Titn- 

«n#  HUt*.) 
PKOwn,  Jui>r,E  D.  W.,  Writ«i  and  I.at«  Judge,  Central 

District  C»urt  of  Newfoundlond,  St.  Jnhna,  Newfound- 
laud.    ( Reindeer  for  Iiobrador.) 
RJCB,  Jahk  E,  Professor  of  PooiUy  Huabandry,  Nbw  York 

State  Cullej^  of  Agrictltttjffe  at  Cornell   L'niv^j rally, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.    (FradJRjr  Ptmitrp.    Fading  Turkcj/s. 

P«uUry-koKM  QtnMtru^io*.) 
RiciuROSON,  W.  D. ,  Chief  Chemist  for  Swift  ft  CuHijiany, 

Chicago,  lU.    1 71c  ChnJiiv  if  ^*^  <"'^  ^^^- ) 
Rt— ,  PLura,  Leetorer  in  Home  EcanoTnU--'),  New   York 

State  CellsKe  of  A|[ricQltnre  at  Cornell  UnivennLy, 

Ithaca.  N.  Y.   {Meal:  lU  NatrUive   Vatw.  StUeiion 

aad  Prrparation.) 
ReddICK,  J.  A..  Dairy  and  Cold  StoruKe  Cominlwiojier, 

IVpartownt  nf  .\gr1ru]turc,Dttawu,Can.  ( The  Making 

vf  Cifddar  Ckteu.) 
f^AKDERS,  Pra.hk  Rsed,  Br««d«r  of  Pntrh  ttclted  Cattle, 

lioootain  Lawn,  Brintol,  N.  H.    (DuJeh  Belted  Caiile.) 
Soorstx,  M.  A.,  Director  aad  Ch^niUt,  Kentucky  Ajcri- 

eahttral  Experiment  Station.  State  UniverBity,  Laxing- 

lot.  Ky.    {JfTteg  VaiUe.) 
ScmuonM,  PRAHX  Lahwn,  Special  Agent  and  AffroHtoI- 

ofist.  Bureau  of  Plant  Indnatry,  United  State*  Depart- 

■wsl  of  Agriculttire,  Wathinstor^,  D.  C-   Chief  of  In- 

ralar  BnrMQ  of  Ajfri^ultare,  Manila.  P.  I.,  1901-04. 

(0^f<Uo  or  Waier.Baffalo.) 
Sbaw,  E.  L.,  AaeiBtant  in  Animal  tItLibandry,  Barvau  nf 

Aninal  Indostry.  Department  of  Af^'irnlture,  Wuh- 

lo£loB.  D.  C.    (^ajrera   Goali,  Barbadot,  Pertiaeot 

tnd  PertiAriM  Shrtp.) 
Baaott,    h.  P.,    Seerettiy-Treuarcr.    American    Devon 

Cattle  Clnb,  Kewarlc.  Ohio.  (DfvmCntUr.) 
btiTH,  H.  R-.  Profeuor  of  Animal  Hu8t>andry,  The  lndn»- 

trial  CoHeffe  of  Die  UalTersity  of  NdH-nska  and  Ai^L- 

cultural   Experiment  Station  of  Nehraaka,  Lincoln, 
N*b.    r/WiJiv  BfrfOUtU.) 


SrocKlNr.,  W.  A..  Jr.,  Aasistaitt  Profewior  of  Dairj-  Bac- 
teriobi^.  Now  York  State  College  of  Apiculture  at 
Cornel)  University,  Ithsca.  N.  f.    (Baeteritt  ^  Milk.) 

STONE,  JoHS  L.,  ProEeaaor  of  Fsnn  PracUce,  New  York 
StJite  College  of  Agricultaru  ut  Cornell  Unlveraily. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.    {Cotapulirts  Balanced  Baiioiu.) 

Thdu.  Charles,  AssLttuDt  in  Ciiari;i)  of  InveHtigstiun  of 
Varutieti  of  Eurcipuan  Cheese,  D^ry  Dirifioti,  Bureau 
of  Aaimal  Industry,  United  Stales  Department  of 
Agriculturv.  Addreed,  Storn,  Conn.  (P'aririiei  <f 
Hard  (^Sieaw..    Sifft  Vhttstt  in.  .4incrica.) 

TouiiAVE.  W.  H  .  Awifltant  in  Animal  Unsbandry,  School 
of  ^Vgriculture  of  tho  I'snniiylvwiu  State  College,  State 
College.  I'a.     {Shipping  Meat  and  Uidti.) 

Truemas.  John  U.,  Profiiwor  of  Dmry  Huebandrj-.  Con- 
niKiticut  Agricultural  Collegu ;  Dairy  Ifusbiiadman, 
.'^turrs  Agricultural  Bxjirrifuunt  Station,  Storni,  Coon. 
(..^iifrtion  and  Manogemrtit  nflke  Dairti  Htrd.) 

Van  NriHMAN,  H.  K.,  Profiitwor  of  Diiiry  Huabnndry, 
School  of  AgricnUure  and  Hzperimeat  Station  of  the 
Pen iwy Ivan iii  State  College,  State  College, Pn.  (JLfanil- 
/aciwre  of  ler-rrtam.  and  Other  Frozra  ProdudM.) 

Wedstbk,  E.  H.,  Chitrf  of  tho  Dairy  DiviKion,  Buniau  of 
Animul  IniLuKtr}',  Dt.')iartiTient  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D,  C.    {BnttfT  making.) 

Wkkp.  C1.A8BNCK  M..  Teacher.  Sute  Normal  School, 
Lowoll,  Ma.<u).  {Wild  tfamntaii  in  Their  Relatione 
with  AgrieaUttre.) 

Wli/'os,  B.  V-,  Editorial  Departmont,  Office  of  Kxperi- 
ment  Stations,  bepurtment  of  Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D-  C.  (fwiwfWM  Wndf  and  Their  Braii- 
eatioti. ) 

WILLARI1,  J.  T.,  Profe88ur  of  Cbomistry,  Chomiet  Agri- 
culturiil  Gxfwriment  StaUan.Kartitiw  Stnt^  A^ioDltural 
CoHoge,  Manhattan,  Kan.  {Methed  qf  firaet  Balancing 
of  Ratvmt.) 

Wit.s(JN,  Hon.  James,  Secretary  of  AgricBlture.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  Washington,  D.  C.  {Need*  in 
Animal  Hu^mndrg.) 

Wing,  Henry  H.,  Profuaaor  of  Animal  Husbandry.  New 
York  State  College  of  .Vgrioullum  at  Comoll  Uoiver^ 
iiity.  Ithaca.  N.  Y.  {The  Pritdurtian  nf  Miik.  Defer, 
mininji  the  Age  «f  Cattle,  Horaet,  Sheep,  Svine.  Swine 
jialfs.) 

Wing,  JuHKPii  E.,  Secretary,  Continental  Dorset  Club  and 
Editorial  Corrcapondent  for  the  "  Breeders' Gazette," 
Mechanicabnrg,  Ohio.    {Mrrina  Shtrp.) 

WuLL.  Prits  Wilhelm, Profwwor  of  Agricuhural  Chemis- 
try, Univ^nrity  of  Wiacoiiain,  Madiaon,  Wis.  {Feeding 
Dairy  Gittit.) 

Woods,  Pkisck  T.,  Editor  and  Writer  on  Poultry  and 
Agrirultural  SobjecLi,  Middleton,  Mau.  (Onmon  AH* 
mmU  ^Poultry.) 

WitiniiT.TBOMAH,  Manager.  KiricUnd  Pigeonry,  Scarboro 
Beaoh,  Maine.   (Pigeont  and  Sguait.) 


A  rAHTIAI.  LIST  OF  THOSE  WHO  HAVK  ASSISTPEI)  TN  TIKADING  PKOOF 

AND  IN  OTHKU  WAYS 


Alcxakdrr.  A-  S..  Profowor  of  VoUtrinnrjr  Sciioce,  and  In 
churffc  of  Department  of  Florae  Greedine,  Coll«gt  of 
Affricaltore  and  Atmcnltoral  Eiperiment  Station  of 
the  Univentily  «f  WiHconHin.  Mudwon,  Wis. 

AKDiatsoK.  S.  W..  Former.  Itlaker  Mills.  W.  Va. 

AvBKT,  3.  v..  Lumbennajt  and  Fanner,  Bnckland  (PoBt- 
ofRc*',  Shelburne  Pallf  \  Mass. 

hUiSf,  Veknos.  in  i-htirge  at  Geogrsp'hic  Di^lributio!), 
BniVMi  ')f  Uioiogicjil  Sun'ey.  Unit«d  Stated  Dupart- 
munt  of  Asriculturi>.  Woshinitton.  D.  C- 

Baker,  Frame.  Su[>crintuadvnt,  Nalivn^Ll  Zoological  Park, 
Wiuhiiiditon,  D.  C. 

Ball,  E.  N..  SSueratarr,  Arncrk'un  Tarowortli  Swlno 
R«conl  Amociation,  and  SoRrntiu-y,  Inlttrnativnal  Von 
HoiDiiyftr  Ranihouillet  Cluh.  Ann  Arlmr.  Mith. 

BXTTKLL,  Joseph.  Re|{iiitr;ir,  Vi-rmunt  Morgan  Horee 
Hreedprs"  Asflociation,  Middlebury,  Vt. 

Bkll,  G.  AKTllirH.  AMRiKtant  Animal  [Ituhandnian,  KTtrean 
of  Animal  Industry,  United  States  IlRpartment  ot 
Agricultu ru.  Waehini^ton.  D.  C. 

BbNEdict,  F.  H.,  Prufiidunl,  Cluvur  Luaf  Live-Stock  Com- 
pany. Mck'un,  N.  Y. 

BSNKBKDORF,  G-  H..  In»tnictor  in  Dairy  Hosbandry,  Col- 
li'j;ii  of  AifricnHurft  and  A^ii-.ullural  KxiH^irimftnt  Sta- 
tinn  of  thi*  IlnivfiTsity  of  Wiscnnwn,  Madison,  Wis. 

Bknnbtt,  UiKS  (;.  It..  Lihrarian  United  SlatoB  Department 
of  ARrii-ulture.  Washiagton,  D.  C. 

Benton,  RAtrH.  In-ttructor  in  Entomology,  Univereity  of 
California,  llcrkeloy,  Cul. 

Bbbi,  Frank  E..  Kogistrar,  American  Trotting  KogisCer 
Awuriation,  Chicagu,  III. 

BoSHAM,  L.  N.,  Famn-r.  Oifnnl,  Ohio. 

Bot'HKA,  F.  W.,  Aiutoclal«  in  Dairy  Bacteriology  and  in 
Dairying,  Iowa  f^tate  College  of  AKricnlture  and  Me- 
chanic .Artji  and  Agricultural  Eicperim(>nt  i^tatiuu, 
Athpj,  la. 

Bovi).  MoasoH  M..  Breeder  of  Cattle,  Bobcaygeon,  Ontario. 

BOTEU,  HiniAEL  K., Editorial  Department,  "Farm  Journal," 
Philadelphia.  Pa. 

"Brberf.rs'  Gazbttb,"  a  Weekly  Joamal  (or  the  Ameri 
can  Stock  Farm,  Chicago,  111. 

Brqohr,  F.  H..  Librarian,  T<!iineNe«  Agricaltural  Expert- 
rn<>nt  Station,  Knnxvillf,  T>enn. 

Bbown,  C.  Q.,  Editor,  "The  HoUtetn-Frieeian  World." 
Ithaca,  N.  V. 

Bbow'N.  R.  W.,  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  American  Gallo- 
way Breeders'  .Aaaociation.  Chicago,  III. 

Bureau  ov  Cuemuithv,  I'nited  States  Department  of 
Agricalture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

BCBK8,  John  C,  Instrui'tor  in  Animal  IIiubaDdry,  Agri- 
cultaral  and  Mechanical  College  of  Texa«,  College 
Station,  Texas. 

BURRKU.  &  Co.,  D.  U.,  Little  Falle.  N.  Y. 

CHESNtrr,  V.  K.,  Asaiatant  Chemiat,  Bureau  of  Chemis- 
try, U.  S.  D«pirta«Qt  of  Agriculture.  Washin^on,  D.  C, 

Clark,  Verkox  L.,  Ariiona  Oatricli  Cuuipaay,  Pho«aiji, 
Aril. 

CUY,  John,  of  Clay.  RobiBHon  ft  Co.,  Chicago,  HI. 

OOBURK,  F.  D.,  Secretary,  State  Board  of  Agricultare. 
Topeka.  Kans. 


COPPET,  Vf.  C,  A«oclftt«  in  Sheep  Uiubaadi^.  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Agricaltural  Experiment  Station  of 
lh«  Usiv»rdCy  of  liUnoU.  L'rbana,  111. 

COUTtKB,  J.  A-.  Secretary,  Fran cli- Canadian  Cattk 
Breedera'  AiMOciation  of  Canada,  Queboc.  Pruviaco  of 
Quebec. 

Cow.w,  B,  0..  AMuttant  Secretary.  American  SbortlwrD 
Breefiers*  .\jwoi'iation,  rhicago.  111. 

OBoren,  Clifford  M.,  Farmer.  .Naples,  N.  Y. 

CRtit'CH.  J..  Secretary,  Ctemum  Hanoverian  and  Oldenburg 
Coach  Hone  Aasociation  of  America.  Lafayette,  Ind. 

DARLtSG,  BtJJER  A..  President,  American  Jenwy  Cattle 
Club,  Fifth  Avynuu  Hotel,  New  York  City. 

Dawhon,  Au>EN'.  Maguaino  Illustrator.  67  Eaat  59tfa  St., 
New  Y(erl<  City. 

Dean,  H.  H..  Pr'>fe.-«or  of  Dairy  Huabandry,  Ontario 
AgriculLDral  College,  finelph,  Ontario,  Can. 

DiBTRiCH,  Wtt.LlAH.  Asflimtant  Profenaor  nf  Swine  Hw- 
bandry.  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  nl 
Illinois,  and  Assistant  Chief  of  Illinois  Agricultural 
Experiment  Statiuti.  Urbanu,  III. 

DRVI>E^,  James,  Puultiyniun.  On^gun  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment .Statiiin.  C»rvulli.i,  Ore, 

DuNtUM  &  Fletcher,  Importers  am)  Breedeni  of  ?»- 
chernn  and  French  Coach  Eloraea,  Oakl.iwn  Farm, 
Wayne,  IIL 

EcKLra,  C,  H.,  ProfeBBor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  College  of 
Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Art*  of  the  University  of 
Missonri,  and  Agricaltural  ExiKurimcnt  Station.  Co- 
lumbia, Uo. 

EasEx.  RoDERT  H.,  Secretary,  Cyphers  Incubator  Com- 
pany, Buff.'iKi.  N.  Y. 

EvERUAXN,  Dr.  Bartts  W..  Asslntant  In  Charge  of  Scien- 
tific  Inquiry.  Bureau  of  Fiith(>ries,  Department  of  Com- 
m(irroand  Labor,  Waahington,  D.  C. 

FAiRrHiLo,  Daviii,  Agricultural  Explorer  in  Charge, 
Foreign  Explorations,  Office  of  Seed  and  Plant  Intro- 
duction, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  Statu  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Waahington,  D,  C. 

FAinytELD  DAfRT  COMPANY,  Mfintclflir,  N.  J.;  Stephen 
Francisco,  FretUont,  Caldwell,  N.  J. 

FARRrSGTOS,E.H.,Profej«orof  Dnirj-  Hiwbandry.  College 
of  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of 
tho  University  of  Wisconsin,  Mndiaon.  Wis. 

Felch,  l3AAfK  K.,  Breeder  of  Poultry,  Natick,  Haas. 

Fish,  N.  S..  Ex-Secr«tary,  Brown  Swiss  Brooder^  Asuria- 
tion.  Groton,  Conn. 

Fish,  P.  A..  Professor  of  Veterinary  Physiology  and 
Pharmacology,  New  York  Stale  Velwrinarj-  Collago  at 
Comell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y- 

FxAiroaeN.  Petee.  Biologist  and  Consulting  Zoologist, 
C-olleg«  of  AgricuUure  of  the  University  of  Nevada, 
and  Agricaltural  Experiment  Station,  Reno,  Ner. 

Ftektks.  L.  a..  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

FrLTON,  John  W.,  Secretar)-.  The  American  Angora  Goat 
Breeder*'  Association,  Helena,  Mont. 

Gace,  3.  H.,  Professor  of  Histology  and  Gmbryologj, 
Cornell  IlftiTersity,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

GAUiKAmi,  Al&x.,  Importer  of  Clydeedale,  Skin,  Suffolk. 
Porchoron  and  Uackney  Horses.  Janesville.  Wia, 


COIiLABOft^ 


St 


GARniMER,  K  V.  R.,  Civil  Gngineer  and  SnrvRjror,  MidcKi;- 

lowB,  N.  Y. 
Guas,  G.  C^  Breeder  of  Dutfh  R'lted  Cattle,  Vail,  N.  J. 
GtOAULT,  G.  A.,  Uepuiy  Minister  of  Agricnlture,  <jueb<M', 

Province  of  Quebec. 
GtulOKB,  John  W.,  AgronoTniel,  Penruylvania  State  Col- 

ltC«  Agrfcultural  Expvriim'nC  Station, SLat4Colk'i£L\  Pa. 
Glsk.  C  C,  S«cretai7.  Thv  Perrhi^ron  Regiittry  Compunv, 

and  aliM  of  The  Pnmch  Coach  Hone  R^^trjr  Com- 

panf.  Coltmbtis,  Ohio,  1319  Weal«;  Ave^  Coltimbtu, 

Ohio. 
Gooomi;ht,  Chamles.  Biwdffr  of  Btnon  and!  Akenleen- 

AaKaa  Cank,  Goodninht.  Texas. 
Gooowut,  WuxiAH  R.,  Vic«-Pre«ident.  Sanders  PablUh- 

taic  Coanpiany,  Citicaeo,  111.    AaHoctate    E<lttor,  "  Ttie 

Br««d«n'  Gautte." 
GaAMOE.  B.  A.  A.,  Vet«riQarian.  467  West  lG4tb  Street, 

Nuw  York  City. 
Guwraw.  p.  C  Dsrland'a  Riding  Academy,  Mew  York 

CSty. 
GumiLBY,  n.  &..  Profeaeor  of  General  ChemiMry^  Cnllego 

of  Science,  UnhxTaity  vt  Illinois,  Urkina,  111. 
GuTOAUt,   J.    H..   AsrtciilLarial,  Ctintral    Experiinunt^il 

Fam,  Ottawa,  Canada. 
Grovbs.  John  W.,  Secretary.  Americ«a  Shorthorn  Breed- 
er^ AMOciatioQ,  CliicaiiEu,  III. 
GlTTSSLU   It  S.,   Instructor   in   Freehand   Drawini;  and 

Uodeliot;.  College  of  Arcttit«ctiire,  Cornell  I'niveraity, 

Ithaca,  N.  ¥. 
BaBCKSK,  TBB0rBlL.C8  L.,  Profeanor  of  Dairy  Husbandry 

and  Animal  Nutrition,  A gri (Cultural   CoIlBgu  of   ihu 

Uatranity  of  yinnwjtu.  St.  Anthimy  P.-irk,  Uinn. 
Hale.  PkiUI-  H.,  BdiCur  and    Unnaj^'T.  "The   National 

Parmer  and  Stock  Grower,"  St.  Um«,  Mo. 
Hau.,  Eit<:enk  J.,  Portrait.  I.Mndflciiiie  and  Commercial 

PhotoKtapher,  OaV  Park,  III. 
Hall,  L.  D.,  A^nciate  in  Animal  Huflhandry,  Collei;?  nf 

AKrimltsre  and  AKricakurml  Kiperiment  Sution  of 

the  IJniwTsity  »f  IlliiioiH,  L'rbana,  III. 
Hamxoh.  Ted.,  The   Grand   CirctuL   Phuto^apher,    Now 

York  City. 
Hats,  Wiu^t  U„  AmlHtant  Secretary   of  AKriealture. 

Depwtment  of  Agricsltttre,  Waahingcon,  D.  C. 
HBm»fli)H,  P.  G.,  pTHldent,  Red  Pnllfd  Cattle  CInh  of 

.America,  Central  Hty,  Iowa. 
Hr-IRY,  W.  A.iEmoritOB  Pmfeuorof  AjcHoattttre,  Cnlle;^ 

of  Agricnltote  and  AKricaltaral  Ex|>erinient  Station^ 

tlniveiRty  of  WisconaiTi,  Madison.  Wisconsin. 
RiLUBnAHD  &  Shitb,  Spedslists  in  Live-stock  and  Rural 

Pbotography,  Chicago.  riL 
Bolt,  Rbmiubw  A  Ca.  Furrtert,  Qnebec  and  Toronto, 

Canada. 
Bomira.  G.  8.,  Profenor  of  Vetorinarr  Anatomy  and 

Anatonical    U^thodn,   N«w   York    Stau>    Vftterinuy 

Colle^  at  Cornell  Unirenicy,  Ithara,  N.  Y. 
HOfUrr,  Pvm,  Importer  and  Breeder  of  SnfTolk,  Beljiian. 

Parcberon  and  Shire  HorMs,  L«wia,  Iowa. 
BoWfADAT.Dr.  W.  T.,  Director,  New  York  Zoological  Pork, 

New  York  City. 
BownwAJi  AND  SpniT  or  the  Times.  The.  Chicano.  III. 
BoOOtTOet,  P.  L.,  Editor  aiid  Proprietor,  "  The  Holstein- 

FtlMln    S«giater,*  and    Secretory,  The    Halstein- 

FriMitB  AHoeUtion  of  Aiterica.  BrattloLoro,  Vt. 
BcwTO.A.P.,AM0ciat«  Editor, "American  PoaUryAdio- 

cate."  Ahfaifton,  Has*. 


HtrTCHifJHoN,  W.  Z,,  Swrtitary,  National  Et«»*EMinnr 
AMoriation,  Mi  Edjwr,  "Thn  Boe-KeepHl^  Revleir,'' 
Flint,  Mich. 
Jackso.s.  Mkk.  ALrxRO,  Viee-PreBident,  Cat  Fancieni* 
Aasociatian,  and  President  Loekharen  Cat  Clob, 
RochMt*r,  N.  Y. 
Jacob,  Moses,  Veterinarian,  Tennessee  AKrIculturul  Experi- 
ment Station,  KniMville,  Ti>nn. 

J011N8TONB.J.R.S.,  "Th*  Brooder*  Gnietto." Chicago, III. 

J41NB8,  C.  J.,  Breeder  of  Bison,  Cattalo  and  Pcraiarino 
Sho<3p,  Gardt"n  City,  Kana. 

Kksnk)Y,  p.  REiEHrur.R,  Profowor  of  Botany,  Fortiml- 
tnre  and  Forestry,  Nerada  AgricxiLttiral  Experiment 
Station,  Reno,  Ner. 

EiNZER,  Hoi.AMi)  J.,  Professor  of  Animal  Hiutbandry, 
KanHM  Stat«  .Affricultur&i  College,  and  Ai^imltiiral 
Experiment  Station,  Manhattan,  Kans. 

Knight,  Thomas  A.,  Photographer.  Lexington,  Ky. 

Krum,  llBKBEKT  J.,  Proprietor,  The  Indian  City  Kotm 
Farm,  Pontine,  III. 

Lantz,  [).  E.,  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  Deparcment  of 
AgriculturLv  Wasbiagtun,  D.  C. 

Laktz,  William  U.,  Breeder  of  Dutch  B«lted  Cattle. 
Monrw,  N,  J. 

LaUUAn.  G.  N..  Asaiatant  Profusaor  of  Rural  Economy, 
New  York  State  Ci>llege  of  Agriculture  at  ComelL 
['nivemity,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Leveklm;,  Moktlmee,  Secretary,  AiDorioon  Shetland  Pony 
Club.  Lafayette,  Ind. 

Lewis,  L.  L.,  Vutcrinuian  and  Bacteriolt^Ltit,  Oklalioma 
AgricuUurul  Experiment  Station,  Stiliwntor.  Okla- 
h<jinB. 

LcKFlEUi,  F.  B„  Profesnor  of  A^culture,  Montana  Stata 
Colicgv  of  Agriculturi',  and  Dirtictor,  Montana  Experi- 
ment Station,  BoEeman,  Mont. 

Lnvtjor,  A.  J.,  V ire- President,  Illinois  State  Board  of 
A((ricDltDre,  Koscoe,  111. 

MAiKliuurVKAY,  AlJCX.  D.,  Assistant  Prafeasor  of  Ento- 
molu^^and  Iiivert«brate  ikiology.Ntiw  York  Stal«  Col- 
lege of  AgricuUurv  nt  CMrnvill  L'niventity,  Ithacu,  N.  Y. 

Makks,  W.  F.,  Pri'fiidi-iiit,  Nrw  York  Statu  Association  of 
BvL>-Keoi>er»"  SdciiTtli-i*,  Clifton  Springs,  N.  Y. 

MAR3HALI.,  F.  K.,  ProfefMor  nf  Animal  HuHbandry,  Ohio 
State  irniv^^ralty,  Columlina,  Ohin. 

HATTERnN,  Sumner  W.,  lecturer,  Writer  and  Illastrator, 
IfilR  University  Ave,,  Minnoapolia,  Minn. 

M(K!l.UHK,  K.  L.,  Pbutographer  of  Pine  Horses,  Lexing- 
ton, Ky, 

McDoNAlJ).  W.T.,  Profesaor  of  Animal  Husliandry  and 
Farm  Superintondent.  Oklahoma  Aii;ricuUurul  and  Mt^- 
chanicnl  College,  and  Agricalttiral  Experiment  Station, 
Stillwater,  Oklahoma. 

McGn.i.,  A„  Ch1«f  Analyst,  Laboratory  of  th»  Inland  Rev- 
enue Dftpartmont,  Oltftwn,  Canada. 

McGrecor,  J.  H.,  Profftoaor,  Department  of  i!oolo|Qr, 
Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

MclNNKs.  J.  C.  President,  Dutch  Belted  Cattle  Aoaoeia- 
tion  of  America.  Worci<«t«r,  Moss. 

McKu5iCK,  N.  E.,  Cattle  Salesman  for  McRissick  Bros,' 
Commission  Firm,  Union  Stock  Yardi,  Sontli  St.  Paul. 
Minn. 

MrLAttcHUN  Beothebs,  Importers  of  Percb«n»i  and 
FrtyiLch  Coach  Eloraes.  ColDmbns.  Ohio. 

UcLaiirv  Brothers,  River  Headuw  Fann.  Portlaod- 
viUe.  N.  Y. 


XVI 


COLLABORATORS 


McSpaeban.  W.  F.,  Breeder  of  R^gialered  Jereey  Cattle 

and  Berluhiro  Swinv,  Fairfield  K^innf.  FurniHtt.  Pa. 
li(£Ltl.*K,  CUAKIJ»  W.,  Dairy  BusbajwliQiU).  Miir>-liui<l  Ag- 
ricultural KxpvricDDDl  StatiuQ,  CoU«tre  I'urk.  Md. 
MEKItLAlI,  C.  Hart.  Chief,  Burvau  of  Biological  Sun-ey, 

IlpiiartiDunl  of  A^rivultun.'.  Washing  un.  D.  C. 
MooRK,  J.  P^cv,  Agwwtant  Pniftiiatir  of  Zuulagy,  Univer- 

»tty  uf  Puniuylraniii.  Philudvlphiii,  Pa. 
UciRKts.   Dr.   J.   €hg»ton,    Pri'tikluiit,   American   Devon 

Cattle  Cbb,  Pbiladel|thta,  Pa. 
IfoaTON,  G,  E.,  Prafniwor  of  Animal  Hoabandry,  i^Uto 

AgHrnltural  Coll^g«  nf  Colmrai^n,  Port  Crillini*,  Cfi\a. 
tiuA.,  I.  B.,  Ri'cretary,  Amencaa  Saddle  Hnrw  Hreixicra* 

AHociatian,  Lnuiiville,  Ky. 
Ogclvib,  R.  U.,  Secretary,  Amarican  Clydesdale  Associa- 
tion, Union  i5tock  Yards.  Chjcajpj,  III. 
OSBOHN.  Hesrv  FAinnELU,  Da  Coeta  Profesaor  of  Zoolojiy, 

CcIomt>iu  Univemity,  and   Curator,  ti«parttn*nt  of 

V«rtebrat«  Palaontolocy,  American  Mos^nm  of  Natural 

Hiatory,  New  York  City. 
Paolo.  MicBAEU Brooder  of  BisoD,  Elk,  Honwaaad  Cattle. 

Ronan,  Mont- 
pABSr.  PKBD.Oconomowoc,  Wia. 
Pesr.  p.  S..  Uanag«r,  New  England  Form  Stock  Co., 

Gn^nAeld,  Ma». 
PHtUP,  Jahej;,  Breeder  of  Caltl«.  Fort  Pierrn,  S.  D, 
t^lLUPA,  K.  F.,  In  Charge  of  Apiculture.  Bareau  of  Ento- 

inolo^.    Department    of    Agriculture,    Waahiii^on. 

D.C. 
Plath.  LuDWia  G.,  Pet  Stock  Breeder,  Tork,  Pa. 
PRBBTOS,  «.  L-  M-  D..  Caniateo.  N.  Y. 
PuRVia.  MiLLEB.  Editor  of  "Poultry"  and  "Pigeona," 

Ppotone,  11 L 
Rahkukll,  J.  A.  P.,  Propriator,  Powalton  Psnn,  N«w- 

burgh,  N.  r. 
Bbii>,  Cbari.e».  Phutuftrapher.  Wisliaw.  ScutlanJ. 
BiCB,  WlLUAU  B..  Bn^d^rof  Homiofc  Pi^'eona  for  St{va,h 

Breeding.  Rridgeton,  N.  J. 
BlclUROrt,  H.  B..  Seirretary,  Dutch  Belted  CattEe  Aaaocla- 

tian  of  America,  Gaston,  Pa. 
RoBiKSON,  John  H.,  Editor  of  **  Fann-Pooltry."  BoHtoD. 

UasB. 
ROMHBL,  Gro.  M.,  Animal  Hiwhandman,  Bnrean  of  Animal 

IndiuCjy,  tJoilod  Statoa  Department  of  Acrlcaltnr«, 

Washln^n.  D.  C. 
RuasEtx.  Db.  H.  L..  Dean  of  the  College  of  Affriculture, 

L'niveraity  of  Wiwonsin.  and  Wrector  of  the  Wiscoo- 

sin  Experiment  Station,  Madiaon.  Wis. 
RUTHtRPOKD,  J.  G.,  VeUtrinaty  Director  General  and 

Live-Stock  Conunissioner,  Department  of  Agricolttire, 

Ottawa,  Canada. 
Sanders.  A.  U.,  Samturs  Publishing  Co,.  Chicago,  111. 
ScH&eiBKK  &  Som.  PhutDgrnpfavrs,  rhiladelphis,  Pa. 
Shields,  G.  0..  li^itor  and  Uana^r  "Sbielda'  Ma^aaine," 

New  York  City. 
SKlK.Mm,  J.  H.,  Dean  of   the  Scbuol  of   A)^icultur«  of 

Purine  Univorgity.  and  Profw»(ir  of  Animal  HoAbandry 

in  ColIeRo  and  EKfieriment  Station,  Laf.iyrtli',  Ind. 
SMrm,  ARrHisiii,ii.  Prof^HBor  of  Animal  HuAhandiy,  Uis- 

sUaippi  AKricaltoral  and   MevbanLcal  CDllege,  At^i- 

ctiltural  Collegia,  Miaa. 


Sunn,  C.  D.,  Bx-Diroctor  and  AKriculturiat.  Experiment 
Station  of  Michigan,  AgriuulluriLl  CullBge.  Ui^-h. 

SnuJIAN,  W.  J.,  Agriculturidt  in  Charge  uf  Farm  Han- 
agement  Invefltii;ationa,  Bnreaa  of  Plunt  IndoutiT, 
liepartroent  of  ARrioultare,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Spragitb,  K.  C,  CindnnaLi,  Ohio. 

SrniNtiBR,  F.  S..  I^ucretary,  American  Eerkshin  Aasoda- 
tiuu,  SpriiL|;fluI(l,  111. 

STBVnNS,  F.  C,  Attica,  N.  Y. 

Stevkn«,  Henry,  Pruprietur.  the  gterenn  Herd  of  Hokk 
t£in-Frii3ainn  Cattle,  Brookiiide  Slock  Farm,  Laccna, 
N.  Y. 

STtiBiU),  V.  K.,  Secretary,  Nation^  French  EVrafl  Bone 
Aasociatian,  Fairfleld,  Iowa, 

ScRfAce,  H.  A.,  lilcoaomir  Zoologist,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, HarrisburK,  Pa, 

rHOMAB,  C.  R..  S*«retary,  American  Hereford  Cattle 
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TowAH,  J.  n„  Profeaaor  of  Agriculture,  College  of  Agri- 
«u!turft  and  Mii-hanic  Art*  of  tho  Unirersily  of 
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PART  I 

THE  ANIMAL  AND  ITS  RELATIONS 

There  are  abuut  12,000  knovni  living  species  of  [naniniat&  and  about  15,000  species  of  birds.  From 
the  timu  wh«n  man  began  tri  emurgt^  frum  thu  luwer  crBiitinn,  he  has  poRtuvwdil  and  enalavBd  hia  fellow 
aaimala.  Great  namben!  of  npecieit  have  been  brought  into  ciLptivity,  yet  it  is  aurpriHing  hnw  few  of 
these  have  really  been  dLimeaticaU'i).  The  Kditur  at  thin  look  ban  miule  a  diEigent  effort  tu  recurd  every 
species  of  animal  of  any  kini]  that  is  now  dome-iticatcd  for  agricultural  uaes  in  North  America  (north 
of  Mexico),  an<i  he  has  interpreted  the  iield  of  agricclture  broadly ;  yet  the  book  does  not  contain 
■coountd  of  twenty  really  domeiiticated  siwcie^  of  mammala,  not  more  than  a  dozen  of  birds,  only  one 
species  of  fijih,  and  two  of  insectrt.  In  other  wordH,  the  nutnWra  of  species  of  animals  of  all  classes  with 
which  North  American  agriculture  is  really  concerned  do  not  much,  if  any,  exceed  thirty,  or  say,  one 
specie^  to  every  one  thouKiuid  apecies  nf  mammals  and  birds  that  are  known  to  exi^t  tm  the  earth 
today.  This  meanit  either  that  the  domesticable  species  are  exceedingly  few,  or  that  man  has  oot 
yet  improve<(  hi»  opportunities  in  adapting  the  animal  kingdom  to  hta  uaea ;  or  else  that  hiH  necessities 
are  now  all  supptie'l. 

More  than  thirty  species  are  described  in  this  volume,  however,  but  many  of  them  are  not  domesti- 
cated, and  others  are  not  realty  agricultural  animals.  Some  occupations  or  sources  of  income  directly 
or  indirectly  avociated  with  agriculture — in  the  ttense  of  being  the  products  of  land  more  or  leas 
under  the  coolrol  of  man — rust  on  the  capture- or  exploitation  of  wild  animala.  Of  such  are  the  fur- 
bearing  animalft,  although  wjrae  fur-bearers  are  bred  uwkir  captivity.  Other  animals  include*!  in  this 
Tulunu)  are  pets  or  companiunn,  and  ore  ajiricultural  only  in  the  sense  that  they  may  be  bred  and 


FU-  1-  UrW,  tBf  •mrec  o(  doiOMtle  OinH  <*M  piff  Ml)-  TU*  oUkI"*)  o^  t'''*  lUnalniiioii  !■  mmicUirnd  hj  A,  Sehrinc  of 
lUrllit,  *D  «rain*i>l  aathorltr.  to  W  th«  W«i  known  DkM»  of  tb«  now  ciiliiPi  iirm-  TIiU  iitplar*  wnn  fnantl  at  «ii  aii 
4r*J*f'*  Mtabltihnwnt  In  AuffilHirc.  Havana,  In  IKH.  and  w**  pithllkhrd  In  Vnl.  I  ot  UrlflUbi  eilUluu  ot  C^uTker'i  "Anlnal 
KlnUoiii/'boadoii.  IISI^  ami  from  <irifflih'*  v'M  ih*  >iTk>i<>  itlixlralUfii  I*  inailo,  ■oinowba^  r«ilurM(.  I'M*  pti'lnn  ku 
BwWbtj  mumI*  for  an  A<W«barii  mori-h.'uii  nbout  lliv  rvar  IMO.  Throo  mnrs  or  leai  rvlUble  plHur**  nt  Um  nrak  ar« 
tawwo.    USm  N«brtBK.  In  LaadwlrtMbanilelM  JahrbOelMr,  Vol.  J&  laC.  p.  VXT.t 

CI  CD 


THE  ANIMAL  AND   ITS   RELATIONS 

sold  by  land-owneni.  Hertain  wild  animals  may  be  murc>l}r  controlled  i>r  protected  to  a  certain  extent, 
when  conditions  renuiro  it,  and  their  propagation  and  welfare  are  thus  promoted.  Of  such  are  the 
varioDR  anima1»  cIoiwh]  an  shidl-lbh  and  frn}^  h[»1  turtlea.  Some  animals,  Sku  finh.,  may  be  bred  or 
propagated  ondur  captivity  and  thon  tumt^d  loose.  Somo  animals  are  bred  in  catitivity  only  to  supply 
Mological  parks  and  gamtvpreserve»,  as  pheasants,  bison,  wapiti  or  elk.  Tht  rearing  of  animals  for 
park  purposes  is  in  the  hands  of  a  few  apecialistsi  here  and  there,  and  the  subject  has  not  been  dis- 
cussed in  this  volume  to  any  extent.  Many  of  them  arc  kept  bb  curioBities.  because  of  some  special 
interest  that  attaches  to  them  rather  than  bvcause  of  any  immediate  economic  value  they  may 
poBsesB.  These  animalfl  have  not  been  traly  dom^^ticat^d,  and  the  rearing  of  them  conaists,  for 
the  most  part,  in  protecting  the  onimalit  and  in  learning  enough  of  their  habits  to  enable  the 
operator  to  nupply  their  natural  wants  and  to  facilitate  their  broeiling. 

The  Americiis  have  contributed  very  few  agriciiltnrat  animals.  The  moat  important  examples  arc 
thy  llama  (Fig.  II)  and  turkey  (Plate  II>,  the  f«rm*>r  not,  being  reared  in  the  territory  covered  by  this 
work.  The  bison  (PEato  I)  is  capable  of  domestication,  and  tho  hybrids  with  domestic  cattle  promise 
to  produce  an  agricultural  race.  The  elk  iji  easily  tamed  and  kept.  The  meat  la  good,  and  the  autmals 
may  be  readily  broken  to  drive.  The  cochineal  insect  of  Me;(ico  has  been  much  grown,  under  conditions 
of  control  BMrly  as  complet*!  aa  Ihosi*  that  a.T<>  organiif-d  for  the  rearing  of  the  cilkworm  ;  but  it 
is  doubtful  whether  the  animal  can  be  said  to  hn  domesticat^l  in  the  sunse  uf  having  produced  domestic 
Tariationa  or  races;  thi^  insect  k  lewi  reared  in  Mexicn  than  formerly,  owing  Ut  the  competition  of 
the  chemical  dyes.  Many  of  our  wild  animals  could  undoubtedly  be  domcstjeated  if  the  eKort  promised 
to  be  worth  the  while.  Of  such,  for  exampte,  are  the  muuk-ox  of  the  an-tic  find  aulwipctic  regions, 
with  good  ftiwh  and  %'cry  useful  [ndta  ;  HpeciaH  of  the  deer,  antelope  and  mouse  tribes  ;  prairie  chicken, 
one  of  t3iH  staple  pame  hinja  anil  said  to  be  readily  tamod ;  wild  geese  and  ducks;  varioua  other 
game  birds ;   K|ieciei4  of  llsh, 

It  18  worthy  of  note  that  certain  familiee  have  contributed  raoat  of  the  important  domestic  animalst 
as,  for  example,  the  Bovid:^,  including  the  bovine  or  cattle-like  and  sheep-like  ruminant  nnimali; ;  the 
Equidie,  including  the  horses  and  asses  ;  and  the  groups  comprising  the  domestic  fowls  and  the  ducks. 
Certain  great  families  or  groups  have  contributed  few  or  no  domestic  animals.  No  real  agricultural 
animals  are  of  the  Camivora,  although  the  dogs  and  cats  belong  to  that  group.  The  great  gronp 
of  rodenta  haa  contributed  only  the  hares,  although  caviea,  rata  and  a  few  others,  are  reared  as  cage 
animals.  The  sea  ha«  yieliled  no  domestic  animal ;  and  the  fresh  water  has  given  only  the  carp  as 
a  domesticated  food  fish.  Although  man  has  always  captured  and  eni^laved  others  of  hia  own  kind, 
BO  Bpeci(i3  of  the  man-like  animals,  as  apoa,  have  ever  been  dom^^sticated. 


Contrary  to  his  expectation,  the  Editor  has  found  the  compilation  of  this  volume  much  more  difficult 
than  the  making  of  the  volume  on  cropn.  Animals  are  lesA  tractable  to  investigate  than  plants,  and  the 
flcientilic  method  does  not  suem  to  have  been  so  succtissfully  applied  to  the  study  of  them  as  to  crops. 
In  the  matter  of  hreedfi,  the  exjwrt  knowledge  is  likely  to  be  in  pusaefwion  of  advocates  or  even  of  |ar- 
tisans,  and  it  m  very  difficult  to  arrive  at  agreement  or  a  common  basis  of  comparinon  and  judgment. 
Existing  writinKs  are  largtly  descriptive  and  hiatorical.  Even  on  questions  of  feuding  and  genera) 
management,  there  are  almost  irreconcilable  differences  of  opinion.  The  Editor  ho|R\>«,  however,  that 
the  compilation  has  brought  together  the  soundest  opinions  and  practices,  and  he  is  sur^  that  the 
names  of  the  contributors  to  this  volume  will  make  the  work  authoritative.  The  articles  on  breedi 
are  largely  from  men  engaged  in  pr.'ictice  and  from  specialistji  in  the  breed,  whereatt  the  articles 
on  crops  in  Vol.  II  are  largely  from  teachers  and  investigators  ^  this  dissimilarity  is  representative 
of  the  kind8  of  inti*n>st  that  attach  to  these  two  great  groups  of  agricultural  products. 

Any  work  of  this  kind  is  necessarily  tentative.  It  i.i  intended  that  it  shall  express  tad  record  the 
status  of  live-«t(M'k  knowledge  of  the  present  day.  The  reader  must  make  his  choice  if  opinions  conflict. 
The  reader  may  be  confused  by  the  lack  of  a  strictly  alp'habetic  arrangement,  but  such  arrangement  is 
impossible,  aa  he  will  discover  if  he  tries  seriously  to  make  nne:  he  will  find  that  the  index  will  land 
him  at  the  right  place.  The  Editor  will  be  glad  of  any  suggestions  that  may  eohance  the  value  of 
future  editions. 


CHAPTER  I 


\, 


f 


THE   DOMESTICATIOX   OF  ANIMALS 

By  W.  H.   BKKWER 

NIMALS  ARE  BRKD  BY  MANKIND  FOR  NUMEROUS  USES  AND  FANCIES. 
AltboDgh  coitiniim  biological  luws  govern  all  higher  aninml»,  wild  and  tame 
alike,  the  traLy  domeelic  nnimals  con&litut^  a  duns  by  thuni8olve8,  differing  in 
Beverat  characterwtkrs  from  wiM  ones  or  from  the  direct  offspring  of  wild 
oncA  that  have  been  tamud  individually  by  man  for  similar  uasr  and  fancies. 
All  flpecies  nf  nnimalu  and  birds  can  probably  be  tamed  as  individuals  if  we 
begin  ai  the  right  period  of  their  lives  ;  yet  few  have  been  traneforroi^  into 
domestic  aniiuals. 

As  dbflni-d  hLTv,  thu  term  "domestic  animals"  implka  that  tim  animala 
ma.y  be  bred  by  man  for  an  indoFinite  number  of  generations.  They  are  tho 
animals  cherished  in  our  honictt  and  on  oar  farms,  and  belonging  solely  to  ihe 
higher  groups  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  mammals  and  the  birds.    Animals 
belonging  to  a  few  other  species  are  so  abundantly  tamed  and  used  for  the 
sarnu  purpowa  as  truly  ilomextic  ones,  that  In  commun  sivech  and  in  c^^rtaiii 
laws  and  onlinances  they  aro  made  domeetic  ancmala  for  legal  consideration, 
inasmuch  as  they  may  eonfltitutt--  property.    Inde^l,  many  spetit-s  that  are  nat- 
arally  wild  may  be  bred  and  protected  in  captivity  for  ac(.'rtain  time  and  then 
allowed  to  live  the  remainder  of  thoir  lives  as  wild  ones.   Yarioos  kindn  and 
-         species  nf  hirds  and  animals  for  hunting,  turtles  among  the  reptiles,  honey- 
and  Ktlkworrns  among  initecbs,  fishes  and  lobsters  in  the  sea,  even  so  low  as  oji^ters  in  our  harbor?, 
lottiplied  by  artificial  means  on  an  enormous  scale,  protectctl  for  a  time  from  thu'  many  dangers 
thai  beaet  them,  and  then  tnmed  luose  to  spend  their  lives  as  wild  creature&    They  are  flometimes 
eUued  lenity  as  domestic  animals  and  sometimes  not. 

CAaroHerutia  of  ttomestic  animal*. 

Tfati  term  "domestic  animals"  as  here  used  and  limited  pr-ictically  appUect  to  a  difitinct  class  having 
aplJtodes  and  characteristics  that  distinguifih  them  from  wild  and  even  from  tamed  individuals.  These 
special  charsctoristica  differ  greatly  in  degree  according  to  the  species  or  the  brewl.  Two  especial  char- 
acteristics they  most  have,  and  incidentally  a  third  they  do  have,  especially  those  long  bred  by  man. 
First,  they  must  breed  fnwiy  in  captivity  for  an  indiefinite  number  of  gc-neratiuns ;  second,  they  must 
be  able  to  thrive  under  the  artificial  conditions  man  imposes ;  third,  and  incidentally,  they  are  naturally 
tamer,  and  their  instincts  are  often  modified  and  some  are  lost.  The  mental  capacity  for  education  with 
same  species  U  also  modiSed,  better  to  adapt  the  creature  to  man's  usc>s  and  fancies.  Although  many 
animals  are  tamed  for  ui*e,  but  relatively  few  species  have  been  transformed  intit  domestic  ones  as  herL-r 
define<t.  iDnumerabto  ansucee^tsfnl  experiments  have  been  maile  with  many  species.  Carnivorous  animals 
bave  be«n  trained  for  the  chase  for  aged,  and  herbivorous  animals  have  been  semi-domesticated  for  a 
kng  time,  but  may  never  have  become  strictly  domestic.  The  number  of  species  that  have  liecome  truly 
doneatie  it  perhaps  not  greater  than  three  score  in  all  the  many  thousands  known  to  science.  The 
aetoal  number  of  species  that  are  used  is  scarcely  two  score  in  any  one  country. 

(1)  While  very  manyspeciee  have  been  tamed  by  man  to  do  his  bidding,  which  live  long  and  healthy, 
aod.  as  far  as  we  know,  happy  lives,  very  few  breed  freely  in  captivity.  Some  never  breed  at  all;  of 
tlHwe  that  breed  at  all,  the  offspring  die  young  or  the  descendants  die  nut  in  two  or  three  generations. 
Por  eiBznple,  the  tame  elephant  has  rarely  if  ever  raised  offspring.  Of  all  of  the  animalti  of  the  cat  kind, 
but  a  siogte  species  has  ever  become  "domestic,"  although  enormo^ua  numbers  have  been  tamed  and  many 
of  them  have  produced  young.  Thli  same  law  holds  good  for  birds.  On  the  contrary,  domestic  animals 
incrtaw  greatly  in  their  fertility  when  such  increase  is  desirable,  hogs  among  mammals,  hens  among 
ponltry.  being  sufficieDt  examples. 

(8) 


THE  DOMESTICATION   OF  ANIMALS 


■;>.-v 


'^•r:^^^: 


Pit.  2.    Variation  In  tbc  botM,  from  diatt  Owk  U  Hotter,  coicId,  Cfltic  pofly  jind  Sbettind  pony. 


(2)  The  aecond  requirement  need*  no  expIan,ition.  For  example,  take  the  horae.  While  probably 
originally  a  nntive  of  an  open  country  and  leading  tbe  freest  of  lives  and  easily  reverting  tfl  wildness, 
yet  in  dnmestiaition  it  will  live  to  heallhfal  old  age  in  fiUibles or  other  enclosures,  and  in  unnatural  con- 
ditions. It  will  live  in  mines  without  light  for  years,  and  umJer  the  artificial  cnnditiona  of  cities  for  a 
longer  term  of  life  than  it  ever  could  have  done  ait  a  wild  horse.  During  the  long  agee  and  the  many 
generations  that  they  have  been  bred  by  man.  some  animals  have  sluwly  become  adapted  so  completely 
to  the  conditions  man  has  imposed  that  now  many  kinds  could  not  exist  for  two  generations  if  turned 
loos©  in  any  large  country  of  the  world,  to  make  their  own  living  and  to  bring  their  young  to  maturity. 

(3)  Their  instincts  and  mental  rtfinirements  h.ive  Iieen  modified,  Some  have  lost  instincts  that 
were  useful  in  their  wild  «tate  but  have  now  become  redueed  from  lack  of  use.  Thus  they  become, 
as  a  whole,  a  new  claaa  depending  on  mankind.  He  Ik,  in  one  ftenae,  their  cn-.itor.  They  wonhl  not  h.ive 
existed  but  for  him.  He  providea  their  parents ;  h&  fumi9fae«  them  their  food  ;  he  protects  them  from 
the  dangers  that  await  them  in  naturo ;  he  builds  shelter  from  storms  for  them ;  he  educate*  doctors  to 
cure  them  when  lit,  and  to  prevent  their  epiKoiitic  diseases.  They  are  an  artificial  production.  Nature 
has  provided  man  with  the  raw  material ;  he  has  turned  this  to  a  more  ideal  and  useful  animal  for  his 
purposes.  It  is  tamer  to  deal  with  ;  it  i»  less  intelligent  as  a  whole  than  the  wild  creature  that  was  its 
ancestor.  Its  form,  im  nlrength,  im  size,  its  varionji  phys^tcal  ch:Lracterii;tlca  and  mental  capacities  havo 
been  molded,  the  better  to  suit  the  environment  and  the  better  to  serve  the  uses  and  pleasures  of  man- 
kind. These  improvements  have  been  ma<te  according  to  the  ideals  of  the  people  among  which  the  ani- 
mal has  been  developed.  In  itn  relations  to  mankind  as  well  as  to  natnre,  it  is  aa  truly  artificial  as  is 
wood  or  stone  wrought  to  new  shapes  and  ailapted  to  ntw  moA  or  n^w  ideals. 

Plcttieity  of  animaia. 

In  the  scheme  of  nature,  each  species  is  given  a  certain  degree  and  kind  of  pUistieity  as  it  were,  by 
virtae  of  which  it  adapts  itself  to  a  new  environment  when  the  old  one  changes.  The  whole  dogma  of 
the  evolntion  of  species  in  nature  is  founded  on  this  law.  Species  differ  in  the  degree  of  plasticity,  but 
every  species  and  every  individual  of  each  species  ha-^  it  to  pome  degree.  If  the  environment  changes 
faster  than  the  speuieii.  then  in  nature  it  dies  out.   A  very  largu  proportion  of  the  wild  animals  in  exis- 


'#:■" 


-  .■'hl^^'l 


Pit.  3.    TailatiM  ta  tka  itoep.  tkowimg  U»  wooTlaJ  wTloUod  Uciloo.  loai-wwUed  BUck-tacv  HlsbUftd 
l^rsiati.  kimII  Farfia  Island  abaep.  aod  a  foiu-hDnwd  sbceT> 


fe*;^^''!- 


FIf .  *.    Tariatl0n  Is  doEt.  ivprNented  by  St.  Brnuid,  pooOle.  duhiliuiid.  KrerlxHuid. 


tODoe  cannot  chanjto  from  thvir  wild  to  a  dumtatie  environTnent  fast  enoa^h  for  man's  convenience  and 
profit,  and  hence  we  have  domesticated  but  fow  Bpecies.  The  most  of  the  nstful  speciea  we  now  have 
were  domesticated  »o  early  that  wo  have  no  record  of  the  procesw.  Most  kinds  originated  in  the  Old 
World.  But  few  have  l>een  domestic atod  since  the  Christian  era.  Amnrica,  sinue  itti  dit(covRr>',  has 
ctintribated  Ihrve  —  the  turkey,  thu  ^linea  pig  and  the  lluma. 

Some  brwedfl  we  wish  to  kt-pp  east-ntialty  &»  tlipy  are,  and  further  improvement  la  practically  limitud 
to  rfttaiDing  and  enhancinjj  tliu  special  exceiii;n(rle«  now  puwH-swid  For  such  wt;  havu  dt-viswd  a  way  of 
proserring  the  breeds  pure  by  mears  of  pedigrees,  recorded  in  atudbooks,  herdbooks.  or  other  pnbJica- 
tioos.  Along  with  the  pedigrees,  for  some  breeds  we  record  the  excellencies  of  the  individual  animal 
thu«  registered  ;  and  we  havtj  also  devised  ideal  "scales  of  point.i"  of  especial  excellence  to  be  recorded. 

Bidory  of  mcinbind  at  nffctted  hy  domvttk  animah. 

The  part  that  domestic  animals  have  played  in  the  history  of  mankind  ig  intensely  interesting.  What 
kind  9t  civilization  mi];ht  havi^  risen  without  tht^m  is  scarcely  a  iiuhject  for  i(i]>ecnlation.  Low  savagery 
may  Ix?  liffcwl  into  a  respuctahle  scale  of  barbarism  by  them.  We  have  many  illnstrations  of  this  ;  the 
mast  familiar  is  that  of  the  Tndi.tna  of  the  plains.  Those  of  a  centnry  a^o  were  feeble  tribfs,  following 
the  bifton  on  foot  and  with  dogs,  and  remainetl  feeble  until  Uiey  adopted  the  horse  ;  then  Ihej  became 
thd  moat  powerful  foe  to  the  advance  of  the  white  raof^  in  America. 

The  material  fonndatlon  of  civilization  it  agricultare.  In  all  civilized  countries,  agricalture  is  con- 
sidered in  its  two  great  branches,— the  production  of  animals  and  the  production  of  crops.  With  animals 
atooe,  a  tnleraldy  reepeetable  l>arbarittm  may  be  attained,  intermediate  between  savagery  and  civiliza- 
tion. In  all  ages,  and  eBpecially  in  new  communitit«,  there  is  a  certain  antagonism  between  the  two 
branch.-ft.  It  is  n  belief  with  many  pprsons  that  the  story  of  the  first  hnman  cnnHict  in  hictciry  is  an 
allegory  of  tha  conflict  between  the  grower  of  live-stock  and  the  tiller  of  the-  ftoil.  That  conflict  goes  on 
sUU  between  roving  peoples  and  settled  farmers ;  and  the  Ktory  of  Cain  and  Abel  is  reflect«d  in  onr 
own  peaceful  times  in  the  "  fence"  and  "  no  ftnce"  struggly-s  in  thin  country.  Wht-n  the  "  man  with  the 
hoe  "  ultimately  prevails,  aa  he  always  doea  if  the-  climate  permits,  it  does  not  mean  the  expulsion  nf  the 
aatmals,  but  merely  the  restraint  of  the  owner. 


(.,    ..      — ._-;.  .1^  Lowia,  ahowiBK  Ujtht  BraJinui.  bBBtain.  gaina-cook.  IwiK-MUad  ftriaaUl  towl.  )u|l»-towl  ud  otlicn. 


THE  DOHESTiCATIOX  OF  A2JIUA1^ 

In  LhU  country,  the  ecunttmic  relationaof  farm  animalfl  to  miiteriat  wealth  ia  interesting  history.  In 
colonial  Limes,  they  and  thoir  [irDductn  forniBd  a  relatively  hhdiU  part  of  oar  foreign  expurtii.  i>a,  too, 
daring  marc  than  one-half  of  our  existence  as  a  republic,  the  exports  of  animal  products  constituted  a 
small  part  of  oar  afrricultnral  exports.  It  U  only  within  the  lafit  few  years  that  th«  animal  products  have 
con8tit«t«<i  3Uf;h  a  large  percentage  of  our  home  wealth  and  our  export  trade.  From  the  nature  of  tb« 
case,  the  indu3try  mMt  increase  with  the  growth  of  the  country.  Large  areas  are  sntt«d  for  pasturage 
which  cannot  he  devoted  to  tillage.  In  the  gr^at  areas  tilled,  the  pntduction  «f  animal  prod  acta  will 
fluctnale  38  other  priKlticts  fluctuate  in  prndnction,  acci^rding  to  the  rules  of  economics.  Under  present 
and  incmat^ing  kntjwli;dge,  the  j>rui]ucti(>n  will  nurely  increase  in  excellence  and  in  qtiantity. 

In  considering  their  purely  economic  relations  to  mankinil,  th>e  capital  they  ri^tpre.'tent,  their  value  an 
property,  thwy  are  so  widely  distributed  and  so  vast  in  their  nnmbers  that  the  immenst  total  can  only 
be  guessed.  We  have  many  statistics  relating  to  the  farm  animals  nf  various  civilized  conntries,^ — slatis- 
tics,  so-called,  hut  in  fact  statistics  of  only  a  part  and  efltimatesnf  the  remainder.  This  is  true  not  only 
for  their  numlMni  but  also  fur  thctir  mnniny  value.  With  some  kinds,  as  poultry,  fur  example,  white  grown 
for  thuir  economic  value,  we  have  so  little  knuwledge  as  to  the  actual  numliers  grown  In  the  world  that 
we  hare  never  seen  so  much  as  a  guess  as  to  th^c  number. 

With  oth^r  of  the  domestic  animals  useful  to  man,  as  cats  and  dog«,  sentiment  as  well  as  use  plays 
an  important  part.  This  is  cHpecially  true  of  the  latter  animal,  the  most  widf^ty  distributed  among  man- 
kind and  of  every  gr;ule  <>(  usefulness.  Amnng  certain  tribes  and  penpli>s  dogs  are  the  mn»t  important 
part  of  their  material  wealth,  their  very  lives  depending  on  it.  They  could  nut  exist  in  the  country 
without  their  dogs  ;  and  so  tlirouj/h  every  grade  of  economic  n»e  down  to  the  |ietfi  of  expensive  luxury. 
While  insignitlcant  in  size,  tittle,  perhaps,  in  asefnlnefts,  nevertheless  the  dog  is  scHnetimes  rated  at 
thousands  of  dollars  for  a  single  animal.  So  it  is  with  various  other  pets  also,  as  the  canary,  for  example, 
—one  of  the  most  harmlei^  luxuries  of  rich  and  pour  alike,  representing  no  economic  use,  yet  whole 
communities  living  on  its  breeding  and  education. 

Domestic  animals  have  play>tHl  an  inter^Ling  part  in  the  religions,  myths,  and  superstitiuna  of  man- 
Iciml.  How  early  this  relation  began,  we  do  nut  know.  We  netKt  nut  trace  it  back  before  Zoroaster 
wrote,  nor  discuss  the  part  it  played  in  the  old  civilization  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  It  is  enough  to  say 
that  it  still  exists  in  every  degree  of  intensity  of  balief.  from  that  which  considers  the  slaughter  of 
sacred  cattle  and  the  eating  of  their  flesh  a  most  heinous  sin  and  crime,  down  through  every  shade  of 
belief  to  the  inn'xient  sti[ierstiticin  that  many  persons  do  nut  like  to  tolerate  or  even  to  see  a  black  cat. 
Its  importance  in  sume  countries  as  a  religious  helief  is  such  that  it  has  lieen  an  excuse  for  war. 

Pedigrt*. 

A  pedigree  Is  a  record  of  the  parents  and  ancestors  of  an  animal  for  a  specified  number  of  genera* 
tions,  extending  through  all  the  tines  of  descent.  In  all  our  important  breed;*,  ancestry  has  been  the 
prime  factor  in  their  making  and  betterment.  From  the  nature  of  the  cjise,  each  breed  has  been  a  long 
time  in  the  process  of  formation,  and  has  been  prodaeed  by  the  selection  oP  parents  and  ancestors. 

For  the  proiservation  of  the  purity  of  the  breeds  and  to  enhance  their  excellencies,  a  system  of  record- 
ing the  pedigrees  of  animals  has  been  devised.  Studbook,  herdbook  or  register,  is  the  general  term 
applied  to  the  record  in  which  all  the  individual  ancestors  are  named,  while  flockbook  or  similar  term  is 
died  for  the  record  of  such  classes  of  animals  as  sheep  and  swine,  of  which  whole  flocks  may  be  recorded 
as  a  unit.  Without  the  help  of  these  or  similar  publications,  the  present  excellence  of  most  of  our  better 
breeis  could  ne^'er  have  been  attained  nor  their  excellence  pre-^iervod.  The  greater  the  purity  of  the 
breed,  the  greater  the  prnbahility  of  the  transmission  nf  its  peculiar  excellencies  ;  and  there  has  been 
no  better  way  devised  tn  lessen  tho  uncartaintiea  of  breeding,  than  through  purity  of  pedigree.  Varia- 
tion is  so  universal  that  no  two  animals  are  ever  exactly  alike.  Some  art^  better  than  others.  Croesing 
breeds  or  varietit^  of  animals  promotes  variation ;  hence,  any  breed  u  more  uniform  and  fixed  in  charac- 
ter than  are  mongrels,  which  represent  the  extreme  of  indiscriminate  crossing.  Amoug  the  tatter  we 
sometimes  find  an  animal  very  much  better  thiin  its  parents  and  the  average  of  its  ancestors;  but  it 
rarely  or  never  transmits  its  excellencies  to  the  majority  of  its  offspring. 

The  keeping  of  studbooks  for  horses  began  with  that  of  the  Plnglish  Thoroughbred  in  1808.  With 
cattle,  the  Shorthorn  herdbook  was  begun  in  1820.  At  the  present  time,  similar  publications  are  issued 
for  many  breeds  and  species  of  farm  animals.  The  aim  of  all  is  the  same :  To  make  the  breed  more  oni- 
form,  to  improve  it  until  it  reaches  the  highest  practical  excelleace.  and  to  increase  the  proportion  of 
animals  in  it  which  reach  an  excellence  near  the  highest. 


i 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  IN  OUR  CIVILIZATIO?* 


THE    PLACE  OF  THE    DOMESTIC  ANIMAL 
IN  OCR  CIVILIZATION 

lly  Tkomaa  F.  Hunt 

Domestic  animals  m;iy  be  considered  in  throe 

ets,  umeiy,  (II   their  relation  to  human  de- 

[^lopcnent,  (2J  the  extent  ami  process  of  animal 

shaodry  in  the  United  Stattw,  and  (3)  the  relation 

■<tf  doBuetic  animals  to  farm  managompnt  Figs.  B- 

ITraggOBt  some  of  the  animaU  and  thvir  mes  that 

are  ctoaely  relatL-d  to  human  dtividupmcnt. 

(t)   Auimalx  in  their  relaiion  tn  humnn deveiapment. 

Animah  as  a  primary  motor. — If  one  visits  a 
cert&in  farm  along  the  Olenlangy  river  in  Delaware 


-.  ^-  w„- 


Vt>.  •.    Omi  at  a  primair  motar. 

coonty,  Ohio,  he  will   find  other  evidence*  of  a 
former  race   of    peopte    than   that   indicated    by 
ie   K<K>d    Indian    nameM.    Here    may    tie  seen  a 
thrjie  ctrcolar  cmbankHicnt  which,  in  connection 
iVith  a  bend  in  the  river,  (fnclusus  perhaptt  twenty- 
acres  of  land.  The  high  hlnff.  which  here  con- 
ltitat<«  the  bend  in  the  river,  suggei^ts  the  use  tc 
rhich  it  mar  have  been  put,  e.^pecially  sa  no  other 
ch  natatfe  ground  exixtii  for  mileit  amund.   The 
embanknient,  several    feet   in    height  and 
fvidth.  now  entirely  ovur^rown   with  timher,  re- 
{Dired  a  large  amount  of  lahor  in  its  con^^truction. 
building  contractor,  who  appreciates  the  amoant 
[of  work  reoDired  to  move  a  email  amount  of  earth, 
irked  tnat  it  voulii  take  a  great  deal  of  Inhor 
ih  trains  and  ficrapi-nt  to  make  utich  an  embank- 
It.    The  reply  was  that  tho  people  who  made 
ibembankment  did  not  have  w&an. 
loelileMwrapere,  with  which  todo 
work.    These  North  American 
idiuti  built  their  fDrtilicationo.  an 
11  as  their  muundp,  without  draft 
aDimak  or  beaats  of  burden. 

nrbOe  the  Indi&n  was  not  lacking' 
in  oalive  ability  or  even  a  consider- 
able degree  of  intelligence,  it  may 
he  oon6dently  aawrtc^  th»t.  under 
rach  condition!!,  he  nt-ver  m-ould  have 
isfdoped  beyond  the  Btage  of  Init- 
barlOD.  BeeauM  there  were  on  the 
Anwiean  eontiaent  no  domiwtic  ani- 
aiotpt  the  dog  and  the  com- 


paratively inefficient  llama  and  alpaca,  the  peoplett 
of  America  failed  to  develop  a.-*  did  those  in  the  Old 
World.  Domwfliic  animals  am  a  primw  n-•'^uirtite  of 
civilization.  Man  has  duvelopL-d  just  as  rapidly  aa 
he  had  been  able  to  subjugate  the  forces  of  nature 
to  his  own  u»e.  Working  alone  and  nn^iided,  man 
would  have  a  sorry  existence.  By  the  aid  of  domea- 
tic  animals  he  hai;  bf>en  able  to  increai^  hi»  produc- 
tive powiT.  Formerly,  tramiportation  that  was  not 
by  boat  wait  lart^ely  on  the  backs  of  animal»,  the 
draft  animal  bujiig  chiefly  used  at  the  jduw.  Since 
tho  muving  of  commodities  haa  come  to  he  done 
largely  on  wheels,  and  since  coal,  oil  and  gas  have 
Ijeen  applied  to  the  moving  of  wheeled  vehicles,  and 
more  recently  a  large  application  of  falling  water 
through  electric  transmisfijnn  to  the 
Hiinte  puqiikHe,  the  use  of  animals  aa 
a  motive  power  lias  declined  rela- 
tively. 

Notwithstanding  the  tremendous 
improvements  in  transportation  by 
raean.s  of  mechanical  motors  which 
Umk  plaice  in  the  last  half  of  the  last 
century  in  the  United  States,  the 
number  of  hontes  in  pr»pi>rtion  to 
population  has  not  changed  materi- 
ally. This  is  more  significant  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  m  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  population  now 
lives  in  cities.  The  following  table 
_  giveji    the    number    of    horses    and 

mulea  in  the  Tnitad  States,  exclu- 
sive of  those  in  citit^,  the  [Hipnla- 
tion  of  the  United  States,  and  the  nomlwr  iif  per- 
sons in  the  United  States  for  each  horse  or  mule 
kept  on  farms : 


HoTM*  nnit 

PapahtlcD, 

bora*  or   mole 
onfumi 

■nolM.  kUHqivii 

■dIIUbim 

18&0  .  .   . 

4.9 

23.2 

4.8 

I860  .  .  . 

7^ 

ZlA 

4je 

1870  ..  . 

8J! 

d&e 

4.7 

1880  .   .    , 

1^2 

6a2 

4.1 

1890  .  .  . 

17.6 

62.6 

3.6 

1600  .  .  . 

20.0 

75.6 

3.8 

The  fact  thai  horsee  continue  in  as  largo  nun- 
bera  as  ever,  relative  to  population,  is  due  to  a  well 


'.  ;*. 


tia.  J.   Briadwr  u  a  ptionur  lavtat. 


8 


THE  PLACK  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  IN  OUR   CIVILIZATION 


known  attribate  of  human  [irogreas.  The  activitkB 
of  man  increiise  with  his  ability  and  hJH  ojiportani- 
tiies.   A  namber  of  instances  have  !>t«n  reportwj  in 


f^^ 


Pie.  8.    CMmel  as  bea*l  oif  butitoii. 

which  better  acid  cheaper  parallel  tran«portation 
hu  been  provided  without  reducing  matumlly  the 
transportation  on  theorjjrinal  road.  Tho  bettor  and 
cheaper  facilities  not  only  cause  more  [wople  to 
travel  but  also  the  same  people  to  travel  more 
often.  Evury  invention  which  enahlea  mechanical 
power  to  supplant  aaiaial  power  ir  a  distinct 
advantaije  to  society.  The  great  advancement  in 
material  wealth  in  recent  tintea  has  been  due 
largely  to  the  increaFod  application  to  the  world's 
work  of  the  atored  up  carbon  derived  from  coal, 
oil  and  gas.  It  \n  not  probable,  however,  that  these 
improvetl  methodfl  will  RwppEant  horee-power.  They 
will  merely  augment  man'fi  rt»sourcefi. 

Anmali  oi  a  Mfii^neof  elotliinff.—AaimiiU  have 
enalilfwi  man  to  conquer  nature  not  only  by  aiiding 
their  force  to  his  rwlativoly  weak  liwly,  but  tht^y 
havu  farnixhed  him  clothing  which  has  madt.'  it 
possible  for  him  to  extend  his  habitat.  The  exten- 
sive cnltivatiiinof  cotton,  which  came  about  in  the 
nintiteentb  century,  han  made  wool  and  silk  rela- 
tively letw  important,  but  it  may  be  (Inubtral 
whether  the  dennanil  for  leather  was  ever  greater 


than  at  the  present  time.  In  thin  age  of  sabatitij- 
tion-i  there  have  k^eii  few  attenipta  to  supplant 
leallmr.  Although  relatively  le-ss  extensively  usod 
than  formerly,  ^ilk  and  woot  po»»c-»squalittes  found 
in  no  other  tiber.  Flax  has  sutTered  more  than  silk 
and  wool  from  tho  competition  of  cotton. 

Aiiirtiafg  tu  rt  sovrre  o/foml.  —  Much  the  larger 
part  of  the  vegetation  which  grows  on  the  earth's 
surface  ix  nnsuited  for  human  connnrnption.  Ac- 
cording to  tile  United  States  Census  in  1900,  only 
12  percent  of  the  land  surface  in  thia  country  was 
cultivated  in  any  olhiT  crop  than  grasw  ;  therefore 
88  percent  of  the  land  an^a  was  either  woodland, 
grassland,  or  waste  land.  Of  the  12  per  cent  in 
farm  and  ganlen  cropa  other  than  grass,  10  per 
cent  was  in  cereals.  A  large  part  of  these  cereal 
grains  and  partn  of  the  straw  and  .<itover  are  con- 
verted int"  milk,  butter,  cheese,  meat  or  animal 
fats.  i\»  an  exam]>le,  over  80  per  cent  of  all  the 
corn  raised  in  the  United  States  is  consumed  in  the 
county  in  wiiich  it  is  raised,  a  large  pan-  of  this 
being  fed  locally  to  the  domestic  animals.  Not 
only  do  animals  add  to  the  quantity  of  available 
food,  but  it  muab  be  admitted  that  their  flesh  ami 
other  products  have  added  greatly  to  the  tiuality 
of  man's  dietary.   .Among  all  the  food  product*  of 


tlC<10.  Tkedocutirwklui 


1.  "AdoBarFlftadDn." 


Pit.  9.    BMtiuu.  01  two-bunped  camel. 

man,  none  are  nior<;  efficient  or  more  refined  than 
dMiry  and  poultry  products. 

The  domestication  of  animals  has  also  added  to 
human  progress  by  incTe:u<ing  tlie  stability  of  the 
food  siiptdy.  Like  grain  elevators  in  primary 
markets,  domuatic  animals  are  storehouse!:  of  food 
to  l>e  culled  on  when  soil  products  are  temporarily 
limited,  and  allowed  gradually  to  accumulate  when 
these  products  are  plentiful.  A  nation  in  which  ft 
con.iiderahle  part  of  its  food  supply  is  stored  in 
meat-giving  animals  seldom  suffers  from  famine. 

Animnln  na  riviUzins  agetiU.-  While  dometitio 
animals  have  occupied  such  an  im;>ortant  role  in 
advancing  the  material  welfare  of  the  haman  race, 
they  have  not  been  less  important  to  onr  spiritual 
welfare.  Whether  animals  are  kept  merely  as 
companions  (petn)  or  as  slaves  (for  lal>or,  clothing 
and  food),  they  compel  habits  of  care  and  responsi- 
bility and  inculcate  habits  of  mercy.  Such  habits 
are  essential  to  the  highest  succc^nt  in  the  rearing 
of  dumb  animals.  These  habits,  together  with  the 
sympathetic  influences  involved,  in  all  agee^  hava 


THE  PLACE  OP  THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  IN  OtTR  CIVILIZATION 


9 


W^ 


had  aod  etill  contiitne  to  hare,  an  elevating  and 
ctTiltziiig  influence.  Shaler  puts  it  thus : 

"  It  is  perhaps  too  much  to  attribtit«  the  advance 
of  the  acrkuhural  classes  of  our  civilized  peoplea, 
in  all  tbat  serves  to  remove  them  from  the  brutal- 
ity of  tbcir  savage  aocoBtors,  altxiftetber  to  the 
oatii^  of  their  work. —to  the  very  large  element 
of  kindly  care  for  which  it  calls,  and  which  is  the 
price  of  success  in  the  occupation.  Yet  whvn  wa 
Qot4  the  immediate  way  in  which  the  people  br(>d 
in  cities,  under  circumntaoces  of  excitement  are 
wont  to  behave  tike  savages  of  the  lower  kind, 
ghowing  in  their  condact  a  lack  of  all  ftympa- 
tbetic  edacation,  aod  contra-st  their  behavior 
with  that  of  their  kinsmen  from  the  fiold,  we  see 
efiMDttal  diferences  in  character  which  cannot 
well  be  explained  save  by  the  divers*  natures  of 
the  training  which  the  men  have  received.  Thu«, 
in  the  French  devolution,  the  baser,  more  inhti- 
man  deeds  were  not  committed   by  the 
peasanta,  who  had  been  the  principal  suf-  ^' 

feren  under  the  regime  which  was  over-     r^ 
thrown,  bot  by  the  people  of  the  great     |^ , . 
towntf  who  bad   been  lesa  oppressed  by 
the  iniquities  of  the  old  system  of  govem- 
meat. 

"If  it  be  true,  as  my  personal  experi- 
eoccs  and  observatiomt  Itad  me  firmly  to 
believe  ts  the  case,  that  man's  contact 
with  the  domesticated  animals  has  lioon 
and  is  ever  to  be  one  of  the  most  effective 
meaoB  whereby  his  sympaihetic.  his  civil- 
ized motives  may  be  broiiili-ned  and  affirmed,  there 
is  clearly  reason  for  giving!  tu  this  side  of  life  a 
larger  share  of  attention  than  It  has  received." 

CSsraefert  eMf/ilial  to  dometlkation. — Besides 
haviiij;  the  ability  to  make  effective  use  of  the 
av&ilaide  food  and  render  this  fcxKl  into  prodacts 
or  aerriM  neefal  to  man,  animnis  mui^t  pnAsess 
other  characters  to  be  domesticatnl.  Tho  most 
obvious  of  these  charactent  are  readinexs  with 
»'hich  they  become  subJL-tt  to  the  will  of  man  and 
thiMf  ability  tu  hrL-^il  frvt^ly  and  abondantly '"  cap- 
tivity. The  elephant  is  much  mort;  easily  brought 
under  the  will  of  man  than  the  Hon  or  the  jagntir, 
tbe  horse  than  the  zebra,  the  ox  than  the  rhi- 
noceros. Although  one  of  the  mi>At  intelligent  of 
animals,  probably  IwcaDso  his  brain  ha^  \ivfH 
trained  in  guiding  his  pruboitcis  just  an  man's  brain 
has  been  trainL-d  through  tho  neceewity  of  gui^ling 
his  hands,  the  viephant  bos  nuvt-r  bi>i.-n  dumLrstiL-iitL-d, 
and  man  has  always  dt^pended  on  taking  him  into 
captivity  from  the  wild  Rtatc  Tho  reason  for  this 
practice  is  that  the  elephant  has  stililnm  li^on 
lEDown  to  breetl  in  captivity.  Further,  an  cdi^phant 
is  act  matured  until  thirty  yeani  nf  age.  IIsL-ful 
dooitatie  animals  breed  freely  in  captivity  and  ar« 
fairly  prolific. 

(^  Tke  extent  and  progmm  of  animal  ku»liantlrj/. 

&fcii/.— Practically  every  farm  In  the  I'nited 
Stales  keeps  domestic  animals  of  sume  kind,  either 
for  their  labur  or  their  products,  or  both,  and 
Drarly  every  huusehiild  in  the  lanrl  keep»  one  ur 
more  animaia  for  companionship.   On  about  onu^ 


third  of  the  farms  of  the  United  States,  constittit- 
fng  47  per  cent  of  the  total  farm  area,  40  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  gross  income  was  in  1900  from 
animals  or  animal  products.  The  total  value  of 
farm  prodacts  produced  in  the  United  States  was 
iQ  round  numbers  $3,000,000,000,  of  which  $1,000- 
000.000  was  fed  to  live-stock.  The  value  of  ani- 
mals and  animal  prodacts  sold  and  animals  slaught- 
ered on  the  farm  was  approximately  $1,760,(^,- 
000.  The  value  of  animal  prwlncts.  therefore,  is 
only  slightly  less  than  the  soil  products  not  directly 


;a.- 


'tn 


:^ 


V\ 


.vs^; 


^V-V^' 


-.'A 


i-jtth}<- 


■if 


U.    Dm  oI  Uaulu  ju  bauu  «I  bu4M.    Somih  anerlcik 

fed  to  animals  oa  the  farm.  Animals  sold  and 
slauithterud  were  valued  at  $900,000,000.  dairy 
products  at  $472,0OO.CX)0,  and  ponltry  and  eggs  at 
$180.(X»0,000. 

Incrtate  in  pmdttction.—ToT  purposes  of  com- 
parison, the  statistics  concerning  domestic  animals 
are  nnsatiRfactory  both  because  the  ba.sia  of 
enumeration  has  varied  and  bocatijte  it  is  uncertain 

Sit  what  thu  basis  has  been  at  (liferent  times. 
e  Twelfth  C^rnsus  is  probably  the  most  complete 
and  accurate  enumeration  of  domestic  animaU  that 
has  ever  been  made,  and  hence  some  appiirent  in- 
cre:uiiein  numbers  may  be  attributed  tothi:)  greater 
complt^teness  of  enumeration.  Taking  the  cenaoa 
tiguri>s  as  they  stand  during  the  last  half  of  the 
last  cuntury,  hor)i«.*sand  muWs  have  increased  about 
four  timt's.  nt-at  cattle  about  three  times,  milch 
cows  rathor  less  and  other  cattle  rather  more  than 
thrii!  tira4.-3.  while  shi-ep  and  swine  have  each 
doubled  in  numbers  in  the  fifty  years.  The  popula- 
tion in  the  same  perimi  increastHJ  about  three  and 
one-third  times.  Considering  horses,  multui  and  cattle 
as  units  and  assuming  five  sheitp  and  five  hogs  to 
l»e  a  unit,  in  IftSO  thure  WHm  1.4  animal  units  per 
capita,  while  in  I90t")  there  wore  1.2  animal  units 
pur  inbaiiitant. 

trnproremenl. —  While  animals  have  increased 
about  three  times  in  numbers  in  Rfty  yenrvi,  in 
value  they  have  increasod  six  times.  In  the  same 
way.  while  the  mimlwr  of  animals  in  proportion  to 
farm  area  wa^  the  same  in  1900  as  in  IJ^iifX  tho 
value  has  doubled  in  projKirtion  of  the  area  of  tho 
land  in  farms.    Perhaps  part  of  this  increase  in 


10 


THE   PLACE  OF  THK  DOMESTIC  ANIMAI.  IN  OUR  CWIUZATION 


value  a  due  to  the  fcreater  cost  of  prodacing  ani- 
maU,  but,  without  qaestion,  it  is  in  part  doe  to  the 
great«r  intnii3tc  worth  of  the  animals.  In  ls.50, 
sheep  in  tbia  country  prodoced  2.4  poanda  of  wool 


Pig.  II.   Cm  M  etepkuti  to  the  tomu  tA  Buiau. 

par  fleece:  in  1900  they  produced  €.9  pounds  per 
neoe.  While  in  fifty  yuara  sheep  have  not  rguite 
doabI«d  in  niimt)er8,  the  amount  of  woul  produo>e<t 
haa  ioereased  mare  than  five  times.  A  larf^L-  part 
of  this  improvement  in  wool  production  is  due  to 
breeding  and  not  to  fwding,  and  oth-rs  one  of  the 
mfi«it  Mriktng  ilinatrationi>i  of  the  economic  applica- 
tion of  the  principica  of  hret^^ling.  Thi8C'insr.itiiti"ii 
a  prcHL-nt  to  eocit'ty  on  thw  part  of  American 
breeders  annoally  creator  than  the  combinwl chari- 
ties of  the  captains  of  indui^try.  Tim  increase  per 
cow  in  tlie  production  of  miik,  and  more  partii;u- 
larly  of  butter- fat.  in  the  same  period  would  hardly 
be  leaa  striking  if  Htatiatica  exvted  to  allow  it. 
When  the  first  American  Fat  Stock  Show  was 
instituted  in  Chicajifo  in  1878.  prizMS  were  offpred 
for  four-year-old  st**™.  Today,  no  Fat  i^tock  Show 
in  America  offers  prcmiuma  for  a  st«cr  that  hafl 
reached  the  a^  of  thn^e  yeara.  If  animaU  can  be 
matured  in  their  third  instead  of  their  fifth  year, 
it  ia  obvious  that  a  miich  lexs  nnml>er  of  animalv 
muMt  be  kfpt  on  Ihu  farm  in  urdttr  to  oupply  the 
aame  number  fitr  slau^htur.  In  11^41%,  Randall, 
writini;  of  Ctevfland  Hay  horscat,  then  rect-ntly 
imported  to  America,  spoku  of  them  as  enermously 
lar^  hor»:R,  With  thL*  imfiortation  of  Ivouis  Napo- 
leon into  Ohio  in  1S.'j1,  the  brouiling  of  draft  horses 
began  in  earneflt  in  this  country.  The  onlinary 
farm  hi>r»e  in  .\merica  tiiday  is  probably  25  per 
cent  more  RlTective  than  it  was  then.  In  riding 
thirty  milex  on  a  niilway  tntin  in  north<>rn  Illinois 
recently,  twenty-ftve  team.'t  wun?  uliftervwJ  working 
on  thi>  land.  Two  were  two-horse  leam»,  »\x  were 
foar-hon*^*  teams,  and  thw  remainder  were  threw- 
bonw  loams.  Thirty-five  years  ago  in  this  region 
the  oonraon  team  was  a  pair  of  thousand-pound 
honea  ;  today  il  copitiAtA  of  three  honseM  weighing 
fiGArer  1,500  [wandH  each.    This  io  an  imfHirtant 


factor  in  the  economy  of  production  and  hence  baa 
materially  influenced  the  price  of  land  in  that 
region. 

Comparaiire  pm/jrtts. — While  animals  have  not 
kept  pace  with  tha  populatinn  in  numbers, 
they  have  pntlKibly  done  so  in  intrinnic  worth. 
Notwithstanding,  the  production  of  dumentic 
animals  h.as  n<'>t  kept  pace  with  that  of  farm 
cropR.  Furthermore,  the  number  of  animals 
kept  in  thu  United  States  ifl  muck  less  per  land 
ar(>a  than  in  older  cimntries.  For  example,  in 
the  Knitod  i^tates  theru  are  nine  acres  of  land, 
of  which  four  and  a  half  acres  are  improved. 
per  animal  unit,  while  in  Grt-at  Britain  there 
i»  one  animal  unit  for  every  two  and  a  half 
acres. 

liaxnt  pmgrau.—  li  may  bo  of  interest  to 
note  the  trend  in  nombent  and  t'aluea  in 
recent  yeara.  The  following  table  gives  the 
estimates  of  the  L'nitwd  Stat*-*!  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  1897  and  1907,  of  the  num- 
ber and  value  of  farm  animals.  Those  figurvs 
are  entimiLtes  and  not  the  result  of  enumora- 
lioD.  There  i»  reason  to  think  that  part  of 
the  increase  shown  in  the  table  is  the  result 
of  changMi  in  the  baais  of  making  the  esti- 
niatee  rather  than  actual  changes  in  the  num- 
ber and  value  of  the  animaU  themselves: 


Hvneo  and  mules 
Uilch  cows,  ,  . 
Other  cattle  ,   . 

.Sheep 

Swine 


Nontlxtr,    In 
mUllnti* 


tWT 
17 
15 
31 
37 
41 


141 


1<MT 

23 
■21 
52 
&3 
6S 


V«l<u>,  Id  luilllana 


ltV7 
$660  00 
370  00 
SOS  00 
67  00 
166  00 


a04    %\,S6i  00 


I1MI7 

$2.275  00 
645  00 
882  00 
201  00 
418  00 


$4,424  CD 


This  table  show<t  a  marked  increaae  in  the  num- 
ber of  all  classes  of  domeMic  animals  during  the 
decade,  and  the  still  more  marked  incream  in 
values.  Of  this  enormous  increase  in  values— some- 
what more  than  two  and  a  half  time^  in  ten  yean — 
none  U  more  surprising  than  that  in  horses  and 
mules,  which  have,  in  the  period  named,  increased 
over  four  times  in  value,  while  increasing  35  per 
cent  in  nuralKint. 

Fiitttrt  progres*. — The  economic  conditions  inci* 
dent  to  a  rapidly  increasing  farm  area  have  led  to  a 
distribution  of  domejttic  animals  which  is  not  likely 
to  continue,  ^Sliile  the  white  man  hatt  been  subdu- 
ing the  N'orth  American  continent,  a  large  part  of 
the  meat- and  wo<'il-pr<>ducing  animals  have  been 
reared  on  soil  still  untouched  by  the  plow.  In  1875, 
about  tif)  ]K)r  cent  of  the  tive-«tock  of  the  United 
H'.aUiR  was  reared  east  of  the  Mississippi  river;  fif- 
teen years  later,  les^  than  SS  per  cent  In  1 S75,  only 
7  pur  cunt  of  the  live-stock  was  reared  on  the  ranoh^a 
of  the  far  West ;  fifteen  years  later  one-llfth  of  all 
live-eloek  was  raised  in  this  territory.  Over  this 
vast  area,  cattle  iind  sheep  have  been  reared  without 
cost  for  land  and  at  a  trifling  ex)>ense  for  labor. 
It  was  in  IROii  that  beef  cattle  first  reached  an 


THE  PLACE  OP  THE   nOMESTIC   ANIMAL  IN   OUR  CIVILIZATION 


11 


^ofliern  market  from  beyond  the  Allegheny  moan* 
taiiw.  F'rom  that  time  until  very  recently,  govern- 
mvot  land,  or  land  oa  which  conditions  ar«  similar, 
ha.'4  coiLHtitiited  the  cattle  and  she«p  pasture  of  the 
nation.  Here  must  of  the  abeep  and  many  of  the 
beef  cattle  have  been  reared,  lar^  numbers  of 
which  have  been  subsequently  fattened  on  farms 
when  hay  and  grain  have  been  prodocad  cheaply 
and  in  abundance.  The  reason  tor  re:iring  meat 
and  wool  on  these  areas  has  not  been  due  to  their 
natoral  adaptation  t^i  the  production  of  fjasn,  but 
to  the  uncApitalized  condition  of  the  land  and  to 
the  fact  that  animald  could  be  cared  fur  in  large 
numbeni,  thi-refore  at  little  expense  for  labor. 
DiirinK  the  lant  centurv.  the  farmera  in  the  culti- 
vated areas  in  the  oliler  lection  of  the  country 
hare  sulTered  not  alone  because  of  the  lack  of 
profit  from  the  rearing  of  domestic  animals,  but 
also  because  the  cultivated  areas  have  decreased 
in  the  crop-producing  power  from  the  lack  of 
sufficient  numbers  of  domestic  animals.  Thern 
is  every  evidence  that  the  number  of  domestic 
animals  kept  on  a  cultivatetl  art>a  has  begun  to 
increase  in  rwwnt  VL-ars.  As  the  country  devt^lops 
internally,  ratht^  than  tangentiaily,  and  as  the 
capital  inveatvd  in  land  and  improvements  bocomem 
somewhat  equalised,  the  breeding  and  rearing  of 
young  animals  may  be  expected  to  develop  in  those 
rsgionn  where  the  soil  and  climate  efliiccially  favor 
the  growth  of  graas  ami  furage  crops.  Thusu 
regions  where  cereals  are  produced  cheaply  and  in 
great  abumlance  will  furnish  the  materials  for 
fattening  the  cattle. 

(3)  Thr.  r^atirm  of  dnmrtiic  animal*  to  farm  man- 
agvmrnt. 

(a)  Purpotat  and  adraniagfji  of  kveping  livt- 
jloab.— (1)  Animals  furnish  tabor  and  fiKxl  on  the 
farm.  Evun  when  it  is  not  consLih-red  profit- 
able to  rear  domestic  animals  for  sate,  thi' 
coat  of  living  on  the  farm  may  be  redncct! 
by  the  jodicious  production  of  the  home  fooil 
•apply.  The  number  of  acres  of  land  that 
can  be  cultivated  by  each  horse  manifestly 
depends  on  the  character  of  the  fiLmiing.  th^c 
character  of  the  soil  and  the  topography  uf 
tbe  land.  In  England  it  is  estimated  that 
two  horsM  will  cultivate  eighty  acres  of 
tight  and  sandy  soil  and  Hixty  acres  of  heavy 
or  clay  soil.  In  the  United  States  it  appears 
that  one  horse  or  mule  of  working  age  is 
kept  for  every  thirty  acres  of  improved  land. 
The  boTMus  arv  kept  nol  only  fur  their  tabor 
but  abw  for  bn-eding  purpo*fca.  Formerly  a 
cuoalderable  number  of  oxen  were  kept  as 
draft  animals  on  the  farm,  and  even  today 
•bont  one  animal  in  twenty-6ve  kept  for  draft 
porposea  is  an  ox.  White,  as  a  draft  animal, 
the  power  which  an  ox  can  exert  is  relatively  large 
in  proportion  to  hin  weight,  the  slowness  of  his 
movenient  ha-i  caiiw^l  him  tn  be  di.«CHnit><[  with  the 
incmatng  value  of  human  labor. 

(2)  Animals  make  use  of  land  that  would  other- 
wIm  bv  wholly  or  partly  unproductive.  Such,  for 
uample,   is    land    next  streams,   land    partially 


covered  with  treea,  and  land  too  hilly  or  too  stony 
to  cultivate.  Even  today  only  one-half  of  the  farm 
area  in  the  United  States  is  improved  land,  and 
only  two-thirds  of  the  Improved  land  is  in  farm 
crops,  including  meadowa.  The  other  third  of  the 
improved  land,  and  a  considerable  part  wf  the  un- 
improved land,  are  utilized  as  pasture  for  domejitic 
animals. 

{!M  They  make  use  of  farm  crops  which  would 
be  wholly  or  partly  wasted.  For  example,  straw, 
corn-stalks,  clover,  alfalfa  and  many  other  legnmi* 
nou3  foraije  crops  would  not  have  .'*ulTicient  value 
to  \tiiy  for  raising,  if  animals  Were  not  kept  to  con- 
vert them  into  u^ful  product*. 

(4)  Animals  act  OS  machines  for  manufacturing 
raw  mutc'riala  which  are  coarse  and  bulky  into 
finished  pri>Juct8  which  are  mora  concL*ntrated  and 
valnable.  It  takes  ten  [mundsof  dry  matter  to  pro- 
duce .i|K>und  of  beef,  and  thirty  pounds  of  dry  mat- 
ter to  produce  a  pound  of  butter.  The  farmer  not 
only  has  the  prufit  which  comej^  from  the  mnnnfac- 
turing  of  this  thirty  jiounds  of  raw  material  into 
one  pound  uf  butter,  but,  while  the  butter  may  be 
jn-nt  a  thousand  miles  to  market,  it  might  not  he  pro- 
fitable to  ship  ten  mikfi  the  products  from  which 
the  butter  is  made. 

(•'))  In  manufacturing  thc4<o  finer  products,  ani- 
mals leave  much  fertiliting  material  nu  the  farm. 
Tn  fattening  animals  the  experiments  of  Lawes  and 
(iilliert  show   conclusively    that   more    than  nine 
[iuunib<  out  of  every  ten  of  the  essential  fertilising 
ingredients  of  thu  food  reappear  in  the  solid  and 
liquid  excromunt.   .\  Flerotsn  proverb  reads: 
"  No  grsaa,  no.  cattli*. 
No  cattle,  no  manure. 
No  manaiw,  nn  rrnf*"; 

or,  as  Prothero  says.  "Farming  in  a  circle,  unlike 
logic,  is  a  productive  prooeM," 


On  of  watn-bttttalo  !■  plnrlni  tor  ito».    PtilllpplnM. 


(6)  Llve-«tock  enahle-s  a  farmer  to  arrange  more 
readily  a  good  rotation  of  crops.  So  far  as  main- 
taining thi?  fertility  of  the  land  is  concerned,  and 
reducing  the  cost  of  production,  a  five-courwe  rota- 
tion is  iR'tter  than  a  four-cour»c,  and  a  six-courso 
is  Itetter  than  a  flvc-eourse  rotation.  It  enables  tho 
farmer  to  keep  a  larger  proportion  of  his  land  in 


i 


IS 


THE  PUCE  OP  THE  DOMESTIC  AN'IMAL  IN  OUB  Cr\'rUZ.\TIOX 


graas  sad  clover,  thus  requirioR  less  plowing;  it 
enables  bim  to  keep  each  pioce  of  lann  longer  in 
grass  and  thtis  reduce  the  exhHustton  nf  hiii  lan<], 
proviilt^iJ  thtfse  products  are  M  to  live-stock  on 
the  farm. 


■*•--  M.f.:r^ 


Fl(,  14.   Dm  ot  oxen  In  hirlm. 

(7)  Animals  enalile  the  farmer  to  make  a  more 
constant  use  of  his  capital.  The  wheiil-farmer  in 
North  Dakota  sows  his  wheat  in  April  and  May, 
and  harvosta  and  threshes  it  in  July  and  AugTiat, 
and  is  practically  without  employment  for  himaelf, 
his  men  or  his  teams  from  September  1  to  April  1. 
When  live-stock  is  kept,  the  lahor  that  is  used 
in  the  anmmer  to  raise  crops  is  needed  in  the  winter 
to  cars  for  the  animals.  The  teama  and  tools  are 
ftlflo  more  constantly  used. 

(8)  The  maraKL-ment  of  li  ve-atock  and  the  manipu- 
lation of  dairy  product!,  and  thereariniijof  poultry, 
may  be  made  to  require  higher  pkill  than  tho  ordV 
nary  extensive  production  of  farm  crops.  The  pnid- 
Dct  of  skilled  workmen  always  commands  hiRhor 
return  than  that  of  unskilled  workmen.  In  this 
country  the  communitieii  that  havi»  ^'ivcn  the  most 
attention  to  live-atock  have  in  (n-nwral  heen  th« 
most  prosperous,  a.lthoDf;h  to  this  there  arc  some 
exceptions. 

(9)  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  with  certain 
methods  of  farm  management  more  land  can  h« 
farmed  with  the  same  labor  when  live-stock  is 
kept  than  when  almom  exclunively  hay-and-xrain- 
farming  is  practiced.  This  is  thfr  case  when  sheep 
are  graied  over  large  areas,  or  when  boef  cattle 
are  reared,  especially  young  animals.  Th« 

War  of  the  Roses  in  England  so  renluced  thw 
laboring  population  of  Great  Britain  &?  to 
cause  a  revolution  in  the  apiculture  of  the 
island,  the  raising  of  live-ntock  taking  the 
place  of  grain-farming.  The  land  van  en-  ^ 
eloBed,  and,  in  consequence,  the  cnmmitnal 
use  of  land  largely,  if  not  wholly  dis- 
appeared. On  the  other  hand,  thi*  kwping 
of  live-stock  may  greatly  infirease  the 
amount  of  tabor  rofiuiriH]  to  manugv  a  farm, 
eRi>ecia)ly  when  dairy  cattle  arc  kept, 
and  when  partial  or  complete  soiling  is 
practiced. 


(b)  Dimdrxiniage^   of  keeping    livt'ttoek. —  (1) 
It  rwjuires  large  capital.   This  is  especially  true 
when  animals  are  kept  as  \wual   in  connection 
with  the  production  of  hay  and  grain.    On  a  160- 
acre  farm,  forty  head  of  cattle,  worth  $l,r>00, 
forty  head  of  sheep,  worth  $2yCi,  and  .twenty 
hogs,  worth  $100,  may  be  kept  and  the  farm 
made  to  raise  the  necessary  food  for  them. 
This  increases  the  capital  recjuired  $1,800,  as 
practically  the  same  other  capital  would  I« 
required  for  the  production  of  hay  and  grain. 
In  addition  to  the  capital  for  Hve-stock,  usu- 
ally more  capita!  must  be  invested  in  farm 
buildings.    In  a  self-contained  farm,  that  is, 
one  which  raises  food  enough  fi>r  the  animals 
kept,  ten  dollars  an  acre  may  be  considered  a 
moderate  investment  for  live-stock.   If,  how- 
ever, the  farm  is  to  ralao  only  thu  coarse  feed 
and  the  nece^ary  grain  is  largely  purchase], 
a  farm  may  easily  carry  twenty-five  to  thirty- 
five  dollars'  worth  of  live-stock  per  acre. 
(2)  This  live-stock  capital  is  of  a  perish- 
■  -        ab!e  nature.   Not  only  the  products  of  a  sin- 
gle vear  but  all  the  capita!  may  be  destroyed 
by  (lisiraae.   Thus,  not  only  may  several  crops 
be  lost  but  also  the  capital  invested  in  producing 
these  crops,  which  has  been  the  accamulation  of 
years.    Tuberculosis  in  cattle,  cholera  in  hogs  and 
liver  rot  in  sheep  are  striking  examples.  Formerly, 
many  farmers  kept  one  hundred  hogs  where  now 
they  keep  only  twenty-five  or  fifty,  bccaase  they 
dare  not  take  lh«  risk  of  disease. 

(?)  Products  when  grown  cannot  be  indefinitely 
held.  If  held  for  a  better  market  they  must  often 
be  hfld  at  an  L>xpen.ie.  Cold  storage  and  the  pres- 
ervation of  meats  have  lessened  this  difficulty 
slightly,  but  there  is  still  a  gre.it  diiference  b^ 
tween  animal  products  .ind  the  cereals,  which  can 
ihi  held  fur  long  p^TiwlH,  either  by  thu  farmer  or 
in  great  eluvalors  of  primary  markeLi. 
(4)  A  scarcity  of  food  and  conaeqoont  rise  in 


^. 


^^ 


L^=%L«s. 


FU.  IS.    A  «tUl  Inqtieiit  mm  ol  amiiula  u  moUre  pcm-ei. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  IN  OVR  CIVILIZATION 


13 


price  of  hay  and  |rrain  miLy  eanse  a  toss  instead  of 
■  gain  from  ft>eiliiig.  M;iny  illu-strntions  of  this 
fact  could  be  quoted.  For  example,  in  1800  a  d&- 
ereaat  of  about  30  per  cent  in  the  yield  of  grain 
cauMd  an  increase  in  tHe  price  uf  over  50  ]M}r  cent, 
m  that  if  the  whole  crop  coulij  hare  been  tfi>ld  it 
would  have  brought  mora  than  the  crop  of  th«  pre- 
vious year.  Facts  like  these  have  froquuntly 
caused  pcopio  to  as^rt  that,  altboj^b  society  suf- 
fered, the  fanners  were  benefited  by  a  short  crop. 
Fortunately,  this  is  not  the  fact,  because  only 
about  20  per  cent  of  the  corn  U  sold  by  farmers, 
and  when  there  was  a  decrease  of  ^0  per  cent  many 
farmers  not  only  had  nocomtosell  but  they  either 
had  to  purchase  com  or  uae  other  crops,  such  as 
oats,  which  they  would  otherwiiie  have  sold. 


weighing  12S  to  250  pounds,  followed  three  steers 
or  heifers  on  a  two-acre  pasture.  The  cattle  wore 
fed  Hhelled  corn  liberally  but  the  pigs  were  Riren 
none-  The  pi^a  made  a  gain  of  a  little  more  than  a 
hiUf  |K)und  per  day,  and  when  mihijequently  put  on 
full  feed  iiiu<te  in  one  trial  a  gain  o(  nearly  seven- 
teen pounds  for  one  bunhe)  of  corn,  while  in  general 
about  eleven  pounds  of  pork  are  produced  from  a 
bushel  of  abclled  com.  Second,  awine  arc  noted  for 
their  prolificacy.  Ten  sows,  worth  $100  to  $150, 
are  sufficient  to  produce  100  piRs ;  7o  to  80  ewes, 
worth  $i!00  to  $500,  will  be  required  to  produce  an 
equal  number  of  lambs;  110  cows,  worth  $4,500 
to  $5,.^0C\  to  produce  100  calves ;  and  200  mares, 
worth  $120,000  to  $30,000,  to  produce  100  foals. 
To  put  it  in  another  way,  tbti  capital  invested  in 


m 


fn":^^. 


'% 


k 


Fig.  Ifi.    SlfflnuatMter  DxM.    Th*  If^*!  dmri  lyp»  of  C4ttie. 


5 


(c)  CW  nf  prmtaring  lut'gtoek.^lii  e.stimating 
the  amount  of  food  required  to  carry  live-ittock 
through  the  year  for  the  purposp  of  detL-rmlning 
what  part  of  a  crop  may  be  «o1d,  twenty-five 
povads  of  dry  matter  per  day  may  be  allowed  for 
each  IboDsand  pounds  of  live-woight  of  horse-t, 
cflttto  and  sheep,  and  forty  puund;^  per  thousand 
poundH  of  swine;  or.  in  calcuiattnt;  the  amount  of 
food  required  for  swine  it  may  be  more  conv^^nient 
to  do  9')  on  the  basis  of  the  increase  in  live-weight, 
allowio);  tive  poniidH  of  dry  matter  for  each  pound 
of  incrvaao. 

OM  if  prodwintf  Aflj/».— Pigs  are  unique  in  two 
particulars :  tl)  They  are  usually  fed  on  concentrated 
foods  only,  and  (2)  they  produce  nothinc  but  meat 
and  fat.  From  cows  we  get  milk,  in  addition,  from 
sbeep,  wool,  and  from  poultry,  eggs.  Becaoae  of 
thM  limited  ran>ce  of  umfuloetti  and  because  of  the 
high  valoe  of  much  of  the  food  consumed,  it  would 
not  bo  poa^ble  economically  to  rc'tr  swine  were  it 
not  for  two  characters  which  they  posse»i.  I'^rst, 
the  pi(E  i«  ascavenKer.  Many  corn-fed  cattle  of  the 
cflBtml  West  are  fed  without  direct  profit.  The 
profit  cornea  from  the  pif^  which  follow  the  cattle. 
In  many  other  ways  pigs  use  up  products  which 
would  otherwise  lie  wasted.  In  an  experiitent  at 
the  Illiaota  iitaUon  during  two  scuons.  two  pjgs. 


pip)  may  be  n-pRtduced  in  the  offspring  ten  times 
in  one  year,  the  capital  invested  in  hurseH  perhapa 
once  in  five  years.  In  jcenisral,  ^liKi  puunda  of  com 
will  produce  100  pouiidH  of  [lork,  which  is  eijuiv- 
alent  to  eleven  pounds  of  pork  from  a  busht-l  of 
com.  .Since  hogs  are  so  largely  proiluced  from 
com,  the  relati'm  between  the  price  of  corn  and 
the  price  of  pnrk  is  very  intimate-  For  example, 
when  corn  is  worth  fifty  cents  a  lju.>*he!,  the  food 
re<julred  U)  pnjduce  a  pound  of  increase  will  be 
alnrnt  live  cent^ ;  fur  forty  centi*  a  bushel,  four 
centt ;  and  for  thirty  cents  a  hoshcl,  thrc«  cents ; 
and  90  on. 

lielafiff  cmt  of  protivcinff  fkivp  a^<f  urine, — 
In  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  Station  it  was 
found  that  the  espi-nw  of  prolucing  a  pound  of 
increase  in  sheep  was  less  than  in  swine  because 
of  the  less  extjenxive  character  of  the  fwd.  U  was 
also  found  that  sheep  required  lef»  food  per  pound 
of  (rain  than  steers.  Theac  agree  with  Lawos'  and 
Gilbert's  experiments,  who  found  that  eleven 
pounds  of  increa-w  in  sheep  and  nine  pounds  in 
steers  were  obtainei-1  for  every  iOO  pounds  of  dry 
matter  eaten. 

Comparative  cort  of  producing  meet  and  milk. 
— American  experiraeTits  show  that  IOO  pounds  of 
dry  matter  will  produce  ten  pounds  of  increase  in 


14 


THE   PLACE  OF  THE   DOMESTIC  ANIMAL  IN   OUR  CIVILIZATION 


7 


eteers,  or,  when  fod  to  cows,  aeventy-four  pounds 
of  milk  containing;  three  and  (mu-ruurth  pouniis  of 
butter-fat  jilus  oTm  prtunii  of  incrcasp.  In  ^neral, 
therefore,  the  fooA  rwiuiruil  to  pro<luce  a  pound  of 
butter-fat  is  about  three  timt^-s  thwt  required  to 
produce  s  pound  of  increast^  in  steeni.  So  far  as 
food  coneumed  is  concemwJ,  thepefure,  aAsumin;;^ 
it  to  be  of  ei)uu)  quality,  Bteen  at  flvu  c«ntM  a 
pound  would  hm  equivalent  to  batt«r-fat  at  fifteen 
cents  per  poond.  If  butter-fat  aoUt*  at  thirty  cent« 
a  pound,  half  the  income  may  be  chjirged  to  labor 

or  profit.  Ky  Belling 
butler- fat  at  thirty 
centf  a  pound  inst^aH 
of  £t«ertj  at  fivti  c«nU 
a  pound,  the  ^roea  in- 
come per  acre  of  the 
farm  may  bu  doublird; 
or,  what  is  perhaps 
more  to  the  point. 
when  animali  are 
kept  for  the  produc- 
tion of  meat  instead 
of  the  production  of 
biitt«r-fat  the  farm 
area  should  be  doub- 
led. 

Cost  of  producing 
milk  and  butter  - 
Jot.  —  Well  -  selected 
and  properly  fed 
grade  cows  may  be 
expected  to  pnxiuce 
2-10  pounds  of  butter- 
fat  annually.  This  is 
equivalent  to  8,000  pounds  of  3  per  cent  milk, 
6,000  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk,  or  a  trifle  less 
than  5.000  pounds  of  5  per  cent  milk.  If  each 
cow  is  dry  aix  weeks,  the  daily  average  of  the 
herd  in  milk  will  be  thre«-(iuarteni  of  a  iiound  of 
butter-fat  per  day.  ftecasional  herds  will  make 
B  daily  averase  of  .9  of  a  pound  of  fat.  but  thia 
requires  superior  cattle,  careful  ft-L-dinR  and  more 
than  ordinar>'  care.  The  standard  ration  for  milch 
MWB  weighing  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  ts  twenty-live 
poonds  of  dry  matter,  two-thirds  of  which  is  digest- 
ible material  containing  not  lesa  than  two  poundft 
of  diKeittible  protein.  In  ordinary  practice,  atwnt 
ten  ]>oands  of  dry  material  of  the  ration  is  secured 
from  corn  silage,  nine  pounds  from  hay  aniil  about 
six  pounds  from  grain  ur  other  conceatrat^st.  In 
general,  this  is  obtained  by  feeding  thirty-live 
pounds  of  corn  milage,  ten  pounds  of  hay  and  seven 
to  eight  pounds  of  concentratos.  In  general,  the 
silage  may  hv  ej«timateil  at  one-tenth  of  a  cent 
a  pound,  hay  at  one-fourth  to  one-half  a  cent  per 
pound  and  concentniUus  at  thrt^H^uarto^rs  to  one 
and  a  quarter  cent  per  pound,  atthon^^h  thet^e 
prices  will  vary  somewhat  with  the  dilT+^rent  sec- 
tions of  the  country.  The  amount  of  food  nvi'dyd 
will  vary  with  the  sine  of  the  cow,  although  not 
fn  direct  proportion  to  weight,  and  should  be 
varied  more  largely  in  proportion  tn  the  milk  and 
butter-  fat  prndncwl.  Careful  feeders  vary  the 
amount  of    concentrateii    fed    tn    the    individual 


He.  17,  Hotseman  with  iMinaleis. 
■howtor  raetbol  ot  ridlni- 
I'nrlo  R(i-o 


animals  in  the  herd,  although  maintaining  substAB- 
tially  the  general  averages  given  above. 

th^t  nf  maintainiag  imrk  harx;g.  — The  cost 
of  miiintaining  wcirk  hon^eH  ilepends  both  on  the 
si^e  of  the  horses  an<l  on  the  work  done.  Since 
the  work  capable  of  heing  dune  varies  greatly  with 
horsea  of  differunt  size,  and  since  the  work  which 
horses  of  the  same  size  are  calk-d  on  to  do  often 
varies  greatly,  the  amount  of  food  consumed  is 
perhaps  more  variable  than  that  of  any  other  class 
of  domentip  animals.  In  general,  horses  weighing 
1,200  to  l,r>00  pounds  consume  twelve  to  eighteen 
pounds  of  grain,  ten  to  twenty  ]>c)und.i  of  hay  at 
full  work  and  half  the  amount  of  grain  when  idle. 
The  expense  of  ouch  day's  labor  depends  mit  alone 
on  yearly  expense  hut  on  the  number  of  days  of 
lahor.  At  the  Ohio  .State  University,  a  record  was 
kept  in  order  to  determine  the  number  of  days  of 
labor  performed,  as  well  as  the  cost  of  food  con- 
sumed and  other  expenses.  It  was  found  that  four 
draft-horscH,  averaging  a  little  less  than  1.400 
pounda  each,  performed  2,185  hours  of  labor  per 
year,  and  that  four  hontes  weighing  1.225  pounds 
averagfd  l,fl41  hour*.  The  average  work  done  for 
the  horses  was  thus  about  200  days  per  boree, 
equivalent  to  two-thirds  of  the  secular  days  of  the 
year  or  about  six  and  two-thinls  hours  per  day  for 
each  secular  day  of  the  year.  Taking  no  account 
of  three  colts,  one  Iwt^year  old  and  two  sucklings, 
the  average  cost  of  care,  including  feeding,  groom- 
ing, hamesHing  and  cleaning  stables  waa  $23.50. 
The  cost  of  shoeing,  repairs  on  harness  and  st-abte 
supplies  was  $6.50,  and  the  cost  of  fo'.'d  $51, 
making  the  average  total  expense  of  keeping  each 
horse  $S4  per  year,  not  counting  interest  on  the 
investment  of  etables.  horses  or  harness,  nor 
anything  for  depreciation  of  horses  through  age. 
It  is  pwsihle  that  under  ordinary  conditions  the 
growth  of  the  three  coltA  may  more  than  cover  the 
latter  point.  As  each  horse  worked  approximately 
200  days  per  year,  the  average  coat  of  each  day's 
work  was  a  trifle  Itss  than  42  cents.  At  the 
Minnesota  Station,  the  total  cost  of  feeding  and 
maintaining  a  farm  work  horse  for  one  year, 
including  interest  on  inx'estmetit  and  depreciation. 
wa.*t  estimated  to  be  $75  to  $90,  of  which  about 
$20  was  charged  for  interest  and  depreciation. 
On  the  baj(i«  of  .1.3  hoars  for  the  length  of  the 
working  day,  the  coflt  per  horse  per  hour  was 
eiStimaliMl  at  seven  and  a  half  cents. 

LitfToJ  are. 

The  references  to  literature  on  this  subject  are 

neither  numerous  nor  direct.  N.  S.  Shaler.  Domes- 
ticated .Animals.  Chsrles  .Scribn^r's  4SonR,  New 
York  ;  R  IT.  Thurston,  The  Animal  as  a  Machine 
and  a  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Iaws  of  Energetic*, 
John  Wiley  &  Sons  ;  Rowland  E.  Prothero,  The  f^o- 
neers  and  Progress  of  English  Farming,  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  London  (IRS81;  Report  of  the  Twelfth 
Census  of  the  Unitwl  States  (1900),  Vol.  V,  Part  I. 
pp.  cxliii-ccxxxvi ;  I,.  IL  Bailey,  Principled  of 
Agriculture,  Macmillan  Co..  New  York  (1901); 
H.  C.  Taylor,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Agricultural  EconumicA,  Macmillan  Co.  (1905). 


CHAPTER  II 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ANIMAL 


■ 


PHYSIOLOGY  IS  THE  SCIENCE  OF  THE  PROCESSES  OF  LIFE.  A  knowledge 
of  it  underlieii  alt  rational  trcatmi^Dt  of  animals  and  plants.  Very  liltLe  fanda^ 
mental  knowledge  a{  phyttiological  laws  and  phenomena  hoH  be«n  available  to 
the  farmer,  ami  he  hatt  been  gn^atly  handicapped  thtireby.  Lacking  thie  foan- 
datitin  and  a  p<jint  of  view,  his  alteiupU  to  ex[>lain  what  he  has  soeii  have  too 
L/^        often  followed  his  prejudices  and  the  tradition?  that  have  come  dovn  to  him. 

It  is  cot  necuasary  that  the  layman's  knowledge  of  physiology  be  deep,  but 
it  should  be  rational :  that  is,  whether  much  or  little,  it  shuutd  be  foanded  on 
fact  and  be  true  u<  far  as  it  g(K«,  hi8  mind  should  be  free  of  prejudice,  and 
his  point  of  view  should  be  correct.  But  in  ortler  that  the  public  puint  of  view 
nay  be  mtidnal,  Komebudy  miml  delve  for  the  fundamental  fact^.  We  are 
gruatly  in  need  of  a  recojjniJied  body  of  leaders  in  these  matters,  who  shall 
ahape  public  opinion.  There  are  already  many  such  men,  but  not  enough  as 
yet  to  fertilize  the  agricultural  mind.  The  farmers  are  willing  to  learn  and 
to  accept  souad  doctrine. 

The  necessity,  therefore,  is  fur  a  more  liberal  organization  and  support  of  chairs  and  inittituiiuna 
that  shall  be  devuted  to  research  into  the  central  facts  of  physiology,  as  well  uf  plants  as  of  animals. 
The  study  of  animal  physiology  is  involved  in  s^iecial  difficulties  tiecauKe  of  the  fact  that  animals  are 
what  may  1m  regarded  as  personalities  and  becauao  experimental  physiology  demands  large  nnmbers 
of  uimaLs  and  extensive  quarters.  Physiolog>'  is  not  merely  the  study  of  the  vital  processes  within 
Uk  aninial  body,  as  text-books  would  lead  us  to  think  :  it  is  quite  as  much  a  study  of  the  whole  life 
relaLioD.  Life  prooemes  express  themselves  in  welfare.  This  welfare  in  the  result  nut  only  of  alimen- 
tation and  reproduction,  and  the  pntceK^es  u(  the  internal  organs ;  it  results  also  from  the  whole 
relati<iD  or  reaction  of  the  animal  to  heat  and  cold,  to  altitude,  to  contest  with  fullows  and  to  the 
habits  of  life  that  are  imposed  upon  it.  Ecology,  or  the  study  of  habits  and  fteasons  of  animals 
and  plants,  is  properly  a  department  of  physiology.  All  good  artificial  breeding  must  proceed  on  a 
knowledge  of  physiological  laws. 

It  will  be  »een,  therefore,  thut  the  study  of  physiology  has  a  broader  significance  than  merely  to 
enable  us  to  understand  the  nature  and  treatment  of  disease.  Veterinary  instruction,  as  ordinarily 
conceivud,  covers  chiefly  the  patholof^ical  phases  of  physiology,  much  as  the  instrnction  in  human  medl> 
cine  has  looked  to  the  treatment  of  disease  more  than  to  the  preservation  of  health.  Veterinary 
ooUegas  range  themselves  with  medical  colleges  rather  than  with  agricoHural  colleges,  and  their  chief 
porpOM  aeema  to  have  been  to  turn  out  practitioners.  This  is  well,  but  veterinary  practice  \a  of  right 
only  a  means  to  an  end :  the  end  is  the  welfare  of  the  animal  industries. 

It  is  to  he  expected  that  the  as.sociation  of  veterinary  colleges  in  the  future  will  be  with  colleges 
of  agriculture  as  well  as  with  colluges  uf  medicine.  In  fact,  this  association  is  already  working  itself 
ont  in  the  veterinary  departments  of  colleges  of  agriculture;  these  departments  may  not  train  veter* 
Inary  practitioners,  bnt  tbey  align  their  subject  directly  with  agricultural  welfare.  It  is  certainly 
worth  while  to  give  all  s^ricaltnral  students  a  point  of  view  on  animal  health  and  disease  and  to 
iaslmct  them  in  the  methods  of  handling  cpmmun  ailments  and  accidents,  although  there  are  those 
who  fear  that  all  knowledge  of  this  kind,  short  of  a  degree  in  veterinary  medicine  or  its  equivalent, 
is  daogeroua.  It  is  a  fact  that  most  stockmen  will  handle  a  certain  part  of  the  treatment  of  their 
animab  tbenselvett  anyhow,  and  it  is  better  that  they  have  some  instruction.  It  is  due  all  stockmi-n 
that  thoy  be  afforded  the  opportunity  to  receive  im'tmction  that  will  enable  them  to  handle  their 
bsrds:  »d  it  is  not  true  that  partial  training  is  worse  than  no  training.  All  training,  even  the 
best.  Is  partial  or  fragmentary. 

(16) 


X6 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  THE  ANIMAL 


On  the  other  hand,  there  has  never  been  so  great  need  as  now  for  well-train&d  professional  veter- 
inaries.  Th(^  animal  huishandries  are  expanding;  intercommunication  is  sprcadiDg  parasites  and  diseases ; 
the  value  of  individual  animaU  ia  increa-sin^f ;  the  relations  of  live-stock  to  public  health  are  being 
Dnderfttood ;  govemtaent&l  regulation  is  extending.  A  few  colleges  have  set  the  mark  for  very  high 
attainments  in  the  veterinary  profession,  and  this  idea  should  spread.  The  training  of  the  veterinary 
phyttician  should  be  every  bit  as  good  as  that  of  other  [rhysicians  and  should  be  enforced  by  eqnally 
rifiid  statutes.  Tho  onddwmenta  of  these  schools  or  collcgwt  of  vettTinary  science  need  to  be  much 
increased.  The  office  of  the  well-*ducated  vuterinarian  ia  only  beginning  to  be  appreciated.  He  will 
«xert  great  influence  on  public  health  and  on  agriculture. 

The  point  is  that  all  farmers  should  be  put  in  touch  with  the  real  facts  in  regard  to  the  main 
physiological  lawa  and  phenomena,  that  a  person  can  be  of  great  service  to  himself  by  knowing  sowe- 
thiag  of  the  treiitment  of  bis  herds,  and  that  there  should  be  over  all  a  larger  body  than  now  of  highly 
trained  veterinary  physicians.  Thit-re  is  neeii  that  the  formal  etii|Uette  of  the  medical  prufession  do 
not  handicap  tht'  WL-lfare  work  of  a  good  veterinary  practitioner  hy  forcing  him  into  mere  pnifes- 
aionalism,  nor  of  a  good  veterinary  college  by  preventing  it  from  engaging  in  some  kinds  of  extonsiun 
work.  The  veterinary  profession  needs  to  range  itoelf  very  closely  with  agriculture,  rather  than 
too  closely  with  medicine,  if  it  U  to  accomplish  the  greatest  good  for  the  people.  The  profession 
will  grow  in  power  in  proportion  a.^  it  aids  directly  in  the  development  of  the  live-stock  interests,  not 
only  in  subjects  of  ditiease  but  also  at  sanitation  and  in  its  influence  in  developing  the  right  conditions 
under  which  animals  may  be  reared.  Prom  the  point  of  view  of  tho  state,  animal  physiology  and 
pathology  are  primarily  agricultural  subjects. 

If  these  various  results  are  to  be  secured,  it  follows  that  instroction  in  physiology  should  begin 
long  before  the  student  enters  college.  The  point  of  view  on  physiology  shoiild  be  established  in 
earliest  youth.  Inasmuch  as  tho  first  conc&rn  of  every  person  is  to  live;  and  but  very  few  persons 
have  the  opportunity  of  going  to  college.  The  very  general  lack  of  any  sound  understanding  of  the 
commonest  physiolugical  laws  ia  ovidonctid  in  the  wide  extent  of  tho  mi.Hlicino  habit.  If  only  a  bottle 
has  a  reassuring  label,  p^^rson.?  will  immi'diat^^ly  deposit  the  cnntonts  in  their  stomachs  without  the 
least  knowlerlge  of  whnl  the  stuJf  contains  and  in  the  HubUmest  faith  in  Ha  puHni  bill  ties.  This  is  a 
mcist  iLstonishing  mental  attitudt^,  but  su  cnmmon  that  we  do  not  challenge  it.  It  is  astonishing  that 
we  should  consider  a  medicine  to  he  a  sufficient  antidote  or  corrective  to  the  plain  faults  of  the  daily 
living.   [Con.sult  thw  editorial  on  pages  278,  279,  in  Vol  I.] 

The  ordinary  school  teaching  of  physiology  is  not  likely  to  pat  a  pupil  into  real  touch  with  the 
common  necessities  of  his  daily  life  :  it  is  likely  to  be  a  reflection  of  the  physician's  anatomy  and 
physiology.  The  teaching  of  physioU^y  thnt  is  enforced  by  organ ixati on s,  whereby  great  emphiisis  is 
placoid  nn  the  injuriiw  ctf  certain  sulisbinces,  is  likely  to  be  [uirtisan,  and  to  that  extent  ih  pedn- 
gogically  unKonnd.  .Ml  partisanshi]»  should  knt  eliminated  frum  school  teaching:  science  is  impartial. 
The  fact  is,  that  knowledge  of  physiology  should  bo  the  natural  result  uf  tho  teaching  of  plants 
and  animals.  Tho  farm  youth  should  havo  a.  distinct  advantage  here,  for  his  whole  oxperiorco  is  an 
experiment  in  making  anim.ils  and  plants  to  thrive.  We  have  tieen  teaching  fragmentary  views  of 
"iHitiiny"  and  "zoiilogy,"  but  we  should  teach  animnl.'s  and  plants  in  such  a  way  thiit  the  pupil  shall 
have  a  reiil  cimcfptinn  of  the  pnH-i'n.naa  nf  life.  When  the  farmer  «nce  realiaes  that  his  daily  experi- 
ence with  his  live-»toi^k  may  constitute  »  real  atndy  in  physiolngy,  he  ought  to  arrive  at  a  new 
point  of  view  on  the  meana  of  studying  himself  and  of  caring  for  his  body. 

If  a  person  once  gains  an  understanding  of  the  nndcrlying  laws  of  physiology,  his  common 
practice  with  his  animals  will  be  rational.  He  will  see,  for  example,  that  bovine  tuberculosis  is  not 
occult  and  is  not  a  matter  of  course  or  of  chance.  There  are  certain  conditions  that  make  it  pos- 
sii'lc  for  the  disease  to  spread,  and  the»e  cmditiims  can  be  n^'eni^itme.  He  will  see,  then,  that  the 
mere  slnnghtering  of  all  tubenuilnu^  atiimals  will  nut  stop  thti  disBase,  any  mure  than  tho  death  of 
all  patients  in  a  tmpicat  seaport  will  annihilate  yellow  fever.  All  the  conditions  and  cireumstiiDces 
under  which  the  animalri  are  kept  must  be  made  sanitary,  and  the  elimination  of  the  disease  will 
proceed  with  the  increase  in  care.  This  care  will  include  the  destruction  of  animals  that  are  dao* 
gerously  diseased,  the  control  of  commerce  in  infected  animals,  and  the  isolation  of  infected  and 
Busptcious  cases.  The  control  of  tuberculosis,  as  of  other  diaeasee,  ia  a  question  of  rational  popular 
educatiiin  rather  than  of  statutes. 


PHYSIOLOGY   OP  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


17 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DOMICSTIC  ANIMALS 

By  S.  J.  J.  Hanjrr 

The  exploitation  of  live^^>ck  i^  one  of  the  great 
of  national  wealth.  Ry  inoan.s  of  special 
irocantioas  by  the  breeiler  in  selectin);  and  mat- 
ring  aniioald,  economic  feedini;  and  farming,  jftJotX 
hfg;ieDd  and  proper  ftnrrnun'diTi^A,  th'C  domestic 
tx^ds  hare  been  moch  Jmprov^Hl.  To  a^^t  on  the 
animal  or^aniatn  m  38  to  increase  iIh  prodnctive- 
Deas,  develop  special  quatitiefi  and  create  n«v 
brue«l)<,  r«<iiirres  eome  knowledge)  of  the  natural 
fuDctious  of  the  body. 

\SHgtdion. 

The  animal  body  is  constantly  excreting  certain 

tiraste   protlocta  repreHenting  wear  and  tear.    To 

linaintain  the   natritivi^  balance,  this  t!X]>en'ilittire 

■iniut  be  replaced  by  nutrients  L'UlHjratttl  front  the 

food.   The  principal    nutritivu    iiiKreiiit-Tit*)    in  all 

food-stuff;$  arv  pruteids, — rL-preseiitL-d  by  albomt-n 

and  ita  derivative!*. — starches  and  sugaTH,  c«tlaIusL- 

in  the  diet  of  herbivnra,  and  fat».    These  muKt 

iondergo  certain   transformations  for   alworptinn 

Fsnd  asaimilation. 

Preparalioa  of  fuotL     \Utu!h  digeaium.     ,\fanfu'u- 
turn. — Haslicalion  ia  perfonnti)  [irinct]ially  by  ttu! 
,  molar  teeth  or  Rrindera,  th«  jaws  buinn  muved  by 
Mwerfal  mnacles.  The  earface  of  the  grinders  is 
nat  sod  roughened.   The  jawtt  in  herhivora  move 
from  side  to  side.   The  fcM>d  is  chewed  on  only  one 
-■et  of  lateral  grinders  at  a  tim^^,  an'l  this   may 
[continue  in  the   honw    fur  an    hour.     When    the 
imasclea    become    tireil    th«    action    in    ruvers^^l. 
I  Unilateral    masiication   is  posuiblu    bM-auM*    the 
upper  jaw  is  wider  than  tbu  lower  antl  the  apposi- 
tion of  the  teeth  such  that  the  inner  edge  of  the 
upper  and  the  onter  edge  of  the  lower  molars  are 
worn  most.  Thus,  the  external  and  internal  borders 
of  the  molara,  reflpectively,  become  long  and  sharp 
.and  may  require  filing  or  "floating."   A  hcirse  re- 
qairea  two  and  one-hajf  hour^  to  chew  ten  pounds 
of  hay.  the  jaws  moving  eighty  times  [ler  minute ; 
one  pound  of  hay  makvs  aixty-live  boiusea.    In  the 
pig,  dog  and  cat,  mastication  is  chopping;  the  teeth 
overlap  and  a  perfeet  hinge- joint  unites  the  lower 
jaw  to  the  skall.  Mastication  mixes  the  food  and 
.  saliTt,  facilitates  swallowing  am],  by  crushing  the 
I  lunl  envelopiw  of  the  food  particles,  prepares  them 
for  action  of  digestive  juices.    Hay  absorlw  four 
timM  ita  weight  of  saliva,  and  oat«an  equal  wi-ight. 
SipaUmnng. — In  swallowing  or  deglutition,  the 
Itoogae  fortee  the  bolus  into  the  back  part  of  the 
[jDoath  and  squirts  it  into  the  pharynx.   Here  it  is 
LfTWped  hy  the  constrictor  muscles  and  pass^ed  into 
[the  eaophagus  or  gullet.   Its  downward  course  can 
>  be  Ken  bent  in  the  left  side  of  the  neck. 

Tbe  food  cannot  pass  into  the  larynx  and  wind- 
Ipipe  for  the  following  reaaona:  Muscles  close  the 
[^opi»Diiig  (Kloitts)  of  the  larynx  by  addncting  the 
ineal  coras  and  arytenoid  cartilages,  breathing 
fud  swallowing  at  the  same  time  being  inipoflsible; 
{tie  base  of  the  tongue  pimhea  the  epiglottiii,  like 
m  lid.  over  the  oftening:  certain  muscles  poll  the 
larynx   forward  under  the   tongue.    The  muscle 

C2 


movements  of  Rwnllowing  are  controlled  by  a 
swallowing  center  in  the  brain.  The  pharynx  of 
thv  ox.  Khee[i  and  gojit  i^  very  cupacioun  and  very 
large  object*  can  he  awallowed. 

SaJira.~-Th(;  ftaliva  w  a  watery  opalescent  fluid 
iwcrcted  by  three  principal  salivary  glaiidut — the 
parotid  on  the  side  of  the  throat  below  the  ear, 
the  submaxillary  and  the  auhlingoal  between  the 
branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  Thi^ee  diacharge  their 
secretion  into  the  mouth  by  special  ducta.   In  the 


•n. 


Ji. 


'  .4 

r 


s -^ 


1' 


--'V-^- 


A 


FIb.  is.  TiuifYaw  tecUra  (biuueb  Iwdy  oC  boite,  u  tMi 
from  behind,  a.  .Mxlominnl  t.urtrtfr-  at  lUc  dintilirafai ; 
A.  '>!.  f't.  I ())■!>«  of  the  hvf  ri  e,  tIkIiI  brnnd  liKDUi^nl :  rf.  round 
lllCMueiiti  r.  itlnnilulnr  tuirl  of  iiuw^cli:  r.,  nun  sUndnljir 
pan  of  domach,  "blind  mc'i  r%.  pylonit:  t.  dnmlf-nnm  > 
g,  riKhl  kiiluBy:  h,  »\^\t*^n-.  i.  tcTl  kiiln^y^  i,  aptfiilc  tlica- 
lufitl;  ni.uut,  cdseof  BpItiulB  lltraui^rit;  n.  ra>icr*M;  "i.  ItfC 
PAtiTivtllc  InV:  ni  rlxhc  p«n>rr»ai)r  lob(>i  o.  tmrlal  T«lni 
I',  niKln;  t,  \\ihT\nt  n>mip*»n, 

borse  S4  and  in  the  ox  112  pounds  are  secreted 
ill  twenty-four  hours  (M.  Smith). 

The  Bativn  asaista  (I)  in  swallowing.  (2>  It 
contains  a  soluble  ferment  {ptyalin)  that  converts 
the  atareh  of  the  foo<l  into  sugar  (maltose)  and,  in 
the  horse,  converts  cnne-sugar  int"  gr«pe-augar 
(glucose).  Thi.H  aniylolytic  action,  tK;ginning  in 
the  mouth,  ia  continued  in  the  stomach  until 
arrested  by  the  hydrochlorie-ncid  acidity  of  this 
organ.  The  ealivaa  of  the  pig,  dog,  sheep,  horse 
and  ox  possess  this  property  in  the  order  named. 
(Ellen berger).  When  the  aaliva  is  diverted,  swal- 
lowing i.i  dil^cult  and  the  animal  loset^  flet^h. 

Stomarh  diffrsfion.  The  stomach  of  the  horse 
has  a  capacity  of  twelve  to  fifteen  c|uarlii.  In  the 
left  compartment  (uardia).  the  mucouo  lining  is 
non-secretory  ;  in  the  right  (pyloric)  side  it  is  vel- 
vety, n.'ddish,  and  hait  numerous  glands  to  secrete 
gastric  juice.  The  gastric  juice  contains  pepsin,— 
a  soluble  ferment,— free  hydrochloric  acia  (.02  per 
cent),  rennin  and  lactic  acid. 

Pepsin,  in  the  presence  of  free  acid,  converts 
the  proteids  of  the  food  into  absorbable  peptones. 
In  the  left  compartment  the  saliva  continues  to 


18 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS 


act  for  8«?era)  hours  on  starch.  Ellenberger  and 
Hofmuflter  hold  that  starch  conversion  takes  place 
in  the  stomach  throngh  the  development  of  fer- 
ments from  the  food  itself.  Oata  yields  such  an 
enzyme;  it  is  dcMroyed  by  boiling.  Thene  facts  ht:lp 
to  explain  the  nnivi^rj^ai  use  of  oats  as  a  food  acit 
its  luasiined  diKoatibility  wKmii  boiled. 


JL-^- 


'V\' Va,^ 


^i 


\m 


% 


PIK-  >4-  SI'le  *!'*'  oi  tnterul  oiitau  of  matt.  1,  Scapnlit.  2,  hnmenu,.  -a. 
ulna:  4.  riulluii:  S,  liht;  4.  vert«brnl  fuIuujii;  T,  iHu.ni;  t).  pal>jt^  9, 
IxhlDin:  10,  trmnrt  11.  lil'iu:  a.  livnrt:  I,  iiuLmuunry  srlery;  o.  wirin: 
tf.  ■iftRioi'li;  *.  ][vi>r:  t.  tut  t^iict-  of  illnpliriuclii,  ila,  lih.  lurcv  roluii .  i, 
■m&ll  [ttlBitliici  i.  ktiln'V}','  in.  aiuall  puIiiii:  n,  iilfruki  >i,  rfi^iniu:  p. 
rivBlna,   r,  nraejrAt  or  blnildfrr-,  «,  aiiati  t.  vuJva. 

The  duration  of  stomach  diction  varies.  A  hay 
ration  requires  six  to  eijiht  hoars;  one  of  out.?,  five 
to  six  hours.  Whon  no  other  food  is  given,  the 
stomach  empties  itiielf  in  fifteen  to  twenty-four 
honrs.  A  sudden  change  of  diet  retards  digestion 
and  thuH  predispate!)  to  indi(!^-ati<rn  and  fermenta- 
tion. The  food  underyota  a  sort  of  churning: 
motion  and  becomea  mixed  toward  the  pylorus. 
After  enterinn  the  left  sac  it  is  rapidly  forced  to 
the  right  side  and  its  passage  intrf  the  small  intes- 
tine, regola.ted  by  a  constrictor  or  sphincter 
muscle  around  this  orifice,  is  rapid  at  the  beginning 
of  feeding  and  then  slows  nntil  the  stomach  ia 
about  two-thirds  itlled.  In  this  state,  digustion  in 
most  active;  over-distension  arre-sts  it.  After  this 
period  the  outgo  equals  the  incoma  until  digestion 
IS  completed. 

The  stomach,  being  small,  empties  it^lf  two  or 
three  times  during  a  meal.  Different  food:*  leave 
the  stomach  snceesaively  in  the  order  fed.  Hence, 
since  proteid  digestion  is  the  principal  function  of 
the  gastric  juice,  proteid  concentrators,  as  oata, 
should  be  given  after  the  hay  to  secure  the  benefit 
of  prolonged  stomach  digestion.  The  incorrect 
practice  of  giving  grain  first  is  partly  mttigat«d 
by  some  hay  remaining  in  the  stomach  from  the 
previous  meal  and  retarding  the  patutage  of  the 
grain  into  the  intestine.  \Vat«r  may  psiiW  into 
the  intftstine  two  minuteH  after  drinking,  and  car- 
ries with  it  some  undigested  food.  Hoises  should 
be  watered  before  fe«ding. 

The  stomach  of  the  ox  is  divided  into  four 
compartments:  Ht  Th?  rumen  or  paunch,  hold- 
ing 10  to  60  gallons  or  nine-tenthn  of  the  total 
stomach  capacity,  occupies  the  major  part  of  the 
abdoninal  cavity.   Its  mucous  lining  is  corerdd 


with  long  leaf-like  eminences  and  always  peels  olF 
immediately  after  death.  VZi  The  reticulam,  honey- 
comb or  water-bag  ha^  its  mucous  surface  arranged 
in  larye  honeycomb-like  spaces.  The  coTitents  are 
liquid  and  often  contain  foreign  bodies— nails,  wire, 
stones  and  the  like.— which  may  penc-trate  through 
the  diaphragm  into  the  chest  cavity  and  cause 
traumatic  pericarditis,  or  "nail  in  the 
heart."  The  reticulnm  in  its  interior 
shoe's  the  esophageal  groove.  This  is 
an  inverted  gutter  with  thick  borders 
extending  from  the  gullet  to  the  third 
stomach.  The  muscular  arrangement 
is  such  that  during  its  contraction  the 
gutter  forms  a  canal  to  convey  food 
from  the  gullet  into  the  manypHes 
without  dropping  into  the  paunch  or 
the  honeycomb.  (3)  The  third  stomach, 
omasum  or  manyplies.  has  nuoHroQa 
large,  flat,  fleshy  leaves  projecting 
from  the  inner  wall  and  studded  with 
pointed  horny  eminences.  V4)  The 
abomasum  i»  the  true  digestive  stom- 
ach. The  arrangement  of  the  Btomacb 
of  the  sheep  and  of  the  goat  is  almost 
identical. 

Id  the  rumen  the  action  of  the 
saliva  is  continued,  and  &0  to  TO  per 
cent  of  the  cellulate  is  digested.  In 
the  third  stomath  the  food  is  further  triturated 
by  the  fleshy  leaves,  and  the  liquid  parts  squeezed 
out  into  the  abomasum.  The  contents  are  always 
hard  and  dry.  In  the  abomasum  proteids  are  con- 
verted into  peptones. 

The  stomach  of  the  pig  is  of  a  t>'pe  between  that 
of  ruminants  and  camivora.  The  digestive  secre- 
tion contains  [wpoin,  hydrifchloric  acid,  lactic  acid, 
milk-curdling  and  starch-converting  ferments.  The 
stomach  of  the  dofj  is  capacious.  The  digestive 
juice  is  vary  strong,  altlio'iiH^'  •'"B*  have  lived  for 
four  years  after  removal  of  the  stomach.  It  con- 
tains pepsin,  more  hydrochloric  acid  (1-7  P*r  cent) 
than  in  other  specie-t,  and  is  four  times  as  strong  as 
that  of  sheep.  Twelve 
hours  are  re<iuired  to 
digest  a  full  meal  of 
meat.  Meal  and  livir 
are  most  di|:c^8tibk' 
when  fed  raw. 

fiu  m  inatloa. — Cud- 
chewing  animals  or 
ruminants  include, 
among  others,  the  ox, 
sheep,  goat  and  camel. 
Food  is  partly  masti- 
cited  and  enters  the 
paunch.  It  raunt  be 
retunn^d  to  th«  mouth 
for  a  farther  chewing. 
This  is  calUtd  rumina- 
tion.   Finely  dividi-d 

semi-solid  food  may  pass  into  the  third  stomach 
through  the  e-sophapeal  groove  without  rechewing. 
Liipiids  pa-os  into  all  four  compartments,  but  the 
greater  part  enten  the  paunch. 


Pic.  m.  GeetJoo  tbfimxb  itADuck 
of  bor»e.  «<»«.  En-l  "f  ""pb- 
Mtns,  ihovinit  mux'alar  wkII 
nnilniiiniiw:  b.  iii^n-«lMi4tilM' 
tnuooML(f«r»-«t»fni«rli):  r.  lh« 
vUlotw  mariMA  or  trn*  din*' 
ii»»  p«rt:  *i,  p>|p.rlf  ctnffwi 
■f.  cliMMlmitini :  t.  oriflrM  ol 
til1«  aDd  |Ani'r««tl'-  diaf-li. 


PHVSIOUJGY   OF  DOMESriC  A.NIJLVLS 


: 


Tlie  mochaniam  of  nimioation  U  lu  follows:  A 
chaming  movement  by  the  paunch  furciis  thu  cod- 
teDta  towanl  the  orilicc  of  the  ^llet.  A  deep 
in^piratinn  folloired  hy  cm^pivsAion  of  the  patinch 
by  the  diaphragm  and  the  alJduminal  muKcIeK  fnrceH 
ths  BM«rated  coiiU<nt8  of  thu  puurich  into  Lhe 
filQnel-«hape()  orifice  of  the  gullet,  which  cuts  off  a 
boliu  and  by  rev^r»f  peri^tabis  conwys  it  into  the 
Douth.  The  water-bat;  (second  stomach)  also  tthaivs 
in  thi«  contraction  and  nnpplies  wat«r  to  saturate 
the  mass.  Aftt^r  ftwallowin^  Iho  second  time,  the 
boliu  either  pasiteK  into  the  rumen  a^^ain  or  reaches 
the  thin)  ^toma^b  throut;h  the  twophat^l  gutter. 
The  fonnation  of  tho  bo1u»  and  its  Moent  require 
Utreo  seconds,  ma^^ticntion  fifty  aoconda  and  the 
deMeot  one  and  one^half  second:).  A  given  amount 
of  water  in  the  rumen  and  a  certain  de|:^ee  of  dis- 
tention are  neccRsary.  After  a  meal  cattle  may  mit 
begin  to  raminate  unleiw  watt^rHt).  At  lea»t  tteven 
out  of  twenty-four  houns  are  given  to  rumination. 
It  is  a  voluntary  act.  "  l-oeini:  the  cud  "  ia  a  myth. 
During    sickoeje    rumination    eeu£L-« ;    when    the 

S petite  returni>)  the  cud  returns  of  ita  own  accord. 
is  imagioary  dii«eade  belongs  to  the  Aame  cate- 
gory as  tiie  "  hollow  horn  "  and  "  wolf  in  the  tail." 
All  homed  cattle,  excepting  the  very  yoong^  nor- 
mally bare  hollow  hornn. 

Tom  {(in  j7.— Vomiting  is  a  reflex  act  canned  by 
stimnlation  of  the  vomiting  center  in  the  brain, 
indocing  spaiimodic  contraction  of  the  stomach, 
diaphragm  and  abdominal  munctes.  The  pig,  dog 
aiM  cat  vomit  reiulily  ;  it  i»  nature's  method  nf 
rvlief.  Cattle  vomit  iiifrei)iteiit1y,  and  homeH  only 
in  extreme  circnmstancBH  for  the  following  rea- 
itons:  (1)  The  esophagus,  where  it  enters  the 
stomach,  has  a  thick  and  conlrucU-nl  wull.  {'^) 
There  are  spiral  muscular  libers  in  its  wall  at  Oils 


n«.  II.    Tb«  stonacii  M  I  iDe**. 

point  A  Btomsch  inflated  nrtiftcially  with  ga« 
Lhroogh  the  .small  intestine  will  ruptare  nndcr 
eonprvaaion  before  leaking  through  the  e«ophagu.t. 
71w  iiwhility  of  the  horw  to  Iwlch  makes  acute 
il>di|C««tion  writh  bloating  of  the  .ttomach  very  dan- 
earoOB.   (3>  Close  U>  the  comitricted  nrificeof  the 


esophagus  ie  the  relaxed  intiwtinal  opening,  giv- 
ing uxit  to  the  cootuntd  under  eompreesioo.  (4)  The 
stomach  is  not  in  contact  with  thu  abdominal  wall. 
Vomition  in  the  horse  nearly  always  caus^^^s  a  rup- 
tured stomach  and  ia  fatal.  In  horses  and  cattlo 
the  vomiting  center  aeems  to  be  insensitive  to 
nauseating  drags. 


FIc.  it.  Liver  of  hotae.  a.  I^oh  lobo,  A.  It>ft  pftTt  af  mtddl* 
lot)*:  1^'  rl|[hl  }<.>•*•;  d.  v*na  oava  liif<>riar;  f»,  tMipalle 
v<>iD*i  i.  Inn  broad  hoiinpnl:  g.  rlgbi  tirwu)  HH«iD«nti  A. 
mntMl  ttcKHMU;  l,eorDnuy  ItfuuMiIi  t.esnplMKrnl  fluvrs 
or  Doirh. 

InlrMinal.  rllfifsfian. — The  contents  of  the  utomach 
on  entt^ring  the  small  intestine  constitutes  chyme. 
Hern  it  in  acted  nn  by  three  dig»flive  secretions — 
the  intei^tinal  anil  puncreatic  juices  and  the  bile. 
The  intustinal  juieo  (ttuccus  entericus)  is  secreted  by 
nomerous  small  glands  in  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
large  and  small  gut.  It  contains  three  ferments : 
I'roteids  are  converted  into  peptiines,  starch  into 
sugar,  cane-flugar  into  grape-sugar  and,  acconling 
to  some,  maltose  into  dextrose.  A  verraieular  muve- 
menl  ((nt-ristalsis)  rapidly  forces  the  eont*'rtB  into 
the  caecum  ;  considtrable  liquid  is  absorbed  and  the 
gut  is  never  found  in  a  state  of  repletion. 

The  liver  is  a  large  gland  weighing  in  the  horse 
eleven  pounds.  A  large  hUiiMj-vessel  (portal  vein) 
retnrns  from  the  digestive  Iriicl  and  carries  to  the 
liver  sugar,  {vepLones  and  eertain  proil!ict«of  intes- 
tinal decninpiwition  tn  tw  elabiirated  for  the  nutri- 
tion of  the  tiasu&s.  The  functionsof  the  liver  are  ■. 
(I)  Secretion  of  the  bile.  Tho  bile  is  a  yellowish 
green  liquid  conveyed  by  the  bile  duct  inte  the 
small  intentine.  In  the  horse  nine  minces  and  in 
the  ox  four  ounces  are  eecrpl*"*!  jwr  hour.  Its  main 
solid  ccntttituenta  are  coloring  niutler  or  pigment 
(■bilirubin  and  bilivirdin),  bile  acids  (glycochoHc 
and  taurocliulie)  iind  salU  (glycocholate  and  tauro- 
eholate  of  soda).  The  bile  emulsifiee  fata  for  ab- 
sorption. Fatty  acids  develop  in  the  intestine  from 
fermentalion  ;'lhL'.se  unite  with  the  siiditim  salta  to 
form  .'^ftapH,  whieh  emulsify  the  fata.  When  the 
bile  duct  is  ligiited,  fat  alworption  is  reiluced  iiO 
per  cent  and  the  stools  beirume  "elayey."  Bile  also 
acts  a»  a  natural  laxative  or  aperient. 

{2}  The  liver  liaa  an  emunctory  function.  Intes- 
tinal putrefaction  of  proteids  develops  certain 
toxic  products.  These,  when  conveyed  to  the  liver, 
are  there  converted  intn  U>nign  compounds,  aa 
urea,  excreted  thntugh  the  kidnev.i.  The  liver  alp4> 
converts  the  muscle  break-down  (creatin)  into  urea 
and  urit^  acid,    .\fter  oliatruction  of  the  bile  duct. 


^rtb 


20 


PHYSIOLOGY  OP  DOMESTIC  ANIMAl^ 


the  coloring  matter  is  abaorbed  by  the  blood-ves- 
sels and  we  hav<j  biliary  jauinlice.  The  bile  acids 
also  are  toxic  ;  when  formed  in  excessive  quantity 
and  absi>rhL'd  as  free  arids  they  caiiHe  hepatic  tox- 
emia or  (>i:)i.suning.  Mtmt  of  the  solids  uf  the  bile 
reiirysent  wjisto  priMliicts- 

(S)  The  K!y<wjtenettt;  function  of  the  liver  is,  in  a 
word,  aa  follows :  The  sugar  conveyud  fnwn  Iht? 
intestines  to  the  livur  is  hy  a  special  function  uf 
the  liver  oella  converted  into  a  form  of  animal 
starch  called  glycogL-rn  and  storfd  np  here  aa  a  sur- 
plus nutrient  to  he  called  on  by  the  body  Jis  needwi. 
Then  it  is  reciinverte»l  into  suuHr  and  iw  such 
enters  the  circiilatiun.  ThwH,  liaiidas  its  intimate 
Btwociatjon  with  the  diifwliun  of  foods,  the  neuirul- 
ization  of.  iiiid  elimination  from  thf  liody  of  waste 
materials,  the  Uvtir  plays  an  important  part  in 
nutrition. 

The  pancreas,  called  the  abdyminal  sweetbread. 
u  a  gland  wei^hins  two  pounds,  placed  against  the 
bacleltone  clft^'e  to  the  kidneys.  It  secretes  a  clear 
fluid  called  th^'  pancreatic  juice,  tu  thu  horse  and 
ox.  ifeven  to  nine  ounces  are  secreted  per  hour. 
This  secretion  cuntains  three  digentive  ftnntnts : 
{I)  Trypsin,  convertinp:  proteids  into  peptones : 
(2)  amylopain,  chancinjr  starch  into  sugar ;  (3) 
ateapsln,  splitting  up  fats  into  fatty  acids  and 
glycerine,  the  fatty  aoid^  emulsifying  fats  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  case  of  the  bilu. 


Ptg.  Z).  StufiuB  at  niUGoud  mombiane  ul  Uie  latesllDe.  StuKv- 
Inc  »illt  "tth  r^rlral  liuMi-nl  ilni-I  atiil  KIimkI  vmil-Is,  ami  uu 
tli<>  niirfiwe  th*  sh.r.rl'lng  pplthclial  reiU. 

Removal  of  the  pancreas  from  the  body  is 
followed  by  diabetes  or  sugar  in  thu  urine,  emacia- 
tion and  death  The  lituod  will  not  hold  more  than 
.3  per  cent  i>f  sngiir  without  excreting  it  in  the 
urine.  Prom  thiti  it  is  surmised  that  the  pancreas 
sBcreteH  a  Hu;;ar-dfstroyinK  ferment. 

The  larxe  intestine  comprises  the  caftcnm  and  the 
larxe  and  small  cobtn.  The  cteciim  or  blind  cut  of 
the  horse  lies  in  the  right  flank,  is  about  three 
feet  long  and  blind  at  its  anterior  end.  The  oppo- 
site end  has  the  two  npeninRs  for  the  entranco  and 
exit  of  the  food,  which  in  passing  out  is  moved 
againnt  gravity.  It  is  capacious  and  compensates 
for  the  Bmallneas  of  the  stomach.  The  contents 
are  soft. 

The  large  or  foided  colon  ban  mix  times  the 
capacity  of  the  stomach.    Its  contents  are  tirmer 


than  thoAo  of  the  cscum.  It  termlnaten  in  the 
horse  in  the  small  colon  by  an  abrupt  narrowing, 
where  frequently  impactions  take  place.  It  is 
thnngbt  l>y  some  that  in  the  ea?cum  and  colon,  fat, 
starch  and  prot«ids  are  acted  on  by  various  species 
of  bacteria.  Cellulose  in  particular  is  digested 
here  and  targe  i]uantitie.<4  iif  wnt*>r  are  absorbed. 
Water  rapitily  paasuti  from  the  titomach  into  the 
carcum,  which  is  also  thought  lu  act  a;^  a  recep- 
tacle for  water  for  the  needs  of  the  b<xJy.  The 
food  remains  in  the  colon  about  forty-eight  hours. 

In  the  small  colon  the  ingesta  lose  their  water, 
Ijecome  drier  as  they  approach  the  rectum  and  are 
moulded  into  balLi  by  its  sacculated  wall,  .\n 
animal  may  be  nourishi^l  through  the  rectum  and 
colon,  or  narcosis  can  be  produce*!  by  drugs. 

In  the  ox,  the  rumen  partly  takes  the  place  of 
the  ciecuro  and  colon  of  the  horse.  In  the  small 
intestine  absorption  is  most  active.  The  ox  digesta 
more  cellulf>i*e  than  the  horse,  and  can  thrive 
better  on  coarse,  woody  forages. 

Id  the  pig.  intetflinal  digestion  ia  of  short  dura- 
tion. The  Aame  ia  true  of  the  dog,  whowi  inlestinea 
are  relatively  short. 

The  character  of  the  feces  varies  wtth  the 
species.  Their  softness  depends  on  the  moisture  in 
the  food  and  the  movements  of  the  bowels  and  not 
oa  the  quantity  of  water  drank.  The  horse  defe- 
cates ten  to  twelve  times  in  twenty-four  hours, 
and  more  during  the  night  than  during  the  day. 
It  reqairea  in  the  horso  ninety-six  hours  and  in  the 
ox  seventy-two  hours  for  the  food  to  pass  through 
the  body;  in  the  goat  as  much  as  seven  days  for 
some  foods.  In  the  horse  and  ox,  40  per  cent  of 
the  nutrients  of  the  food  are  lust  in  tbfi  feces:  fat 
the  dog,  only  2  per  cent. 

Cireidatio'i  t>f  the  Woftrf, 

The  heart  is  the  propelling  organ  In  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood.  In  circulation,  it  diatribtitea 
nutrient  matter  throughout  the  body  and  collects 
waste  materials  to  be  excreted  by  the  lungs, 
kidnt-ys  and  skin.  The  blood  cycle  ia  m  follows: 
The  blood  leaves  the  left  side  of  tho  heart  (left 
ventricle!  as  red  or  arterial  blood,  and  passes 
throush  the  arteries  and  capillaries.  Here  it  gives 
off  nutrients  to  nourish  the  tissues  as  well  M 
nxygen  for  oxidation,  especially  in  the  mosc 
in  order  to  produce  heat  and  energy.  It  also  ta! 
up  carbonic  acid  gas  and  other  waste  prodacts.  It 
ii  now  venous  blo')d  and  reaches  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  (right  ventricle)  throagh  two  large 
veins,  -anterior  and  posterior  vena  cava.  From 
the  right  ventricle  tho  blood  passes  throagh  the 
pulmonary  artery  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  oxidited 
into  arterial  blood  that  reaches  the  left  side  of  the 
heart  again  through  the  pulmonary  vein*.  Every 
beat  of  the  heart  is  accompanied  by  two  sounds 
separated  by  a  short  interval.  These  can  be  heard 
very  di-ntinctly  on  the  left  side  behind  the  shoulder. 
They  furnish  valuable  information  as  to  the  .ttate 
of  health  and  disease  of  the  cardiac  apparatoa. 

The  blood  from  a  vein  lb  blue-red  and  flows  in  a 
continuous  stream;  that  from  an  artery  is  light 
red  and  escapes  in  intermittent  atroama  corre- 


PHYSIOI) 


)MESnC 


ric.  24.    Huit  o(  tto  bono,    n, 

Bitfht  Ut«r»l  wall  of  tl>« 
biMrt^     b.    Ufl    «l.l«    iif    tha 

dcHC^wllnff  br»nM>:  ft.  rlfht 
l>r*a«h.-  <f.  «,  (niwirlor  vrn* 
«■«■:  rf,  Icnninnl  pari;  /.  in- 
hriATTanarav*:  ;;.  ■pp«tiiliucii 
o(  ri(ht  «iirl'l«.  *.  Kijirnii* 
vvin:  (.  Wfl  BnriFtF;  t.  ii^il- 
noaary  ««liiti  m.  «i«m  of 
tlia  anrlii  m,,  ilwivniUiiil 
M>rta;  Ml,  aitr«ii'ltn«  aortai 
m,  palmnitanr  nrlvrr. 


vponding  to  the  heart-beats.  Venous  bvraorrhaiiQ 
is  more  easily  arrested  than  arterial.  The  velocity 
of  the  btood  raricit  at  different  points:  the  farther 
avav  from  the  heart  the  slower  the  current:  lii-nce 
the  lees,  the  parts  farthest  from  the  heart,  liecome 
"stocnd"  when  this  organ  become!!  weakeneti  and 

the  blowl  vesnels  re- 
laxed. Thy  vtlix'ity  if* 
greM«<Jit  in  the  largo 
arteries  and  veins, — 
12  to  16  inches  per 
second  in  the  cJi.roti<t 
artery,  and  8.85 
iiii:hes  in  the  jugular 

1         VVI#rvCK.%.     \    /V-ff)  ■    **'"■     ^    complete 
.■WVnKS       //V]        cycle  is  made  in  the 

I  \^  ll                r ''/  ''**"*  '"  31.5Becond3. 

I  Vvii  ^     '     /  and  in  the  do^  in  lf>.7. 

I  '-yM                    '  The  pulse  ts  a  dila- 

L  Y^                  /  tation  of  the  elastic 

^^L  \l  -^^  *^"  *'^  "''  artery  at 

HJP  I''     ^>i^  the    moment  of   the 

heart-beat.    Its  char- 
acter i^  some  indica- 
tion of  the  state  of 
health.    It  is  felt  in 
the  horse  on  the  lower 
jaw-bone  ;  in  the  ox 
on  the  jnw,  the  inside 
of  the  i^lbow  and  can- 
non and  the  base  of 
the  tail ;  in  the  dog  on 
the  ini^iJe  of  the  thigh. 
The  nomher  per  mionte  varies  :  Hmdw,  3t>  to  40  ; 
ox,  45  to  50 :  sheep  and  pig.  70  to  KO ;  dog.  W 
to  100 ;  camel.  28  to  lilJ ;  elephant.  25  to  28.  It  is 
slower  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.   It  is  more 
rapid  in  the  yoang  than  in  the  old,  a^.  fnrexample. 
io  the  foal,  100  to  120;  in  the  calf,  90  to  130. 
The  daily  work  of  the  heart  is  eatimated  at  1.530, 
000  foot-pounds,  or  one-third  of  a  horne-power. 

The  normal  temperatore  of  animals  varies: 
Hone,  100"  Fahr.;  ox.  lOI  to  102.5:  sheep  and 
swine,  103;  dog,  102.5  and  very  changeable.  It  is 
lowest  ahoot  -4  a.  m.,  and  highest  at  6  p.m.  The 
liver,  of  all  the  organs,  host  the  highest  tympitra- 
tore,  106.2°  Fahr. 

The  anotint  of  blood  in  the  body  varies  consider- 
ably: Id  the  horse,  I'j  ((J.G  percent):  ox,  tS  (7.7  p&r 
percent):  sheep,  ^'j  (SM  per  cent);  pig,  ^^  (4.H 
ltfr(vnt*:dog.tVtOT'i<5.5-9.1  ^rcent)  (.Sossdnrf). 
.\n  average  oorse  naa  ahottt  6i>  potin'1.4,  or  ne.irly 
50  pints  of  blood.  In  bleeding  horses,  about  une 
pint  of  blood  for  every  han^d  pounds  of  body 
weight  is  removed. 

The  principal  formed  element*  in  the  M(K>d  are 
the  red  and  the  white  bloftl-cells  or  corpuscles,  in 
the  propcHtionof  I  red  to  8'Xt  white.  The  red  cells 
bave  a  diameter  of  ^-nJun  to  -^rfnn  of  an  inch.  One 
cttbic  oeotimeter  (1<>  drops)  cimtains  7.00n.rxx)  to 
8.000,000  red  cells.  They  contain  a  reiJ  coloring  miit- 
tf-r  <-a11<.'<)  hemaglohin,  etbu?nti!^il  to  respiration.  The 
while  ceils  arc  larger  than  the  red.  They  destroy 
bacteria  in  the  blood  and  in  this  way  protect  the 
body  a^nst  germ  dueaaa. 


He*inrai  wn . 

Jtespiration  comprises  two  distinct  acts— inspi- 
ration und  expiration.  Inspiration  ur  inhaling  of 
air  t*  a  pun.'ly  mu-SL-ular  net  Contraction  and 
descent  of  the  diaphrajfm  incri^iisps  Iht?  antro-pos- 
teriordt^plh  of  the  chi-'st  by  four  to  five  inches.  The 
forward  rutatiun  of  the  ribs  widens  the  chest  later- 
ally:only  the  lasttwuive  or  thirteen  ribs  participate 
in  this  action  in  the  horse,  and  the  sa^ldleshould  never 
be  80  fitted  as  to  interfere  with  their  movuments. 
The  pleural  cavity,  or  the  space  between  the  lungs 
and  the  chest  w:iil,  having  a  negative  pre-'^ure,  the 
inspinitnry  muvements  create  a  vacuum  in  this 
space,  w  hich,  as  it  were,  KUclta  in  the  air  and  dilates 
the  lungs  in  a  mechanical  manner.  In  forced  inspi- 
ration other  muscles  are  called  into  play. 

Expiration  is  largely  mechanical.  The  inspiratory 
muscles  suddenly  relax,  the  chest  walls  collapse, 
the  abdominal  muscles  bulgwi  out  dnring  inspira- 
ttun  contract,  compress  the  ubdomina]  organs  and 
force  the  diapbraKm  up  into  the  chest  cavity.  All 
thia  tends  to  expel  the  air  from  the  lungs  by  com- 
pression. The  elasticity  of  the  lungs  also  plays  an 
important  role.  The  air-sacs  or  vesicles  have  elastic 
walls  and  act  like  a  mbtHjr  hag  inflated  by  blowing 
air  into  it;  when  di.'^tendeil  it  will  r*-cn)l  and  expel  the 
air,  At  repose  the  expiration  in  the  horse  is  longer 
than  the  inspiration,  and  is  continuous.  In  chronic 
disea!*e8  of  the  lungs,  such  as  heaves,  in  which  the 
air-sacs  are  permanently  dilated  or  ruptured  and 
therefore  not  amenable  to  treatment,  the  expiratory 
movement  of  the  flank  hus  n  double  jerk.  The  fetal 
lung  contains  no  air  and  sinks  in  water.  This  fact 
indicates  whether  a  fetus  wa«  born  dead  or  alive. 

The  numbi-r  of  rt-sptrations  per  minute  are : 
Horse,  K  to  10;  ax,  12  to  IB;  sheep  and  goat,  12 
to  20 :  dog.  15  to  20 ;  pig.  10  to  15.  They  are  con- 
trolled automatically  by  the  respiratory  center  in 
the  medulla  of  the  brain.  They  increase  rapidly 
during  exercise. 

The  respiratory  changes  in  the  blood  consist 
principally  in  the  interchange  of  oxygen  and 
carbon  dioxid.  AtmoBphi;ric  air  contains  by  volume 
20.96  per  cent  of  oxygen.  79.01  pt-r  cent  of  nitro- 
gen, .f)'i  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxid  and  a  small 
amount  of  moisture  (Smith).  The  interchange  of 
gases  between  the  pulmonary  air-sacs  and  the 
blood-vessels  is  based  on  the  law  of  the  diffusion 
of  gases.  The  pressure  of  the  oxygen  in  the  lungs 
is  higher  than  that  in  the  capillaries  ;  the  prcasaru 
of  thecarlMjndioxid  in  the  lungs  is  lower  than  that 
in  the  capillaries.  The  ga.>u?!S  will  diffuse  until  the 
pressure  on  both  sides  is  equalized.  Carbon  dioxid 
passes  from  the  blool  into  the  air-sacs,  and  oxygen 
from  the  air-sacs  into  the  blood.  Oxygen  forms  a 
weak  combination  with  the  hemnglobin  of  thu  red 
blood-cell,  called  oxy  hem  agio  bin.  No  free  oxygen 
is  found  in  the  muscles.  It  forms  a  new  comhina- 
tiin  from  which  it  is  liberated  as  needed.  The 
carbon  dioxid  taken  up  from  the  tissues  converts 
hemaglobin  into  re»lucwi  hemnglobin.  Some  carbon 
dioxid  is  fix«i  in  the  blood  by  the  stxlium  carbonate, 
The  lungs  also  give  olT  free  nitrogen  and  other 
organic  products  that  render  the  expired  air 
impure  and  unfit  for  respiration. 


22 


PHYSIOl/tGY  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


The  langa  of  the  horee  contain  about  one  and 
one-half  cubic  feet  of  air.  During  repone,  between 
eighty  and  ninvty  cubic  feet  are  inhaled  per  boar  ; 
three  and  onc'-halfcubic  feet  of  oiycen  are  absortied 
and  thnw  cable  feel  of  carbon  dioxid  exhaled.  The 
volume  of  the  expiiud  air,  however,  ia  grt-aUfr  than 
that  of  the  inspired  because  of  its  expansion  by 
the  heat  of  the  lungs.  An  average  inspiration 
represents  about  250  cntiic  inches  or  one-tenth 
of  the  total  lung  capacity.  The  lungs  are  never 
entirely  emptied  during  expiration.  A  certain 
amount,  called  refiidua!  air,  alwayi)  n>mnins. 

These  phenomena  are  rapidly  increaseii  hy  mus- 
cular exercise.  Trainint^  in  the  hurse  is  liaKi^d 
largely  on  the  amount  of  blood  pumped  into  the 
longs  by  the  heart  and  that  going  from  the  lungs 
back  into  the  heart.   If  more  blocd  is  pum[(ed  into 

the  lungs  than 
luaveti  it  in  a  given 
time,  congestion 
and  breaCbles.<int.-a8 
result  and  the 
animal  becomes 
"choked." 


'/:) 


y 


h. 


^ 


%. 


Pie-  IS      Lmcs  of  bOTse.    a. 
Triirh»«;  6.  |pn  hninr'liiiK: 

lit,  br<> [It'll 111.  t>r  limnrli  uf 
bnioi-him^  e.  Ii?f[  liitvf :  e\. 

i^^hallr  l(fl»  of  l#.fi  Iiimk: 

cf.  rljiht  latiKi    '.  umIUI 
labe. 


In  the  nose  and  the  facial  sinusos, — large  cavi- 
ties within  the  aides  of  the  face. — the  air  ia  warmed, 
receives  moiatiire  and  loses  dust  particleB.  The 
absence  of  Ihej^e  changed  explains  thv  unsatisfac- 
tory nwults  olitaineii  from  the  u«e  of  permanent 
tubee  in  the  windpipe.  In  n  hiir^te  full  of  npirit  a 
peoaliar  vibrating  or  "llopping"  noiae  ia  some- 
times made  by  the  nostrils.  It  is  not  an  unsound- 
ness. The  horse  and  ox  do  not  breathe  through  the 
mouth  except  when  in  great  distress ;  the  soft 
palate  ta  ho  large  and  pendutonii  that  it  practically 
chises  the  aliening  lietween  the  mouth  and  the 
throat. 

The  larynx,  the  organ  of  voice.  i«  compoaeil  of 
five  articulated  cartilages  surrounded  and  moved 
by  moBClcia.   In  its  interior  it  has  a  V-ehaped  pas- 


sage, calltnl  the  glottis,  prolonged  by  the  vriodpipB, 
though  much  smalU^r.  The  to  and  fro  movements 
of  the  mi.>mhranou)t  vocal  cords  and  the  arytenoid 
cartilages  widen  the  glottic  oix-ning  during  inspi- 
ration and  narrow  it  during  expiration.  Vibration 
uf  the  vijc.tl  c'.ord.'i  pruiiucw*  the  voice.  Degenera- 
tion of  thfi  k'fl  infurior  laryngKal  nerve  often 
caoaea  an  atrophy  of  thw  miisclK^i  on  that  side.  This 
immubilizea  the  correspon<ling  vot^al  curd  and  the 
arytenoid  cartilage,  and  the  air  rushing  through 
the  insnUicii-ntly  dilated  glottis  produces  in  the 
horae  a  sound  calKfd  "rt>aring"  or  "broken-wind." 
In  the  nx,  sheep  and  gnat  the  nostrils  are  small 
and  immobili!.  The  respiratory  organs  are  lesa 
active,  U-ss  adapted  for  museiiilar  exercise  and  not 
so  susceptible  to  disease  as  tho^  of  the  horse. 

The  urine. 

The  kidneys  are  like  a  fdter  in  removing  from 
the  blood  noxious  mati^rials.  Urine  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  lOiri  to  10:^6,  ia  turbid,  and  yullow  or 
yellowish  red  in  color,  due  to  broken-down  blood 
pigment.  It  contains  urea,  uric  and  hLp]>uric  acids, 
creattn  and  creatinia  ;  alio  firxlium,  potassium,  cal- 
ciun^  and  magne.siiim  (combined  with  chlorine, 
oxalic,  sulfuric.  pliDsphnrii;  and  carbonic  acids.  In 
meab-oaLiiig  animala  the  uriue  'u  acid.  Uric  actd 
only  is  found ;  it  exists  as  urates.  Where  it  ia 
formed  is  nut  known.  In  herbivora  the  urine  is 
alkaline,  and  hippuric  acid  rt^places  the  uric  acid. 
Hippuric  acid,  existing  as  hippurates.  of  linn*  and 
potash,  is  derived  from  the  benzoic  acid  of  plants 
combined  with  glycin  fro^m  albumen  decompot^ition. 

The  organic  group  of  urine  constituents  repre- 
sents the  nitrogen  combustion.  The  more  albumen  in 
the  food,  as  in  carnivora,  the  more  the  urea.  Urea 
itself  is  not  found  in  the  muscles.  It  exists  here  as 
creatin.  the  converaion  of  which  into  urea  takea 
placa  in  th«  Uvwr  and  ]>oswljly  some  other  glands. 
.\fter  removal  of  the  kidneys,  urea  accumulates  in 
th*!  blood  and  givea  rise  to  uremic  poisoning.  The 
inorganic  salts  are  derived  from  the  food. 

The  horse  excrt-tes  nine  to  twelve  pints  of  nrine 
daily,  and  less  at  work  th.^n  at  rest.  In  herbivora, 
30  per  cent  of  thc!  water  esrapea  through  the  kid- 
neys and  70  per  cent  thniugh  the  lunirs  and  skin;  in 
carnivora,  60  per  cent  escapes  throonH  the  kidneys, 
showing  that  there  is  relatively  more  urine  in  the 
latter.  The  ox  secretes  ten  to  forty  pints  daily. 
The  urine  of  the  ]iig  r-.-sembles  that  of  the  dog. 

The  urine  passes,  dn>p  by  droii,  from  the  kidney 
through  a  tulie  called  the  ureter  into  the  bladder. 
The  relaxation  of  tliu  neck  of  the  bladder  and  the 
contraction  of  its  wall  during  urination  are  con- 
trolled by  a  Bpinal  centt-r  in  the  loins.  Disease  of 
the  spinal  cunl  may  cause  paralysi.s  of  the  bladder 
with  incontinence  of  urino.  In  short,  the  kidneys, 
together  with  the  lungs  and  skin,  save  the  organ- 
ism from  rapid  aiitfi- intoxication  hy  removing 
w.-L.'^te  materials  from  th^  bloMl.  The  kidneys  of 
the  domestic  H^imal^'  arL-  much  less  susceptible  to 
diseasD  than  in  man  bticauaL-  animals  work  more 
constantly  and  th<.'  diet«-tic  violations  are  not  so 
flagrant;  the  organs  are  not  so  overtaxed  by 
excreting  surplus  food.    The  layman's  conception 


PHYSIOLOGY  OP  DOMEOTC  ANIMALS 


23 


of  "Iroable  with  the  kidneys"  or  with  tlia  "  water" 
when  the  horsoshowfl  colicky  pain  from  indigeBtioo, 
is  pnrelf  traditional  and  mythtoat. 

TV  »kin. 

The  skin  nr  external  int^gunient  of  the  body  has 
several  funi'tionK  ;  (1)  Et  acUi  as  nn  itrfrun  iif  touc^h. 
The  loixii  hair  (U-ntuclt'^l  on  the  M\ift  anil  nontriLs 
iure  a  aptfcial  tactile  functiuo.  (2t  It  te  n  protec- 
tion to  the  body.  With  its  hairy  cuvwrlng  oit  top 
sod  a  layer  o(  fnt  underneath  it  retaina  the  animal 
keat.  The  hnm  of  the  hnof,  especially,  is  a  poor 
con'Inctor  of  hfat.  The  letiffth  of  the  coat  depends 
on  th«  surnmnding  temperatnre.  It  changBS  twice 
a  year  in  fall  and  spring.  Work  horse?  with  a  long 
winter  coat  sweat  freely  and  are  predisposed  to 
"coW  and  diseaaea  of  tb«  lungs.  This  can  le 
remedied  by  clipping  if  thoy  are  properly  cared  for. 
In  tbe  dog  and  cat,  under  excitement,  anri  in  the 
boi9e  exposed  to  cold  or  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
ma  after  coming  out  of  tho  atabte.  the  hair 
becoanut  erect.  Thi-i  is  caused  by  the  contraction 
of  tbe  muscle  nbers  in  the  skin  attached  to  tho 
base  of  the  hair.  Blisters  and  other  injurits  to  the 
sktn  may  cause  white  hair  to  grow,  which  may  be 
evidence  of  a  previous  disease  of  the  p.irtt.  White 
bofsea  can  not  aland  heat  so  well  &s  those  of  dark 
oolom  T)iecoat  of  the  young  animal  often  changes 
before  H  is  adult.  The  black  horse  is  a  raouse- 
oolored  foal ;  brindle  is  yellow  or  lemon -colored  in 
the  poppy;  the  coach-dog  puppy  is  entirely  white. 

13)  The  skin  has  numeroua  glands  secreting 
swaat  or  penii)iration.  Soltpeds  are  the  only  do- 
mestic animals  pen«r.iring  over  the  entire  body.  The 
glands  in  these  specipa  are  most  abundant.  Perspi- 
ration is  seen  fir^t  at  the  base  of  thi^  ear,  then  at 
the  side  of  the  neck  and  shoulders,  and  la.^tly  over 
Ote  bind- quarters.  The  aas  and  mule  sweat  leas 
profnaely  than  the  horse.  The  quantity  of  perspira- 
tion in  the  hofiie  in  24  hours  varies  with  the  tem- 
Ifcfratare  and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  ;  at  rest, 
about  tJ.4  pounds  are  given  off;  working  on  a  trot, 
J^  pounds,  and  7  pounii.-*  emitted  by  tht-  Innga. 

Perspiration  and  rmli'ition  regulate  animal  heat. 
Perspiration  lowers  the  body  temperature  :  a  horse 
that  does  not  sweat  on  a  hot  day  ia  liable  to  suffer 
frott  **beat  stroke."  Some  animals,  as  the  frog, 
breathe  through  the  skin,  and  it  is  asserted  that  in 
the  home  oxygen  and  carbon  dio.\id  interchange  in 
ottnute  qnantitica.  The  sweat  glands  also  abstract 
fmin  the  blood  waste  prodacts,  such  as  urea,  in 
inrenie  ratio  to  the  kidneys.  This  is  witnessed  in 
eczema  and  other  inflammatory  eruptions. 

Sweat  contains  »emm-albnmen  and  is  rich  in 
soda  and  pnta-th.  The  loss  of  serum  makes  exces- 
sivo  sweating  weakening  and  can  bo  remedied  by 
clipping.  The  serum  mats  the  hair  together  and 
the  aaitJi  form  a  fine  sand-like  coating. 

The  ox  sweats  on  tbe  muzile  and  hut  rarely  over 
tbe  body ;  the  dog  and  cat  sweat  on  the  nose  and 
font-fodH  and  the  pig  on  the  snout  only.  The  dog 
really  "perapiree"  through  the  lungs. 

{*)  Noneroiu  wbaceous  glands  in  the  skin 
■•mte  a  fattjr  nibitaDoe,  called  sebum,  which  im- 
pnfaatea  the  akio  and  bair,  keeps  the  akin  pliabla 


ami  the  coat  glossy.  It  lessens  heat  radiation  and 
drains  off  the  water.  Htirs^a  living  in  the  open 
need  it  for  protei-tion  from  rain  and  colrl  and  should 
not  be  groomed  too  much.  The  st-bum  contains  lan- 
olin. The  fleoce  of  slietp  contains  large  (]uantitita 
of  sebum  which  is  used  as  a  bai»c  for  ointment*. 
Tt  is  also  found  in  the  hoof  and  feathers.  In  cows 
the  ahiindance  of  the.^e  glands  gives  to  the  ear, 
thigh  and  other  parts  the  yellow  color  indicating 
Uutter  cjualities.  Mi)q)hologica!ly.  the  mammary 
glands  are  similar  to  the  sebaceous  glands. 

Dandruff  consists  of  dried  epithelial  scales,  fat, 
silica,  dirt  and  chloroj>hyl  (the  coloring  matter  of 
plants).  Good  grooming  removes  the  dandruff, 
opens  the  orificeis  or  pores  of  the  gland  ducts,  stim- 
ulates the  circulation  and  activatea  the  sweat  and 
sebaceous  secretion. 

The  skin  ts  aUo  an  absorbing  surface  for  drugs. 
Extensive  Spanish-fly  blisters  may  cau.ie  suppres- 
sion of  the  urine  and  even  inflammation  of  the 
kidneys.  In  cattle,  mercarial  poisoning  may  be 
produced  by  mercuric  blisters.  The  skin  of  bovines 
is  very  dense :  blisters  are  therefore  not  very 
effective  and  are  little  uB&d. 

Rrprwl  act  ive  fu  actions. 

The  organs  of  sex  are  most  remarkably  con- 
structed in  order  not  to  fail  of  procreation  and  the 
per])etuation  of  the  spociifS.  The  practical  breeder 
should  have  some  knowlege  of  their  function.  The 
reproductive  functions  and  processes  are  discussed 
at  length  in  Mnrnford's  article  on  Some  ofthf  Prin- 
eiolet  of  Animal-Ureeding,  in  Chapter  III.  A  few 
aaditional  notes  are  in  place  here. 

The  esiwntial  facts  in  the  fecundation  of  the 
female  egg  by  the  spermatozoon  of  the  male  are 
the  same  in  all  species.    The  sexual  act  ia  con- 


4^ 


Pif.  26.  Geaerstlvt  orevn  of  nure.  d.  Hifhl  ovarr:  A. 
rl^M  «ivli1ijct:  r,  riicM  ulrnun  lioru;  d,  ktl  atcrltiv  Itorn; 
<.  l"«Iy  (it  ibe  uieru":  r,.  vkititiAl  part  o(  menu:  ;. 
inniithi  nf  ntt'm»:  /,  rimwJ  llcamcnt;  fj,  BiupcrtKorj  llga- 
mniiX,  at  tti*  i>v>rri  '(.  iohhiI  ll|[nrH«nli  g,  vailnftj  A, 
vulva:  i.  vulv»r  ntlityi  fi,  i>nMprl  iir  roramlMnra:  it. 
ftnlcrlor  rnmcniuiar*;  t,  niuarln  riiiiKtrktnr  pttiini:  ni, 
^f-fl'o*  r-iivcrniHitin  vMttlbiil«;  ».  nbdiimlual  mM:  P.  1*11 
kldnpy:  p.  Wl  iiirtrr:  r.  MikdilpT:  i,  i:rvtlirii;  t.  T««tuin; 
H,  knn«.  V,  Pttrriinl  >|ihiitiMr'r  mmrlr  r>r  Aiiiia^  ir,  [hiIeiI 
wlwrp  llip  lrT»tcir  nnl  iiin^pUi  pHmm  iirnWr  til*  VXirntBl 
■phln«.*l«r:  z,  ItMntnr  sol  idhm-Ii;  w,  Innclliiihnnl  (IIvtk  oI 
th^  rwJniD:  u,,  ixiMvrioi  tianil  of  flh«T*:  /.  moari*  ron- 
■tiiotor  *eat<l»ilp.  I.  ulrrvrii-atiau  arlpry;  t,,  brunch  llJ 
th«  OTftrri  1«-  I'rnnch  to  Ihr  horn  of  the  nlpna;  3,  aiur 
nal  oi«nn«  nn*ry:  i.  nmMiieM  «rt«TT:  *  aad  (.  wrtlont 
IliroQxti  iwItIc  boo*. 


24 


PHYSIOLOGY  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


trolleil  liy  the  nervoas  systetn.  The  penis,  vagina 
and  clitorin  enjoy  a  R)H>ci;il  »eTtsihi)ity.  Th? 
erecliuii  ami  ri^^idity  of  tli(>  [K-nui  are  tluB  to  the 
engorKument  uf  itti  bluud-vuiUiL'lK  ami  venru  sinoiMst, 
which  incruast-a  its  size  two  or  throe  times.  The 
penis  of  the  bull  docs  not  increase  much  in  volumi- ; 
it  has  a  double  curve  like  a  flattened  S  and  the  un- 
folding of  this  curve  gives  ty  the  organ  its  length. 
Hie  penis  of  the  ram  has  a  pointed  vemiifnrni 
exln^mity  L^iat  seeniH  to  b«  neceiwary  for  xticcesK- 
fut  tmpreifnutiun  ;  aft4.!r  itA  removal  the  ram  \s 
steriK  Tho  in-nia  of  the  dog  contains  a  lioiiu  and 
two  ovoid  enlargcmonts  at  iU  ijoeterior  part.  The 
sphincter  miisirli-s  of  the  vulva  grasp  the  penia 
behind  these  enlarRonientH  dnring  rnpulatinn  and 
"fasten"  the  nialH  and  female  until  complete 
retaxation  «ci:un>.  R.X4-<.')jL  in  the  dog  and  pig 
coitiun  in  uf  short  dnratiun.  in  llm  ram  and  hull  it 
ia  almost  instantaneous.  Id  the  horse  it  lasts  ten 
to  twelve  seconds. 

Ejaculation  is  due  principally  to  a  spasmodic 
contraction  of  tho  seminal  vehicles  and  un-thra 
canal.  In  the  hull  and  ram,  heriiuse  of  the  (Hiinted 
penis,  a  part  uf  the  st^minal  fluid  may  \ya  ejected 
int<)  the  womb  directly.  In  ulhiT  animala  it  is 
deposited  in  the  vagina.  To  tnauro  the  entrance  of 
the  semen  into  the  utcriDo  cavity,  the  uterus  may 
be  "opened."  The  os  may  he  closed  by  a  spasmodic 
contraction  of  its  muscular  wall  or  plugged  ap  hy 
thick  mucus.  To  o%'ercome  thlt,  first  one  and  then 
two  and  even  threw  fmgers  are  slowly  forceil  into 
the  orifice.  The  aemen  may  he  injecttxl  into  the 
uterus  artificially.  A  stuTile,  long-muzzled,  mL-tallic 
syringe  tilkd  with  the  wmen  deposited  in  the 
vagina  \»  passed  through  the  os  and  emptied  into 
the  womb.  The  writer  has  seen  mares  which 
remained  sterile  before,  become  pregnant  after 
this  treatment.  In  the  Mt.illinn  ejiirulation  is 
accompanied  by  rhythmical  niiivementa  of  tho  tail, 
indicating  the  completion  of  the  act. 

The  vitality  of  the  sperm  cells  is  destroyed  by 
excessive  acidity  of  the  vaginal  secretion  from 
altered  secretory  functions  or  bacterial  fermenta- 
tion. This  is  overcome  by  flushing  out  the  vagina 
with  R  solution  of  bidt ingHtoda.  Wa.shingoiit  the 
vagina  with  a  solution  of  yeadt  several  hours  be- 
fore Blinting  has  lod  to  succegefui  impregnation  in 
maies  heretofore  barron.  Loading  the  back  and 
moving  briskly  arc  practiced  to  prevent  straining 
after  service. 

Tlie  mucus  from  tho  prostate  and  Cowper's 
glands  dilutes  the  .••emen  ;  after  too  many  services 
in  one  day  it  constitut'^  the  principal  part  uf  the 
ejaculatory  dUcharge  and  impregnation  faihi.  The 
uterus,  during  the  orgasm,  expels  a  small  quantity 
of  mucus  into  the  vagina. 

In  woman,  who  represents  the  most  highly 
domesticated  female,  there  is  a  period  in  life 
between  forty  and  fifty  years,  called  the  mena- 
paose,  when  menatmation  and  fecundity  cease. 
This  phenomenon  does  not  exist  in  females  of 
domestic  antmaU.  The  reproductive  faculty  ceases 
gradnally  with  progressive  aemlity.  There  are 
some  remarkable  instances  of  protiflcness  in  the 
mare.  A  mare  gave  birth  to  twenty-nine  foals  in 


thirty-eight  years  (Degive).  Some  stallions  are 
proiiiic  until  Vt^ry  old  age. 

At  the  period  of  puberty  certain  changes  t:ike 
place  in  confunnation  and  tem()eram(.-nt,  mor« 
particularly  in  horses.  The  body  becomes  moro 
filled  out  and  better  consolidsU-iJ;  the  colt  hecomeA 
lees  awkwani,  the  head  and  neck  more  developed, 
the  voice  detrxr,  the  tprnjieniment  irritable  ami 
sometimes  victourt;  Ihi-re  is  more  life  anil  vigor. 
Tile  pthytiical  and  m'BRLal  chanicteriKtica  jieculiar 
to  the  HfX  become  morn  accuntuated. 

Hybrids,  which  an.'  the  ])rogony  of  two  differont 
species,  are,  with  few  exceptions,  sterile.  The  beet 
kaown  hybrids  are  the  mule  from  the  ass  and  mare 
and  the  hinny  from  tlie  stallion  and  the  jennet; 
al.'to  those  fn}m  the  slu'ep  and  the  goat,  the  dog 
and  the  wolf,  the  dog  and  the  fox.  Hybrids  pneseea 
sexual  organs  hot  spermalogiMiesis  and  ovulation 
are  abortive.  In  bovines,  thw  female  of  twins,  the 
other  1)eing  a  male,  is  usually  barren.  U  is  called 
a  "free-martin."  Chauvcau  state-s^  on  what  author- 
ity the  writer  does  not  know,  that  a  mare  stinted 
at  short  mt<-n,*als  tn  a  stallion  and  an  ass,  gave 
birth  Kuccei<-sively  to  a  horse  foal  and  a  mule  foaL 

Hermaphnxlitea,  or  "morphodites,"  as  called  by 
the  laity,  poetess  the  genital  organs  of  both  aexes. 
They  exist  only  among  low  animal  life.  In  the 
fcetns  of  higher  animals  the  primordial  genital 
organs  of  both  sexes  are  pre^nt  and  at  a  given 
time  in  its  development  the  sex  of  the  future  sdull 
can  not  Iw  pi'ngnosti<;iitti4l.  In  the  female,  some  of 
the  male  f<i>tal  organs  are  preserved  in  a  very  rudi- 
mentary Htate.  and  vice  versa  with  the  male.  In  the 
so-called  hermaphrodites,  one  or  more  of  the  organa 
are  abnormally  developed  but  never  st^xually  perfect. 
We  have  seen  the  clitoris  of  the  mare,  which  corre- 
.iponds  to  the  male  penis,  attain  n  length  of  several 
inch(>9  and  ]>r(itnide  from  the  vulva  like  a  peJiis. 
In  the  ox  an  incomplete  uterus  was  foond  and  the 
testlclee  ctocupied  tho  position  of  the  ovaries  as  in 
the  foetus.  In  the  s<:iw  the  ovaries  have  been  found 
in  the  position  of  the  testicles. 

PHTfllOLOGY  OP  P0tIt,TRY 

Pifftjiiioii. — Fowls  have  no  teeth.  The  jawa  are 
encascil  by  the  horny  beak.  The  mouth  shows  s 
large  opening  into  the  pharynx,  the  soft  palate 
being  ahsent ;  its  roof  has  a  cleft  leading  into  the 
nasal  cavities, 

The  esophagus  is  wide  and  at  its  lower  part  ha» 
a  dilated  pouch  called  tho  crop.  In  the  pigeon  the 
crop  is  double.  In  grain-eating  birds  the  graia 
dilates  the  crop  and  become«  macerated  byawsteiy 
secretion  poured  out  by  the  glands  of  its  mucous 
lining,  During  the  latter  part  of  hatching  and  the 
first  week  afterward  the  crop  secretes  a  milky 
secretion  which  is  regurgitated  and  fed  to  lh» 
young  birds ;  it  is  abundant  in  pigeons,  and  is 
known  as  pigeon's  milk. 

The  tirst  stomach  (ventriculna)  is  a  sacuiar  dilata- 
tion of  the  grallet  continued  by  the  gizzard.  Itsmuoou* 
membrane  secretes  an  acid  gastric  juice,  but  no 
actual  digestion  takes  place  here  because  tbe  cellu* 
lose  covering  of  the  grain  particles  is  not  crashed. 


FHYSIOLOGY  OF  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS 


25 


The  eixzard  or  soroad  stomach  h  the  tritarBtinR 
apparatos.  It  is  an  ovoid  origan  with  very  thick 
moscalar  waits  and  c-nntaiiKi  small  pebltloK  and 
asnd  necee&ary  to  crii»h  thti  f(HM],  An  ivnd  »pcre- 
tioD  is  ftlso  pourul  out  here  and  ])riiteid  di^uutitm 
begios.  Id  fieafa-eatinK  l>iri3>!  thu  ero)]  is  abst^nt 
ana  the  gizzard  thin-walled.  Thofood  uf  UiL-st-fuwIs 
reqairea  no  trituration.  The  orifice  "between  the 
gizzard  and  fimall  intestine  is  small  and  hrge  indi- 
gestible masflps  of 
fcHid  tmablo  to  pana 
through  lire  vtnnited 
ui».  The  sulvuiit  ac- 
tion of  thu  Kastric 
joico  is  strong. 

In  the  intestine  the 
fiH)d  is  ai'ted  on  by 
the   irtflstinal    juicf, 

,  ni^m      —  ^^    ^ ' '  ^'     """^     ^^^ 

■\'    ^^S^^^  pancreatic    secretion 

poured  into  the  duo- 


/*'  > 


{    S^J 


Vlt-  17-  The  Accfttrc  spparatiu  of  ■  conunon  fowl.  I. 
loa|«at  S.  MCvbMri*.  Aril  i»rt^  3.  i-nip.  4,  eicphifna. 
WFWtJ  Vtai;  i,  itirFcnLHc  tetilrii^lLv  C.  itluunl.  7,  uriKi:ii 
Of  <tnad«nnmi  S.  lecontl  tiianch  it  •ln'iil^uul  i1<>i:iiti':  i), 
OrigiB  of  Ao*tin|  pari  of  •mall  iiilmlin*;  ID,  miiinll 
bHaaltne:  II.cmck:  U.  Iti*enluii  of  cwcb:  IH.  rMluni:  H. 
rhttf*:  IS.  pancra*!;  M.  Uwri  17,  ciill-b1*d'ilDr;  18,  iiliWii. 

denum.  Villi  for  absorption  are  nutncroa?.  Fowls 
have  two  cluU-fhaped  cawa  six  to  eight«eTi  inches 
long ;  the;  secrete  a  maceratlni;  fluid.  The  rectum 
tenoinatoB  inside  of  the  anal  opening  in  a  cavity 
called  tbo  cloaca,  a  dllatei)  receptacle  for  the  feces, 
the  urine,  the  egg  from  the  oviduct  and  the  semen. 
Tlie  cloaca  also  lodges  the  penia. 

Cimiiation  t^the  Uood. 

The  circolation  of  the  blood  in  fowls  oifers  few 
pncifcal  differeaoes  when  compared  with  other 
mmtMe  apKitt.  The  blood  is  characteristic  in 


that  the  red  blood  cell  Is  bl-convex,  neucleated  and 
ttvtti  instead  of  round.  The  k^mperature  of  the  blood 
i.s  much  higher  than  in  mammals,  being  41°  to  42" 
('.,  and  even  M"  C.  in  health.  For  this  reuson 
pDullry  are  immune  to  certain  dise-ases.  as  anthrax, 
whereas,  when  surniunded  by  n  cold  chamber  or 
swimiTiing  in  cold  wuU>r  so  iia  to  lower  the  tem- 
perature, such  immunity  ceases. 

Hegpiralion. 

The  di.sposition  of  the  respiratory  organs  shows 
some  marked  peculiarities.  The  lost  ring  of  the 
wimlpipe  iij  di:spo$ied  to  resemble  a  second  larynx, 
which  in  snng-hinis  is  the  »>urce  of  vocal  soundit. 
The  \\in^  are  itniuH,  fastened  to  each  aide  of  the 
backbone,  and  only  partly  till  the  cheat.  A  modi- 
fied diaphragm  is  present. 

Most  remarkable  is  the  nir-r<aervoir  or  air-«ac 
system  in  the  avian  species.  The  large  air-sacs  are 
situated  between  the  backbone  and  the  organs  in 
the  thorax  ami  iilKiomen.  They  are  connected  with 
the  iungs  through  the  bronchial  tubes.  Peripherally 
they  are  cuntinut'd  by  means  of  membranouti  tubus 
into  a  series  of  smaller  saca  in  the  pelvis  and  be- 
tween the  muscles  of  the  thigh,  shoulder  and  arm. 
Hero  they  enter  amiitl  orifices  in  the  bones  and  open 
into  air-sacs  in  the  marrow  cavity.  Bones  so  hol- 
lowed are  the  vertebra*  of  the  backbone,  breast- 
hone,  ribs,  jwlvis,  thigh,  yhouhier-blatle  and  arm 
bones.  Contraction  of  the  Burrounding  muscles  com- 

fireaaej!  the  air-sacs  and  expels  the  air  through  the 
ungs;  when  the  com!>rL':»8ion  ceases,  the  air  is  again 
sucked  in  and  the  sac«  distended.  loHpiration  thus 
is  pas.^iveand  expiration  active,  and  the  air  during 
both  acts  passes  through  the  lungiiii.  The  inter- 
change of  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxid  is  similar 
to  that  in  the  lungs.  The  air-«acs  render  the 
body  lighter,  promote  equilibrium  during 
Bight  and  increase  the  range  and  power  of 
the  voice. 


lieproduclive  fancHone. 

The  testicles,  oval  in  form,  are 
situated  against  the  roof  of  the 
abdomen  opposite  to  the  la^t  three 
rH>9  and  in  fnint  of  the  kidneys. 
They  lie  close  to  a  large  vein,  the 
vena  cava,  which  can  be  readily 
torn  in  caponizing.  There  are  no 
.Seminal  vesicles.  The  semen  passes 
through  the  spermatic  ductj*  into 
the  cloaca.  In  the  crowing  species 
the  penis  is  only  a  small  eminence 
at  the  cloacal  margin,  and  is 
traversed  by  a  furrow  through 
which  the  semen  flows.  In 
ducks  and  geese  it  is  of  a 
cork«rew  form.  During  copu- 
lation the  anas  of  the  male  is 
placed  against  the  cloaca  of 
the  female. 

In  the  female  there  h  one 
ovary,  the  left,  the  right  being 
nearly  always  atrophied.  The 
situation  is  the  same  as  that 


FiK.  M. 

Crop  and  ^tttut 

«f  lowl. 


26 


THE  BREEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


of  the  testicle.  In  it  can  he  seen  the  ripened  eggs 
in  the  ovarian  vesicles  in  varitms  stages  of  develop- 
ment, —some  young,  small  and  white,  others  older, 
IfLfjce  arid  yellow. 

The  <3^  cansi^ts  itt  first  of  the  yolk  or  vitellus. 
In  about  six  hoan  it  reaches  the  Lower  third  of  the 
o\idact,  surrounded  by  the  albumen  or  "  white  of 
the  egg,"  enreloped  by  a  thin  membrane  in  which 
calcareous  mslter  U  tlepositetl  to  form  the  eRR- 
shell.  Tn  about  twenty-fonr  houT't  it  piisse^  into 
the  ctoacA  and  thence  to  the  exturior.  During 
JDcabation  lifu  is  maintnined  by  the  white  of  the 
eeg,  and  respiration  taken  place  throngh  the  pores 
0?  the  shell.  The  male  is  not  necessary  for  egg- 
laying,  hilt  the  non-fecundated  CRg  will  not  hatch. 
Nor  is  a  separate  copulation  reqaired  for  every 
fertile  egg  laid.  In  some  species  of  iM)ultry  cohabi- 
tation with  the  male  fur  a  limited  time  sufficuK  for 
the  remainder  of  the  laying  seaaoa. 


7%e  urinf. 

The  urinary  apparatus  in  fowls  is  simple.  The 
kidrtc^ys  are  oval  in  form.  The  urine  puKSea  into  the 
cloaca,  and  is  discharged  mixed  with  the  feces.  In 
all  species  except  the  ostrich,  the  cloaca  replaces 
the  bladder. 

Lileratarf. 

Much  valuable  literature  has  been  prepared  on 
this  sabject.  It  is  impnssibli.'  here  more  than  to 
suggest  a  few  references.  Robt.  M.  Smith,  Physi- 
ology of  the  Pomeatic  Animals ;  F.  limith.  A  Manual 
of  Veterinary  Physiology;  ("haavKay,  A  Compara- 
tive Anatomy  of  the  Domestic ii ted  Animals:  C  Cor- 
novin.  Traltfi  do  Zoot^chnie,  Itev.  Genfrale  de  MM^ 
cine  V^t^rinaire ;  Mills,  .\nimal  Phy.siology ;  Pnif. 
Dr.  W.  EUenberger,  Ijci-'wring's  .Atlas  dtr  Anatomie 
des  Pferdea  und  (lor  Ubrigen  Haustiere  (Figs. 
18-20, 2'A,  U4-26,  adapted  from  Ellenbergor'a  Attia). 


CHAPTER  III 


THE    BREEDING    OF    ANIMALS 


V, 


-'S 


By  EUGEXK  DAVENPORT 

fMI'ftOVEMENT  OF  DOMESTICATED  ANIMALS  means  their  increased  capacity 
for  Borvic-e  to  man.  This  great  fact  of  service  gives  the  keynote  to  all 
breeding  operations  and  afFordft  the  only  ba.sis  for  ratronFil  prcxwdure. 

In  this  sense  animal-breeding  is  to  be  distinguiRhed  from  men  multi- 
plication of  numbers;  Jt  is  distinctly  qualitative,  and  the  need  for  it  lies 
^,^.  in  the  fact  that  we  are  engaged  in  the  attempt  to  adapt  what  were  once 
wild  animals  to  civilized  conditions,  and  to  readapt  qnalitiea  useful  to  the 
animals  them.^elves  in  a  state  of  nature  until  they  shall  serve  to  the  highest 
degree  the  needs  and  purposes  of  man. 
,./.;  Viewed    from   thit^  standpoint,  fadft  and  fancies  must   be  disrogardod 

liir'  so  far  as  business  cunsideratioRS  permit,  and  everything  not  useful  to 
man  must  l>o  elirainatud  from  consideration  save  only  those  qualities  that 
have  to  do  with  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  animal,  and  hence  with  the 
perpetuation  of  his  species.  We  have  proceeded  about  ns  far  along  certain 
lines  as  we  are  likely  to  go  until  this  principle  is  more  fully  recognised ; 
nntil.  for  example,  a  combination  of  blood  linL-s  that  ought  to  be  made 
can  be  accomplished  without  dustroying  the  commercial  value  of  the  animal 
beOKUe  his  pedigree  is  thereby  unfashiunable. 

In  most  directions,  functbm  rather  than  form  is  the  chief  consideration.  What  can  the  animal 
do,  nithpr  than  what  is  his  form  or  color,  ia  the  question  always  to  be  in  the  mind  of  him  who  expects 
really  to  improve'  oar  animal  at-rvants.  Form  is  striking  because  it  api^'aU  directly  to  the  eye,  but 
it  has  been  greatly  over-emphasized,  not  only  as  the  direct  object  of  breeding  but  also  as  an  index 
of  quality,  for  all  studiea  yet  made  indicate  that  the  correction  between  form  and  function  is  in  mo6t 
cases  far  less  than  has  been  hilhtirto  sup(K>HtMl. 

The  individual  as  a  whole  has  occupied  too  much  attention  in  the  mind  of  the  breeder.  The  singlo 
character  is  the  re-il  object  of  thought  and  selection  in  all  successful  breeding  operatione :  it  is  the 
real  unit  of  study  in  all  probluios  of  heredity,  and  the  actual  basts  of  operations  in  all  coses  of 
variability.  The  individual  is  but  a  single  instance  of  the  many  patterns  that  may  bo  cast  out  of 
Um  Tarious  character)  that  belong  to  the  race,  and  be  ia  not  to  be  taken  too  seriously.  The  domirtaot 


0^ 


PUU  11.    Taxkey  gvUMvs,  developed  Irom  the  aatlre  stock,  aad  the   only  species  of  Nortli  Americftfi  btid  Uut 
lua  conuibuted  to  jigTlcultur«l  Uve-itocic    (^c«  v^if"  ^tw.  | 


:  -  '• 


^ 


THE  BREEniNO   OP  AN'IMAU? 


27 


cbaract«ra  of  the  race,  and  their  correlations -thiA  ia  the  great  question  in  all  the  problems  of  the 
brt^der  and  in  all  efforts  at  further  impro^vment. 

Breeding  operations  havu  been  surroumled  by  too  much  of  mystery  and  by  far  too  much  of  that 
traditional  knowledijc  Bcccpt«J  iia  truth  only  by  reaaon  of  its  frequent  mitetition.  Breeding  is  by 
nature  an  i^xact  science,  hut  it  will  never  come  into  its  own  until  it  is  freed  from  the  dense  maan 
of  «uiwn«tition  that  ha^  come  to  u»  largtfly  through  the  "buck  alleys,"  handled  down  in  whiapcre  from 
nouth  to  mouth,  clouded  with  inexact  obiHirvation,  faulty  memory,  and  hastily  drawn  conclusiona. 

Present-day  biological  knowlnige  teuchw  ua  that  under  the  law  of  chance  all  conceivable  com- 
binations of  racial  characters  may  ari^e,  limitt^  only  by  what  is  physiologically  impoeaible.  With 
thin  view  of  the  ca«>  mer«  freaks  are  worse  than  valueless.  When,  however,  the  new  thing  roprenenlH  a 
really  new  and  fortunate  combination  of  valuable  characters,  it  is  mit  a  freak  bat  a  real  contribution 
to  the  race.  In  no  other  buslueits  in  there  greater  need  of  settling  down  to  Kystematic  operations 
on  definite  conceptions  of  what  is  desired  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  materials  with  which 

have  to  work. 

Om  broad  distinction  should  always  rest  clearly  in  the  mind  of  the  individual  breeder:  la  he 
tryfDg  really  to  improve  the  breed  beyond  anything  attained  before,  or  is  he  endeavoring  only  to 
himself  of  as  much  as  po}<sihle  of  what  hrtA  been  accomplished  by  otherii  ?  If  only  the  latter, 
bis  problem  is  comparatively  aimpte.  He  can  easily  multiply  individuals  of  known  breeding,  or, 
which  is  cheaper,  resort  to  grading,  and  in  four  to  six  generations  by  the  me  of  sires  alone  he  can 
himself  of  practically  all  that  has  been  accomplished  by  others. 

If,  on  the  other  haml,  he  aspires  to  prodnco  something  distinctly  in  advance  of  what  others  have 
pcodnoed,  really  to  create  animal  excellence,  then  he  has  a  mure  difficult  problem,  f»r  he  is  aspiring 
to  the  very  acnw  of  undertaking  in  thin  f\a\A.  Much  confui^ion  arioefl  in  the  pnb9ic  mind  and  in  that 
of  the  individual  by  reason  of  insufficient  cleamcsEut  at  this  point. 

Braeders'  associations  have  much  to  do  in  the  matter  of  advancing  and  upholding  rational  Ideals 
of  bnedfalg.     It   ifl  for  them  to  distinguieih  sharply  between  that  which  is  legitimate  breeding  and 

»thfti  which  i»  mere  mnltiplication  of  mimbora.  They  have  a  wnrk  to  dn  in  increasing  tho  practice 
«f  grading,  both  for  the  general  good  and  for  their  »wn  benefit ;  for  tho  real  busineps  of  all  pure- 
bred Bocks  and  herds  is  the  production  of  sires  to  go  on  the  eommon  stock  uf  the  coantry  and  improve 
it.  The  over-enthnsiaam  of  many  breeders  exerted  to  induce  everybody,  or.  aa  many  as  possible,  to 
bretsd  pedigreed  stock,— this  mistake  alone  is  responsible  for  many  failures  in  tho  breeding  buainesa 
and  for  an  iturofflctent  market  for  sires. 

In  the  matter  :>f  applying  scientific  principles  to  tho  business  of  practical  breeding,  one  economic 
fact  most  be  n.'ckoned  with, — stnck  miiHt  be  bred  that  will  sell,  and  if  that  is  done  then  the  breodera 
must  produce  what  the  penple  wiint.  The  desires  of  the  buyer  may  be  nil  wrong,  and  if  so  he  should  be 
educated  to  sane  standardly  with  as  little  delay  as  poAAible  ;  bnt,  until  he  is  cornK.':ted,  he  must  be  dealt 
with  on  his  own  terms,  for  no  man's  pocketbook  is  deep  enough  to  enable  him  to  continue  the  breeding 
boslnees  much  beyond  what  the  buying  public  wilt  support.  The  breeder  most  correct  his  own  fads, 
whatever  they  may  bo,  and  associations  cannot  too  rapidly  free  the  business  from  the  last  traces  of 
arbitrary  standards.  At  both  of  these  p(tinl,H  the  practical  breeder  can  take  aggressive  ground,  but 
beyond  that  be  most  be  more  carefnl,  fnr  he  dare  not  break  with  the  buyer.  This  is  not  saying  that  the 
bayer  Is  to  be  encouragwd  in  his  notions,  but  it  is  sayinif;  that  he  moflt  !«•  patiently  considered.  And 
when  the  breeder  warps  his  practice  against  his  better  judgment  in  order  to  continue  in  the  business, 
he  will  not.  if  he  is  wise,  anbmit  to  n  on  •conditional  surrender.  He  will  stay  as  near  to  safe  practice 
ag  circamstaneee  will  permit  and  will  recover  and  possess  himself  of  lost  ground  at  the  very  firpt 
opportunity. 

StodentH  and  breeders,  alike,  overlook  the  importance  of  grading  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to  success- 

ifnl  breedbg.  Becaune  it  is  not  in  iUelf  a  highly  developed  phaae  nf  the  bretnler's  art,  it  i&  commonly 
Wtotttof  consideration  in  the  discussion  of  breeding  operation  it.  The  importanci^  of  an  economic  outlet 
has  been  alloded  to  and  cannot  be  overestimated.  The  chief  drawback  to  the  business  of  further  improv- 
tng  oordomeatic  animab  is  the  absence  of  an  adequate  market  for  surplus  stock.  Breeders  ore  selling 
back  and  forth  among  Ihemaelves  at  large  prices,  bnt  the  market  for  sires,  for  grading  purposes,  is 
bIj  undeveloped,  and,  strangely  enough,  it  Beemn  not  to  be  much  noted  by  the  breotlers  them-ielvca, 

'irbo  ara  inclined  to  treat  it  as  a  problem  impotwible  of  solution.  The  fact  is  that  the  common  stock  of 
the  coantry  needs  the  improvoment  that  can  come  only  with  a  better  grade  of  hWm.  and.  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  also  true  that  the  breeders  are  sulferiog  from  an  insufficient  market  for  the  produce  of  their 


•4& 


SOME  OP  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIldAL  BREEDING 


flocks  and  herds.  The  buainea*  of  every  briMxIing  heni  i«  the  ^nxlijction  of  good  siroe,  tnoet  of  wblob 
shoaltl  go  for  grading  parpo^s ;  and  one  of  the  Largbst  and  moat  urgent  phaseA  of  the  breeding 
businejw  is  to  take  hold  of  thw  situation  boldly  and  to  develop,  among  common  farmers  everywhere, 
nn  adtHttiiite  market  fur  ^Ires. 

From  all  considerations  of  bijHineaa  foresight,  the  breeder  cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
principlHS  that  un<!er]ie  the  businetw  ho  Timlertakes  and  with  which  he  must  reckon  at  every  step. 
Th^'Ht;  principles  are  complex,  not  simple ;  many,  not  few ;  and  their  combinations  are  bo  varied  and 
the  results  so  diverxe  as  Co  lead  to  tho  freqaent  asaumption  that  breeding  is  a  "jumble."  Nothing 
is  further  from  the  truth.  The  taws  and  principles  that  underlie  the  breeding  buttineAS  are  always 
present  and  always  operati^'e ;  they  are  well  defined  if  not  well  understood,  and  if  the  same  condi- 
tions are  not  apparently  followed  by  the  saiiM.-  results  it  is  only  because  of  our  inability  fully  to 
recognize  all  the  facts  and  all  the  principli^s  in  any  particular  instance,  Mnch  progress  has  been 
made  in  recent  years  toward  securing  accurate  knowledge  of  these  principles,  and  much  yet  rt-mains 
to  be  learned.  Important  invent igationjt  are  under  way  in  many  places  from  which  new  knowledge 
should  come,  and  enough  ts  already  known  to  point  fairly  well  to  the  direction  from  which  further 
light  may  be  expected. 


SOME   OF  THK    PRJSCIPI.ha  OF 
ANIMAl^BRKKDING 

By  Frederick  B.  Mun^foni 

The  reat  object  sought  in  breeding  antmala  is 
the  development  of  thoi^  characters  which  have  a 
pe^:a1)3r  value  to  man.  Breeding  U  an  art,  and  the 
tr«eder'a  work  consists  in  the  development  and 
improvement  of  those  domestic  animals  which 
fornish  snch  valuable  products  a.4  labor,  meat.  milk, 
butter,  cheese,  wool,  hair  and  leather.  Breeding  is 
also  a  science  in  that  it  deals  with  the  principles  of 
biologj*,  and  particularly  with  that  branch  of 
biology  which  we  call  vvulutaon. 

The  succi'asfnl  breeder  requires  a  knowlodne  of 
the  reproductive  functions  and  the  laws  of  hered- 
ity, variation  and  selection,  which  together  com- 
prise the  great  problem  of  evolution  in  alt  its 
varied  relations  and  manifestatiomi. 

I.  Reproductive  FuNcnoNa  a-nd  Processes 

The  unit  of  organic  life  is  the  cell,  and  the  recent 
inVi9ttigation»  have  demonstrated  that  many  of  the 
unsulvt'ii  problems  of  progressive  development  will 
ultimately  find  their  snlutinn  in  cell  study.  It  is 
dtvsirable  therefore  that  the  wwential  character 
and  functions  of  thu  cull  unit  be  first  described. 

Tkr  cell. 

The  esaential  constituents  of  the  cell  consist  of 
a  mass  of  protoplasm  in  which  floats  a  specially 
formed  part  called  the  nucleus.  The  cell  wall  is 
oaually  present  and  was  earlier  thought  to  be 
essontial,  hot  it  is  now  known  that  cells  may  lie 
fanctionally  perfect  when  the  celt  wall  is  totally 
absent.  In  the  substance  of  the  cell  occur  all  those 
processett  of  assiniilatton,  abaorption  and  formation 
which  together  determine  the  existence  and  dura- 
tion of  life  in  the  animal  body.  The  cell  is  there- 
forw  the  seat  of  those  highly  important  proce^ises 
which  are  responsible  for  the  hereditarj*  trans- 
mission of  characters.  The  fumiamental  cansea  of 
variation  are  to  be  found  in  the  protoplasm  of 
the  cell.  Unfortunat*'ly,  our  methods  of  investiga- 
tion are  not  yet  snfficiently  accurate  to  diacover 


the  cell  processes  that  determine  when  and  ha<v 
animal  characters  are  transmitted.  In  the  higher 
forms  of  life,  groiijiH  of  cells  btfcomo  more  or  less 
sugrugatad,  and  while  to  a  certain  extent  int«'rde- 
pendent,  they  may  carry  forward  an  existence 
separate  and  apart  from  the  organism  as  a  whole. 
For  example,  the  female  reproductive  cell,  the  egg 
or  ovum,  may  be  ferLili7.ed,  developed  and  Finally 
expelled  from  the  uterus  without  fixing  any  of  its 
peculiar  characters  on  the  mother  orgaaiMtion. 

The  most  important  vital  property  of  the  cell  ts 
its  ability  to  divide  and  subdivide,  thus  producing 
new  individuals  and  new  tissues  in  the  same 
individual.  This  process  of  division  brings  about 
growth  and  onnMwjiient  increiLse  in  sir*.  The  life 
of  the  cell,  and  its  highly  important  content,  pro- 
toplaam,  rtiaches  after  a  time  a  point  when  it  has 
no  longer  the  ability  to  accomplish  its  functional 
activitie.-*  and  death  ensues.  To  provide  for  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  flpecie^t,  nature  has  endowed  all 
organic  beings  with  the  ability  ti)  repniduce.  The 
ej^ential  steps  in  the  pnicess  of  repniduction  are 
first,  the  formation  of  an  egg  by  the  female  and, 
second,  the  fertilization  of  this  egg  by  the  male 
fucundating  fluid. 

Bfssential  argam  of  reproduction.    (Figs.  26,  29  31.) 

OriirifA  —  The  growth  and  development  of  the 
female  egg-cell  takes  place  in  the  ovaries.  In  the 
domefltic.  animals  these  are  two  in  number,  guner* 
ally  bean-ahapGd  and  in  more  or  less  close  prox- 
imity to  the  uterus  and  united  with  it  by  means  of 
the  egg-canals,  the  Fallopian  tubefl.  The  ovary 
con.sists  of  a  mass  of  connective  tissue  permeated 
with  blooii  vessels,  nerves  and  lymphatics.  A  cross- 
section  of  the  (ivary  shows  the  whole  structure  to 
be  filled  with  closwl  sacji  of  various  sizes,  contain- 
ing a  fluid  substance  in  which  float*  one,  or  at  most, 
two  cells  with  well-developed  nuclei.  These  are  the 
(Jraflian  follicles  producing  later  the  ova  or  eggs 
that  are  destined  to  become  the  embryos  of  new 
individuals.  .\t  certain  periods,  recurring  with 
con.'<iderable  regularity,  the  female  ia  said  to  he  in 
beat  and  will  then  accept  the  attentions  of  the 
m.ili".  At  thi.-i  time,  if  the  ovary  be  carefully  ex- 
amined, it  will  he  seen  that  one  or  more  of  the 


■ 


SOME  OF  THE   PRINCIPLKS  OF  ANIMAL-BREEDING 


29 


h 


iSraSao  follicli»  haa  beconm  considunbty  ^nlartred 
aad  has  arrani^ed  itwlf  close  under  thu  covcrinE; 
of  the  ovarj-.  hurinjj  the  pcrM  of  heat  this  folli- 
cle burstn  thrjugh  the  covering  of  the  ovary  and 
is  either  lost  tn  the  abdominal  cavity  or,  which  is 
oormally  the  case,  passes  into  the  Fallopian  tnhe 
aad  finally  reaches  the  uterus.  It  is  not  known  at 
just  what  time  during 
tb«  period  of  beat  the 
egg  paMBB  downward  and 
fiaally  reaches  the  vteniB. 

Fatlophn  /«fcf.— The 
canal  through  which  the 
ripened  ovum  reaches  the 
uteros  is  not  in  c1o«l- 
anion  at  the  upper  end 
with  the  ovariea,  bnt.  on 
ibe  contrary,  empties  di- 
rectly into  the  abdominal 
cavity.  This  extremity  of 
the  Fallopian  tube  forms  -,      y^ 

a  trampet^hai>ed  enlarge-  v.  \C 

meot  poaaeMlng  numerous  ^ ' 

finger-like  projectiontt.  At 
cbe  time  the  egg  is  thor- 
oaghljrmature.thistnimi^* 
et^ehaped  end  cla<iely  en- 
circles and  imprisnnR  that 
part  of  the  ovary  from 
which  the  matured  egg  in 
expelled.  Under  normal 
conditioDfl  the  egg  pasMS 
downward  and  finally 
reaches  the  uterus.  It  is 
not  known  how  long  the 
egg  ramatits  in  the  Fal- 
)qnaa  tnbe,  but  in  the  pis.:>. 

mare  it  may  be  eight  or 

ten  days,  and  in  the  cow  twenty-four  hours  (Ver»- 
boBgakhre,  Keller).  It  may  Bometimea  happen  that 
tbe  egg  is  thrown  out  into  the  abilominal  cavity 
instead  of  passing  into  the  Fallopian  tuW.  In  vt-ry 
nre  cases  such  an  egg  may  become  fertDlRei]  and 
abdominal  pregnancy  rosult. 

1\t  uUrttt,—  Thu  org:m  is  a  large  muscular  sac 
in  which  the  embryo  is  nouriithed  until  sufliciently 
derrloped  to  lead  an  independent  existence.  The 
walls  are  fortified  with  powerful  muscles  which 
play  an  exceedingly  important  part  in  bringing 
about  the  final  expulsion  of  the  fjetus  at  the  time 
of  birth.  The  inside  lining  <if  the  ut«r<as  of  the 
cow  is  thickly  atuddeil  with  wart-like  projections, 
tbe  so-called  cotyMons  which,  cnnnecM  as  they 
are  with  tbe  nutrilivt^  membrane  (decidiia)  mir- 
nnindlng  the  f«etn.«,  are  closL-ly  associated  with  th« 
BQlrltioD  of  the  embryo.  The  ut4>ru8  is  joined  an 
abore  described  with  the  Fallopian  tubes,  and  fjn 
ila  lower  and  poKterior  jiart  it  becomeji  constricted 
and  foniu  thu  neck  or  cervix  which  marks  the  end 
of  tbe  uterus  and  ttu^  tmginning  of  the  vagina. 
Pailare  to  breed  on  the  pari  of  many  females  in 
often  due  to  a  severe  contrjietion  of  the  necrk  of 
the  uterus,  closing  the  entrance  to  the  womb  and 
thus  preventing  the  male  fecundating  fluid  reaching 
the  female  egg. 


Siff^ce// (aarttmt— The  egg-cell  is  the  largest  cell 
in  the  animal  body.  It  w  lilled  with  dark-colored 
protoplasm  and  granubir  materiiiU  which  have  been 
stored  daring  its  development  in  the  ovary.  These 
materiaU  form  a  re8er\-e  of  nutritive  sDbstanee  for 
the  rapid  development  of  the  embryo.  The  nwcteus 
of  the  egg-cell  is  called  tho  genninativo  vesicle,  and 


^/\ 


A'V--^* 


4*h- 


y^^       ^ 
^-^'^>^^ 


I '..I,  LiviJik'i^  and  nUrut  ol  (bMp  <Owm>. 

1\\i*  nucleus,  after  the  fertilization  of  the  egg, 
seems  to  acquire  the  power  of  bIow  movement.  It 
moves  to  one  surface  of  the  egg  and  there  under- 
goes charges  preparing  it  for  growth  by  divi.sion. 

The.  ma!f-  tfU.  (spfrmaiozoon.)  —  In  all  higher 
aninnalfi  the  mnle  cell  is  composed  of  a  niicleu.4  and 
a  vibratile  ciliura.  The  latter  seems  to  exist  for 
the  purpusij  of  pr'jfielling  the  male  cell  through  a 
fluid  mt-dium.  Tliiis,  as  a  result  of  the  activity  of 
this  organ  the  male  colls  may  bo  and  often  aro 
conveyed  through  iha  o|)ening  of  the  uterus 
throngh  the  uterine  sack  into  the  Fallopian  tubes 
and  finally  to  the  ovary  itself.  Thiw  property  nf 
tbe  spermatozoon  renders  the  fertilisation  of  the 
egg  almnst  certain  at  some  point  <^f  itt  descent 
fniin  thf  ovary. 

Tbe  male  cella  originate  In  the  testicles  of  the 
male.  The  cells  involved  in  the  production  of  the 
spermatozoa  are  long  tabules  lined  with  epithelial 
coils  with  well-definiod.  nuclei,  Thifl  naclen.'i  is  the 
one  part  preserved  throughout  all  the  change*  from 
the  epitheliiil  r^ell  of  the  testicle  to  the  finally 
perfect  HiH-rmatowjIin. 

Feriiliiatiim  of  the  ovum. 

The  spermatOEolin  pushes  its  way  along  until  it 
meets  the  ovum  through  the  tissues   of  which    it 


L 


^dasbta 


80 


SOME  OP  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIMAL-BKEEDING 


forcea  He  way  into  the  inlerior  of  the  cell.  The 
niii^leiui  of  the  male  cell  passes  throut^h  changes 
similar  to  those  already  described  in  the  egg,  and 
this  changed  nuiileuH  unit««  with  the  nucleus  of 
the  ovum.  ChangfS  immediately  occur  which  lead 
to  thti  growth  and  development  of  the  embryo. 
The  new  nucleus  divides  and  aubdividc*.  funning 
new  ccdle  and  continually  increasing  in  size  and 
complexity,  paasea  successively  through  those 
interoKting  etagi-s  of  wmhryonic  develojiment,  end- 
ing finally  in  »  p(^rf<.-ct  indiviilual  with  the  charac- 
tern  of  its  ]>arentrt  more  or  less  clearly  indicated. 
It  is  thus  that  the  procewof  fertiliwition  results 
in  .'I  iitiantitativt>  and  ({iialitalive  dtfiLrtbution  of 
the  germ  substance  of  huth  thw  male  and  female 
parantfi.  The  ao-callwd  daughter  cell,  which  h 
funned  by  thu  fusion  of  the  male  and  female  cyllo, 
rapidly  develops  by  the  division  of  the  nucleur 
substance.  The  significant  result  of  this  divitition 
is  that  every  new  cell  is  Bupplied  with  the  germ 
elements  of  both  parents  and  hence  may  exhihit 
the  characterifitic«  of  both, 

Tke  maturf  brefiting  animal. 

The  reproductive  functions  in  animabi  are  not 
fully  developed  at  birth,  and  after  reaching  their 
fullness,  decline  with  age.  As  the  animal  approaches 
maturitj',  the  sexual  organs  become  fully  developed 
and  the  sexual  inatircts  are  pmmjnent.  This  stage 
in  the  animal's  life  is  call^^d  Llm  i»eri<x]  of  puWrty. 

Ptik-rty.  —  In  the  fumalu,  puberty  is  coexistent 
with  the  ripening  uf  tlie  first  egg.  and  imltcaUa 
the  time  at  which  the  young  animal  ht-eomL's  cap- 
able of  reproduction.  The  age  at  which  puberty 
occurs,  varies  considerably  with  the  breed  of  the 
animal  and  the  methnris  nf  hamlling  during  the  tirst 
mnnthf  of  the  animal's  life.  Ynung  animalH  gener- 
ously fed  on  a  nutritiuits  diet,  reach  the  {leriod  of 
puberty  cnnaidenibly  earlier  than  those  fed  cm  a 
sparse  diet.  Cattle  arrive  at  the  period  of  puberty 
at  four  to  eighteen  raontha  of  age ;  horaea  at 
twelve  to  twenty-four  months  ;  sheep  at  six  to  ten 


Wi 


Ptf.  30,    Tjrplcat  maniinalUli  crram  (f^hfitt^) 

months,  and  awine  at  three  to  seven  montbrt.  The 
period  of  pulierty  does  not  represt-nt  the  best  time 
to  breed.  The  artilicial  conditions  which  surround 
our  domestic  animals  cau-ie  them  to  come  in  heat 
much  younger  than  in  a  wild  state.  Great  injury 
has  been  done  by  breeding  females  too  young.  The 


results  of  this  practice  have  diminished  the  size 
decreased  the  fecundity  of  many  domestic  animals, 
especially  in  the  case  of  swine. 

The  host  age  to  breed  will  vary  somewhat  with 
conditions.  When  the  breeding  animals  are  very 
valuahle.  it  is  imporU'int  to  give 
each  individual  an  opportunity  to 
develop  iwrfwlly.  In  cummercial 
stuck  husbandry,  it  is  snmftimes 
muru  prolitable  to  sacrifice  Mime- 
what  of  full  deve!opmi;nt  to  early 
maturity  and  quick  returns.  The  ex- 
perience of  breeders  indicates  that 
the  following  ages  iire  the  l»eet  for 
breeiling;  Horaew,  two  to  three  years; 
beef  cattle,  twenty  to  twenty-seven 
muiitlis  ;  dairy  cattle,  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  months;  sheep,  eighteen 
to  twenty  months ;  swine,  eight  to 
twelve  months. 

TSr  period  of  fteai.  —  The  begin- 
ning of  puberty  in  the  female  Is 
charaeteriaw!  by  the  rijH-ning  of  a 
mature  egg,  ancf  external  symplunm 
which  togetlier  are  chIUhI  thv  ii«rtod 
of  heat,  or,  in  some  wild  animals, 
the  rutting  season.  This  period  is 
accompanied  by  various  manifesta- 
tion."*.  The  estcrnal  genitals  become 
Hwnllen  and  rt>d,  and  this  in  .iccom- 
panied  by  thedim^bargeof  a  reddish 
mucouH.  There  is  frequent  urination 
and  sometimes  a  swelling  of  the 
mammary  glands.  The  female  is  often 
restless  and  otters  loud  cries.  The  duration  of  heat 
varies,  hut  ncirmatly  continue.^  in  the  mare  two  to 
three  days,  in  the  ei>w  twelve  tn  twenty-four  huam, , 
in  the  sow  one  lu  three  days,  and  in  the  ewe  two  to 
three  days.  The  frequency  with  which  the  heat 
recurs  in  dilTerent  animals  varies  within  rather 
narrow  limits.  The  period  of  heat  in  the  mare  recurs 
rather  irregularly,  but  most  stallioners  agree  that 
the  mare  will  cnme  in  he»t  nine  days  after  delivery 
and  each  two  »r  three  weeks  thereafter.  The  cow 
come.''  in  hwat  forty  to  sixty  day.'*  after  delivery,  if 
suckling  the  calf,  and  twenty  to  thirty  days  if  the 
calf  ia  taken  away  at  birth.  After  the  first  appear* 
ance  of  heat  in  the  cow,  the  period  recurs  with  con- 
siderable r*'gularity  each  three  weeks  thereafter. 
The  sow  invariably  shews  signs  of  heat  three  days 
after  weaning  the  pigs,  and  recurs  every  nine  to 
twelve  days.  The  mare  and  ewe  come  in  heat  regu- 
larly during  the  spring  ami  autumn  months.  At 
other  seasons,  the  period  is  irregular  and  often 
entirely  absent. 

If  the  animal  is  bred  at  the  time  of  hent,  con- 
ception in  normal  cases  will  result,  and,  after  a 
periijd  of  development  in  the  «teru.>«  of  the  mother, 
there  will  be  expelled  frnm  the  generative  organs 
a  perfect  individual.  Tbi.'i  [leriiHi  of  development  is 
called  the  tM?riod  of  gestation. 

Tkf  jtriini  of  iftiiation.—'\^he  period  of  gestation 
is  the  time  between  the  impregnation  of  the  ovum' 
and  the  birth  of  the  young.   In  egg-laying  animate ' 
it  is  the  period  of  incubation.  The  length  of  this 


FiK.  31. 
SpennatoEoaa  gd 

Ban  latirut, 
tba  OX. 


SOME  or  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIUAU- BREEDING 


31 


I 


period  ia  sabjeot  to  coneidorablo  variatioD,  d«ter- 
minol  bj  variotia  causes  not  well  ondersUKMl.  In 
general  iLa  length  ia  in  relation  to  the  nijie  of  the 
aoiniul.  Tht!  futlowiiiK  is  a  list  »f  a  few  animals 
and  the  period  of  gMtatiun  of  each  : 

EUplunt aO  to  30  months. 

Ginffe 1-1  nootha. 

Bofftlo 10  to  12  moDtlu. 

Am 12  moMtlis. 

Mara II  to  12  months 

Cm 9  to  9i  moslhii  (285  A^js). 

Bur 6  montba. 

SbMpudgott.  .  .  .   &  months  (21  wmIu). 

Sow 4  Rinnths. 

BMnr 4  monlhs. 

Uon m  Amintbs. 

Dq(,  fox  or  wolf  ...    2  months. 

Cat GO  dajs. 

Rabbit 30  iayt. 

Sqaiml  ud  rat  .  .  .28  dajv. 

Tb«  period  i>f  incubatinii  extends  as  follows  for 
doiDL-stic  fuwifl : 

Turkey 26to30<iayB. 

GniiiM 25  to  26  ia-jB. 

FeabM 28  to  30  duys. 

DkIcs 25  to  32  days. 

Omm> 27  to  33  iayv. 

B«iH 19  to  U  day*  (aT«raee  21). 

Ptgv<in»      16  to  SO  days. 

Caavy  birds lfllol4d&yfi. 

Small  breeds  hatch  earlier.  Hamburgs  hatch  at,  the 
end  of  the  twentieth  day  ;  gfi-mti  bantunu  at  the 
end  of  the  nineteenth  dar.  Duck  egi;s  hatch  earlier 
andor  heii»  than  under  ducks,  prubably  becuuse  of 
the  hightT  t«m|Mrature  of  the  hun's  body. 

Small  breeds  of  animalu  rt^iuirc  rather  lew  time 
than  larger  breeils,  althoiii^h  early  nin.turity  short- 
ens the  time.  CV)ld  weather  f'.^tards  the  process  of 
incahation,  especially.  According  to  Youatt,  alt 
anicnals  vary  fj^^atly  without  .iny  known  caase. 
The  period  of  gestation  in  a  horse  has  been  known 
to  vary  from  ten  to  over  twelve  uonth.4.  Tessier 
reports  S82  cases  among  marea  with  a  range  of 
237  to  419  days;  1131  cows  ranted  from  240  to 
321  days.  Earl  of  Spencer  reported  7t>4  cowa  with 
a  range  of  23)  to  313  days.  L.  P.  Allen  reports 
renlta  for  on©  year  among  a  hen]  of  50  Short- 
horns. Herefordii  and  Devons.  U5  ranging  from  26S 
to  21*1  day*,  or  an  average  of  2S4  days.  Tessier 
observed  9I*J  ewes  with  a  range  of  146  to  161  dajr». 
Darwin  foand  that  Merinos  run  about  150  days. 
while  SHrnpshires  and  Southdowos  require  only 
about  144  da^-si.  .Swine  vary  from  109  to  123  days, 
bat  uduolty  ran  1 IG  days. 

In  practice  there  are  some  causes  which  hapten 
birth.  A  sadden  cold  spell  will  hasten  the  birth  nf 
a  litter  of  pijpt.  Nervous  excitement  will  hasten 
birth,  especially  in  cows.  Parturition  of  a  neighbor- 
ing cow  often  hastens  birth.  It  ia  a  popular  opin- 
ion that  male  offspring  require  a  longer  period  of 
gwtation.  There  w  not  sofficicnt  evidence  to  war- 
rant this,  bat  in  one  cane  of  obaen'ation  on  cattle. 
the  average  period  for  five  years  waa  males  288 
days,  females  2^  days.  Heredity  may  influence 
tbo  period  sotnewhat. 


SuprrfielaJion. —  Normally,  animals  do  not  come 
in  heiit  while  pregnant,  bnt  cases  are  known  in 
which  heut  rwurred  during  pregnancy.  When  this 
oucuTS  and  the  animal  is  bn<i!,  double  pru'gnaiicy 
may  result  and  the  mothL-r  may,  at  the  same  time, 
carry  embryos  of  dilfi-rent  ages  in  tho  uterus. 
This  condition  Is  calk-d  superfcrtation.  Several 
cases  of  this  kind  have  come  under  the  writer's 
observation  in  the  mule-breeHtng  districts  of  the 
South.  Mr.  W.  E.  Cnrmichitl,  of  Shelbyville,  Mis- 
sonri,  krtMl  a  mare  to  a  stallion  and  thirty  days 
later  to  a  jack.  At  the  end  of  the  period  of  gesta- 
tion the  mare  gave  birth  to  twins,  ono  a  mule  and 
the  other  a  horae-colt.  They  were  boih  deail  at 
birth.  A  mani  belonging  to  Ch.-trles  Bailey,  of 
Gault,  Missouri,  dropped  twin.-?,  a  mule  and  a  horse- 
colt.    Roth  liveil  hut  a  short  time. 

Superfeeundaiian. — A  similar  condition,  known  as 
snperfecundatiun,  occurs  when  a  female  is  covered 
by  two  different  males  during  the  same  period  of 
heat,  and  conceives  to  each. 

I^ regnanrt/. ~  When,  in  the  normal  course  of 
events,  the  female  comw  in  heat  and  is  bred  to  the 
male,  pregnancy  results.  The  more  important 
indications  of  pregnancy  are  :  {1)  The  cessation  of 
the  ."iymptoms  of  heat  which,  normally,  do  not  recur 
during  preKnaiicy.  Howevfr,  thi^  is  not  an  infalli- 
ble sign  of  pregnancy,  as  some  marcs  will  accept 
the  Mrvices  of  the  male  when  pregnant.  (2)  A 
sudden  change  of  disposition.  aft*'r  service,  from  a 
more  or  k-ss  nervous,  excitable  and  sometimes 
vicious  mare  to  a  conrlition  of  unusual  gentlenpss 
is  a  good  symptom  of  pregnancy.  (3}  Tendency  to 
lay  on  fat  and  gain  in  weight.  (4)  Increased  sim 
of  the  abdomen  and  depre-t-sion  of  the  loins.  (.">) 
After  the  seventh  month  in  the  mare  tho  foal  may 
be  felt  by  pretwing  the  hand  ftmily  against  the 
abdomen,  in  front  of  the  left  stifle.  The  movements 
of  the  foal  may  aho  be  felt,  especially  after  the 
mare  has  taken  a  drink  of  ice-cold  water. 

The  care  of  pregnant  females  of  the  domeetic 
animals  ia  of  vital  importance  to  the  initial  exist- 
ence as  well  as  future  welFare  of  the  nnhorn 
young.  When  possible,  tho  pregnant  animal  should 
nave  the  ran  of  a  good  pa^tture  at  Ipa^t  a  part  of 
the  day.  Exercise  is  a  prime  t'ssential  in  the  care 
of  breeding  animals,  and  no  other  treatment  can 
replace  it.  Bspeciul  care  is  needed  to  encourage 
exMXiw  in  those  domestic  animals  that  are  cloitely 
housed  in  winter.  Rations  which  furnish  all  the 
necessary  nutrients  in  the  right  proportions  must 
be  fed  to  inj^ure  the  normal  development  of  the 
unborn  young. 

Parturition.— .Ki  the  end  of  the  period  of  ges- 
tation, certain,  important  changes  take  place  in  the 
body  of  the  mother  which  result  finally  in  the 
expnlsion  of  the  young  animal  and  the  beginning 
of  its  existence  as  an  independent  being.  This  is 
calM  the  period  of  parturition.  As  parturition 
approaches,  certain  externa!  changes  occur  which 
warn  the  breeder  to  be  prepared  with  such  aid  as 
occasion  may  demand.  Parturition  is  heralded  by 
a  swelling  of  the  uddi^r  and  sometimes  of  the 
abdomen  in  front  of  the  udder.  Two  io  six  d.tys 
before  the  final  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  s  wax* 


3S 


SOME  OF  THE  PRIN'CIPLES  OF  ANIMAl^BREEDING 


likf  )4ijI)»t3Dce  Ixodes  from  the  toats.  The  vulva 
buttomeH  eliKlitly  ewolloD  and  Kils  sd  appearanco  of 
rudiiui^  i^hortly  before  the  bbor  paini)  actually 
heg,m,  thf  boily  droops,  ih<i-  fianloi  and  rump  full 
in  and  the  loins  liecome  deptvtwed.  The  animal 
fiTincei^  preat  uneaKineNs  cuntiniiiilly  lying  down 
and  getting  tip,  and  in  other  ways  exhiltiting 
itniiHiJiil  anxiety.  In  normal  cat^OA  violi;>nt  niiisiTular 
contractionH,  known  as  laltor  uaine,  linuLly  rosult  in 
the  birth  of  tht-  young  animal. 

Diffieult  parittrilioa.—K  may  aomctimtti  happen 
that  the  motht-r  is  unable  to  cause  the  e)C]iuUioR 
of  the  f*et«s.  This  faitare  may  be  due  to  a  wrong 
presentation  of  the  ftettw,  tr»  disea^^e  or  weakness. 
fractufBd  hips,  or,  in  rare  cases,  tit  twins,  which 
t«iid  t«)  come  forth  together.  In  Buch  ca^es  arti- 
ficial aid  is  imperative.  The  normal  jirtwentation 
conaists  in  extending  first  the  fonj-legH  and  head, 
and  in  this  position  tiie  young  animal  may  usually 
be  born  without  outside  assistance.  It  fretjaently 
happens  that  other  parts  of  the  body  of  the  f'Ptus 


noo-cantagioua.  Kon-contagioaaabortion  is  usually 
accidental,  and  may  be  cauxed  by  an  injur}-,  by 
great  HtTvciusexcitomBnt  or  irritation,  extreme  and 
sudden  fright,  the  sight  or  mnell  of  fn-a!i  blnod,  the 
eating  of  ergot,  emaciation  and  disease,  confine- 
ment in  dark,  damp,  and  unhealthy  stablce.  and 
severe  cases  of  indigestion.  In  practice,  aliortion 
may  wTar  an  the  re.sult  of  a  blow  intiicted  by  a 
viciuus  rare  talker,  by  hurrying  pregnant  animals 
through  a  narrow  doorwHV,  by  giving  a  heated 
animal  a  drink  of  ice-coW  water,  and  in  other  ways 
suggested  by  the  cauawi  recoiinttxl  above.  The  treut- 
mentof  non-cuiitagioua  abortion  is  rerysimplt'  and 
consists  in  removing  the  causes. 

C'nttariimix  ofcTThon,— <^'ontagiouB  abortion  U  a 
germ-disease  can-sed  by  the  germs  entering  the 
generative  .>»y>*tem.  These  may  he  carried  from  one 
f^^male  to  another  by  the  malp.  This  is  one  of  the 
miwt  ueriousdiseMw  with  which  the  breeder  has  to 
contend,  and  often  baffles  the  most  careful  and  skill- 
ful stockman.   The  symptoms  of  this  condition  are 


a. 


Vig.  3J.     Nornuil  prucQtttlaa*  of  tomi.    a,  Liiiul>o-i>a>Tii 


iti'iirD'tiki'ml 


are  first  extendiOd,  in  which  case  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  rearrange  the  young  animal  l)efore 
attempting  to  withdraw  it  from  the  mother.  If 
the  hind-legs  are  first  extendeil  it  is  ptxwible  for 
the  animal  to  be  horn  in  thim  poiiitiun. 

To  determine  the  rhar-Hcter  of  the  presentatinn, 
it  is  nec«.<uary  to  make  an  examination.  In  making 
this  examination,  the  most  rigid  cleanliness  should 
be  ob»erved.  The  hands  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  soap  and  hot  water,  and  the  handa 
and  arm  carefully  greased  with  fri9ih  lani  or 
vaseline.  Introdiicte  the  band  and  arm  into  the 
vagina  with  great  care  and  gentbnesH  wheiii  the 
mother  ceaaeji  to  »train.  Determine  whethL-r  the 
fffituB  is  in  pr()per  form  to  Iih  delivered,  and,  if  ao, 
let  nature  have  ample  time  to  oxpel  thf  young 
animal  in  the  regular  way.  [f  the  mother  is 
unable  to  accomplish  this,  then  it  becomes  necessary 
to  give  some  aid.  .^t  all  stages  extreme  gentlene-fa 
and  patience  should  he  exercised.  The  fewer 
helpers  at  such  a  time  the  l>etter.  After  delivery, 
leave  the  anima!  alone  for  Rome  time  to  rest.  In 
very  dilRcuitca^es  it  is  always  better  to  call  in  the 
servici^ii  of  a  skilled  veterinarian. 

^Ihprt  10 rr.— Abortion  ig  defined  to  he  the  cxpal- 
eion  of  the  frctns  before  it  ia  viable.  If  the 
fffltoa  ia  expelled  prematurely  and  lives  it  is  more 
often  spoken  of  a-'*  prematnre  birth.  There  are 
two  important  Icind.-^  of  abortion,  contagions  and 


similar  to  tho^>.-  of  p;irtarit ion, except  that  thesjiop- 
tom.^  occur  long  before  the  period  of  gestation  has 
run  ita  nurmal  course. 

The  treatment  for  this  condition  is  exacting  aa^^^H 
often  unMitiKr^etory.  When  an  animal  has  abort«dj^^H 
the  undeveloped  fa-tua  and  afterbirth,  togethet 
with  the  stall  litter,  should  bo  carefully  collected 
and  burned.  The  stall  should  be  sterilized  by  the 
applicntion  of  lime  and  other  antisepticB.  The 
aborting  animal  shouhl  Iw  iiuarantined,  and  ber 
generative  nrgjms  wiwhed  out  with  an  antiseptic 
solution  i^ompoHed  of  cliiorid  of  janc  in  the  pro- 
portion of  I  to  1000. 

When  contagious  abortion  is  known  to  he  present 
in  the  herd,  medical  treatment  i^  demanded.  This 
treatment  had  best  be  given  under  the  direction  of 
a  veterinarian.  If  the  breeding  herd  is  a  valuable 
one  and  thecnndition  jtemiHls,  it  sometimes  becomes 
neceasitry  to  separate  the  yiuing  female  brooding- 
animals  from  the  i'ontriminttt*Hi  hi'rd  and  breed 
them  ton  healthy  young  bull  known  to  be  freefrotD 
the  gt*mi8  of  contagious  abortion.  [This  Bobject  is 
further  discoseod  on  page  143.] 

/'(■pNurfiVj/.— Fecundity  is  the  cjiiality  in  animals 
of  producing  young  in  ahnndance.  It  is  synony- 
mous with  rniitfnlnnw,  pmliUc-acy  and  fertility. 
This  quality  is  greatly  inHuimced  by  various  natural 
conditions,  btit  esjHM-'ially  by  the  more  or  leas  arti- 
ficial conditions  resulting  from  domestication.    The 


SOME  OP  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIMAL-BREEDING 


33 


fraitfaliiees  of  animals  ts  {nfluenc^d  by  climate, 
oooflneniBnt,  kind  of  food,  age,  siEo,  d^grw  of  fat- 
ness, crosajn^.  inbreeding,  disease,  sc4j3or.  changed 
conditiona  and  h«r«dity. 

It)  ^neral,  a  cold  climate  \$  OTifavorable  to  fecun* 
ditf ,  while  a  warm  or  temperate  cliinate  is  favura- 
bla.  Confiovmeot  and  lack  of  exercit!t>  are  fr«^iD«ni 
CSUM  of  ncfniitfulness.  Witd  animals  in  confine- 
meat  do  not  breed  readily.  Flying  squirrels  pro- 
dace  not  mor«  than  two  young  at  a  Utter  in  captiv- 
ity, while  in  a  wild  state  they  prodticeaix.  Oatrichc-a 
in  captivity  lay  twt-lv*  or  fifteen  eggs  annnally,  and 
ia  their  native  haunts  thirty.  Darwin  de^cribcti  an 
experiment  with  domestic  fowls  in  which  the  eggs 
of  those  closely  contrned  were  only  40  per  cent  fer- 
tile, of  those  in  partial  confioenicnC  6'J  per  cc^nt. 
mod  of  those  given  full  freedom  80  per  cent  strongly 
fertile. 

The  kind  of  food  seems  to  have  in  some  cases  a 
profound  inituonce  on  the  generative  functions. 
Kntomologiets  have  found  that  the  queen  bee,  a 
pecfect  female,  owes  her  sexuality  to  the  royal 
food  which  she  receives  while  in  the  larval  atatc. 
The  common  worker  grub  may  be  exalted  to  roy- 
ally by  supplying  it  with  the  queen  bee  food. 
Sagar  fed  in  quantity  to  the  domestic  animal  ia 
kaowa  to  attect  unfavorably  the  fecundity  of  the 
aaimal.  An  exclosive  ration  of  com  supplier  too 
large  a  proportion  of  fat-forming  foods  and  may 
injure  directly  the  breeding  powers  of  animals. 

.Animalii  excecaively  fat  often  fail  to  breed  at 
all ;  or,  if  they  do  brwd,  they  prodace  a  imall  num- 
ber of  young.  i>n  the  other  hand,  partial  starva- 
tion i«  equally  harmful  to  the  procreative  powers. 
A  generous  supply  of  nutritious  food,  re^^Iarly 
giren.  is  at  all  times  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tion for  the  bigheot  fertility.  Pasture  groits  seema 
to  be  of  all  f<Mds  the  most  satisfactory  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  breeder.  It  ia  asserted  by  some 
bonM'men  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  mares  in  foal 
wbilu  running  oa  clover  pasture. 

The  fertility  of  animals  is  greatest  at  full  matu- 
rity. Young  animals  are  less  fecund.  It  ia  thought 
that  the  practice  of  breeding  sows,  ewes,  cows  or 
marea  at  too  yonng  an  age,  if  persisted  in,  wilt 
eventually  diminish  materially  their  fecundity. 
Small  animaU  are  usually  more  fecund  than  larger 
ones.  The  ewe.  sow,  dog,  cat  and  rabbit  are  much 
more  fruitful  than  the  cow  or  horse. 

CrrMsing  in  both  pUnte  and  animals  results  in 
greater  fecundity.  On  the  other  hand,  continued 
iabreeding  undoubtedly  tends  to  diminish  fecundity, 
aod  probably  in  the  end  to  de^^troy  fertility  ttaelf. 
Some  aeuons  seem  to  furniji>h  conditions  which  are 
(wcaliarly  favorable  to  greater  fecundity.  Changed 
conditions  frequently  interfere  tempornnly  with 
the  fecundity  of  the  domestic  nnimaLt.  Tlii.t  ift  most 
ofteD  observed  in  the  case  of  imported  animal.-;.  A 
stallion  recently  importer!  may.  for  a  few  months 
aft^r  landing  in  this  country,  fail  to  get  any  marea 
in  foal.  The  stallion  "  Brennus."  a  Pt*rchtfrun.  waa 
used  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural  College  soon 
after  his  importation.  He  failed  to  get  a  single 
mare  in  foaL  Aftervard  he  becanw  a  very  success- 
ftU  breeder. 

OS 


rsi 


o/t  breast 


Anterior 
fhrf^  imba  tn  Hie  weft. 


Heredity  is,  perhapR,  of  all  faetora  tho  most 
potent  in  determining  the  inherent  ability  of  ani- 
mals U»  produce  young  in  abundance.  It  is  pos- 
sible, liy  Btilec'ting  th« 
femaleH  from  large 
litU-rs,  to  increase  tho 
ft'cundity  of  our  ani- 
mals. Twin-born  fe- 
males from  species  nor- 
mally pr<xlucing  one 
young  at  a  birth  will 
tend  to  reproduce  this 
quality  in  their  off- 
spring. An  exception 
to  this  is  to  lie  noted 
in  the  case  of  twins 
born  to  a  ctw  in  which 
one  is  a  hull  ami  thu 
other  a  heifer,  la  such 
cases  the  heifer  is 
usually  Htcrilo  and  is 
called  a  "free  martin." 
[See  page  21.]  It  not 
infrequently  ■  hapiiens 
that  sume  particular 
female  fails  to  become 
pregnant  to  a  certain 
male,  hut  will  readily 
conceive  to  another 
mal«.  This  is  called 
incompatibility. 

There  Jire  numerous 
remarkable  cases  uf 
fecundity  on  record 
which  tend  to  show  the 
posaibiliticsoflncrcase 
in  our  domestic  ani- 
mals. A  Clydesdale 
mare  belonging  to  G. 
W.  Henry,  of  Iowa, 
gave  birth  to  19  foals. 
"The  lUral  New- 
Yorker"  pictures  a  cow 
^21  years  old  that  has 
had  20  calve.3  and  was 
again  pregnant.  "The 
Country  tlentleman " 
de»cril>es  a  Ijeicester 
ewe  as  giving  birth  to 
C  larabs.  The  same 
pai)er  describes  a  snw 


fh&f error  _ 
fiTaenfaf/on 


'Anterior 


of  ordinary  breed  that 


^ntlrrhr  tut<t 
darAa/  pres- 
ent at  iott  . 


produced  23  pigB  in  I    i-tf^^bcntomUelf. 
titter  and  85  pigs  in  5 


litters. 

IfarrcrineM.  —  H  a  r  - 
ren  animal;^  are  nut 
uncommon,  but  this 
failure  to  breed  may 
bo  due  to  a  variety  of 
causes.  The  n on -de- 
velopment of  the  ova, 
tumors  of  the  ovary, 
or  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  ovaries  or  Fal- 


Posfenor 
p^cse/i  fat/an. 

Crou/>  o/^d ha^ft  deviofi'en. 

Flf.  U.    AbaormiU  praHsn- 
tloe*  «l  lotl. 


&4 


SOME  OF  THE  PRLNCIPLEB  Of  ANIMAL-IS  REEDING 


7h»^  and  croup 


Hitd-fim6  devfif/fOft 


lopian  tiiK-s  may  result  in  permanent  sterility.  In 
such  caseA  tho  female  usually  fails  to  come  in  heat. 
When  thuanimulcomes 
r*!t:ularly  in  htat,  but 
does  not  kocome  preR- 
nant  after  repeated 
treetlinjj.  the  causes 
of  barrenness  may  U.' 
local  and  curable. 
When  this  condition 
exists,  the  failure  to 
become  pregnant  may 
be  doe  to  a  contraction 
of  Ihd  niDaclufl  of  thu 
cervix  or  neck  of  the 
womb.  Thia  difficulty 
may  be  overcome  by  a 
treatment  called  open- 
ing. Acid  discharges 
from  the  generative 
orf^n^  are  also  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  barren- 
ness. This  condition 
had  been  treated  very 
succeSHfully  by  intro- 
ducing ordinary  yeaet, 
after  preparing  a^  foe- 
broad  •  making,  and 
then  diluting  with 
warm  water  and  in- 
jecting into  the  uterus 
juBt  before  breeding- 
A  common  cause  of 
partial  sterility  in  all 
dnmestic  animnbi  tx  a 
failure  to  provide  tk^' 
ular  and  aullioient  ex- 
orcise. No  medical 
treatment  can  correct 
this  deficiency. 

[For  additional  notes 
on  the  repriHluctive 
functions  a  ru)  pr<>- 
caaftea,  seu  Har^L-r'a 
nrtic le  on  i'h i/siotoity 
of  IhmeMk  AnimaU 
in  Chapter  II.] 


ffeaet  turned aazifit. 


AnTerinr  pr^senfaffitn. . 

Head  turned  on  bocM 


fel- 


Sftrrte-oAcofiiof 
f)rea*/tM//on. 
ffeoef  and  ffet  Pnfoara 
iiflficr  t^/ctV- 

PU.  34.  Abcionaal  pieaeiiu- 
dMi*  ot  loal-  [  »-iic*.  32-34 
a'liptP'l  frcm  Spvrlnl  Kplf., 
Bur.  AtiimiUItiil..  IHUU.J 


II.  Breeding. —Vari- 
ation. Selection 
AND     HEREDrry. 

AND  THKIR  APrtJ- 

CATIOXa 

The  improvement  of 
the  domrattic  animals 
has  cum  e  abiiu  t 
thn>uj,'h  the  obser^'- 
anee  of  natural  laws 
which  have  nctnid  and 
are  still  potent  in 
dett^rmining  the  limits 
of  possible  improve- 
ment. Variation, 
which  may  be  defined 


as  the  appearance  of  any  characters  not  existiag 
in  the  ancestors,  has  been  a  cornerstone  in  the 
development  of  the  most  valaable  races  and  brtreda 
of  domestic  animals.  The  next  step  has  been  the 
int«lliR«nt  selection  of  those  variations  of  peculiar 
value.  Finally,  heredity  has  bct-n  relied  on  to  fix 
and  i>erpetuate  desirable  variations  which  have 
been  selected  by  man. 

Variation, 

The  organization  of  all  plants  and  animals  is 
more  or  leas  elastic  and  permits  of  considerable 
variation  from  the  establjflhed  type;  thus,  all  of 
our  domestic  Hnimalx  aru  constantly  tending  to 
depart  from  the  characters  of  their  ancestors. 
Thia  tendency  to  vary  is  retarded  or  accelt-rat«d 
by  many  causes,  .\mong  these  wc  may  mention 
changed  conditions  of  life.  Horses  taken  to  the 
barren  and  co)d  islands  nf  Shetland  l>ecome  grad- 
□aUy  smalli^r  and  hardier,  like  ponies,  and  the  hair 
becomes  thiclcer  aiul  lunger.  Jjong  continued 
exposure  to  such  conditions  ultimately  result*  in 
the  production  of  an  animal  like  the  Shetland  pony, 
small  in  size,  extremely  hardy,  able  to  withstand 
the  most  severe  winter  climate  and  to  subsist  on  a 
minimum  of  food.  FTorses  tiken  to  the  rich  low- 
land posttire-A  of  middle  Europe  gradnally  bocome 
targyr  and  more  powerful,  like  the  Terchenins. 
MihiS  n-porta  a  caKe  of  an  Englishman  who  intro- 
duced greyhounds  on  the  high  plateaus  of  Mexico 
for  the  purpose  of  hunting  the  swift  harts'. 
These  greyhounds  were  unable,  because  of  the 
rarefied  air,  to  run  down  and  capture  the  hares. 
but  the  offspring  of  these  greyhounds  t:ould  easily 
run  down  thu  harea  without  fatiguu  or  exhaustion. 

HerwHty  is  alsu  a  cause  of  variation.  The  union 
of  twr>  animals  with  diverse  qualities  most  neces- 
sarily rci^ult  in  offspring  unlike  either  parent,  hence 
the  variation  from  the  parent.  The  constant  anion 
of  characters  brrcught  abtmt  by  hen-dity  must  pro- 
duce new  combinations  of  ch;iracU;rs  and  thus 
cause  variation.  Thun,  in  crossing  the  Shorthorn 
and  the  black  Al^rdeen-Angus  or  Galloway,  there 
i»  usually  produced  an  animal  of  blue-gray  color, 
which  so  f.ir  as  color  is  concerned  is  totally  differ- 
ent from  either  parent.  This  vari,ition  is  due  to 
heredity  and  not  to  any  changed  conditiona. 

Variation  may  abo  result  from  habit  or  the  use 
or  disuse  of  partx.  The  constant  use  of  any  organ 
of  the  body  ttndii  to  vary  it  in  accordance  with 
thu  work  ru(|uirt^.  The  milking  habit  in  cows  may 
be  increased  by  judicious  use,  or  destroyed  by  dtft- 
uae.  The  practice  of  drying-up  beef  cows  that  are 
to  be  shown  is  almost  certain  to  result  in  the  grad- 
ual \of»  \*l  the  milking  function.  The  American 
saddle  horrte  has  been  selected  and  bred  for  many 
years  because  of  the  facility  which  he  cxhibita  In 
performing  certain  gaits  which  are  easy  to  the 
rider.  These  gaits  have  been  so  long  required  of 
this  horse,  that  now  the  young  coltt  a  few  days  old 
frequently  fall  naturally  into  thisse  more  or  tees 
artificial  gaits. 

The  principal  causes  of  variation  are  nnqueetioo- 
ably  climate  and  food,  and  of  these  the  greatest 
single  t-auae  is  excessive  food  sopplj.   But  tber« 


SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  AMMAL-BRKEDING 


to  be  in  moefit  animals  an  inherent  tenclvncy 
_  vary,  which  cannot  be  eicplaiotiil  hy  ntUtiun  to 
the  bdlBeDcee  of  external  eause&  All  the  dotnoHtic 
animala,  placed  as  they  are,  onder  more  or  tesa 
artificial  and  changed  conditions,  are  much  mora 
Tariablc  than  thuir  wild  prutotypce. 

The  variatifni«  which  occur  in  the  domestic  ani- 
mals arv4»ome  of  them  favur.ilile  and  snmp  nnfnvor- 
ah!e.  Many  of  the  variatiimH  ars  Riit^h  as  tii  make 
the  animal  dintinctly  It^AK  vnliiabltj  than  bHfiirti, 
while  otbeTH.  althoo^h  ajipan-ntly  i^mall  in  unioiiiii, 
may  jcitb  »vidunc«  of  thu  highest  value  and  use- 
foIiKiBS  to  man.  It  is  the  highest  achii^vcinent  of 
the  BDCCCHful  breeder  to  l>e  ahle  to  detect  thnse 


and  powerful  wing  bonea  and  muftclea.  The  case 
of  this  Shetland  pony  described  under  "variation" 
ia  an  excellent  example  of  the  rt.-t(ults  of  natural 
aelection.  I^marck  mentions  the  giralTe  afl  an 
example  of  the  devttlupment  of  certain  parW 
OH  a  reftult  uf  continutid  and  exceiwive  uite.  The 
giraffe  originally  fed  utT  the  groand,  but  during 
some  atajje  of  ila  exislBnce,  herba;;e  on  thw  earth 
beinfi  scarcu.  he  btgan  to  rwich  fur  tha  leaves  on 
the  tree&  As  it  hecaoie  necessary  to  reach  hit^her 
the  neck  necessarily  became  longer  and  longer 
until  wo  have  the  long-necked  giratfe  of  the  pre«- 
ent  time.  'ITie  oommcm  garden  mole,  living  exclu- 
sively onder  the  ground,  has  no  need  for  eyes.   As 


pleeted  rariations  which  give  promise  of    great  ■  a  reaulbof  thodiau^eof  ihase  organs  th»  mole  now 


rslne  to  man.  Tliis  is  the 
art  of  selection. 

Selrctiaii. 

Selection  is  deRned  as 
Lbe  favoring  and  fixing 
of  those  charnctera  in 
plaataand  animals  which 
are  to  aarviro.  It  is  a 
acparalion  of  desirable 
and  useful  variations 
from  those  that  are  on- 
deeinble.  Scientists 
recognize  two  kinils  of 
selection,  natural  and 
methodical. 

Salarat  Mteetion. — 
Katoral  oeltwiion  is  na- 
tore'a  iMthod  of  [treserv- 
ingtbeapeciee.  tnnatnre 
vanaiioos  occur,  tiome 
of  which  give  to  thvir  possefisors  an  advantagu  in 
tba  straggle  for  cxiittencc.  Thc^^c  variations  are 
pmerved  and  strengthened.  Other  variations, 
in  B  meaaure,  unlit  the  animal  or  plant  for  its 
enrirooinent,  and,  in  the  struggle  fur  life,  those 
iadividuahi  paaeeSHing  such  variatiuns  fHtoner  or 
Ulsr  soccamb.  Natural  selection  is  the  pr^fcr- 
enea  which  nature  shows  to  those. individuals  best 
adapted  to  tbeir  eormundings.  Those  organisms 
that  pOswosB  the  most  favorable  and  the  fewest  nn> 
favorable  variations  will  be  presprvetl.  The  Ipbs 
fortooate  ones  can  survive  and  repHMiuct;  their 
kind  only  when  food  and  room  are  abundant.  As 
either  food  or  room  l>ecom«B scarce,  the  weaker  will 
go  down  before  their  more  fortunate  neighbors. 
Thii  is  natnral  selection,  or  the  .survival  of  the  fit- 
tML  Survival  of  the  litUwt  does  not  necessarily 
laaaii  the  sarvival  of  the  boat,  nor  even  of  the 
hi^est  tjrpe,  hot  it  does  mean  the  survival  of  those 
pOMMBiDg  the  greatest  ability  to  live  and  gut  fuiKi 
under  porticalar  conditions. 

Thei*  are  many  examples  of  the  workings 
of  natoral  8>e]«Ct(0n.  The  domesticnteft  duck, 
darind  originally  from  the  wild  form,  during  its 
period  of  domestication  has  increased  largely  the 
■bl  of  the  leg  moscles,  and  has  f>ulfered  a  corre- 

rdloff  dei^ease  in  the  sixe  and   strength  of 
wiDK  botMs  and  muscles.  The  wild  duck  has 
puUl  awl  weak  lee  bones  and  mtuicles,  but  large 


hux  almcmt  entirely  lui^t 
the  organs  of  sight.  Fish 
in  caves  are  usually  blind. 
Tho  many  examples  of 
mimicry  are  also  instances 


'^•^;, 

X'^' 


-V" 


(iff 


Fit.  U.    A  tecuod  aereford  oofw  with  tiiplet  calvea. 
oi  cliiuacU'r*. 


Xuln  1h«  clow  rnMOiblaiUM 


of  natural  selection.  The  whippiiorwill  Irwiks  so 
niueh  like  the  limbtt  on  which  hi:  alights  that  he 
can  scarcely  be  distinguii^hud  from  the  knots  on 
the  trees.  The  tiger  is  striped,  and,  in  the  jungles 
which  it  inhiihits.  can  with  difficulty  be  distin- 
guiHheil  frnm  the  gnisa  at  a  few  paces. 

MrtliMttital  stltvUint.  —  MeLhcHlical  selection  is 
practiced  by  man  and  may  Im?  defiiitsd  as  a  favoring 
and  lixing  of  churacUifs  eapucially  useful  to  man- 
kind. It  is  a  survival  of  the  best.  This  does  not 
necessarily  mean  the  sarvival  of  the  strongest  nor 
of  Ihofle  bent  adapted  to  live  and  thrive  in  the 
ftate  of  nature.  McthiMlica!  seli^ntion  applies  only 
tn  plants  and  animali^  urtdt^r  dumestication.  The 
rir>it  ftt*?p  and  niu«t  important  for  the  breeder  of 
domestic  animals  is  to  Fix  in  his  mind  an  ideal  t\'pe 
embodying  all  the  desirable  characters  which  it  ia 
wished  to  perpetuate.  The  breeder  of  beef  cattle 
mtist  understand  thnrmighly  the  "beef  type,"  and 
in  all  iif  his  selectiima  must  keep  in  mind  the  char- 
aeteristii'je  which  are  necessarily  present  in  the 
moat  animal.  The  breeder  of  dairy  cattle  must 
have  in  his  mind  a  clear  ideal  of  tho  "  dairy 
type."  This  tyjw  we  have  learned  by  long  experi- 
ence is  alwavH  found  associated  with  those  indi- 
viduals which  poHKPss  the  ability  to  produce  large 
amuunLs  of  milk  and  butter  at  the  least  expendi- 
ture of  food  and  wiiergy.  There  are  all  degr.-fn  uf 
methodical    selection,   from    that  employin;;    the 


36 


SOME  OP  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANiMAl^BREEDING 


bighuitt  skill  and  intellit^oncti  down  to  a  littlfi  moro 
than  natural  solection.  Many  savages  employ  a 
low  form  of  niethrMlic.il  selection.  Some  trilMa  kill 
the  niiiles  ami  [ircst^rvK  the  females.  Others  kill 
dangeriius  beast*  of  prey. 


\^fl. 


—  ,.lf 


m 


:S?:"-r^ 


Plf.  36.  Tho  "Old  Jnscy  Cow. "  An  riiKravinjt  duiipnvt"!  to  be  tnna  it  dravrinK  iii>dt> 
«ii  ihe  i«ln  111.1  •>(  Jfn*i  liy  unt^r  t>t  th«  eajluir  q(  "Tliv  CuMiilry  (!i«nlIoaitiu  "  tl^*<3'. 
<Oainpar«  Fie.  ^  ' 

In  practice  no  character  ie  too  trilling  to  con- 
sider. Thv  Arab3  will  not  own  a  horse  with  four 
white  feet.  IVactical  fonicrs  think  a  wide  muzzle 
is  always  assfx-iated  with  tho  best  fec-dors.  The 
succBssfal  breetler  must  possess  skill  to  select  and 
combine  the  faintest  characters.  He  must  b«  qoick 
to  del4*ct  the  slightest  variation  away  from  his 
ideal  tyite,  and.  above  all,  he  must  have  the  cour- 
age to  kill  and  destroy  those  individuals  which  do 
not  possess  the  desirable  variations.  In  fixing  vahi- 
allc  charactcrisiies  we  often  unconsciously  fix 
othi-Ts  that  are  ondt'sirabie.  Many  families  of 
highly  developed  beef  animals  have  lost,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  their  fecundity.  The  same  is  true  of 
some  of  the  most  highly  bred  types  of  domestic 
swine.  In  striving  for  fineness  of  bone,  extreme 
quality  and  early  maturity,  the  animals  themselves 
have  become  too  small,  and,  in  the  case  of  some 
swine,  the  bone  haa  become  too  small  to  snpport 
the  weight  of  the  animal.  The  .skillful  breeder  is 
he  who  is  able  to  maintain  an  e'juilibrium  of  the 
best  characters. 

When  the  ideal  animal  has  been  secured  through 
variation  and  selection,  his  good  characters  be- 
come perpetuated  through  heredity. 

Htredity. 

Her{Mlity  is  defined  as  the  influence  ororted  by 
parents  on  the  otTspring.  It  ie  tersely  expressed  in 
the  aphorism  "like  produces  like/'  It  is  the  ten- 
dency of  the  offspring  to  be  like  the  parent.  Her- 
edity is  directly  opposed  to  variation  and  representa 
stability  of  character  in  the  organic  world.  So 
common  is  the  fact  of  heredity  that  we  have  come 
to  regard  it  as  a  aoiversttl  law  of  nature.  The  in- 


fluence uf  this  phenomentin  is  not  con6ned  to  any 
orKa'i,  or  any  partieuhir  part  ttf  the  orgiuiwrn.  It 
is  universal  in  its  upplieation  and  determines  the 
physiological,  psychological  and  pathological  con- 
ditions nf  all  organic  beings.  It  is  a  foundation 
principle  of  the  greatest  [>03- 
"  —  _  sible  UHe  to  the   breeder  of 

~  domei^lic    animals.     It   was 

known  anil  n^cognized  hy  the 
ancifnls.    The  JewH    recog- 
nized    ils  e.\istoncu  in  their 
^'^       social  organization  of  farai- 
;i—~^^       lies   of   priests,  kings   and 
ly    =^^      others, 

HcrciiUp  of  normal  riiaruf- 
/crji.  — The    commonest  evi- 
dences of  heri'dity  are  to  be 
found  in  the  external  stnic- 
lures  of   animals.    The  off- 
spring resemble  the  parents 
in  statare,  form  and  feature. 
The    jK-coIiar    markings    of 
different  lireetls  nf  cattle  are 
strongly    transmitted.     The 
Herefords    invariably  trans- 
mit a  white  face.  The  .Aber^ 
deen-Angus  cattle  inherit  the 
coal-black  color  and   polled 
heads.   The  Itevons  are  of  a 
deep  dark    red.    The    heavy 
draft  homes  inherit  from  their  ancestors  a  powerful 
blocky  and  massive  structure.    The  Thoroughbred 
and  tho  trotting  horse  roccivc  by  inheritanc*  Ihe 
sk-nder  build  and  nervous  temperament  of  these 
particular  bretnls.   The  tendency  to  lay  on  fat  is 
observed    in  certain  hree^is   ami    certain    families 
within  a  breed.   Some  sheep  in  a  large  flock  ever 
remain  fat  on  the  same  fund   that  others  in  the 
fiock  consume  and  yet  remain  in  thin  condition. 

Tho  quality  of  fecnndity  is  greatly  inftucnoed  by 
heredity.  It  is  a  well-known  fiict  that  the  selectifm 
of  ett*e  lambs  frnm  twins  rather  than  .single  births 
will  increase  the  average  fecundity  of  the  flock. 
Longevity  la  also  tninsmitted.  The  inheritance  of 
immunity  from  small[)ox  and  other  diseases  is  a 
known  medical  fact.  It  seems  pri>hable  that  breeds 
of  swine  cniild  be  established  that  would  be  per- 
fectly immnne  from  liog  cholera. 
The   transmission  of  characters  is  not  always 


Flc.  yi.    Ttw  nodtrn   dairy  tjrpe.    Thn  prodoet  »[  d« 

unci   FHrrfal    liTrvdlciK-      J'^n'ty   pow.   riicU  T81H    Bim4 
Fitrni,  [j>>w«lt,  Uamt.     (Comimro  rtf.  n.) 


SOME  or  THE  PRINXIPLES  OF   ANIMAL-BREEDING 


37 


libHed  directly  froin  parent  to  offspring  hut  mny 
ofaeerred  in  the  grandchildren  or  &ven  Latter 
itions.  Ordinarily  it  wcMild  seem  natural  tu 
soppoee  that  the  male  persons  would  more  oft^n 
determine  th^-  dominant  characters  of  the  maid 
offspriof;  and  th^  female  parent  the  ruling  qnalittee 
of  tba  femald  off^prinp.  It  seems,  however,  that 
in  an  eqnal  number  or  in  a,  majority  of  casc-'^,  Ihn 
nal*  it  moit  like  the  mother  and  the  female  most 
IDm  the  father.  This  is  called  cross-heredity.  If 
lhi«  fact  be  true,  it  is  of  the  utmost  imiiortance 
that  in  selecting  a  dairy  bull  more  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  dam  of  the  bull,  and  in  selecting 
all  males  it  is  of  the  hi(;he«t  importance  that  ^hnrp 
attention  be  gi\'en  to  the  charactera  of  the  dam. 


mitral  inHtinctH  are  determined  to  a  greater  or  less 
ext^'nt  by  hereditary  influeDcea. 

Hereiliti/  of  abnormal  cfiaraeiers.—^ot  only  are 
the  normal  or  natural  characters  transmitt^'d  from 
parent  tu  ott'sprinp,  but  the  unnatural  or  abnormal 
develnpments  seem  likewise  to  be  influenced  by  thia 
phenomenon.  We  can  perhajM*  underntand  how  a 
c»n)ttit!iti«nal  diHeiine  may  become  hereditary,  but 
when  th»  liwH  of  an  ofKun  or  the  non-development 
of  the  extromitied  of  the  body  is  transmitU-d,  it  is 
more  ditficult  t«  understand.  It  is  related,  that,  in 
1828,  David  Kly  imported  into  this  country  a  ahort- 
earedSaxon  ram.  Thi;*  animal  ha<t  a  peculiarly  fine 
fleece  of  wonl.  In  the  locality  where  thi-^  animal 
was  used  for  breedlnj^,  the  funners  came  to  aesoci- 


'^ 


^^^^ 


L 


m.  M.    VvUdoa  la  tTK. 


D«-|miiiii8  At  left  (wo  *l>lv(f.     C<iK  on  right  i»  lisuiibtcr  of  ouo  in  eonlfr. 
and  Improved  i.knpe  frnm  l«tc  no  ricbt. 


M 


Koto  reSciBineal 


Not  only  the  phyaioloffical  characters  are  con- 
trolled by  the  (Inminatinj:  character  of  heredity, 
bat  the  peychologiral  characters  ns  welt.  There  is 
to  fact  no  distinction  to  lie  maile  between  physiu- 
logical  and  paycholoffical  heredity,  for,  a;*  Spencer 
aatd,  "No  uiought,  no  feelinR  is  evi*r  raaoifested 
MTC  aa  a  result  of  phi-sical  force."  If,  therefore,  we 
demoiHtrate  the  fact  of  physiological  heredity,  we 
are  botmd  to  accept  the  exbitence  of  [mychological 
beredltv.  One  of  the  nuist  interestiojif  case.H  uf 
paychofogical  inheritaiiee  ia  the  tninamiiotion  of 
iiMtincta.  Pig*  Invariably  si)uat  when  frightened. 
Thin  instinct  was  developed  in  nature  as  a  means 
of  protecting  the  animal  from  its  enemies.  Uogs 
loni  round  ar>d  round  before  lying  down  even  on  a 
p*rf«tly  smooth  floor.  This  is  the  perstatence  or 
the  instinct  of  habit  possesaed  by  wild  dog!^  living 
where  cram  was  abundant,  where  toming  rotund 
WM  necwtary  tu  make  a  bed  by  tramping  ilown 
the  graaa.  The  instinct  to  nurse  is  puttse)ved  by  all 
juung  animalrt.  The  senses  are  atnmgly  trantt- 
mltted.  The  sense  of  touch  of  all  extreme  northern 
necfl  fa  obta»e  and  imfx-rfect.  The  sense  of  sight 
in  all  of  its  various  mwlili  cat  ions  Ig,  most  certainly 
tnODflMble.  The  Puegians,  says  Darwin,  can  see 
itatJUt  objects  more  clearly  than  the  English. 
Myopia  ia  increasing  rapidly  among  all  nati'ms 
Mgagcd  in  intellectual  puratiita.  I>r.  Colin  of  l^n-^ 
Ian  Axanined  children  in  all  grades  and  found  that 
Bjopia  oecamd  as  follows:  primary  sch^xils,  G.7 
per  eaot:  middle  »ch4x>ts,  lOJs  per  cent;  normal 
seboob,  19.7  per  cent:  gymnasia  and  universities, 
aS^  per  cent.  This  ac^ired  myopia  i»  apparently 
laoMlUad.    Il  ■Mou  equally  certain  that  the 


ate  the  Rhnrt  ears  with  excellent  wind,  and  :<>elected 
the  ahorl-efired  animnls  f<ir  fnundationji  for  breed- 
ing fltM^ks.  The  result  was  that  in  a  few  years  they 
established  a  breed  of  almost  enrless  sheep.  Ander- 
son slates  that  a  rabbit  produced  in  a  litter  an 
animal  with  only  one  ear.  Frnm  this  one  indi- 
vidual was  established  a  breed  of  one-eared  rabbits. 
The  same  authority  aUci  mentioned  a  female  flog 
with  one  leg  deficient  that  prcxluced  several  puppiea 
with  the  same  deficiency.  It  is  not  80  difficult  to 
undiT^tarid  how  a  character  or  a  set  of  characters 
develot)L-d  OA  a  din'ct  result  of  a  speciftc  need  on 
the  part  of  the  animal  may  be  transmitted  readily 
by  hea'dity,  especially  if  this  character  has  ap- 
peared in  the  anc*8tfirB  fur  many  generations.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  much  more  dtlTicult  locimceiva 
of  the  transmiKston  of  abnnrmalties  or  mutitationa, 
yet  such  cases  are  not  ran?. 

Under  the  term  "prodactylism"  is  considered 
the  occurrence  of  extra  fingers  and  toes.  Super- 
numerary digits  may  be  attached  to  either  the  inner 
or  the  outer  side  of  the  hand,  forming  an  extra 
thumb  or  little  fttiger.  Darwin  remarks  that  "the 
presence  of  a  greater  niimlMT  than  five  digits  is  a 
great  anomaly,  for  this  niimlwr  in  not  normally 
exceeded  by  any  existing  bird,  mammal  or  reptile. 
Nevertheless,  supernumerary  digits  are  strongly 
inherited."  They  have  been  transmitted  through 
five  generations,  Struthers  gives  the  fotlnwing 
intereating  instance :  In  the  first  generation  an 
Bjlditionn!  digit  appeared  iin  one  hand,  in  Ihw  second 
on  both  hiinds,  in  thw  thinl.  three  broihery  had  both 
hands,  and  one  of  the  brothers  a  foot  affected,  and 
in  the  fourth  generation  all  four  limbs  wero  affected. 


S8 


SOME  OP  THE  PRINCIPLES  OP  ANIMAL-BREEDING 


However,  these  flupernamersry  digits  ara  Qot  alvaya 
trimHmiltfd. 

The  writ«r  observed  in  a  certain  locality  a  trot- 
ting stallion  affected  with  a  wndiliun  known  aa 
parrot  mouth.  In  this  condition  the  upiter  jaw 
cxtenda  over  tho  lowor  jaw,  bo  that  the  emU  of  the 
teeth  do  not  meat,  thus  preventing  tho  onlinary 
wear  and  rO'Salting  in  the  gradual  elongation  of 
the  upper  teeth.  Many  of  the  colts  from  this  stal- 
lion inherited  this  peculiar  abnormality.  The  writer 
also  observed  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College 
a  Shropshire  ewe  affectod  with  an  opposite  con- 
dition, naiDftly  a  bnll-dog  jaw.  In  this  case  the 
lower  jaw  projecta  K-yund  the  upper  jaw.  Twin 
lambs  from  this  ewe  were  each  atTected  in  the  same 
way  as  the  mother.  The  clas.'iic  experiments  of 
Urown-Seciuard  on  guinea  pigs,  in  which  it  wa.s 
found  that  an  inciaion  of  the  ci>inat  cord  resulted 
in  epilepity,  and  that  the  nff^^iiring  of  thet^  artitici- 
ally  imposed  epileptic  animala  were  Hkowiiie  afft^cted 
in  the  same  way.  are  well  known.  The  tran-sraiasion 
of  mutilations  is  exceedingly  rare,  and  the^i-xperi- 
nantii  hare  perhaps  not  l>een  repeated  a.  Kullicient 
numberof  tiroes  to  make  their  ttniverval  acceptance 
jastifialile. 

flrrfiHt^  of  ditefu^t.— It  in  an  important  fact 
that  pathological  conditions  are  subj^-pt  to  the  «amt» 
laws  of  heredity  as  nurmal  uod  dv.-jJraljleiiharacterH, 
and  these  are  often  Iranamitted  from  parent  to 
offspring.  Some  diseasttt  are  much  more  surt-ly 
hereditary  than  others.  When  a  diwase  manifusts 
itself  at  birth  it  is  called  congi-nilaL  If  a  disease 
appear.4  lat^r  in  life  the  animal  in  itaid  to  have 
pwutitttfud  a  priMiiwfMwilion  to  the  disease-  This 
tondfiicy  of  the  diaeawn  of  piitL-iita  to  reappear  iu 
their  offspring  was  recognized  by  the  ancients. 
Early  modieal  writings  contain  many  references  to 
thia  fact.  Darwin  notes  that  ">U  per  cent  of  the 
csfien  of  gout  reconleil  in  honpital  practice  were 
hereditary.  Insanity  u;  linown  to  run  in  famtlieif. 
A  Burgeon  relates  that  hia  father,  brother  and  four 
paternal  uncles  were  all  insane.  The  ease  of  a  Jew 
IS  on  record  whose  fathor,  mother,  and  six  brothers 
were  all  mad,  Diseases  of  the  eye  are  freijuently 
transmitted.  A  stallion  in  France  became  blind 
from  the  elTecta  of  dise.we  and  all  of  his  proiji^ny 
had  the  same  didijase  iiefurethe  age  of  three  years. 
The  famous  Irinh  hone  CrtKaH  was  the  pr(igenit4)r 
of  a  race  of  hor*e«  decidwiliy  predisiJOjMKl  to  malig- 
nant opbthatniia  and  this  tt^'od'L-ncy  was  observed 
even  to  thu  fourth  and  fifth  generation.i. 

Uone  diseases  are  likewise  supposed  to  be  readily 
transmitted.  A  mjire  affeotwl  with  ring  hone, 
being  unfitted  for  farm  worlc,  w;w  kiMit  as  a 
breeder.  Her  coll«  were  well  formed  aiiil  at  two 
or  three  years  of  age  sold  n*;idily.  No  indications 
of  the  disease  were  noticed  at  that  tiini-.  but  at 
the  age  of  five  or  six  th<?y  were  all  aife^ittfl  with 
ring  twno,  some  so  seriously  as  to  unlit  them  for 
work.  A  stallion  became  affected  with  thick  leg 
and  grease  heel  at  the  age  of  four  years.  His  colts 
inherited  this  .i.-imo  disease.  Pr.  Miles  states  that 
orrofnlniin  di.spH.'<eA  are  n  common  ocRurmnce  anuing 
horaea,  cattle,  nheep  and  swine.  Under  thi»  deitig- 
nation  occur  all  uf  those  diseases  which  tend  tu 


prodace  tubercles.  All  these  dleeasee  are  either 
transmitted,  or,  which  seems  more  probable, 
animals  inherit  the  defective  organitation  which 
predisposes  the  individual  to  this  disease. 

Many  animals  transmit  indirectly  to  their  off- 
spring through  a  defective  conformation  or  an 
unbalanced  proportion  of  parts.  Thus,  a  horse  with 
a  narrow  hock,  looked  at  from  the  side,  is  predis- 
posed to  spavin.  A  short  os  calcis  and  B  straight 
hock  pre<lispoae  an  animal  to  corb.  Veterinaiiaos 
are  singuLirly  unanimotu  in  their  decision  that 
Certain  diseases  are  inherited.  Among  these  are 
contracted  feet,  ring  bone,  spavin,  splints,  curb, 
laminitia  or  founder,  roaring  or  broken  wind, 
melanosis,  specific  ophthalmia  and  crib-biting. 
These  di»ea.'«ea  are  transmitted  either  directly  or  ax 
the  result  of  a  predisposition.  The  breeder  should 
recognize  the  danger  from  using  animals  afTected 
with  any  of  the  diseased  conditions  mentionc'd. 

We  are  therefore  compelled  to  believe  that 
every  organ  or  set  of  organs  as  well  a^  the  mental 
and  even  mora!  characters  are  snbject  to  tho 
universal  law  of  heredity.  Characters  that  have 
appeared  regularly  throut;b  many  generations  are 
transmitted  with  the  greatest  force,  but  at  the 
same  time  numerous  examples  of  the  transmission 
of  varialionB,  which  have  ocourri^il  for  the  first 
time,  make  it  pussible  fur  thu  bn-i-ilfr  of  live-«toA 
^)  ri'ly  confidently  on  the  inheritance  of  desir^le 
variations  and  thus  to  supply  the  means  for  lasting 
impruvoment. 

Carrelation  of  yarU. 

The  devr>k)]»inent  of  any  character  or  SOt  ot 
charactHDi  in  always  acrcompaniud  by  modillofttfoiiSi 
L'ithur  desiraUle  or  undesirable,  of  other  characters. 
If  we  develop  a  certain  organ  in  &  given  direction 
to  an  extraonlinary  degree,  we  often,  at  the  aame 
time,  supprw^s  iir  destroy  pome  other  organ  related 
to  it.  We  may  succeed  in  breeding  out  some  worth- 
less charucler,  but,  at  thu  same  time,  brewl  out  a 
useful  quality.  The  whole  animal  organism  is 
so  closely  interwoven  that  a  change  in  one 
organ  or  set  of  organ.i  is  almost  certain  to  result 
in  a  diHturbanee  of  the  balance  of  other  qualitiefl 
and  pffxhice  a  ch-inge  of  other  organs.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  scientist  with  a  single  bone  can  recon- 
struct tho  skeleton  uf  the  original  animal.  Blind 
{wrsons  develop,  to  a  high  degree,  the  sense  of 
touch.  Blind  Dr.  i^aunderson  was  an  expert  mediU> 
ist  and  could  di.-^tinguish  counterfeits  by  touch 
alone.  People  who  are  color-blind  often  have  a 
deficient  musical  ear.  Darwin  is  authority  for  the 
statement  "tlml  Mack  dogw  with  tan-colored  fei-t 
almost  always  have  a  tan-colorwl  sjiot  on  the  upper 
and  inner  L-ornur  ef  each  eye."  Hl-  also  states  that 
"white  cats  with  blue  eyes  are  almost  always 
deaf.  If  any  color  exists  on  the  fur  and  only  one 
eye  is  blue  the  8en.se  of  hearing  is  not  lost." 

Immen!*e  horn.''  and  cobrse  wiwil  are  aftsociated. 
Hair  and  hiilea  and  horns  and  tenth  viiry  together; 
hairtewi  dogts  are  likely  to  l>e  t(M>thles8.  A  larg« 
bi^ai]  \v,  assiH-iated  with  large  legs,  coanw  boocs, 
late  maturity  and  general  coaraeness  of  struc- 
ture.   .\nimals  showing    a  reraarkablo  tendeac; 


SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ANIMAL-BREEDING 


to  fatten  are  very  often,  if  not  always,  deficient  in 
mitk  prodactiuQ.  A  genoral  iennne-ss  and  angularity 
of  alructare  is  always  a«H«ciat«l  with  the  hiphrat 
yieldini;  dairy  cows.  Nathtutins  RtateH  that"rtiTh 
foud  Undii  to  make  the  bead  of  swine  broader  and 
loo|[i-r,  and  Ibat  an  insafGciuncy  of  poor  food  irorka 
the  op|>c«)it«  result."  It  is  frnm  thti  knowl^i;e  of 
this  intimate  correlaticm  of  parts  that  the  expert 
is  able  to  Kcogaise  from  an  examination  of  t)ie 
external  form  the  presence  of  internal  qiidity. 
Some  practical  stockmen  even  jjo  ao  far  a»  to  sny 
thai  if  tbey  can  bat  we  th«  head  of  a  falteninjf 
Bteer  tbey  can  tell  whether  or  no  he  U  a  good 
f««d«r. 

Atarism. 

Atartsm  may  b«  defined  as  heredity  from  ances- 
tors beyond  the  parent.  S\Tionym3  for  atarism  are 
rereraion,  breeding  back,  and  crying  back.  The 
cfaanict«riiticK  of  remote  ancestors  wilt  frum  time 
to  tioie  appear  in  their  descendants.  Charactera 
WHywed  to  have  been  br»l  out  and  eliminated  may 
reappear  without  any  apparent  reason.  Kvery  ani- 
mu  posseasee  all  the  characters  of  its  parents  aa 
Tell  u  all  those  of  its  ancestors.  Those  characters 
which  determine  the  form,  habite  and  Life  of  the 
individaal  are  the  dominant  characters.  Theothers 
are  latent,  Atavi:<m.  or  reversion,  ia  not  a  rare 
erent  resulting  from  peculiarly  favorable  condi- 
tions aurroundiDg  the  indi^daal.  but  it  occurs  fn^ 
qoeotly  amon; crossed  forms  and  is  not  rare  among 
Qocroaaed  races.  Some  of  the  causes  which  8e<?m 
to  favor  the  appearance  of  atuvism  are  the  chiinge 
of  environment  and  crossing.  As  an  example  of 
the  ant  cause  we  find  that  when  domestic  animals 
are  permitted  to  mn  wild  they  speedily  revert  to 
the  characters  of  their  unimproved  ancestors. 

Bnenion  t4  ff^wuerf  /orm«. 

Croti^g  neenu  to  be  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  the  appearance  of  atavistic  characters.  Severe 
croHJng,  particularlv.  is  the  act  of  cnmhintng 
dhreraity  of  hlood  anj  hain  the  effect  of  breaking  up 
weH-establiahe'l  characters.  The  freqnent  appear- 
ance "f  atavijim  in  a  pnre-bred  herd  is  an  unfavor- 
able indication.  Some  examples  of  atavism  follow : 

Uaoy  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  cattle  are  de- 
«e«nded  from  the  wild  white  cattle  of  Great  Britain. 
Tbeae  cattle  are  small  in  size,  and  white,  with 
brows  or  red  ears.  Not  infr«^uently  among  our 
doaertic  breeds  white  calves  are  dropped  witH  red 
canL  Thta  la  said  to  be  especially  frequent  when 
SbortboTB  and  West  Highland  cattle  are  crossed. 
Polled  cattle  were  originally  homed.  Very  often 
ealvsi  are  dropped  by  peeled  animals  that  have  rudi- 
BBOtory  boroB.  Sheep  were  originally  black  or 
bfvwn,  and  black  sheep  are  common  in  every  flock. 
At  the  Hicbigan  Agricultural  College  the  writer  at 
oQfi  time  creieed  an  Essex  sow  and  a  I>uroc  .lerttey 
bo»r.  The  pigs  were  aandy-colorod.  with  stripes 
iMgthwiae  of  the  body,  like  the  n|d  wild  boar. 

hkmiamm  of  aeqaired  tkaratiert. 

Alt  aeqaired  character  lit  one  gained  as  a  result 
of  aefcfoB  or  oon-action  or  reaction  from  the  environ- 


ment, aaya  Jordan.  It  ^i  clearly  to  be  distinguished 
fnim  inherltrfMlqimlities.  The  acnuirw)  character  i.s 
usually  a  mudilir.itir>n  of  some  existing  charricter 
or  characters.  Education  is  an  acquired  character. 
The  cxtt-'Htof  the  individual  acf|uircment  of  an  ani- 
mal mea.-«urca  tho  winning  or  losing  in  life.  Lamarck 
held  thnt  usq  makes  organs  ellicient.  The  needs  of 
an  animal  in  any  given  direction  encourage  the 
use  of  certain  parts  which  develop  accordingly. 
Thus,  the  ant-eater  swallows  its  fi.K>d  whole,  and 
y^tkA  no  need  for  teeth.  .4s  a  result,  the  teeth  have 
been  pniL-tlcully  liist.  The  deer  and  antelope  escHpe 
from  tlieir  enemies  by  their  swiftness  and  their 
ability  to  run  fn.*t.  The  fastest  running  deer  are 
therefore  the  titleat  to  survive.  The  al«ence  of  a 
need  leads  to  the  disuse,  degeneration,  and  decay 
of  organi-ims;  thus,  fish  in  caves  lose  their  eyes. 

Lamarck  .iHsumps  that  the  individual  acquire- 
ment of  characters  is  a  result  of  ii?e.  and  also 
a.45i]jmes  without  discu%i»i(jn  the  trani'mi.<<sion  of  these 
acquired  characters.  This  inheritance  of  characters 
80  acquired  has  been  widely  attacked  and  exten- 
sively denied.  Direct  experiments  to  test  this 
theory  have  not  successfully  confirmed  the  theory, 
hut  rathf-r  the  reverse.  Yet  it  must  bo  remembered 
that  Lamarck  asserted  that  long  periods  of  time 
were  necessary  for  any  noticeable  tninsmiBsion  of 
characters  which  h-id  been  establi.^hed  by  use  or 
lost  by  disu-se.  Herbert  Spencer  is  one  of  the  most 
noted  exponents  of  this  theory,  and  he  saya.  "change 
of  function  produces  chance  of  structure.  It  is  a 
tenable  hypothesis  that  changes  of  structure  so  pro- 
duced are  inherited."  Perhaps  the  most  noted 
experimental  evidence  along  this  line  is  the  Brown- 
Se<iuar(l  experiment  already  mentioned,  in  which 
the  etlcct:^  of  certain  mutilations  seem  to  be  trans- 
mitted from  parent  to  offspring.   [See  page  3fi.] 

Thtorg  qf  natural  telectian. 

Lamaak's  theory  is  not  sufficient  to  explain  many 
phenomena.  Thus,  the  shell  of  the  tortoise  is  not 
the  result  of  nw.  The  conscious  effort  ascribed  to 
animals  in  great  need  cannot  be  supposed  to  influ- 
ence the  development  of  plants,  althoui^h  we  know 
that  variations  caused  by  changes  in  environment 
frequently  occur  in  plants  as  well  Jia  in  animals. 
.\ll  these  cJianges  may  be  accounted  for  on  the 
theory  of  natural  selection. 

Plants  and  animals  produce  many  timea  more 
young  than  survive.  It  is  estimated  that  only  one 
in  one  thousand  survives.  That  one  bestt  fitted  by 
reason  of  strength  or  intelligence  will  8l]r^■ive. 
This  has  given  rise  to  the  term  "sur\'ival  of  the 
fittest."  The  individuals  which  survivt*  as  a  result 
of  this  rigorous  law  of  natural  selection  transmit 
theirqualities  to  their  descendents.  However,  they 
are  never  exactly  transmitted.  Variation  is  ever 
active;  new  combination»  of  characters  continually 
present  themselvpji.  It  must  ever  be  remembered 
that  the  survival  of  the  fittest  does  not  necessarily 
mean  the  survival  of  the  best. 

Ointinttitu  f^  the  fferm  pliutm. 

The  dintinguiNhed  investigator.  Weismann,  denied 
the  inheritance  of  acquired  characters.   He  main- 


40 


SOME  OF  THE    PRINCIPLES   OK  ANIMAI^BREEDING 


tainod  that  recent  invcstigationit  of  the  cell  and 
the  process  of  fertilization  indicate  clearly  that 
the  reproductive  cells  were  entirely  distinct  from 
the  body,  or  Hitma  celU.  The  Homa  v.e\\»  d»  not  inllii- 
encp  directly  or  indirectly  the  inhurHTit  traiwmJsii- 
!>le  chiiracterH  trtmLiiiiUMl  iii  Lhu  Rtrm  suliatance. 
The  germ  ^uljstEince  of  the  rBpnj^luutivo  ctilis  of  tha 
offHpriHH  are  like  thuae  of  the  parent  except  that 
they  contain  thu  K«rni  i)ualitied  of  both  parL>nts 
onited.  If  Weienmnn  is  correct  in  his  assnniption  of 
the  complete  diirercntiation  of  the  germ  find  the 
Boma  celi,  then  we  must  be  forced  to  accept  his  con- 
cluftion  that  no  infiaence  brought  to  hear  on  the 
eoraa  can  or  d(«w  influence  the  germ.  It  is  not  always 
poflsihlf,  to  conceive  of  the  alwolute  stability  of  the 
germ  plasin.  It  in  atlmitteil  that  any  interfen-nce 
with  the  nutrition  of  the  soma  cell  may  likewise 
inSnonce  thw  physical  chumcler  of  the  germ  c«]l. 
In  order  to  explain  the  inheritance  of  variations 
which  certainly  occtr,  it  is  neceasary  for  the 
exponents  of  thia  theory  to  assume  the  occurrence 
of  HfKmtaneoDS  variation.*  in  the  germ  plasm  itself. 
The  germ  (ilasm  is  highly  stable.  ThU  is  differ- 
ent, however,  from  miying  that  it  is  absolutely 
Btabia  and  unchangwl  by  external  surrou ridings. 
Among  the  domestic  animfilA  there  are  numerouH 
example.'?  of  the  apparent  transmiasion  of  acquired 
character*.  The  aiscriminatiEg  sense  of  the  fox- 
hound as  ho  di.'itingiiishoa  on  tW  moist  earth  the 
fpBsh  track  of  the  fox,  or  of  the  bird-dog  that  Is 
insensible  to  the  fox  trackti,  but  becomes  imme- 
diately excited  in  the  proximity  of  birdB.  ta  an 
interesting  phenomenon.  The  Scotch  collie  seems. 
as  a  result  of  long  continued  breeding  and  training, 
instinctively  to  know  bow  to  aas'ni  in  the  handling 
of  domestic  animals,  but  is  utterly  foolish  in  its 
attempts  to  catch  rati.  Most  terriers,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  tremendouitly  in  euroeet  in  their  frantic 
efforts  to  tear  ap  wooden  tloors  or  undermine 
bnildingft  fur  the  sake  of  securing  a  rat,  bnt  as 
stock -dogs  arc  utterly  n^ieie^i;?.  The  wonderftil 
productive  capacity  of  the  modem  dairy  cow, 
producing  ten  thousand,  or  even  twenty  thousand 
pounds  of  milk  in  one  year,  and  the  transmitting 
of  these  qualities  to  her  olfspring.  are  recognized 
facta  among  dairymen.  Families  of  horses  have 
acquired  speed  at  the  trot  and  transmitted  thia 
quality  with  conalderable  certainty. 

RaifiM'a  thtor;/  of  ilynamie  ikwhpuirnl. 

Recently.  (!as|)er  L.  Iledtleld  ia  aaid  to  have  dis- 
covered evidence  of  ac'iuired  characters  in  trotting 
horses.  .\s  a  result  of  his  investigations  he  has 
BUggested  the  following  principles :  The  develop- 
ment of  any  animal  reetilt^  from  exercise.  The 
amount  of  the  development  depends  on  the  amount 
of  exercise  and  the  al>sohite  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  the  exercise.  Thu«,  thn  agt^  of  the  ani- 
mal as  Well  a»  h'li  training  becumtss  important. 
The  transmission  of  the  development  depends  on 
the  amount  of  development  acquired  before  the 
animal  is  bred  and  still  possessed  by  the  animal  at 
the  time  of  breeiling.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
according  to  thi^  theory,  development  may  be  loBt. 
Graat  age^  with  moderate  and  continuoos  develop- 


ment,  may  be  as  efficient  as  greater  development 
exen'ifted  for  a  ahorter  time.  Hence,  verj-  old  ani- 
mala  having  been  moderately  developed  throughout 
thbir  lifetime  may  l»e  morit  ufljcient  pniihicent  than 
younger  animals  intensively  devt.-lii|>ed  for  a  shorter 
time.  However,  Redlield  holds  that  unimaU  n.re  mala 
and  fcm alii  and  each  life  is  divideti  into  a  young, 
sexually  immature  stage  and  an  old.  sexually  ma- 
ture stage.  During  the  sexunlly  immature  stage 
the  sexes  are  biologically  alike.  During  the  sexu- 
ally mature  stage  they  are  biologically  different. 
This  difference  increases  with  maturity.  Puberty 
represents  Ihe  beginning  of  sexual  maturity,  but 
during  intermediate  maturity  the  sexes  are  partly 
alike  and  partly  unlike.  The  devfdopinent  acquired 
before  sexual  maturity  is  transmitted  wjually  to 
both  stfXBH.  The  development  acquired  after  fiexual 
maturity  ia  transmitted  only  to  the  offspring  of 
the  same  sex.  Thus  stallions  dm*eloi>ed  yonog,, 
before  SL'rxual  maturity,  make  gnw)  aires  of  mares. 
Stallions  that  arc  developed  after  the  sexually 
mature  stage  make  good  sires  of  stallions,  bnt  not 
of  mares.  The  same  principle  applies  tu  mares. 
This  theory  is  found«i  on  the  study  of  a  very  large 
number  of  individual  breeding  horses,  stallions 
and  mares,  recorded  in  the  register  book  of  the 
breed.  The  conclusions  may  not  bo  justified  by  the 
facts  presented,  but  the  investig;ation  is  a  distinct 
contribution  U>  our  knowledge  of  breeding,  and 
should  be  continued. 

Whether  there  is  a  direct  transmission  of  ac- 
quired characters  or  not.  it  is  certainly  true  that 
the  characteristics  which  dominate  some  of  the 
highly  improved  breeds  of  live-stock  are  tran»* 
roitted.  and  the  linal  results  are  the  same  to  the 
practical  breeder. 

Cotitry)ilins  Ike  /ex  of  offxpring. 

Prom  the  time  of  .Aristotle  to  the  present  day, 
breeders  and  scientl.tt.''  have  held  that  the  sex  of 
offspring  could  bu  controlled  by  observing  certain 
conditions.  In  the  verv  earliest  writings  are  found 
full  directions  for  pro<fucing  animals  of  the  desired 
aex.  Kven  at  the  present  time  there  are  many 
practical  breeders  who  believe  that  they  can  con- 
trol at  least  a  ma.iority  of  the  sex  of  offspring,  A. 
brief  statement  of  some  of  the  theories  regarding 
the  control  of  sex  followa : 

(1)  Et  was  maintained  earlier  that  the  right 
ovarj'  and  testicle  produce  males,  while  the  left 
ovary  and,  testicle  produce  females.  This  has  since 
been  found  by  accurate  experiment  to  have  do 
foundation  in  fact. 

(2i  The  sex  of  the  offspring  depends  on  the 
development  or  maturity  of  the  ovum  at  the  time 
of  fertiiiiation.  If  fertilization  takes  place  earlj 
in  the  hftat  the  offspring  will  be  a  female;  if  intha 
last  part  of  the  heat,  a  male.  This  theory  is  widely 
hudd  by  practical  men  and  frequently  practiced. 
It  is  very  qaeationable  whether  this  method  is  of 
any  value.' 

(3)  It  is  asserted  that  each  alternate  o^-um  will 
be  of  the  same  sex.  This  ia  called  the  Stux-vesart 
theory.  In  practice,  if  an  animal  has  male  offspring 
and  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  female  offspring,  she 


SOME  OF  THE   PRINCIPLES  OP  AKIMAL-BRBEDING 


41 


,.■'l^ 


is  bred  the  first  time  nhe  Riinifui  in  he.at.  This 
theory,  ax  thti  otlum  mentioned,  is  not  founded  on 
canfuity  recorded  scientitic  invKstijjationK. 

(4)  It  is  said  that  ciiruful  and  continuoit^  tiei>ec- 

tioD  of  breeding  animals  known  to  pniduce  one  wx 

Oaialy,  will  have  some-  in- 

floeaco  in  deturmining  the 

*aex  nf  uffHpring. 

^)  A  theory  that  has 
etiaaidprahle  merit  and  ttome 
statistical  eviilenee  Hupport- 
ioK  it  i»  that  the  sex  of  tht^ 
offspring  wilt  correitptind  to 
the  perHonal  prvimoderance 
in  streDgth,  vigor  and  age 
of  one  parent  over  the  other. 

(6)  The  kind  of  nutrition 
iBilueDetiB  the  development 
of  MX,  especially  in  the 
lower  fonns  of  organic  life. 

In  the  presi^nt  statu  of  our 
kaowledge,  it  ia  safe  to  couclude 
that  it  is  not  practicable  to  at- 
tempt to  control  the  aex  among  the 
mammalian  animals. 

Prt-natai  infittcnect. 

It  ia  a  popalar  belief  that  the 
mind  of  the  pregnant  female  is 
capable  of  receiving  imprestiionK  in 
■Qcb  a  way  as  to  mark  thu  off- 
•prin^.  The  opinion  rests  on  a 
large  number  of  recunled  instances 
of  apparent  relation  between  men- 
tal impressions  of  the  female  and 
malformations   of    the   otfBpring.  ,^ 

lioet  of  the  examples  brought  for-  N^ 
ward  to  illustrate  the  power  of 
Dwnlal  impressions  are  negative  in 
character.  That  mental  impressions 
or  the  rosnlt  of  extpeme  nervous 
■hocks  may  influence  unljorn  young 
ii  generally  admitted,  but  that  the 
,  ^eeifk  inOuence  causing  the  shot^k 
la  RgiiteKd  in  the  characteristics  of  the  olTspring 
la  exotedioeir  doubtfal.  Extreme  nervous  ahnck  or 
friglit  may  cause  arrested  development,  and  the 
ftncts  of  arrested  development  are  seen  in  huir)ip, 
deft  palate,  fissures  of  the  bjdy.  Iush  of  fingers  iinij 
to«a  and  even  of  the  le^  and  arms.   But  thet^e 
are  also  tho  most  frequent  examples  submitted  to 
illostrata  tlie  workings  of  pre-natal  influences. 

It  is  possible  thst  habits  of  the  mind  long  con- 
tinued may  affect  tho  otFspring.  The  subject  ia  of 
little  interest  to  the  breeder  of  domestic  animals. 
Id  general,  it  should  be  the  constant  eifort  of  the 
breeder  to  surround  the  pregnant  animals  with 
Bonsal  conditions  of  quiet  and  to  remove  from 
'Umd  all  causes  which  might  produce  an  extreme 
MnroBS  shock. 


males.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  ojTspring  of 
the  female  rc».^n]bles  not  its  own  sire,  but  8ome 
male  hre<!  tn  the  mother  at  a  previous  time.  This 
(.enilency  ia  noted  particularly  among  quadnipcds. 
An  esample  in  the  Earl  of  Morton  mare,  a  aeven- 
eighthH  Arabian,  that  in  the  yejir  IHI5  produced 
a  hybrid  C4)lt  from  the  ijuaggn ;  afterwanla  .the 
produced  in  succession  three  cultrt  from  a  pure- 
bred black  Arabian  stallion,  and  each  time  gave 
birth  to  a  foal  marked  with  Htripea  on  the  neck, 


K.T, 


/■ 


k^.. 


•f/-  ^  >>-^^ 


tt  ia  thought  by  some  that  the  inQaence  of  the 
vmi*  iff  not  limited  to  his  immediate  offspring  but 
mtf  extend  to  other  later  offspring,  from  other 


Pil-  39    The  moitier  ol  tbls  twO'VUT  flU?  tuid  wo  nal«  Mlta  In  succMslan  before 

tbe  Uitb  at  thlit  flUy.      S1i<r  pililliin   tint  Ihc   iliicHtnut  pviili'mrs  of    IrU'iroiiy. 
^UwiiPil  Ijy  TtiuuiAi  DinkU.  WinjilUudvlJIo.  Slo  > 

body,  and  limbs,  and  having  a  dun  color  and  short, 
bristly  mane  like  the  qnagga.  This  ca.se  is  f»erhaps 
the  more  remarkable,  becau.te  the  Arabian  is  never 
known  to  show  striped  markings  of  tho  body,  and 
tbe  mane  is  invariably  soft  and  silky  and  lies  Hat 
on  the  neck.  A  similar  case  is  recordi-d  hy  Hiir\'ey, 
in  which  a  female  was  coupled  with  a  wbra.  and 
afterwards  brt-d  to  pure-bred  atallions.  The  lirat  two 
foals  to  stallions  possessed  many  of  the  characters 
of  the  zebra.  Alexander  Morrisyn,  in  1K43,  brud  a 
Clydesdale  mare  to  a  jack,  the  reeult  being  a  mule. 
The  next  foal  was  by  a  stallion,  but  re.sembled  a 
mnle,  having  ears  nine  and  nni>half  inches  long, 
girth  less  than  six  feet,  ami  height  sixteen  hands. 
The  hoofs  were  long  and  narrow,  and  the  tail  thin 
and  scanty.  Dr.  Miles  bred  a  Chester  White  sow  to 
an  Essex  boar,  producing  black  and  white  pigs. 
She  was  next  bred  to  a  pure  white  iSuffolk  boar,  but 
produced  some  pigs  more  than  one-half  black.  Many 
of  the  examples  supposed  to  be  caws  of  tolcgony 
can  be  eajiily  explained  by  tbe  occurrence  of  rever- 


42 


SOME  OP  THE  PRLNCIPLES  OF  ANIMAl^BREEDLVG 


uon,  or  ataTJsm.  fiulmnn  says,  although  in  most 
cases  the  effect  is  due  to  reversion,  yet  there  are 
a  few  cases  in  which  Lhe  effect  is  telegonic. 
The  exiHtrimenti)  uf  Kwart  at  Eilinhurgh  have 
not  given  d^finltti   evidence  of  the  exiatencti  of 

If  tolej^ny  occurs  at  all  it  id  a  rare  event  It  in 
somewhat  ditflcult  to  tietcrmine  hy  direct  investi- 

fation  the  truth  or  falsity  of  tho  theory  of  teletrony. 
r  such  influence  does  exist,  it  must  undoubtedly 
T^Huit  from  the  action  of  the  spermatozna  on  the 
imn^ature  egjpi  not  ynt  ripened  and  expelitwl  from 
the  ovary.  Assuming  t!]at  teleg<)ny  is  a  jJOJiStbility, 
the  authorities  ajifreo  that  it  ix  of  such  rare  occur- 
rence as  to  bo  of  little  interest  to  the  breeder  of 
domealic  animals.  It  occurs  so  rarely  that  the 
practical  breeder  may  with  safety  assume  its  non- 
existence. 

CroM-brteding. 

Strictly  fif«aking,  the  term  crossing  ei^ifies  the 
union  of  distinct  species.  More  recently  the  term 
has  come  to  be  apt»lieil  much  more  generally.  As 
now  aaed,  it  may  refer  to  a  union  of  different 
breeds  or  races,  or  even  the  breeding  togother  of 
different  strains  or  faraities  within  ihe  same  breed. 
The  ffent'rally  recognised  results  of  croi^ing  are 
increa-»e<l  fertility,  increased  size,  and  the  general 
restoration  of  the  constitution,  vigor  and  thrift  of 
animaii).  That  crossing  does  increx^  the  fertility 
of  domestic  animals  cannot  be  denied.  Many  indi- 
viduals are  infertile  with  others  of  their  own 
species,  but  will  be  readily  bred  with  individuals 
from' another  species.  A  mare  infertile  with  a  stal- 
lion will  often  conceive  reailily  when  bred  to  a  jack. 
It  has  been  known  to  botanists  that  some  plants 
are  wholly  infertile  unless  pollenized  by  other  indi- 
viduals. Tho  experience  of  a  large  number  of  prac- 
tical breeders  demonstrates  clearly  that  animals 
carefully  selected  and  closely  bred  through  many 
generations  may  become  weak  in  con&titation. 
These  animals  may  be  res<tored  to  their  original 
vigor  and  thrift  by  eros.'iing.  ('rossing  for  general 
improvement  is  often  attended  with  disappointment. 
The  inexperienced  breeder  is  attract4*dl  with  the  idea 
that  by  uniting  the  be.«t  individuals  of  widely  vary- 
ing types  we  may  secure  all  the  good  qualities  of 
both  types  in  one  individual.  Such  a  desirable  result 
is  aeldom  realized.  The  effect  of  crw^Sng  seems  to 
be  to  break  up  the  eatabti.ihfd  type  and  to  dwlroy 
the  prepotency  of  the  breed.  Th«  cRWS-bred  ani- 
mal is  the  seat  of  conilicting  and  often  antagonistic 
characters.  He  is  anatablo.  Tho  result  of  the  cross 
will  always  possess  a  tendency  to  revert  to  one  of 
the  original  parent  forms.  Crossing  for  improve- 
ment U  uncertain.  Recent  investigations  in  con- 
nection with  Mendel's  law  of  heredity  indicate  that 
Qnder  c<.-rtain  circumstancea  crossing  may  be  util- 
ised for  improving  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  animal  without  sacrificing  the  dominant  and 
desirable  qualities. 

The  result  of  moderate  crossing  is  often  to  in- 
crease considerably  the  vigor,  thrift  and  fertility  of 
the  ofbpring.  Thus,  in  practice,  breeders  fre- 
quently cross  a  pure-bred  or  a  high  grade  female  of 


one  breed  to  a  male  of  another  breed  of  similar  type. 
Thus,  tlie  Poland-China  and  the  Berkshire,  or  the 
Poland-<^'hina  and  Duroo-.Tersey,  are  often  croHStxl 
for  the  priidHclioii  of  markut  hogs,  .So,  thu  Short- 
horn. .'Vnjind,  and  Hereford  breeds  of  cattle  are 
intercroaaisd.  the  result  being  a  very  desirable 
class  of  feeding  cattle.  The  ^rst  crotts  in  all  of 
these  cases  is  generally  highly  satisfactory.  If, 
however,  these  cross-bred  animals  are  retained  for 
breeding,  the  later  results  are  often  if  not  always 
disappointing. 

Gndiiig. 

Crossing  must  not  he  confused  with  the  practice 
of  grading.  Grading  i»  the  breeding  of  unimproved 
females  to  the  males  of  well-established  inipn»ved 
breeds.  The  offspring  are  ag:iin  lirwl  to  males  uf 
the  same  breed,  and  thiw  in  coiilinm?d  through  many 
generations.  This  practice  is  to  be  highly  recom- 
mended and  invariably  results  in  success. 

Inbreeding. 

Inbreeding  may  be  defined  as  tho  breeding 
together  of  close  relations.  Terms  that  are  used 
syronomously  with  inbreeding  are  close-breeding, 
inter-breeding,  consanguineous  breeding,  and  inces- 
tuous breeding.  It  is  the  extreme  limit  of  pure 
breeding.  .Some  authors  have  attcmpt*'d  to  limit 
the  rlesigtiation  of  this  term  to  all  relationship 
closer  than  second  couaina.  The  general  use  of  the 
term  now,  however,  is  not  limited,  and  it  is  perhaps 
impos-sible  for  ns  to  define  the  t**rm  more  accurately 
than  is  done  above.  Inbreeding  is  common  among 
wild  animals  and  has  been  widely  practiced  by  the 
bree'lers  of  domeattc  animals.  It  has  been  recog- 
niz«d  from  the  earliest  times  as  one  of  the  quickeeb 
methods  of  lixing  desirable  ijualities.  Thus,  in 
practice,  when  a  marked  variation  occurs  that  is 
unique  and  found  only  in  one  individual  it  is 
natural  and  logical  for  the  breeder  to  mate  this 
animal  with  its  nearest  relative  possessing  the 
same  characters.  Thus,  the  sire  is  often  mated  with 
his  own  otfiipritiig. 

While  there  is  universal  agreement  regarding 
the  great  value  of  inbreeding  in  iiaickly  lixing 
desirable  variation,  there  ia  some  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  other  results  which  sometimes  occur. 
There  are  some  evils  which  follow  inbreeding.  The 
most  common  undesirable  results  arc  diminished 
size,  weakened  constitution  and  impaired  fecundity. 
Of  these  bad  results  the  moat  frequent  and  enrlie«it 
to  be  observed  is  the  loss  of  fec-.nndity.  Darwin 
mentions  Lord  Western  as  having  imfwrted  a 
Neapolitan  Iwar  and  sow.  He  bred  in-and-in  for 
many  generation?  "until  the  broe*l  was  in  danger 
of  becoming  extinct,  a  sure  result  of  in-and- 
inbreeding."  He  cites  also  the  case  of  J.  Wright 
who  bred  "a  boar  with  daughter,  grand -daughter, 
and  great-graml-daughtor  for  several  geoerationB, 
and  the  result  was  that  in  many  instances  the  off- 
spring failed  to  breed,  in  others  they  pro'iuced  few 
young  that  lived.  The  last  two  sows  produced  by 
this  long  course  of  InbrMdtng,  conceived  when  sent 
to  other  boarH  and  bore  several  litters  of  healthy 
pigs."  The  last  litter  coosiBtod  of  but  one  pig. 


SOME  OF  THE  PRINCIPLES  OP  ANIMAL-BREEDING 


4S 


The  practice  of  inbreedioR  was  common  with 
thefaniona  Bakewell  in  impmring  Ixtnt^orn  cattle. 
Tbomv)  Bat«3,  the  great  lireeHer  r>f  Shnrthorns, 
also  practiced  inbrwiinj;  freely.  The  procrealivp 
powefA  of  both  these  brvc<is  finally  became  greatly 
inpAirtd  by  continuing  thi»  pniciifi'. 

At  the  same  time  some  other  bn.-edcrfl  have  «BC- 
ceed*?d  in  practicing  this  method  for  many  ij:entra- 
tions  without  i»eriou3  harm  to  tbo  reproductive 
functioiu.  N.  H.  Gentry,  of  Sedalia.  Missouri,  one 
of  the  greattat  nn.idern  breetlers  of  Berfcshires, 
has  not  gone  oolside  of  hia  own  herd  since  1875. 
for  breeding  stock.  After  hiit  long  experience  he 
Bin,  "I  have  never  beeu  able' to  detect  any  evil 
effects  of  inbreedinc  in  my  herd." 

From  these  conrtictinn  results  it  is  not  easy  for 
OS  to  bannonize  the  facts  presented.  In  general, 
thcrtj  are  two  beliefs  njtrarding  inbreeding.  Cer- 
tain bree-iers  hold  that  evil  from  Inbreeding  is  an 
accidental  result  and  may  be  prevented  by  skillful 
aelectt'jn.  Thoee  who  hold  to  this  belief  maintain 
that  no  evil  comes  from  inbreeding  which  cannot 
be  easily  explained  by  the  laws  of  heredity  and 
which  may  not  bo  prevented  by  intelligftnt  si^k-c- 
tioQ.  Bad  qualities  are  as  readily  transmitlfd  as 
good  qualities,  and  if  animals  possessing  unOesir- 
able characters  are  closely  bred  theae  defects  wilt  be 
inteiuifted.  It  is  admitted  that  cIoee-bree<lin^  is  a 
Unick  method  of  securing  desirable  quaiicie:*.  but  it 
iA  equally  certain  to  deveton  and  eneonrage  unile- 
iiraole  tendencies  to  evit  which  may  be  present  in 
tbe  blood.  Inbreeding  presuppoees  the  must  careful 
and  intelligent  selection  to  prevent  and  weed  out 
the  ande«irable  qaalities.  In  the  hands  of  a  skiil- 
ful,  intelligent  breeder,  inbreeding  is  a  powerful 
means  to  an  end.  For  the  ignorant  and  careless 
stockman  it  is  almostt  sure  to  result  in  failure. 

There  are  others  who  hold  that  evil  is  a  neces- 
■ary  result  of  inbreeding.  Tb««i!  persons  think 
with  Darwin  that  "nature  abhors  welf-ft-rtiliza- 
tion."  It  is  oeceMary,  in  all  forms  of  life,  that 
there  be  tome  sort  of  union  between  distinct  indi- 
ridnab  before  reproduction  can  tiike  place.  As  in- 
and-inbreeding  tends  to  identity  of  blood  and 
characters,  it  is  oppused  to  reproduction  of  the 
bigfaeet  form. 

hiite-hivft!ing. 

Closely  related  to  inbruodini^  is  the  practice 
known  among  breeders  as  linei- breeding.  This 
method  of  br^iog  relates  to  the  union  of  animals 
more  or  Itsss  cloRely  related.  TIh?  advoc.ites  of  line- 
breeding  insist  that  crossing,  even  in  the  slightest 
deg;ree,  tends  to  break  op  or  sealter  the  more  nr 
Imh  artificial  qualities  of  our  highly  iTni)n>v^d 
breeds.  The  result  of  this  practice  will  intiTferu, 
therefore,  in  a  measnre,  with  the  prepotency  of  the 
animal.  By  mating  only  nnimuls  belonging  to  the 
same  breed  and  even  memberw  of  the  same  family, 
this  tendency  is  prevented.  Thi>  facttt  mentioneil  in 
conntiction  with  the  diseustiions  of  cnissing  and 
inbreeding  apply  to  this  method  of  im|irov<-nient. 
In  geaeral.  line-breeding  favors  the  fixing  of  uhar- 
acteix  but  may  result  in  too  great  retineniont  and 
vijdaieas  of  constitatiun. 


Prdiffree  vertut  individual  eietllenee. 

The  term  pedigree  is  used  to  d««ignate  the  ances- 
tral history  of  an  animal.  In  the  popular  mind  it  is 
uften  conceived  as  a  written  reconi  of  the  namefi 
appearing  in  the  ancestry  of  an  individual.  The 
term  "pedigreed  animals"  is  sometimes  used  to 
mean  animals  registered  in  some  recognized  book 
of  record.  The  i>e<ligree  is  a  roconi  of  the  ances- 
tors of  the  animal,  and  should  also  be  a  guarantee 
of  heri>dity.  Pedigree  is  not  a  guarantee  of  quality 
and  is  not  necessarily  of  value.  Every  anim.il  has 
a  pedigree.  A  good  p(.ili;;ree  is  one  in  which  the 
ancestors  of  the  indtvidual  have  alt  been  notable 
for  possessing  in  a  high  dogree  the  desirable  quali- 
ties of  the  breed.  A  g<HHl  [K.'<ligree  of  a  Jersey 
cow,  for  example,  i»  one  in  which  every  cow  recorded 
among  her  ancestors  has  been  a  high-prMucing 
animal,  and  in  which  every  bnll  montinnetl  hat^  been 
the  sire  of  a  notable  number  of  high  -producing 
females.  The  trotting  horpu  ha«  a  k(Mh1  jifnligree 
when  tho  sires  and  dams  in  his  ancestry  nave  all 
been  fast  individuals.  The  quetstion  is  often  oskud, 
which  is  better,  to  select  an  animal  with  a  good 
pfldigree,  but  him.-ielf,  not  a  g(H»d  individual,  or  to 
select  an  animal  without  a  (x^digree,  bnL  a  good 
individual?  There  in  but  one  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion. Neither  animal  should  lie  seh-cted.  The  infe- 
rior animal  with  a  pedigree  does  not  have  a  good 
pedigree.  Otherwise  he  would  have  possessed  indi- 
vidual e,KcelIence.  The  animal  without  a  pedigree, 
but  of  goiMl  individual  rhftractcr.  offers  no  aMiar- 
ance  that  his  characti>nt  will  be  transmitted,  and 
as  a  breeiling  animal  should  therefore  be  »-hunned. 
The  whole  law  of  heredity  compels  attention  to 
pedigree,  and  the  great  principle  of  selection 
deniands  the  closest  attention  to  individual  excel- 
lence. It  must  not  be  forgotten  in  this  conneo- 
tion  that  the  value  of  a  pedignje  depends  largely 
oD  thu  honesty  of  the  breeders  who  have  owned  the 
.mcestora. 

L  itiTClu  re. 

Much  information  on  reproduution  and  breeding 
is  to  be  found  scattered  through  literature.  Some 
of  the  more  specific  references  are  here  given ; 
Miles,  Stuck  Breeding;  Plumb.  Types  and  Hrewls 
of  Farm  .\nimals ;  Keller,  Verehungslehre  und 
Tierxucht ;  Wilehens,  Form  und  l.eben  1-andwirth- 
Bchaftlichi'U  HausthJere  ;  Cornevin,  Traite  do  Zoo- 
teehnie:  Miiller.  LandwirtschafLliche  Tierproduk- 
tionalehre ;  Itarwin.  Animalt*  and  Plants  Under 
Uiomestication  ;  Smith,  Physiology  of  the  Dome-stic 
.Animals ;  Mills,  .Animal  Physinlngy ;  Weismann, 
The  Cnirm  Plasm  ;  Ribot,  Her*»dity  ;  Vernon,  Vari- 
ation in  Animals  and  Plants ;  Hugo  do  Vrlos, 
,^|iecies  and  Varieties  :  Their  Origin  by  Mutation  ; 
United  States  Department  of  Agrlcnlture,  Dbeases 
of  the  Horse  ;  Low,  The  Domesticated  Animals : 
Morgan,  iilvolution  and  Adaptntinn ;  Rwart,  The 
Penyruik  Experiments ;  Reillield,  Breeding  the 
Trotter;  Craig,  ,Iudging  Live-Stock;  Shaw,  Ani- 
mal Breeding  and  the  Study  of  RrwJs  (two  books); 
Wilson,  The  Cell  und  Development  and  Inheritance; 
Hertwig,  The  Cell  :  Hulh,  The  Marriage  of  Near 
Kin  :  Davenport.  The  Principled  of  Breeding  (1907). 


44 


ANIMAL  TYPES!  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 

By  Frederick  H.  Maw^frnd 

The  lung-continuud  selycUon  of  tha  domestir  ani- 
mals by  man  has  rwrniti-d  in  thu  Ji!Vflo|iniBnt  »f 
cortain  difitinct  types,  uach  of  wliich  is  )iuciiliarly 
adapted  to  supply  some  human  ne«d.  Thus,  amon;; 
horses  are  the  draft,  cnach^  roadster  and  saddle 
types  ;  amonE  c;attl<>,  beef,  daal-ptirpose  and  dairy 
tyjiea ;  among  sheep,  the  wonl  and  muttnn  typca ; 
hoj^s,  the  luiron  ami  fat  )\ag  tyiien.  The-rc  are  many 
mcMJificatioUfl  of  the  iyjitwhi-re  rnvntifined.  Imt  thefle 
are  distinctive  ami  BufllcienLly  genera)  lu  include 


f 


.--< 


In 


_^ 


i:?^''^- 


« 


^M 


So 


Xi 


Ah 


it 


-29 


-za 


**•■ 


r 


ge- 


i3 


Pi|.  M.  PattS  of  tbe  taiie.  t,  Mimk:  2,  mitlrll*:  3.  rnr^:  t.  «rei  1>.  forrhexl:  t.  tmT:  T. 
tifck:  8.  crrai.  D.  whbrni  l'>.  biti-ki  11.  lolm  U.  hip;  13.  croupi  H.  Uil;  15,  lh!|ch^  If. 
qoarti'r^  IT,  rniklii  or  Inwn  iMltti:  IH.  hnrlc^  19,  mlnr;  30,  fl»nk:  21,  Hbs:  32,  t(Mi<1iin»; 
il.  fwllo'-li*:  ii.  pulern;  U.  fwl:  W.  1»wl  of  tool:  ST.  rnnnn:  !^.  kn»:  a>.  rnrmrin:  30. 
fhiwl:  31.  «rni;  Hi.  shnnldrri  3.1.  lhTnittlM<*bi  A.  ilinmacbiiln:  It,  cnrb:  L*.  bcic  ,uiiil 
blood  tmvln;  D,  boDO*p«TlD;  E.tpHni;  >',  wtndgall:  ft.  <>Diipe]  elbow;  U,  poll  evil. 

the  important  hreeds  of  the  domestic  animalR.  The 
conformation  of  the  ditferent  classes  of  animals 
and  of  the  individual  brcyeds  is  considered  under  the 
discusdion  of  the  anlmala  in  Part  lU;  but  l3ie 
general  subject  of  score<ard3  may  well  be  con- 
sidered together  for  purposes  of  comparison,  and 
the  subject  naturally  relates  itseW  to  breediug, 
which  we  have  just  considwred. 

1.  Horse  types  (Kirs.  40-44). 

Dn^ft  horge. —  This  is  the  hea\*ieat  and  lai^est 
repreaentative  of  the  liorst*  tril*.  The  demand  for 
thifi  cloivi  of  horses  is  principally  from  the  gj*}At 
cities,  where  the  ability  to  pull  heavy  loads  is  a 
first  requirement.  The  general  form  h  massive, 
powerful,  low-down,  blocky  and  compact.  The  value 
of  thif<  ty|ie,  other  tliintfx  l>L'iii|rif<)unl.  'i»  directly 
proportional  to  ita  weight.  This  is  illustrate  by 
Craig  in  the  following  comparison  of  the  average 


price  of  draft  horses  on  the  Chica>go  market  daring 
the  year  1903 : 

Avcmfo  WFight  Arenfc  priM 

1-KiO  pounds $155  87 

Um  poanda 159  15 

15iV>  iwundu 169  15 

iri.'>0  pounds 176  66 

ICOO  ponnds 176  62 

lt>r)0  pounda 20P  6t 

1700  pouTiflei 212  89 

17W  pounds 236  14 

18O0  [Hiunda 258  33 

The  quality  of  the  draft  horite  is  indicnted  by 
the  bone  and  hair.  The 
bone  should  be  large, 
strong,  dense  and  Ann, 
and  thifi  tendons  sharply 
defined  and  prominent. 
The  fineness  and  silki- 
nesa  of  the  hair,  ciipec- 
ially  of  the  "  feather"  or 
hair  on  the  fetlocks,  it 
indicative  of  a  gooit  bone. 
Below  the  knice  and  hock 
the  cannon  bone  should 
be  flat.  It  is  not  to  l»e 
expected  that  the  draft 
horse  will  develop  speed, 
but  he  should  exhibit  a 
bold,  free  and  regular 
ftnit  at  the  walk  or  trot. 
A  paddling  or  waddling 
gait  is  undesirable. 

The  detailed  examina- 
tion of  a  draft  horse  is 
greatly  aided  by  the  use 
of  a  score-card.  The  fol- 
lowing scorc-carti'  n.<ted 
at  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri indicates  the  de- 
sirable characters  to  be 
sought  for  in  the  draft 
horse. 

tt  most  be  clearly  re- 
membered that  it  is  not 
paisibie  to  arrange  the  valuiibie  qualities  of  an 
animal  Jifconling  to  any  mathematical  formula. 
The  score-card,  however,  does  attempt  to  designate 
the  relative  values  to  be  placed  on  the  development 
of  the  individual  qualities  of  the  animal.  The 
numbers  placed  opposite  each  part  or  quality  may 
be  considered  as  perctntage  values  and  represent, 
therefore,  the  relative  importance  ascribed  bjr 
expert  judges  and  breeders  of  live-stock  te  the 
Taluable  qualities  popsessed  by  the  various  types 
of  domestic  animals.  The  expert  judge  never  ase« 
a  score-card  in  sihow-yard  judging,  but  it  has  been 
found  to  be  an  exceedingly  valuable  method  of 
teaching  and  of  learning  elements  of  live-stoclt- 
judfpng.  When  one  ha**  scored  a  oumber  of  ani- 
mals carefully  according  to  a  given  score-card,  he 
should  have  good  judgment  as  to  the  values  of  the 
different  "puinta." 

'  TkLD  author  Is  Indebted  to  his  sssoct&te,  B.  B.  Porbee, 
for  eogifestionA  for  acore-cards  aceompanjing  this  article. 


^JlS 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SC0EB-CAKD8 


46 


Draft  House  Scobe-Card 
Claim,  GtiMing 

CENRSAL  rHARACTEOa 

Form. — Broad,  miuw^'e,  blucky,  low-down,  compiurt 
ftid  rrmmelrical.    Sc&le  large  for  the  igd. 

Quality.— G*ner»l  r«(ini;m«nt  of  clMO-cnt  and  «ym- 
metrical  featanMi  bimerlBiinJart^und  strung;  «kin  and 
ktir  Am  :  l«i>dcu  cleSD,  sttarply  d«Sn«d.  and  promioBOt. 

CowtUvUOB. — GeaenKissn'diiynimBtncal  devt'lopmaiit; 
Hwly  carriaK*:  ainpl*  liMrt-<^rth,  Ciparity  of  butrel  and 
deplb  cf  Banlui ;  eyes,  full,  tirig^tit  anil  clear:  DostnU  hiri{v 
«ad  Iflxible :  abnetiM  «f  gmssneu  or  nf  undue  n>llncment. 

SOAU  OF  Poem  ^;^%' 

1.  B«i(ht,  evitimated faands;  corrected 

honilii. 

2.  WeicM.  «atliut«d lbs.;  corrected \ba.: 

•cure  acrordins  to  i^  and  cricKlilion    ...     10 

3.  Action,  walk:  rai>id,  springy,  retinlar,  straight: 

lr'>l  :  frvo.  balanced,  straight 15 

4.  Temperament,   4rDttr)(»Uc,  traclablo 3 

B.  Head,  prajwr  propartioaat«  aiie;  well  carriiKl; 

[irofltrt  stralglit 1 

6.  ■axil«,  neat;  nostrils  larf^,  il«xihle;  Itpft  thin, 
•Tpn.  ftrm -      1 


12. 


8CAi.it  or  PoiKTB,  MDitnari  ^T™! 

Byes,  Ijrtghl,  clear,  full,  both  aame  ci^or  ...  1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Kara,  mvJium  site,  well  carried 1 

Lower  jaw,  anglsH  wide,  well  aiuacled  ....  1 
Nevit,  w«n  miucied.  archod;  tlu-ont-latcli  fine; 

wi!ni-pif)i>  larpe Z 

Sboulder,  miMlonkUjIr  sloping,  Knooth,  mug,  «x- 

tiindin^  inti>  back 3 

Arm,  short,  *tr»ngly  mtuclod,  thrown  back  .   .  I 

Forearm,  lung,  widi-,  ckun,  heavily  cnuicled  .   .  2 

Knties,  Ki.r;iij;ht,  nndc,  deep,  slrung,  t-lean  ...  2 
Fore  cannons,  fhijrt,  wide,  clean;  tcndoiut  c]«aft, 

well  dofint'd.  prominpnt .  2 

Fetlocks,  wIiJl-.  aLraiirht,  strong,  clean  ....  1 

Paateras,  moderately  sloping:  atrong.  clean  .   .  8 

Fore-feet,  large,  pv«n  aiw;  aonnd;  horn  denw, 

waxy:  Roli?^  cnnciavn;  bars  fitrnng,  full;  froga 

large,  elastic;  hccLi  vrijc,  ooo'half  length  of 

toe.  vertical  to  ground 8 

Chest,  de<-p,  wid^:  nrvast  bone  low:  eirtb  large  .  2 

Ribs,  '\wft,  wull  ftprung;  clunly  ribbod  to  hip  .  2 

Back,  broad,  ahort.  ntrang,  muBCttlar 2 

Loins,  ihort,  wide,  thickly  moscled 2 

Barrel,    deep,  Rankn  full 2 

Hipa,  broad,  !jnia!>th,  lerel,  well  muscled  .  ...  2 

Croup,  wid",  hi^arily  miuwled,  nnt  too  drooping  .  2 

Thighs,  deep,  broaa,  moscalar 9 

Quarters,  plurap  with  mnscle,  deep 2 


46 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CAHDS 


SuALi  or  PoTsra,  PoiitinnM  l'eri«ei 

■n)re 

29.  StlSa,  !&r|^,  otrnn^.  muscuUr.  clean   ....  2 

SO.  Gwltina,  long,  widu,  cleaa  hvavily  nrnscled  ,   .  2 

81.  Hocka,  ]«rgo,  »{r«[ig.  wMl',  Awp,  eleim.  well  wt  8 

82.  Hind  CJQOOiM,  iihi^rt,  widv.  cleun;  lendDOS  clean, 

well    (lulinpd 2 

33.  Fetlocks,  wide,  striiight.  utroriK.  rlean  ....  1 

H-l.  Pcsterns,  minirrfi((4y  nliipinj;,  nimnf:.  oloan  .    .  2 
35.  Hind  feet,  liirge,  fven  sis^,  inxin'l;  liwn  di'DSC, 
wmxy;  voIum  e^noavv;  bum  xtrong,  full;  trog^ 
large.  eUatk:  be«ls  wide,  one-half  \vti0,h  uf 

ioe,  TerUoai  to  grmind 6 


Total 


300 


the  mane  and  tail  m  line  ami  of  a  silky  texture. 
Action  and  spi-vd  an-  of  ]»rinie  imiinrtance  and  are 
given  great  promim.'iiM  in  judging  this  cla.'W  of 
hfHTtes.  The  action  should  be  |trompl,  spirited, 
straight  and  rpgular.  The  legs  and  feet  are  of  first 
importaniTp  in  determining  the  durability  of  these 
horses,  iin*]  hence  it  g(»es  withmit  saving  thai 
thtiso  [larta  should  be  frep  friim  any  unsoundness. 
The  lop*  should  pcuBewM  Mtnmg,  dense  and  flat  bone. 
The  tendons  and  veins  stand  out  prominently  and 
fle-thlneM  or  inclination  to  puffiness  t^bould  he 
severely  critifized.  The  special  type  of  light 
horses  which  are  valu<?d  for  special  pHrpose«  are 
the  euaeh  iir  carriage  horse,  the  American  trotter 
or  ruHilsler,  tlie  Thiinmghlired  or  running  horse, 
and  the  Ainertciin  saddle  hnrs*'. 

The  coach  hurse  in  ihu  largest  r^pre-iientative  of 
the  light  horse  type.  He  was  originally  developed 
for  (lulling  heavy  coaches  at  a  good  speed.  He  i9> 
still  well  adapted  for  work  on  the  heavy  carriages 
of  Eurn.jH-  and  of  the  large  cities  of  thia  country. 
The    characteristics     of     tnfwt     importance     are 


V-*.. 


pig.  43.    A  eoMli  typg.     rharliitnAcn*  nOlO, 


Light  home  typer. — The  various  breeds  of 
carriage-,  trotting,  running  and  saddle  horses  have 
many  characters  in  common,  and  the  essential 
qoalitiuK  of  all  these  m.iy  jterhaps  he  romhined  in 
one  description.  The  gwneral  ap|»e.iranoe  »f  this 
type  is  lean,  lithe,  symmetrical  and  muscular.  The 
whole  aspuct  is  one  of  extreme  nervouK  energy  ami 
power.  The  back  is  short  and  strong,  and  the  legs 
relatively  long  as  comparer!  with  the  draft  type. 
The  quality  is  indicated  by  extreme  reiinement, 
clean-riit  featartM,  straight  and  lean.    The  hair  of 


symmetry  and  good  action,  about  sixteen  hands 
high,  smooth  and  symmetricftl  tr  conforrafliion  and 
graceful  carriage. 

The  American  tnitter  or  roadater  is  a  distinct- 
ively .American  breed.  The  chief  roqnirementB  of 
thin  claKM.  are  stamina  and  speed.  The  best  repre- 
sontativei!  are  IG}  to  l[ij  hand.s  high  and  weigh 
1,CKM>  to  1.100  pounds.  The  general  form  in  one  of 
leanness  and  angularity.  The  action  is  letw  showy, 
but  straight,  tme  and  long^ruacbing.  The  long 
stride  of  this  class  is  characteristic  and  accoanta 


ANIMAI.  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


47 


for  niucb  of  the  ability  of  this  type  to  cover  the 
ground  rapidljr. 

The  Tboruughbred  or  ninninK  horso  was  devel- 
oped by  the  EnglUh  largely  for  the  sport  nf 
nciag.  Tho  charact*ri8tic3  described  alinve  as 
beloDginp  to  the  whole  clas.a  of  li^ht  horses  are 
iotoosified  in  every  re^^pect  in  the  Thuniu^hbred. 


^ 


■c," 


Til.  44.    Trottioji  barw.     Dirwluin.    Owned  by 
M.  W,  SAinm. 

H«  exhibits  the  highest  p<Wijibie  devtilopmcnt  of 
oervous  vaergf.  sinewy  and  muscular  proportions 
aod  denKst  bone.  His  evolution  has  bci'n  in  the 
direction  of  the  greatest  possible  speed  iind 
endaraoce  at  the  moning  gait.  He  is  fltnall  in  nize 
and  repre»eot>H  the  extrmne  of  quuHty.  He  has 
been  luied  largely  in  the  improvement  of  other 
light  horse  brrnds. 

The  American  saddle  horse  has  been  justly  called 
the  most  boaatifal  modem  breed.  His  graceful 
form  and  Hmor>th  frictionk-^  action  are  remarkable 
exainptes  of  the  re.<<nlt.t  nf  skillful  lin^ilint;.  A» 
compared  with  the  light  hnr:4es  the  iUhlrlle  hnrue 
i^)proach€e  the  Thoroufthbred  in  f')rrn.  but  bus  a 
much  longer  neck  and  an  eiiak-r,  more  graceful 
movement-  The  pecaliarity  of  thia  breed  is  the 
facility  with  which  it  may  htr  trained  tn  go  several 
diatiact  gai(«i.  These  gaits  are  the  rack,  or  ningle 
foot,  the  running  walk,  the  .straight  walk,  trot  and 
cant«r. 

Ibe  Kore-card  which  is  here  given  is  an  attempt 
to  deteribe  tbe  easeDtial  characteristics  of  the 
light  horee  typo  in  one  scoro-card. 


Ugut  Hqrsk  Scoke-Cabu 
Class,  Gelding 

URNBRAI,  CBARACTBRS 

gVttnD. —  Light,  leaa,  Uthe  and  nuoiiUr;  long-legged, 
in  hark ;  kavtag  gvund  app«>iraaee  hidfeatlve  of 
«cti«iDe  activity. 

ptiAlity.^BxtmM  rofineinent  of  fl}-Tnni(tricaI  uii 
cl«Aa-cal  featnrM,  tlmwiiig  every  roquiri'DK^Dt  of  nlmnj^tb. 
CBfaruM,  styte  and  enK<i< ;  nWo  thin  and  !>1iahl(>.  lOiow- 
fag  T»iaa  plainly :  hair  fine  :  mane  and  tail  fine  utd  ludg  ; 
MiiB  poHentag  plea^  of  Bnhitaace  bat  great  refinement ; 
Madoia  dean,  ■troog  and  iharply  dslsw). 


Ccnstitatloo.— G«n«ro«ui  knd  Aymmetrical  develop* 
ment ;  sn  eipmsion  uf  great  ni-rvvus  energy  :  uotiun 
fipirit^l :  heart -Rirtb  large;  floor  of  chest  full;  barrel 
wi^ll  rouriiejl  and  muderuUfly  dtfcp;  hinii  Hanke  properly 
devolop^d  ;  *>}■¥»  fall,  hrii^ht  and  clear;  nfislriU  large; 
boou  pottAeiwing  abundant  «ubittiuiCB  M  well  u  refinemenL 

ScALi  or  I'oisTB  L"™' 

wcvn 

1.  Weight, _IbB.;  corroctBd lbs. 

2.  Height,        htuids;  corrected- htindfl  .   .  2 

3.  Action,  walk:  long,  fust,  elaatic.  str^igbt  nnd 

re^Tilrir;  trflt:  mpirt,  regnloj,  »traight  ...  35 

■I.  Temperament,  ii[iiritv'j,  eneigetJc  and  tractable.  5 
6.  Skin,  tbin,  ptiabb-,  showing  veins  plainly  ;  coat 

Gnu.  mil,  brtgbC 3 

6.  Head,  corrcH  praporlionatH  »ii«».  well  carried; 

fnatuii'K  clean  cut ;    (irulile  fltrstKlil   ....  2 

7.  Huxile,  neat,  nuHirik  largi',  lli^xiblu  ;  li]M,  thin, 

firm  imd  ewn 1 

8.  Ey^i  fiiil,  hnRht.  clear,  Name  ctilor 2 

9.  Forehead,  brtiad  xnd  full 2 

10.  Ears,  mi'diurn  nit-;  poinl«d.  well  carried,  alert  .  1 

11.  Lower  jaw,  nngiog  w'lio.Kpacc  clean,  wrll  inuiicled  1 

12.  Neck,  wdll    niuncled,   arched,   throatlauh  fine; 

windpipe  laiye 2 

IS.  Shoulder,  lung,  Hltrpin^.  Hinocith,  extending  into 

UcM 3 

H.  Arm,  tthurt.  strong,  wtdl  moBclod,  throtm  back  .  1 

\h.  Fotearm,  Iohr.  wkle,  cioan.  wuli  muarled  ...  2 
10,  Knees,  8Lraigtit,wide,  doep.  slKing.  (Wait,  irtrongly 

HU|i|iiirtcd    ...                4 

17.  Cannons,  abort. clean,  wide;  tendons  large.clcan 

and  prLimini.-nt 2 

18.  PetlflCks,  wide,  Rtraight,  strong,  cWn     ....  1 

19.  Patterns,  Ifiig,  rlupinft,  Ftmng.  cli-un 3 

20.  Fcxc  feet,  tnL'fJium  size,  evtn  and  s^nnd:  ham 

dvn»i  and  waJty;  aolv*  cvuvavw  ,  barii  strong 
and  full ;  frogs  large  and  elastto  ;  boele  wid«, 

onfr-hvif  length  of  toe ;  vortical  to  ground  .  6 

21.  Withers,  hijih,  extending  well  into  back     ...  1 

22.  Chest,  deep,  low,  girth  hirge 8 

23.  Ribs,  ibicp,  Willi  sprung,  clmi'ly  coupled  ....  2 

24.  Back,  short,  broad,  utrong,  mtucnlar 2 

2^>.  Loins,  Hburt.  Iruud,  UiicXly  muscled 2 

24.  Barrel,  lont;  in  under  lim.' ;  flankx  well  let  down  .  1 

27.  Uipa,  i>mo))tli,  wide  itiid  IpvvJ 2 

'JH.  Croup,  lanit.  wide.  mtiHculjir,  not  drooping  ...  2 

29.  Tail,  3ttu;;hod  hiKb.  wi-)l  haired,  well  carried  .   .  1 

30.  Tbigba,  deetp,  broad,  sLronR,  muBcqIar    ....  8 

31.  Qoartera,  deep,  plDiT])  wi:h  muKle  ......  1 

32.  Stidci,  fliriing,  clnaD,  niuiicular 2 

33.  Gaskina,  lonp.  wide,  nnjocular 3 

34.  Hocks,  t.iri;>>,  t<Ln>n):.  nide,  dH«p,  clean,  well  aet.  7 
:i5.  Cannons,   Ahort,   cle^n,   wide:    tendftns    large, 

cluaii  :ind  prumiiient 2 

36.  FellociiR,  wide,  Btraif*ht.  aCrang  and  clean    .   .  1 

37.  Paatems    strong,  eloping,  Bpnagy-  clean    ...  3 

38.  Hind  feet,  medium aixe, even, sound;  horndpinse, 

wuxy ;  m1c8  concaw;  b&ra  sLrong,  full ;  froga 

large,  elastic:    heels  wide 4 

TdUI 100 


II.  Cattle  typea  (Figs.  45-49). 

The  domestic  cattle  of  the  world  are  bred  vbA 
improved  principally  for  three  purposes:  for  beef, 
milk  and  labor.  Incidenttilly  they  farnigh  visefnl 
materials  for  clothing  and  for  many  of  the  arta. 
The  types  most  common  to  .-\merica  are  the  beef 
and  tkiry  types.    The  eitremeti  of  these  olaasas 


48 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


are  vt-ry  diatincl,  but  merge  into  ono  another  and 
are  then  sometimes  called  dual-purpose  cnttle. 
Beef  type.— TiK  catt)e  belonging  to  this  type  are 


J8/_ 


^4^, 


ao 


i^r 


n24 


w 


*^/i 


M 


/J 


iJ^. 


h7 


U9 


iJU 


Tig.  ti.     Pacu  of  Cba  oow.    l.  nnnloi  S.  tne«[  3.  forvbiotu):  4,  Tlirt>at!  S.  Bvcki  «,  (lonlapi 

7,  ilioiililiTi  h.wvtiirni;  U.  hiu-k ;  9,,  rni|i»:  10.  Chllie;  11,  liFuL  12.  fcrfr  irlLii:  ]Ji,  tuw 
rtunki  12  J2,.<?hi-itl^  11.  tx'lb^  14,  lUoki  m,  Mti;  14,  Mv»:  IT.  niiap:  [».  sBlltaK  of  •nil; 
ID.  ihuTl  or  pti)  ^KiiLP;  St),  qiiarKT^  21.  thlch;  23.  hnnk^  13.  •«rlt«b;  24,  litit:  2S.  MtlOr-, 
30,  uiIiIitt  :!7,  ituti:  *JU,  tomnn;  a<.  knnc;  :iO,  ihanhi  '^},  hoof. 


deep  and  full  in  every  part  A  weII-«prunK  rib 
giving  a  brttad  back  with  targe  heart-girth  givrt 
iacrecLaud  room  for  the  valuable  meat  cuta.  Ttw 
back  U  broad.  straightaod'J 
of  mediuDQ  length.  Thai 
loin,  carrying,  aa  it  doehj 
the  highefit  qtiality  of] 
flush,  is  justly  regardedij 
by  consumer,  butcher  and 
feeder  alike  as  the  one 
most  important  part  of 
the  entire  animal.  The 
hi{v8  are  smooth  ami  wide 
apart.  The  rump  of  the 
beef  animal  a  long,  Ii-rel 
and  wide.  A  full,  thick 
and  well-flcshod  thigh 
will  not  he  overlooked, 
and  with  ttuch  a  thigh  the 
twist  will  extent!  well 
down,  giving  the  general 
appearance  of  very  £hort 
lege  when  the  animal  is 
viewix]  from  behind.  A 
detailed  di^Hcrlption  of 
the  l>eef  animal  is  given 
in  the  score- card  fol-^ 
lowing. 


diatinguidhed  by  their  ahility  to  produce  a  Une 
quality  of  beef.  ConBumern  p.iy  n  high  premium 
for  the  choicest  cula  of  beef,  iimi  those  animals 
which  supply  the  largi^t  prujK>rtiim  »(  these 
choice  oiis  are  the  mii£t  in  di^mand  and  bring 
the  highest  prices  in  thu  cattle  market.  The  gen- 
enil  form  of  the  beef  animal  is  broad,  straight, 
deep  and  compact.  Tho  top  and  bottom  Hnea  should 
be  straight,  the  legs  short,  the  back  broad  and 
tbiclcly  covered  with  flesh.  The  (iiirilitie«  most 
desired  in  the  finiRhed  animal  aro  supplie<]  by  a 
carcass  t  f  mt  ^>u6HeHM>H  I  he 
flmallest  percentage  of  elftil 
or  waste  parts  and  a  high 
percentage  of  cdiblo  mtat. 
The  indications  of  prime 
quality  in  the  fat  nnimal  are 
firmnesR,  yet  springy  con- 
sistency of  the  tiesh,  and  all 
expuHud  partit  nf  the  hnny 
skeleton  well  covered.  Unde- 
sirable quality  is  tndlcatfd 
by  a  large  head,  cnarpt.-  bone, 
(jnevenly  di.itribotJ^  and 
patchy  flesh.  The  heiid  should 
be  moderately  Itne  with  a 
broad,  full  and  high  fore- 
head, which  will  auggeAt  a 
well-developed  nervous  sys- 
tem and  strong  vitality.  A 
clear  full  eye  shows  good 
health  and  gentle  tempera- 
menL  The  shoulder  nt  a 
good  beef  animal  is  compact 
and  well  covered  with  fleah, 
with  no  coarseness  or  angu- 
larity.   The  chest  is  brood. 


Beep  Cattle  Scoke-Card 

Class,  Brenling  Females 

aB.SXRAL  CUARACTEfia 

Form. — Compact,  thick-aet and short-lefrKed  in  appear^ 
anco;  bixly  tle«n,  Lhick  amJ  of  modiocn  lenglli;  t«p  Una 
straight,  uader  line  low  in  flanks;  scale  medium  to  livgv, 
not  grefttly  abi>vo  avorago  for  ibi-  hn-od. 

Quality. — C'lenerul  refinement  «f  njmmctrical  and 
cleaci-cat  features;  breed  charact^r^  pronoonced;  bon«  Qm 


'^Mg& 


.■^ 


m 


Mr. 


:^i 


!f- 


■*..'.,- J/ 


-T^^ 


g 


•^j 


fit'  *^-    The  btet  tj-pe.    "Cholc«  foods."  ■  famcnu  Sbonlioni  bull 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


4» 


and  cImu;  hair  Ana  and  soft:  ikin  of  not  mora  than  iD«dii»n 
tUckaeas;  \tead,  neck  and  lej^a  ahort  and  trte.  bat  Htrfln^. 

Conditioo.— 4]rest  wealth  uf  catoriil  Hveh,  ax  from 
abandant  inippl^  of  becit  graas  or  aiher  mushaKe,  but  not 
exceaaiTsljr  (at;  dvuili  -firm,  mellotr  anil  iprin^-.  nithuut 
Uaa,  Idr>p»,  pntclww  or  rolls,  e«|iedally  in  the  liai*k  nnA 
lota:  aldn  looae  and  aoft;  depth  and  ereiu]««  of  Heah 
c«B«iitMit  with  d«Kiwa  uf  fatnam. 

ConttitaHoo. —  Generoua  and  nymmetncal  develop- 
aMat;  Uvalr  comaga;  aoiple  l]<!!u-t-};irth,  cuiiacitj'  ot 
liaml  aad  depth  of  flanks ;  «rc3  fail,  brit^ht 
and  dear;  auetrila  wide  apart,  larf;o  and  upi>D  ; 
abaanct  of  ri'finpinent  to  point  at  dolicacy; 
akin  of  at  least  medium  tfaickne£«  and  fre« 
from  acnrf ;  coat  wf L  and  hriji;he. 

Carif  maturtty. — Cieoeral  refinement  and 
ooni|«ctiie0a ;  bodjr  large,  ctslremiiivtt  sinull; 
aluntoeaa  of  bead,  nock  and  lega  -,  amplitmle 
of  aMh  is  cheat,  bell/  and  flonlu. 

Bcxaality.'-StronEly  marked;  a  geoeral  nppe3Tanc« 
of  aewibtlity  and  feminine  reftaement  of  f^aturoa;  mod«r- 
a&a  laoftb  aad  sraat  capacity  in  coupling;  width  in  loin, 
lup-booas  aad  pm-booes;  well-developed  ndder  and  promi- 
BCBt  milk  r«ln)t;  horn  and  coat  fine;  eycA  Qxpn«iive  of 
miM  and  gentle  AenflilintncAa. 

Sc*ij  or  Points  ^™!^ 

aeon 

1.  AkC|  Batiisalcd ;  coireeled „ . 

2.  WBi(^t,eaUBiated__^lI«.;  corrected lbs,; 

■cor*  according  to  tga  and  condition  ....      5 
S.  Skio,  of  medium  thickneas,  luoec.  soft,  elastic, 

free  frvm  Hcurf 3 

4.  Hair,  ftne,  soft,  thick;  color  and  raarkini^aaccord- 

ine  to  breed 3 

5.  TemperameDt,  iguiet,  mild  and  cnnt^ntod  ...      ^ 

6.  Hotzle,  mouth   larKe.  Up«  thin,  nostrils  large, 

n|>fa  aad  wtile  apart 2 

7.  Face,  fine,  moderately  shnrt  and  broad  ....  2 

8.  Poratiaad,  fall,  broad  and  aquiuv ,  2 

ft.  Eyea,  fnll.  bright,  clear  and  placid I 

10.  Jaws,  wide,  iletvp  and  strong 1 

11.  Horna,  nuMlian  to  amsil,  fine  toxturv,  shapa  and 

color  according  to  breed 1 

12.  Earn,  nu'dium  Mxn,  fine  texture  ....  ] 

13.  Reck,  thick,  vfaort,  curving  amouthlv  inlo  «boDl- 
dera  and  briitkel;  throat  clean:  di'nlnp  MgUt  .  3 

14.  Shoalders,  compact.  NBUg.  smooth,  well  Hcithed  .  5 

15.  Fon-lasfl,  idiurt,  xlruijjht.  strung;  arm  full.  iKjne 

flue  and  clean;  feet  >mHl1,  strong,  even:  houftt 

denaa 3 

IAl  Brisket,  moderately  pmj^ctiTig,  neat  and  broad  .  1 
17.  Chatt,  fall,  deep,  wide ;  heart-girth  large  :  fors 

Sanks  deep  and  full 10 

IS.  Barrel,  capaciuiu,  medium  len;^ » 

19.  ClOpt,  moderatc'lv  full,  Besh  thick  and  even  .  .  5 
Kibs,  long,  clfieely  aet,  well   Hprvng,  extending 

fairly  wt-U   luck :    tuick  bruud  and  Htnught : 

Seah  thick  and  even 10 

Lola,  broad,  atraight ;  Aeah  thick  and  even  .  .  ti 
Hips,  wide  bat  not  promlaeat,  capable  of  being 

■mootUy  coverud H 

Romp,  iDog,  level,  wid*.;  tail-h«ad  smootb;  flwh 

thick  aad  eren 5 

Pifrbooaa,  far  apart,  not  prominent 2 

Tall,  tapering,  bone  line 1 

TUglU  aod  twist,  full,  mnscled  well  down  to 

bocfcs 6 

Htnd-lagll,  short,  straight,  strong :  bone  fine  and 

clean,  fe«t  small,  ittrong,  even  ;  hoofs  dense  .      3 

nod  flank,  low,  full,  thick :{ 

Udder,  largu,  ihapely,  evenly  quartered,    not 

flasliy  :  leata  naifom,  medium  »iti>d,  sqoaraly 

placed,  milk  tains  pronliKiit 5 

Total Tiob 

C4 


Beep  Cattle  ScoRE-CAnn 
Class,  Breeding  Balls 

Form. — Ctimpai't,  thick-si'L,  and  nhort-Iegged  in  appear- 
ance ;  body  deep,  thick  and.  of  miedium  length  ;  top  line 
straight,  uniJLT  line  low  in  flunkit;  fore  (|iiiirt ere  heavier 
than  in  a  cow;  scuSe  medium  to  large,  not  greatly  abovo 
avoragc  fur  thu  brued. 


rV~ 


vj    I 


'/■.■I 


Fl£.  »7.  A  poot  beef  type.  I.lahi  qiinrlpr*  uiitl  nnrrmw  fr»m» 
eiT»  ■  Il4;)it  rlrlil  of  r&TritHH  n\ui  n  )>n>vortloi)itifl7  Inm 
amannt  u(  ilte  rlicup  euta, 

Quality.—  Features  clean  cat  and  iqrmmetricsl,  show- 
ing greut  Btn.'nirth  withoiit  uruexneiw :  brce^]  chaructvni 
pronounci'd;  hnne  Btrong  and  clean  ;  huir  moderately  tine 
and  soft ;  skin  of  laedium  itdckni-as :  head,  &OL-k  and  kga 
Hhort,  alr^jng  anrl  miuwive. 

Condition.- -GTe:U  wealth  of  natural  Heith  as  from 
ahand:ui)t  i^upply  i)f  hvmt  (^rfuM  nr  nthiir  roughnge,  hat  nnt 
excessively  fat ;  flesh  firm,  mellow  and  springy,  without 
tiua,  lumjia,  paU^liiM  or  rulLs  ejipecially  in  thi;  back  and 
Iwn  :  depth  and  evenness  of  flesh  conttistt^nt  with  degree 
uf  fatnpss. 

Coostitution. — Gensroua  and  Bymmeiripal  develop- 
ment ;  lively  oarringe :  umplc  hdart-girth,  capacity  of  bar- 
rel and  depth  of  rtHnka;  cyii  fnll,  bright  aad  cltinr;  noatrila 
wide  apart.  l3rgi.>  and  open  ;  ahsen<^Y'  of  griM»nt«s  or  of 
unniue  rulineineiit. 

Early  maturity. —  Compactness  and  etrcrgtb  with  aa 
much  rvlinvnK'nl  m  i»  comiiBtvnt  with  miwculinity ;  body 
large,  extremities  small ;  shortness  of  head,  neck  and 
It-ga;  amplitude  u(  girth  in  chuxt,  bolly  und  flunks. 

Sexuality. —  Strongly  marked;  a  majeatic  carriage 
and  gL'Der^il  appearanoe  of  moGCutine  powur  and  iiggroa- 
niveQ''^  ;  great  strength  without  groiuneiu  in  h^ad,  neek 
and  legs ;  cheat  well  developed ;  8hould«n  very  stroag ; 
we tl-deve  loped  aexnal  orgaRA. 

SfALt  or  IMixra  ^I?^* 

•ran 

1.  Agi,  (wtiniut^'d .;  oorrected 

2.  Weight, est imatfld Iba.:  corrected. lbs.; 

accorling  1«  age  and  ujnditioH G 

3.  Skin,  moderately  thirk.  loose,  soft,  eloetic,  free 

fmm  sourf 3 

•I.  Hair,  ihi<-k  ;  moderately  fine  and  soft,  color  and 

markings  act-ording  to  breed 8 

fi.  TeinpeiBnicQl,  nli^rt  but  (|uiet  and  good  nntured     3 

6.  Muzzle,  mouth  large,  lips  round  and  firm;  noe- 

trilx  large,  niii-n  and  widi-  apnrt 2 

7.  Face,  short,   straight,  strong,  fall 2 

8.  Forehead,  full,  very  broad,  heavj'  between  e>-«s  .  2 

9.  Eyes,  foil,  bright,  clear,  mild 1 


50 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


scAMtir  PoiKTs.pmiHiHwd  'i^rt'      anffDlartty.   There  is  nowhere  aurpliw  fat  ti«uft, 

10.  Uw»,  wide.  Amv  and  strony 1      and  no  matU-r   how  great  the  quantity  of   food 

11.  Horns,  fine  U-xiure.  utmng;  shap«  and  colw  «-  eaU"!!.  tho  reaulting  product  is  finally,  through  the 

uorijiiig  :o  bruiid 1      assimilatinu   energies  of  the  cow,  manufactured 

12.  S«rs,  medium  size,  w«n  hniivd,  not  co&tm  .  .      1      into  milk    and  biitt«r.    The    ideal   dairy  form  a 
IS.  Heck,     isbtirl,     iu;ifisire,    cunnng 

BtmnKly     into    Rhnuldfr!;     and 
brisket ;  creat  strontc ;    ttiroat 

olesn)  dewlap  fllltfbt S  ^Bl^^  Ji^E^HRVftC^fVHI^Ki-Vl 

14.  Shoiild«r3,     slroDifly    developed, 

15.  Fore-legft,  short.  straij{ht,eirni  full. 

Lmni)  lilrun^   und   ckun;    buufs 

lurKe,  »T.ron£, even  and  dense  .        3  S^^K:'^ 

16.  Brislcet,    dct'p,     brood,    rounded, 

nent,  moderately  prciJM^ting  .   .      1 " 

17.  Chert,  lull,  deep,  *idoi  hettrt-girth 

larffe;  fore  ilankit  dw-p  ....     10 

18.  Barrel,  dtgep.liruud.ntedmra  length      4 
1».  Ciops,  fnll  nnd  [hick.  stralKhl  In 

top  line 6  HV       ^^.   i'  '^  t  V'  I      r"^ 

20.  Ribs,  lofi^.ctiw^iys^t,  well Kprung.  ^hV  f'/J-t  ^^^^  Vi    .i  L  jf  hifMBllB    '  /^  <       il  I   L  i 

exlondinu  wvil  liacli;  tia(.-k  broad  :      /  ^liSAMjailll^^^tuiwtWMH 

and  alraiKhi;    flesh  thick  and        ,'  3BBW^'*B*'V^'*^™^^^W?''^f  ' 

even 10  ^^^^"^- ^    ■>  ^-  "^"^  >' 

21.  Loin,  broad,  Btraifibt ;  fl«h  thick  ^"^^  pis  «     a  d*diy  tyrw 

and  ewo 6 

22.  Hipi,  wide,  but  nftt  prominent,  eapal-lc-  of  beinu  wedge-shaped,    viewed    from    the   front,  side  and" 

23.  RrrtTvH  wid;.;  uil-h.ad»mo«tb-;  ««.h  fl'V,^'   "^["^  w«lg.^hap.-  should  be.due  primarily 

iJiick  and  even  o  '**  ^^^  enlarged  and  expanded  pelvic  region.  The 

24.  Pin-bonee,  far  ai.aVt!  not*  p'roininent  .    .'..'.  2  ^^^^id  of  the  dairy  animal  should  be  rather  long. 

25.  Tail,  LaperinK,  bono  moderately  finn 1  broad  at  the  forehea*!,  the  face  somewhat  dished 

2t}.  Tbigha,  full,  widd  and  devp;  muxcled  well  down  and  the  noi<tril»  large  and  upen.     A    dense  horo 

tj  hooka 4     structure  is  desirable.  Tht;  neck  is  long,  thin  and 

27.  TwUt,  deep  and  full 4      muscular,  but  it  should  tic  neatly  attached  to  the 

28.  Hind -legs,  f>hi.rt.xtr,ilglit.  bono  Btrong  and  clean;  ahoulders.     The  shoulders    themselves   should    lie 

29.  HindtairfulL  rw'  "'  T  :::::::  I      ^r^'^^'y  ^lo^e  together,  forming  at  the  withers 

80.  T«rticl«.,  *nll  developed.  br>[h  preaeni  and  nor-  a  sharp  angle.   The^  chest,  while  narrower  than  m 

nudly  plutwi 3      '"^  beef  animal,  should   be  deep  and  capacious. 

_     ,  .....  ._^     ^^^  j^^^  ^^^^  front  and  behind,  should  be  straight 

'•*•* ^^     and  be  attached  to  the  comers  of  the  body.   The 

Dairy  i\fpe.—'T)\Q  typical  dairy  animal  ia  widely  back  should  be  strong,  reasonably  long,  and"  show- 
different  from  the  beef  animal,  The  general  con-  ing  large  backbone.  The  loin  is  broad  and  level, 
formation  of  this  type  is  one  of  leanness  and      ginng  a  good  width  of  back.  The  ribs  ahoald  be 

80  arched  as  to  extend  well 

i^/'il^^l^HS    downward  and  give  the  ani- 

^•^  jj^j    I. _.„_,,  _-«rt-t#aifi:^^'''Tfc?'J^^T*/*sK^    "'^'   '^''K*  abdominal  capa- 

"  '  '"^***'^         T'^'^^'     "      ^^^'   '  ^J^^'lr^jVw '        '^'^^''  The  hips  are  wide  apart 

<.'''•'.  f'U^4^'*\         ^^''^    promintnt.    The    lonj, 

J      .        .■«'>iK'-  ij-iU'Jii^Allifc'^-A        broad  and  level  rump  iaindic- 

"*■    *    "'SiS'^P' • '  ■  ■    "'  Im'llfflirHsBhK'^    \      fitive  of  reproductive  power, 

'"^^P^^^i^^  mMbI^^^^^-^      The  thighs  are  thin  and  mus- 

■y^'i.J^lS^^'  -  WmSmmF  cular.    The  udder  repre«nU 

»'_'■"      '    "*  ■**^^;'^j2^!^J5^^'l|UHffl»  '***  '^'"f^*^  ^^  special  dairy 

'    3^'  --^^^^Wm^Sf^wBaB  development,  and  should  be 

of  good  siu,  extending  well 
'<  iS^marMSfJi*/  forward  in  front  and  up  be- 

hind. It  »hnnld  l>e  provided 
with  four  teats  placed  well 
•^  J,    f\  KMB  apart  and   of  medium  sixe. 

■'V    V  ^    ■)  Um  When  the  milk  is  drawn,  the 

f*f       »^  ^|H  udder  should  be  left  soft  and 

*^*^  ^^^  ■>  ■> '     ,..  pliable.    A  thin  covering  of 

1,,,,^    .'fgy^i^ijft^^ '■-•'''' .  fine  silky  hairover  the  entire 

irx'v.   , ' '^-^■••^  ™  *■      ~         *^^1^m1''*SK?'-''  udder  is  deairablo.  The  milk 

^^-^f  V*         '**'" '    ■'*  '■  .-^^J^i'fliH.tfX"  veins,  so  called,  extend  from 

tit.  *9.   A  doai-parroM  trpe.    R«dpoii«<]  «ow.  the  adder  fom-ard  and  under 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


51 


tbe  thorax.  These  should  bo  Ut^v,  tortnoua  and 
branchinK.  Tht'  milk  wt-lls.  throagh  which  these 
veinii  enter  the  thorax,  should  he  large.  A  yellow 
color  uf  the  skin  i»  considered  de^iruble  by  many 
■uthtfrities.  The  score-card  folkiwing  gives  a  more 
detailed  description  of  thi^  dairy  type. 

Daibv  CATaE  Scorb-Card 
ClaBB,  Breeding  Femalea 

CF.NCRA1.  rHAiUrTKKtt 

Ponn.— Spare,  angular.  moderat«ly  short  •  lefrged; 
kamit  Cttpacioiu;  himl  tiuarti^'n,  uriilx  iiitd  (Il*<>(i;  w-ji1«, 
Bwdion  U>  lance.  notRreally  above  average  for  the  hreed. 

Qoality. — Genrrul  rufinunK'nt  nt  r<ymint*lrk;iil  zi)J 
rl^sn-cvt  fnitiirM; batu>  fine  and  oleran:  hair  fine  and  soft: 
skin  of  not  more  than  m«diam  thicknune;  bvad.  m>ck  and 
le^  Ikie  and  of  nodflrata  len|[tfa. 

Coodttiaii. — Spora.  so  fat  appareDt:  skin  Ioom  and 

Cooatitntioo.  — GcDefouK   and   eymmetricsl   develop- 

nent;  livuly  carriage;  ompli?  besrt-^irCh.  eiigiAi'lty  of  tmr- 

ral  aad  depth  of  fUnka;  eyes  lull.  brii;ht  nnd  clear;  noa- 

trJla,  iride  apart)  large,  and  opsn;  alisi^nci?  of  relinunicnt 

rUd  spmiMM  to  pvtnt  of  delicacy  or  «iD«ctation;  Hkin  of 

I^BmIwiu  tUekMBE.  free  from  scurf;  coat  soft  and  l>ri;;ht. 

Hervons  energy. — SpinnJ  c<»lumn  prflminrnt,  v,^ri*brffi 

wide  apart;  f or* h pad.  high  and  vriie;  earsattive;  tempt-ra- 

Bwnt  ali>rt;  ii!m>  th«  indicatioiia  nf  cr>n»ti(iitirin  and  quality. 

Sexuality.^A  general  appearancf  uf  Hei»iil>:l[ty  and 

feminise  reGiwnieit  of  featarm.  ni'HJeraU'  l»ii(!th 

'  nd  gnat  capacity  in  btirrrl,  width  in  loin,  hip- 

t^oow  awl  pin-baneo;  well  developed  uddvr;  Wrn 

[And  coat  Kne;  eyes  eiprvaarve  i>rni)1d  and  gentle        ij,^ 

siUveneoH. 

MUk-gtvlog  capacity. —I'dder  large,  shapely, 
evKaly  auartfred,  froe  from  tlesliiaeM,  eitending 
»ell  op  bekiiul  and  far  forward, Kroagly  aturhra): 
m&k  f«faM  large  and  tortuous;  milk  well^  large;  iiecre- 
tioM  ot  aktn  abondant  and  yellow ;  a1«i>  th«  nhove  iiidica- 
tlona  of  alt  tbe  other  general  charactera. 

1.  Age,  oeiiiuat«d  . 

2.  Weight,  e«timated      _      Iba.;  corrcoted 

Ibe.;  itcon  aei'ording  to  age  and  condition  .    .      2 

3.  8klD,  tBodiom  fine.    Iomc,  mellow,  plaxtic,  froc 

from  KOrf ;  Jwcrt'tionii  ywllow  and  ahuudanl  .  o 
A.  Hair.  flae.  soft,  chick;  color  and  marking  accord- 
ing to  breed 2 

Sk.  TemperameDt,  iilert,  but  mild  and  tractable  .   .  5 
ft,  Hoixle,  clean  cut.  mouth  laTKe,  lip«  thin,  na»- 

trib  large 1 

7.  race,  lean.  fine,  slightly  dished 1 

8.  Fonfaead,  broad,  high,  altghtly  dished  ....  I 

9.  Bres,  fall,  brlicht.  clear,  mild 3 

10.  Horna,  nx-dtum  to  tunall.  fiiiu  textare.  ahapo  stni 

color  according  to   br*«d 1 

11.  Ban,  nedium  siie,  fin<?  t>-xture 1 

12.  Hwk,  Hne,  fpare,  mediom  l«nirth.  throat  clean: 

daWlap  Ugbt ;  neatly  ittai-bi-d  to  head  and 
shogldera 2 

13.  Shovldera^   lean,  idopinK;  oarriiw  at  witbem. 
^■oderately  wide  at  tuvlnu 2 

14.  Vian-let>,  straight,  abort,  bone  clean  and  Itoe: 

feet  atron^,  hcMfa  denxe  and  even 2 

15.  Briaket,  b'sbt,  thin 1 

16.  Cbaat.  deep,  capaciooa 8 

17.  Barrel,  cipadawi.  medium  length 10 

lit.  Bad^  baa,  auaighl,  m^inm  length;  T^rtebm 

«ida  apaeed  and  pmmlttoai:  rirji  long,  broad. 

ipaeed,  oaoderalely  well  spnug  ....      8 


ScALi  »v  PniKTK.  rrvniinned  *'™'!^ 

■eoTa 

l\).  Loin,  broad,  lean,  coupling  roomy 3 

20.  Htps,  far  iipart,  iKvet  witli  bax-k 2 

■£1.  fiamp,  Iti^in,  I  mg,  bruad;  |«lvic  arch  profnineat; 

pin-boni^  hii:li,  fitr  a));irL 4 

22.  Tail,  tapering,  bone  tine,  length  according  to  breed  I 

23.  Thigha,  thin,  incurving,  IwIkI  roumy   .    .    ,   .    ,  S 

24.  Hind- legs,  HtraiKht,  short,  bone  clean  and  fine; 

leei  stroag;  hoafe  dense  and  even 2 

25.  Udder,  large,  ahapely.eTonly  (luartered,  mellow. 

free  from  fleahineas,  extending  well  up  l>ehini) 
and  far  forward,  strongly  attaclntd;  t«>al«  iini< 
form,  vrell  placed,  of  f^ize  and  $ihape  convenient 
for  milking 20 

26.  Mlllc  veins,  large,  tortooos;  milk  wells  large.     10 

Total 100 


III.  Sheep  types  (Figs.  .50-54). 

Sheep  may  be  bruadty  cinsRilied  as  wool  and 
tnuttiin  breeda.  All  nhiH^p  pnHiuce  wmil  and  all 
sheep  Jire  valuable  for  mutttm,  but  with  shwp.  hh 
with  other  cliu^ea  of  the  domestic  animals,  the 
mutton  rjunlitios  of  certain  hnwds  are  highly 
developed,  the  woo!  being  Bccondary.  Other  breeds 
arc  selected  chiefly  for  thpir  wool.  This  selection 
consistently  for  one  nr  the  otht-r  purpose  has 
resiilttsl  in  the  two  breeds  named. 


JO 


iJJ^      M 


^H 


\w_^iq^ 


Mi 


Tin,  SO.    Parts  01  tbe  «lu>ep.    I.  head:  2,  nrrk,  3,  iiionMer 

vHn-  I.  »h(iulJ»r  >,  1>Tiiik.-l;  fl.  fi>n*lt«:  7,  fliwil :  C  rllwi 
9.  It>ti  of  xlionlrlrr.  IP,  bH'k;  11.  Inini  M.  hipi  tx,  nimp; 
II.  tail^  IS,  Kiinto' <ir  li-K  i>f  uiultiinr  l(t  hlnal  ti«:  )T,flKiiki 
ID.  iMlly:   ID,  for«llaiikr  '».  iwUt. 

MuUan  hfjie.  The  mutton  tyjn!  corresponds  in 
general  form  to  the  so-called  meat  type  of  all  the 
doTneHtic  animals.  Thiit  foriti  is  compact,  thick-spt 
low  down  and  blocky.  The  body  ie,  dwp,  broud  and 
of  medium  length.  The  top  and  bottom  lines  are 
straight.  The  evidences  of  quality  are  general 
refinement  and  symmetry,  fine  smooth  hone,  with 
short  head,  ni^ck  and  legs.  In  the  fat  animal  thi> 
carcass  should  be  covered  with  deep,  firm,  mellow 
and  springy  flesh  evenly  distributed,  without 
Inmpines.'!  or  rolls.  The  wool  should  be  uniformly 
long,  dense  and  with  some  crimp.  The  yolk  sbonW 
be  evenly  distributed  and  moderately  abundant. 
The  other  detaiWd  characters  for  the  fat  mutton 
jiheep  are  indicate  in  the  following  acore-card, 
which  applies  to  unsexed  fat  aninaU  only. 


m 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


.A. 


ifV-^^k 


JK-, 


^r^^i^^'^^^^m 


Fif.  SI.     Ttia  mutton  trp*       Sliromhin  i*«thrr  In 


MuTTox  SaEEi'  Scoee-Cabo 
Clatm,  Fat  Wethere 

(iENEKAL  CKAKAtTKRH 

Fonn,— CotnpncL,  thick-st-t  anf!  «hort-Iegg«d  ;  bodj" 
doe]),  thick,  ind  or  mediuni  Jengtii  ,  top  line  straight  i 
ut«ior  line  low  in  flunks  :  srni*  largf  for  nge. 

Quality. — G«iii.'ral  refinement  snd  symroetry  of  clean- 
cul  fi^uturfs  ;  niuttnii  hivvA  L'hnrac-tL'r  |)n>ii(>un>i.''t>(l ;  hi'iid, 
nedi  and  legx  nhurt :  bone  fine  and  smixftti ;  fleoce  |tuni 
and  fine. 

Condition.—  Prinif  ;  u  dwj',  fVfn  ci-'vering  of  firm, 
nw^llow  anii  sprinfiy  'It-sh,  without  Iuni|w.  patrhps,  rollfl,  or 
andu6  accurtiuUUiin*  i>f  fnt,  (mp^rintly  in  t>aok,  li>in,  rump, 
or  fore  flanlui  i  nerk  thick  :  shoulder- vein  full ;  top  anil 
(inints  of  shoulder,  bnclc-lionf  :ind  Imn  imoothly  covered, 
and  Ixg  "f  inutti>ii  dct^p  nnd  full. 

Coostitntion— .Shonld  be  thoroughly  healthy. 

Early-  maturit)".— (^jtural  rvfiturmcnl  nnd  compiicl- 
wsa  :  body  lur^e;  eiLremitiM  small :  ahortnraa  of  head, 
nvck  und  leg» ;  amplitude  uf  sirlh  in  choHt.  belly  and 
Aanks. 

ScAij  &r  Pomw  ''^*„'^' 

1.  A^B, 

2.  Scale,  (wtimalijd  weight lb*.:  corrected 

Ibe.i  »c«ro  according    to  ago      ...     12 

3.  Sbia.  bright,  clear),  and  free  from  scarf:  color 

accordinn  to  hreed 1 

4.  Fleece,  pure,  unifonnly  lon(f  snd  d«ni(^:  crimfi, 

even  and  linfi ;  quulily  fine;  onttdition  briKhl, 
floan  and  liutrouit :  yolk  evenly  diHtHbtit«>d 
and  miHlurately  abuuUant ;  general  chanu.'ter 
accDrdinK  to  breod 12 

5.  Muizle,  line.  DOStriU  oiwn 1 

6.  Face,  short  ;    color  and  covering  nccardinf;  to 

breed 2 

7.  Byes,  hrlKht  anri  t-leur 2 

8.  Forehead,  hrond  ;  wooled  according  to  breed  .  2 

9.  Kar»,  ilno;  lenjfth,  c<ik»r,  fovering  and  carriage 

accurdins  to  breed 2 

10.  NKk,  HhurC  ii[id  thick,  lilending  amoctltly  with 

tbvubler       3 

11.  Sbontder,  broad,  compact  and  aniii; :  thickly  and 

#T<'nly  fl««hM) 5 

12.  Fore-le£«,  etraiehl,  flhcrt,  arm  foil;   hone  Une 

and  dinootli :  feet  atronp ;  color  and  covering 
aocnrdinp  In  brcn] 3 

13.  Cheat,  deep,  broad  and  foil ;  bricket  mde,  heart- 

ttirth  liirKi< :  fun-  Dankii  dt-i'ji  and  full    ...      & 

14.  Back,  broad.  straiRht  and  of   medium   lenRth  ; 

rita  well  uprun^  ;  thirkly  and  evenly  Ristied  .    10 


Si.'*i,K  iir  PoiHT*.  i-nnilnofd  'ISwr^ 

15.  Loin,   broad  and  straight ;   thickly  and  evenly 

flwhwl 10 

IG.  Satnp,  hmg.    level  and  wide ;    htpa    imootb : 

thickly  and  cVi>nl»  flfsln-d 10 

17.  Thighs,  full,  detihed  low  down,  twist  deep  and 

full 15 

18.  Belly,  not  unduly  larne 2 

la.  Sidd-legs,  straight  and   short ;   bonu  fiiw  and 

smooth  :  feet  Btrona  ;  color  and  e-overinjt  sc- 
cording  to  breod 3 

Total lOO 

TIW  fjipf,— The  wool  typ«8  of  sheep  are  sel(<cttid 
primarily  for  the  quantity  ami  qaality  of  the  wool 
productjJ.  Thf  extreme  type  of  w{»ol  shwp  haa 
perhaps  bpi-n  best  develojwd  in  America.  This 
animal  waa  selected  throujrb  many  years  fw  tho 
production  of  a  fint'  quality  and  large  relative 
prodaction  of  woo!.  The  tyi>e  was  characterized 
by  a  ralatively  smiill  b'>Jy  perfectly  covered 
with  wool  from  the  extremities  to  the  belly 
and  even  to  the  tip  of  the  nose.  Many  of 
the  earlier  eiwcimens  of  this  type  were  pro- 
duced with  immense  folda  or  wrinkles  which 
increaa&d  the  surface  on  which  wool  might  be 
grown.  In  more  recent  Ti^ara.  the  most  highly 
jirized  typu  of  woul  sheep  is  devoid  of  WTinkles.  of 
much  larger  buh  and  of  stronger  constitution. 
This  typ«  is  valnabte  for  both  wool  and  mntton 
and  is  exceedingly  (wpular  on  weatem  ranges. 
Thu  prime  consideration  it*  a  long,  even,  and  dense 
fleece,  evenly  covering  the  entirt?  body.  This  ahould 
be  supplied  with  an  cvi>n  fluid  yolk;  the  fiber 
i^hould   be  Ktrung,  slightly  crimped  and  without 


Pt|.  a.    Amerjcan  I>elaiiu  Mcaiu  m  AbU  oonUtlm. 

break.  A  bright  clean  .skin  i»  indic;ative  nf  a  gotxl 
cnnstittttion  and  general  health. 

The  score^ard  given  hebiw  indicates  tl»e  esseo- 
tial  detitilH  of  both  the  mutton  and  the  wool  types 
of  shefp,  nnd  indiciU'tt  eleurly  the  distinguishing 
differences  of  tht-se  two  valuahle  types. 

There  is  ample  jimtification  for  combining  on  tl» 
aarac  acore-card  the  essential  chanicteristics  of 
both  mutton  and  wool  sheep.  The  development  of 
the  two  characters  of  motton  production  and  wool 
growth  ift  not  incompatible,  and  both  may  b« 
preK-nt  in  the  same  individual.  It  \»  true,  however, 
that  in  improving  the  domei<tic  animaln  it  i»  easier 
to  perfect  one  quality  rather  than  to  attempt  to 
combine  two  in  the  development  of  a  breed  or  type. 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


68 


MKG  SiiEEp  Score-Card  i;^- 

CENIXJlL  cnARAcmis 

Foim.       Compact,    ihtck  -oet    and    shart-       , 
Icggsd :  body  dcvp,  thick  and  cf  medium  lengUi  •     /   / 
top  line  elr.ni};ht:  QDiJer  lino  low  in  flanka;  flcale     j  ^i  /'' 
Urw  for  Age.  V^»  ^"^^ 

QiMhly. — General  r^Anement  JLnd  aymmHry     \$c?v 
of  clean-cut   festurea ;   breed  character  pro-        ^^"^^ 
■KKuteed ;    bead.  Deck  and  \e^  »hitrt ;   inme 
■Dooth,  ino4«ratelj  ftnc  id  eve,    somewhat 
itruQ)(rr  in  ram;  tlitsce  punt,  Sne  in  avtv,  t-rmv- 
what  coarser  in  nun.  , 

Cooditloo.— Orcut  wcuUli  of  natural  lli^eh  '\' 

trat  not  exrewivelf  f At :  ifj-h  firm,  mfillriw  itnd 
gftiagy,  witiiwt  lumpa,  patchtw,  cnWs  or  uodoe 
aecsmolatlons  of  fat,  ().<tp*<<'ia>IIv  in  Iwirk,  Icitn, 
runip  ai>d  fore  flaoka ;  deptli  and  eveon^M  of  fiesEi  con- 
aiitent  wUb  tk-gne  of  fatncse. 

ConstitntiOB. — Generotu  and  (mnmetrical  dcvelop- 
Beat;  ample  heart-tip rlli.  L-[i[ia(-)ty  at  barrel  and  depth  of 
fla&ka;  eyaa  fail,  bright  ami  clear;  noatrits  larte  and 
opaa:  Uin«tfree  from  hmp:;  abm>nce  of  rulini-ment  lo 

C'nt  of  delicacy;  «kin  brifcht ;  ileece  bright,  Aoft  and 
r,  fhinp  ewn,  yolk  moderately  abuDdaot. 

Early  maturity.— <>enenil  n-fim>m4tnt  and  fompart- 
Beaa :  body  large,  <>xtre]xiiti«a  antalU  Bhortneei^  i>f  head, 
neck  and  \tgi ;  amplltndo  of  ffirth  in  (hv^,  bnlly  And 
flanlu^ 

Sexnality.^ln  male*  :  A  buld,  active  and  ag)^0Hmve 
carriage  :  gnai  »treDt:t.h  wiihuat  irroaaiieas  in  hvad,  neck, 
legs  and  aboaklerB ;  wcD-developed  H'xuai  urgiins. 

In  fenaW :  General  refiDament :  eood  development 
of  barrel :  bead,  nock  and  legs  li^htur  an'd  finer  than  in 
ram. 

Mniti.in     FliivWHilviI 

I.  Aie. ^ 

Z  ScalB,  estimated  weight lbs.; 

corrected Ibe,;  score  accord- 
ing to  >£«  10 8 

9L  SUn,  bright,  clt^an  anrt  free  from 

aetirf;  color  according  to  breed  .3 6 


■M'u, 


\ 


r^ 


^^ 


UP 


y*' 


n 


-•\'.-- 


Plf .  5*.   An  ifflciDvM  SoutMowo  *beep  trv^. 


ScAU  op  PoiKTB,  eoui'd 


SI  IV I  ton 

stlPi-P 

I't-rfwt 


m 


aiaap 

Petliet 


4. 


Fleece,  pure,  anifonnly  long  and 
dt'nw;  (Tiro [n-v I'll  and  fiOB;  iiial- 
ity  fine;  condition  briyht,  cWn 
and  lustn^Uh.  yolk  awnh'  dintrtb- 
uled  and  modfrQtt.'ly  atiandant; 
^I'noral   characti>r  ikc-cunltn^;   Lo 

hwed 15 80 

Huzile,  fine  in  ewe.  broad  in  nm  ', 

mMtrila  npt-n I 1 

Face,  shwrt ;  tine  in  ewe,  Blroi  g  in 
mm  i  cflltir  and  covering  nrtord- 

ing  to  bre^d 5 5 

Eyes,  larKi.\  briKhl  jmd  c]i<ar  ...    3 3 

Forehead,  broad  in  ewe,  still  broader 
ill    mill ;    wooled   sccurding    to 

breed 3 3 

Eara,  tl&e;  length,  eolor,  corering 

and  rnrriiigi^  a^'cordin^  to  breed  .    3>  •    •   •   •    3 
H«ck,  short,  blending  Rmmthly  with 
fthiiuldera;     CHpitrially   ihick    in 

ram 3 2 

Shoulder,  brijiid.  I'ompacl,  Fnuguni! 

wpII  di'uhwJ 4 8 

Fort-legs,  Btraight,  abort,  arm  full, 
feet  atroni;;  boiift 
amoflth,  fine  in 
ewe,  »tTong*r  In 
ram ;  color  and 
rnvrrfnj;  acmrd- 

liiK  lo  breed  .   .    4 3 

13.  Cheat,  ii«iip,  bruod 
and  [nil ;  brisket 
wide;  h«art-(iirth 
large;  fore  flunks 

deep  and  full  .   .  10 10 

14.  Back,  well  BMhtd,  broad, 
straight  and  of  me- 
dium length;   ribs  u-MI 

.sfininR a 4 

Loin,  veil  l^)'«bH.  Itroadandstraight    6 4 

Rump,  Ivim,  li'Vrl,  wide  and  well 

dcflhed 6 4 

Tltighs,  full ;    Hedkil   low  down ; 

twi«t  deep  and  full 10 6 

Body,  d*i<e|)  arid  capacioiu  in  belly 

and  hinii  flank.-i 4..    ...3 

Hlnd-lega,  alraight  and  rhort ;  feet 
Btrong ;  lioni.'  J*m.i.iulb,  inwlerittcly 
Cine  in  ewe,  fltrong  in  riun:  color 
and  covering  a,ccording  to  breed.    4,   ,    .    .   .    8 

Total Ibo.  ...    100 


ANIMAL  TYPES  AND  SCORE-CARDS 


IV.  Swine  types  {Figs.  55-57). 

Swine  are  prrHlufiMl  HXcluttivKly  for  thuir  fli«h. 
The  qaality  of  the  flesh  dumantleil  by  variuuii 
markets  varie;,  and  thb  vuriation  in  markut 
demand?  has  n-sulted  in  the  devylupmt-nt  of  certain 
sjMwial  tyjies  of  Iii»k*.  Fi)r  conv«niL-nce,  wl* 
may  divide  hogs  into  the  fat  hog  and  bacon 
claMsen. 

Fal  hog  typf.—The  fat  hog  t>'pe  is  uni- 
versal throiighoat  the  com-lwlt.    It  t»  th« 
extreme  development  of  meat  furm.    It  ta 
diatinKuishpd    by  extn^nie  oiiiTi[>a(:tneaH   of 
form  and  iinunually  small  duvttopmL'nt  of 
bori'ti  »ad  uther  waute  [mrtit.  Thti  hi);bfl3t- 
|>rtce<l  parts  are  the  hams  and  Bides,  conse- 
quently in  all  breeds  the  size  of  the  ham  and 
of  the  sides. ia  carefully  conaidered.    The 
excesaire  development  of  fal  in  the  curn- 
fod    hcig  is  a  remarkable   evidence   nf  the 
int^aence  of  fowl  and  Helttction  on  the  do- 
mestic animal*.  This  tendiency  tfl  hiy  on  fat 
ban  been  carried  to  »uch  an  exlremo  that 
some  individuals  of  thcstc  highly  improved  breeds 
sr©  objoctionablo  because  of  the  extreme  amrmnt 
of  fat  which  thoy  carry  when  fuily  pnR|*ared  for 
market.  This  has  led  to  the  demand  for  u  leaner 
hog.  Such  is  the  so-called  "  bucvn  "  hof?. 

The  scora-canl  here  ijiven  indicates  clearly 
the  essential  details  in  the  conformation  of  the 
fst  hog. 

Fat  Hrto  Score-Card 
Class,  Breeding  Uoga 

•'.BHKKAL  CUABACTBE8 

Ponn. —  Lnw-8t>t,  lirond  aad  deep;  etanding  aquarely 
on  short  and  strong  Icgw  axiA  ftxt :  bank  slijjcUly  nirHtod  ; 
bu'ly  cutnpacl  in  tiiale,  tif  goud  length  in  femuk  ;  onder 
line  approximulf  ly  srnii;;ht ;  wnle  medium  tw  lwg«r,  nM 
grvxUy  atiwi'e  average  for  the  breed. 

Quality. — Ot'iiyral  n.>fincmont  of  syirnneLrii-aJ  and 
cluan-cul  f«ului-oe  ;  booe  clean  and  strong,  moderately 
coarse  in  nule,  moderatuly  fine  in  fumale  ;  sklo  smooth  : 


0 


M 


'r  L 


tiarnd  tuidd«pth  uf  flanks:  eyea  fall,  bright  and  clear: 
coat  thick,  amuoth  aad  brig^ht  i  abseacv  of  relinement  to 
point  of  dtticacy. 

Sexuality.  —  l^trongly  innrked.  In  mutea  :  AcUvacar* 
TJ^a,  n^'^i'iAivii  diiifiosition;  mvngth  without  growo«u 
in  tiea^i  and  legn  .  neck  arched  aEd  beary  .  aooot  bnudi'l 


Pt(.  SS.  Paita  of  the  IlOC.  a.tcout;  Jli.aar:  «,  nmtk;  d.  }oirl; 
«,  iliouliter:  f.  bnclci  o,  Mn;  h.  ruEupi  J.  kLfttDi  t,  sIJp  or 
rlb«i  I,f1iiiik:  M.lwlly:  n.fi^rvnaiiki  a,ron*|p|[:  ;),1i1nilloic. 

lu^r  Itne ;  huod.  n«ck  ani]  li^  short :  xhlelds  In  mal«  not 
■ndulycoarw;  breed  characters  pronounced. 

CoadlttoD. — Strongly  mnscEed  anil  thickly  fleohi^d,  but 
not  excwmrety  fat :  flwh  firm,  mellow,  even  and  smooth. 

Coostltatton. —  Cenenmii  and  Bymmetrioal  develop- 
Dent;  lively  earring;   tinpE«  h«art-ffirth,  ctptcHy  of 


'At; 


PiK.  ».    A  laid  hog  t7pe> 

ahou!d(^^»  Hirung  ;    Hhieldn  present   in  nature  antmaltai) 
wfiU-developod  n^xniil  organs.    In  fctmnlv  :  General  reAn^l 
mi-Tit  of  fealurus  ;  gwd  length  and  depth  in  barrel ;  fall 
number  of  weLUp!a.c<>d  and  wel!-devi'lo|wd  t«3t«  prwwut; 
he»d  liffhti-r  than  in  hoar,  neck  narrower  behind  earn; 
([ood  breadth  in  loin,  hipn  and  rump. 

Early  maturity.— Ci>ni>ral  rjifinoment  and  compacU; 
neaa;  body  larcc.,  extromilien  email;  shvrtni-oa  ol  hea 
Oflck  and  legs;  iiniplitadr  nf  girth  bi  chiMt,  belly  anj 
flaaka. 

8t'Ai.B  OP  Paitm  *'^M^ 

1.  Age,  eatimaU-d ;  rnTrwtjut 

2.  Scale,  cfltimatftd  weight Iba;  corrvelod 

^ . Iba.;  acoro  according  to  ajje    ....      8 

3.  Skin,  smooth,  metlov  and  freo  from  i^L-urf  ...      2 

4.  Bair,  thick,  bright,  Bmooth,  fitri*  and  uniformly 

diatnbatvd  :  color  and  marking  accordiD);  to 
breed 2 

5.  Temperament,  a^grcaslve  in  male ;  ^ntle  and 

quiet  in  female 2 

6.  Snout,  short  and  inootht  tapoHnK  from  face  to 

tip  (if  nose  i  brood  in  malR,  finor  in  female   .      1 
T.  Face,  abort,  nmooth,  hrond  botir^en  eyes,  dished 
according  to  breed,  cheeks  full;  forehead  high 
and  wide 2 

8.  Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear  and  not  obftcured  by 

wrinkles 1 

9.  Ears,  tnudiuni  ur  small,  fine  in  texture.  n«atly 

attached,  rarriisBe  accortinR  to  breed    ...      1 
'10.  Jowl,  full,  gmivith,  firm  and  neat 2 

11.  Neck,  wide,  dc«p,  short  and  nicelv  arched,  blend- 

injT  smoothly  with  shoulder  ;  in  male,  henry  ; 
in  female,  finer  iH^liInd  th(i  cam 3 

12.  Shoulder,  broad,  deep,  full  and  compact;  heavier 

in  mulo  ibnn  m  fcmulv,  but  nhields  not  ludaly 
coarse     8- 

13.  Fore-legs,  shurt.  Ktrai^ht,  strung,  sqnarvly  eet. 

wide  apart :  paaLama  abort ;  feet  stronK :  bona 
moderately  coarse  in  male,  moderately  ftiK  li 
f'-mnla 8 

14.  Chest,  deep,  wide  and  full:   breast  bone  ad- 

vuncod     8 

15.  Back    and    loin,   broad,   strong    and    ali^tty 

nrchud  :  mo'b^rnU-ly  ^hurt  in  male,  moderately 
lone  in  f»male :  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed : 
nlw  well  sprung      12 

16.  Sides,  deep,  fu!l  and  smooth 8 


IMAL  TYPES  AND  SGORB-CARDS 


65 


&CALK  or  Poivrs,«iiitina«d  ^"^r^^ 

17.  Belly,  ri^ ;  under  Mw  a[>]>roximati!ly  «tr«igbt  .      3 

18.  DddM  (fi!fnal<>).  full  einmWr  of  well -developed 

ukI  wctl-piaci.'d  t«AU. 
TMticlM  (male),  w«li  -  devoloped.  both  presont 
and  normally  p1ac«d S 

19.  Hind  flanlc,  law 2 

20.  Bump,  Ions,  broad,  gradually  ronndinK  from  loin 

to  root  at  tail ;  thicldy  and  sronly  fleahod  : 
kip*  vid«  and  aiiKioth ti 

21.  H«Bi»,  foil,  deep  and  broul ;  fleishf^  woll  down 

to  tiocks 10 

22.  Blsd-lep,  abort,  atrsi^t.  strong,  aquarely  mt, 

wUb   aiMTt;    pastoma  ehurt  ^    tml  fttrunK; 
bOH  moderately  cobtm  !n  male,  moderuteiy 

tm»  in  fL'tunh) 6 

23>  T«Uf  tapering,  OAdioia-ftitad  or  small 1 

Total 100 

Bacon  tifpt. — The  general  fflrm  of  the  bacon 
hog  ia  lunf^,  deep  and  of  mediom  sixe.  la  m'cry 
wmy  this  hof;  is  thinnor, 
leaner  and  raagicr  than 
the  fat  hug  type.  He  ta  hito 
in  maturing  but  may  be  fed 
to  a  great  weight.  Tbf-  honu 
is  strong,  the  :ikin  and  hair 
fine  ana  smooth  and  tho 
whole  bodj  bGAvily  mueclMl. 
We  luck  tf8[ii*cially  for  tfao 
development  of  tht.-  sides  and 
belly  in  this  cla»9  of  hog:^^, 
as  it  is  from  tbin  part  that  ,| 
the    bacon    is    secured.     In       '  ^^IT^'jl 

other  respects  the  character-  \r/»^ 

{■tics  of  the  baroQ  hv^  are 
not  widely  differt-nt  from 
the  characters  osptn^ially 
deair«d  in  alt  types  of 
domestic  swine.  The  score- 
card  for  the  bacon  type 
follows. 

Bacox  Hog  Soorb^ari} 

GBKERAt.  CHARAfTKILS 

Form. — Long.  dwp.  iiaoolb  and  vf  Ri«diiim  widtb; 
Mtm  Mraigfat:  leg*  abort  for  the  breed;  head  light;  back 
slightly  arehtd.  iradar  lln«  fltraigfat;  acale  larg«  for  »gt: 
ataadaul  veti^t  170-200  pottnda. 

Qoalitf. — GMMral  refln«nwiit  of  symnielrical  and 
cleaii.«st  lestoraa:  bona  mooth,  fine  and  strong;  Hkin  and 
bair  toe  aad  amooth;  heed,  neck  and  legs  abort  for  the 
Weed;  beooo  bog  bned  character  pronounood. 

OondttloB-— Meanly  mnacled.  moderately  fat;  cover- 
iag  bn.  aeooth  and  of  nnifonn  thiclcneae,  especially  lo 
Mm  asd  belly. 

CenstUiitloD.— Sboeld  be  tboroughly  healthy. 

Barly  oiatBrlty.— General  reftnement,  eapepially  of 
bead,  oavk  and  leea;  body  large;  extremities  email;  ampll- 
liAe  of  girth  ia  cbeet,  belly  and  flasks. 

pBtfMt 


S<'Ai.«  or  Points,  ponliimed  '!!!il!f* 

-1.  Snont,  ahaped  according  to  br&ed I 

6.  Face,  gmwLli  tmd  aHi-htiy  'lixhcd I 

6.  EyM,  (u!i  iiiid  britfhi;  not  ubi^cttred  hy  wrinklea  1 

7.  Etfi,  fme  in  textura;  ahapo  and  {MMition  accord- 

ing  to   breed 1 

8.  Jowl,  ti^'ht.HtDooth  and  iLL>at 3 

d.  Neck,  ]it;hl,  modlum  lengtb 8 

10.  Shontden,    amwah,   compact,  free   from    any 

coarsRneuw :   tn'idiTdtj-Iy   tat 8 

11.  Forc-lega,  Btrai^hl.  aSort  for  the  breed;  bone 

fine,  Etrung  and  smuolb;  pwUinw  upright,  feet 

Dtrong Z 

12.  Chest,  deep;  full  in  hearUgirtb 5 

IX  Back  and  loin,   long,  gniootb,  Htrong,  medium 

and  uniform  in  width;  moderul-:>ly  fat  ...    .  1I> 

14.  Hnmpjlrtne.  «ini-.i>th,  rtiftdiura  in  width;  rounding 

fnjm  loin  to  tail;  moderately  (at 5 

15.  Hams,  firm,  amoothty  cnvcred,  flcahed  deep  and 

Kiw  tow.^nl  boi-kn 10 

16.  Sides,  lung,  Hnmulh,  dwtp,  straight,  moderately  fat  20 

17.  Belir,  long,  eiinooth,  straight  and  firm  ....  12 


SCAL*  inr  POIMTS 


I.  Scale,  large  for  age 6 

2L  Skin,  fiDOOth  aad  fine;  color  acenrdlog  to  breed  2 
3.  Hair,  ahsadant,  ftae,  bright,  amooth;  color  sccor- 

diaglobreed I 


Flc.  97,    A  taaia  hag  type. 

18.  Blod-legs,  Btraight,  short  for  the  breed;  bona 
Ane,  Htrong  and  amooth,  pasterns  aprighl;  feet 
strong 3 

Total 100 

LUeratiirt. 

Craig,  Judging  Livestock,  published  by  the 
author  (1902);  Mayo,  The  Care  of  .■\ninialB.  The  Mac- 
tnillun  Company  (190.'^);  Cioubaux  and  Barrier,  The 
Exterior  of  the  Hnrse,  translated  and  edited  by 
K.  J.  J.  Harger.  .1.  H.  l.ippincott  i  Co.  (1S92); 
Plutrb,  Types  .ind  Rrveds  of  Farm  Animals,  Ginn  Si 
Co.  (190t));  Brmks,  Agrieulture,  Vol.  III.  The  Home 
Correspondence  School,  .'^pringfield,  Maaa.  (1901); 
Shaw,  The  Study  of  Breeds,  and  Animal  Breeding 
(2  I>ooks).  (Irange  Jadd  Comjiany;  Roberta,  The 
Home,  Macmillan  Comjiany  (IMT.);  Rpenw-r.  Pips: 
Breeds  and  MRnagement,  Vinton  &  Co.,  London 
(1897);  Houaman,  Cattle  :  Breeds  and  Management, 
Vinton  &.  Co..  Undon  (1897);  Woll.  Handbook  for 
Farmers  and  Dairymen,  Wiley  &  Sons  (1907); 
Baiky,  The  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Macmiltan 
Co.  (liK)l). 


CHAPTER  IV 


5 


'.1\-**ix 


THE   FEEDING    OF  ANIMALS 

By  W.  H.  JORDAN 

lEEDING  OF  ANIMAI^  CANNOT  BE  GOVDRNED  BY  MERE 
RliTLES  and  forin\ilafi,  The  «uhJBOt  i">f  animal  nutrition  in  broad  and 
exceedingly  complex.  It  involves  a  profound  knowledge  of  certain 
phases  of  physics,  chemistry  and  physiology,  as  well  as  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  thv  characteristics  of  animals  as  sentient  organ- 
isms.  Moreover,  it  is  a  subject  in  the  understanding  of  which  slow 
j  progress  has  boen  made  because  of  the  great  difficulties  that  are 
met  in  studying  its  problems.  In  the  science  of  nulrition,  with 
both  plants  and  animals,  many  conclusions  must  be  reached  by  infer- 
ence rathtr  than  by  direct  observation.  Life-processes  are  hidden 
and  the  deductions  of  the  investipitor  must  be  drawn  largely  from 
a  roeasun-'ment  of  end  roiiuUs,  iiuch  as  the  solid  and  li()uid  excre- 
tions, itui  heat  radiatul  by  the  animal  as  iin  expression  of  the 
enerRy  utilized  niider  j^vea  conditions,  or  thtt  amount  and  character  of  the  milk  ur  body  substance  pro- 
duced under  a  particular  system  of  feeding.  Tbo  course  that  a  certain  compound  travels  after  it  is 
taken  into  the  animal's  digestive  tract  and  the  influenco  it  exerts  on  life  procussoa  can  generally  be 
ascertained  only  by  reaaoning  from  welJ-known  principles  or  on  the  basis  of  exterior  phenomena. 

Before  the  days  of  scientiBc  investigation  in  this  field,  long-continned  experience  in  feeding  animals 
bad  resulted  in  many  precepts  relating  to  this  art,  some  of  which  were  undoubtedly  a  sound  basi?  fur 
practice.  But  this  trwlitiimiil  code  of  knowledge  consisted  of  unexplained  ru.I*'S.  White  we  ow*-  mut^h  lu 
the  uliHervittionM  of  the  pnu'ti^ial  man,  and  while  Hcienee  hua  devoted  much  time  to  explaining  fact:;  with 
which  he  was  already  familiar,  out  of  such  unsystematic  and  aupertieial  observations  as  are  generally 
made  in  the  stable  can  grow  only  an  empirical  practice,  which  has  in  it  few  of  the  elements  of  progress 
and  safety.  In  order  to  reason  from  facts  and  principles  of  general  application,  it  is  necessary  to  Iraow 
the  compounds  of  cattle  fooils  and  their  properties,  the  compueition,  structure  and  life- processes  of  the 
animal  Imdy,  and  tho  relations  the  food  cumpuund.a  .^uHlnin  to  ita  growth,  maintenance  and  physiulogical 
Hiatus.  Briefly,  then,  what  lias  bo  far  been  acL-ompiinhed  in  building  uji  a  liudy  of  knuwiedgu  that 
ni>t  only  may  pr<>)K-rly  hv  culled  a  science  of  nutrition,  but  may  be  made  of  real  astdstance  to  those 
producing  meat  and  milk  ? 

(1)  We  have  accjuired  a  somewhat  extended  knowledge  of  the  compounds  found  ia  cattle  foods  and 
of  the  actual  and  relative  composition  of  many  feeds.  This  knowledge,  when  osed  in  connection  with 
related  facta,  permit'*  a  class ificat ion  of  any  individual  feeding-*itnff  as  to  the  place  it  may  be  ex|)ecl«d 
to  fill  in  a  ration.  It  permits  the  miUf  .milistitidion  of  one  feeil  for  annlher  when  price  or  availabilitj 
milker  thiK  desirable,  without  materially  mixlifying  thu  :inirmnt  or  character  <if  the  nntriLiun. 

(2)  Extensive  determinationa  have  been  mailts  of  the  digfwtiUility.  or  availability,  of  feMing- 
ttuffs,  and  of  the  influence  on  digastibility  of  various  conditiorui,  guch  a&  stage  of  growth  of  the  plant, 
the  amount  of  ingested  food  and  the  way  foods  are  combined. 

(3)  Fruitful  re-iiultH  ha%'e  come  from  long-continued  investigations  as  to  the  functions  of  food  cnm- 
pound.s  in  building  and  maintaining  the  animal  body.  Not  withstanding  the  great  diRicultie.<^  in  this  field  of 
in»]uiry,  certain  facts  are  well  estaldished.  Huch  as  the  formation  of  mu-scular  tisHue  exclusively  from  food 
proleids,  the  pnjiluption  (if  animal  faU  from  iiarbohydrate.'*.  and  the  maintenamTe  of  the  internal  and 
external  work  of  thw  animal  organism,  chiefly  by  oxidation  of  the  non-nitrogetiouM  food  compounds. 

(4)  By  the  uw  of  the  respiration  calorimeter,  with  which  it  is  possible  to  measure  the  income  and 
ODigo  of  the  aniraal  body  and  the  heat-prodoction  as  well,  it  has  been  learned  that  the  principle  of  tbe 
correlation  and  conservation  of  energy  holds  good  in  th«  maintenance  and  operation  of  the  living  mechan- 
ism.  By  the  same  meaas,  the  relative  energy-value  of  the  different  food  cvmpoands  has  kieea  ascertained 

(66) 


THE  FEEDING  OF  ANIMALS 


57 


hj  pliTsiological  measoTflmeate,  and  the  minimum  qnantitied  of  the  differeot  cutri^nU  required  to  main- 
tain aa  animal  of  a  ^iven  kinil  and  wt'i^ht  have  been  determinetl.  Amoni^  thd  mottt  recent  and  moRt 
entighteninK  resulta  with  this  ap]>aratU3  has  bt-en  the  measarement  of  the  ni-t  productive  value  of  fueda 
of  different  classes.  This  value  for  a  ntiit  of  digested  dry  subatance  has  beun  found  to  differ  greatly, 
according  to  the  source  of  the  nutritive  materiiii.  More  Hpecifiejiily  stated,  the  net  productive  energy* 
that  is,  thu  enerjjy  balance,  after  deducting  from  the  total  food-energy  th.it  i«  lost  in  the  excreta  and 
tinoxidized  gase^  and  that  which  is  uaed  in  the  work  of  digestion  and  as^iniilation,  is  greater  for  a  unit 
of  digeetible  dry  niatter  from  the  mo''e  easily  masticated  and  digested  grains  than  it  is  with  the  coarse 
materials,  as  the  hays,  straws  and  other  fodders.  This  well-grounded  conclusion  st-ts  at  naught  esti- 
mates of  the  relative  values  of  feeds  that  were  previously  held,  and  provides  a  new  and  more  accurate 
etAodard  of  mea.saroments  in  animnl  nntritiun. 

(5)  Feeding  experiments  have  demonstrated  the  asefulnees  of  a  great  variety  of  new  by-product 
feeds  and  their  adaptability  to  various  clasfk<s  of  animals.  Rations  nnlike  in  amnunt  and  in  their  com- 
binations of  nutrients  have  been  compared  aa  to  their  effect  on  the  <^ua»tity  and  quality  of  the  product. 

(6)  It  is  fair  to  ask.  What  has  come  out  of  this  great  mass  of  data  that  may  serve  as  a  definite 
^tde  to  practice?  As  fur  buck  as  the  days  of  Thaer,  an  attempt  was  mado  to  use  hay  equivalents, 
that  is,  the  relative  values  of  cattle  foods  in  terms  of  hay,  as  a  basis  for  feeding.  It  is  now  easy 
to  nee  how  irrational  this  scheme  was.  The  first  iLmhitious  effort  at  the  formulation  of  a  systematic 
method  of  feeding  bftsed  on  mr>dern  data  from  chemical  and  physiological  research,  fortified  by  a  limited 
nomber  of  practical  demon.'itrations,  was  the  Oerman  feeding  standards.  These  standards  consisted 
of  a  recommendation  of  definite  quantities  of  digetttible  nutrients  to  be  fed  in  accordance  with  weight, 
age  and  purpose,  whether  for  a  growing,  fattening,  working,  or  milk-producing  animal.  They  a.'^sumed 
a  UDiforni  valoe  for  a  unit  of  dige.'^tihle  matter  without  reference  to  its  source.  Later,  certain  modifica- 
lioas  have  been  introduced,  allnwing  for  the  source  of  the  nutrients  and  the  rate  of  production  of  milch 
eows.  Notwithstanding  that  these  feeding  formulas  were  derived  from  insufficient  data  and  are  imper- 
fect, they  have  had  a  marked,  and  in  general  a  beneficial,  effect  on  feeding  practices.  Tliey  have  induced 
a  study  of  feeding-stulfs  and  of  the  equivalence  of  rations,  and  in  general  have  promoted  uniformity  of 
feeding.  An  attendant  evil  has  been  their  acceptance  as  ruk-s  ruther  than  aa  suggestions.  It  seems  to 
have  been  assumed  that  the  profits  from  a  ration  would  hinge  on  its  physiological  eihcieucy,  and  dairy- 
men have  often  felt  that  they  must  purchase  protein  feeds  at  any  price  and  under  any  conditions  in 
order  to  comply  with  an  orthodox  creed.  Such  an  application  of  feeding  formulas  is  not  rational,  and 
practical  men  are  coming  to  understand  this.  It  now  i^ems  probable  that  the  day  of  a  blind  adherence 
to  fixed  feeding  formulas  is  past.  Apart  from  the  uncertainty  caused  by  conflicting  data  as  to  what  is 
the  really  necessary  minimum  proportion  of  protein  in  a  ration,  we  have  reached  the  broader  conception 
that  the  production  of  milk  or  meat  is  a  business,  and  the  methods  tulopied  should  be  regi]lat4?d  by  market 
prices  and  other  conditions.  The  situation  is  often  such  with  a  given  farmer  that  a  ration  varying 
widely  from  the  standard  may  be  wise  frtira  a  husiness  point  of  view. 

(7)  The  knowledge  gained  in  the  study  of  animal  nutrition  has  exertetl  considerable  influence  on 
uetbods  of  farm  management  and  commercial  standards.  Magnifying  the  nutritive  importance  of  pro- 
tein u  many  authorities  have  done,  and  as  the  feeding  standards  tend  to  do,  has  caused  leguminous  crops, 
nch  aa  alfalfa  and  the  clovers,  to  take  on  an  added  importance  in  the  scheme  of  crop-production,  and 
has  had  the  eff'ect  of  causing  many  buyers  to  purchase  feeds  with  almost  exclusive  reference  to  their 
protein  content.  The  same  point  of  view  has  found  expression  in  legislation  for  controlling  the  sale  of 
commercial  feeding- stulTs,  in  obliging  manufacturers  to  guarantee  the  percentages  of  protein  and  fat. 

Nothing  is  more  rational  than  to  encourage  the  production  of  leguminous  crops,  for  this  practice 
certahly  tends  to  minimis  the  over-dependence  on  the  markets  which,  in  these  days,  when  ko  large  a 
proportion  of  the  commercial  feeds  are  of  inferior  quality,  i.'*  proving  to  be  a  seriona  finnnclal  handicap 
to  cattle-owners,  especially  dairj-men.  But  on  tht;  other  hand,  the  pnimrnence  given  to  protL'in  in  stand- 
anlizing  feeds,  both  in  terms  of  law  and  in  commercial  estimates,  is  irrational.  There  is  no  good  re-ason 
why  the  protein  content  of  a  feed  should  be  considered  to  the  exclusion  of  such  an  important  factor  as 
th«  Dsture  of  the  accompanying  non-nitrogeneous  compounds.  These  facts  are  mentioned  as  evidence 
that  there  should  occur  something  of  a  readjustment  of  at  least  the  popnlar  point  of  view,  as  to  values 
Id  f«<eding-«tu(rs.  It  does  nut  appear  that  the  aid  the  art  of  feeding  animals  will  receive  from  science  in 
the  future  will  be  in  the  nature  of  rules,  but  rather  through  the  application  of  general  principles  to  the 
■pecial  circamatances  under  which  the  feeding  is  practiced.  This  means,  then,  the  placing  of  greater 
cnpluuiis  on  the  itteltigenoe  and  judgmuit  of  the  feeder. 


58 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDIKG 


PRtNCrPLES  OF  STOCK-FKKDING 

By  Hairy  PrriUrxx  ArmM)y 

For  tht)  present  purpcae  the  discuBsion  of  stock- 
fe&dinf;  may  V«  c^ofiicti^red  under  three  general 
heads:  (1)  Thcs  principle  of  nutrition;  (2)  foeding- 
BtufTs;  (:3)  feeding.  Theme  captions  are  taken  up  in 
order  in  the  following  pages. 

I.  The  Prpccipler  o?  Nitrition 

The  ehnnical  imtiis  u/jiliinU  and  animah. 

The  businesa  of  the  Htock- feeder  la  the  conver- 
sion lit  vegetaltlu  iulo  aniojal  pro<luctg.  To  ilo  thia 
intvlligentty,  he  must  know,  lirat  of  all,  of  what 
thoao  products  are  comjMwed.  Portunattdy.  the 
almost  innumerahit  RuhHtanceH  uontaineil  in  plants 
and  animiils  may  \w  srou[M'il,  for  this  pnrpnse, 
under  livf  hi'iu]}),  \'\i.,  water,  aah,  protein,  carbo- 
hydnitt^H  and  futs. 

Protein  in  a  ei-niiral  tirrm  for  all  thosB  inj;redi- 
enta  of  the  plant  or  animal  which  conUin  tha 
elumont  nitrof^en,  Protein  \s  subdividi^d  into  (1) 
proteids  and  (2)  non-proteids. 

(1)  The  proteids  arw  intimately  asfwiciated  with 
the  life  nf  the  plant  «r  animal,  l)eing  the  'charac- 
teristic inRredit^nts  uf  tli«  protuplasm  thnmgh 
which  all  life  manifests  ilsiOf.  In  Ihu  animal  they 
may  be  said  to  ho  tho  hnsiH  of  thu  working  ma- 
chinery of  the  body.  The  organic  part  of  the  bones, 
the  ligaments  which  bind  the  bonea  together,  thu 
muscles  (lean  me;it)  ami  tendnnn  which  move  them, 
the  nkin,  hair,  hoofH  ami  horriH,  the  brain  and 
nt-rvBH,  the  internal  organs,  ant  alt  cdrnpowjil,  jmido 
from  the  walt-r  which  tlifv  cotiUiin,  very  largt-Iy  of 
proteida,  whilo  the  fat  of  the  bixly.  though  often 
exceeding  the  prot«ids  in  amount,  is  L^sentialty 
reserro  matfrial  and  may  vary  greatly  withont 
afffjcting  the  working  of  the  hndy.  In  the  plant  the 
pniteiiis  an*  !«t»  obvioits,  bnt  no  Ipsm  eflHentinl.  In 
the  young  and  gruwing  partn  they  are  present  in 
abundance,  and  they  are  freely  mipplied  lu  the 
eeeds,  aome  of  whi{?h,  as  those  of  cotton  and  flax, 
contain  very  large  amonnts  of  them.  In  the  plant 
as  a  whole,  however,  they  ai-e  present  in  small 
prapctrtion  aa  compared  with  the  cnrbohydrates^ 

(2)  The  non-proteids  inrlndf!  a  liirge  number  of 
substances  which  contain  witriigcn  but  are  not  pni- 
teida.  They  are,  in  general,  comparatively  simple, 
crj'statline  bodies,  soluble  in  water,  many  of  them 
btdonging  to  the  group  of  "amidea."  In  the  animal, 
they  are  represented  by  the  nitmgenoos  extractives 
of  lean  mrat.  Their  exact  nutritive  valne  13  still  in 
douht,  but  it  is  probiihly  lesH  than  that  of  Iho 
prut«idH. 

Tfie  mrbohyfiratea  comprisw  some  very  familiar 
subAtance.s  each  a^  the  tfugant,  dextrin,  the  guma. 
starch  and  cellulose,  as  well  as  many  others  known 
only  to  the  chemwt.  They  contain  no  nitrogen,  and 
contain  hydrogen  and  oxygen  in  the  exact  propor- 
tions to  form  water.  They  may  he  said  to  he  essen- 
tially veji«tahte  proiiucts,  althnngh  iine  of  them 
(glycogen)  ia  peculiar  to  the  animjil.  Olluloiw,  with 
more  or  leas  encroatrng  material,  comititutes  the 
framework  of  plants,  while  starch  and  thu  sugars 


arc  found  abundantly  in  nearly  all  parts  of  Uiem, 
and  form  an  important  ingredient  of  the  food  of 
herbivorous  animals. 

The  /ah  are  familiar  bodies  and  need  no  special 
description.  The  true  fats  of  the  plant  are  very 
similar  to  IhoBe  of  the  animal.  Like  the  carbohy- 
drates, the  fats  eontaiti  no  nitnigen,  but  they  con- 
tain relatively  ]af^s  hydrogen  and  oxygen  and  more 
carbon  than  the  latter  and  are  a  mor^  concentrated 
food. 

Vie  (uh  is  essentially  material  derived  from  the 
g(ii]  thniiigh  the  raniR  of  the  plant.  The  various 
ingredients  of  the  ai!h  doubtless  have  important 
functiona  in  nutrition,  hut  the  subject  h:is  l)een 
little  studied  and  it  ]s  generally  assumed  that  a 
ration  composed  of  normal  feeds  will  supply  Buffi- 
cient  ash  ingredientrt. 

Watrr  makes  up,  in  round  numbers,  40  to  60  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  animal.  In  feeding-stuffa 
it  may  range  from  10  or  12  per  cent  in  very  dry 
material  to  over  90  per  cent  in  very  succulent 
feeds,  such  as  roots. 

i'4)mpo»Ufon  of  the  animal  body. 

Of  the  substances  mentioned  in  the  foregoing 
section,  water,  ash,  fat  and  proteids  make  up  the 
great  mass  of  the  animal  body.  While  carlH)hy- 
(Irntes  are  also  contained  in  it,  their  amount  is  so 
firnall  that  for  our  present  purpose  it  may  be 
neglected. 

Ha(<T.— All  parts  of  the  body  contain  a  rather 
large  proportion  of  water,  which  is  as  essentially 
an  ingreijient  of  the  tissncs  as  any  other  sub- 
stance. 

Water  serves  a  phyaicai  jmrp^ise  by  imparting 
the  prosier  degree  of  elanticity  and  flexibility  to  the 
various  tissues.  It  is  likewise  the  great  solvent  of 
the  body.  The  food  is  taken  up  into  the  tissues 
dissolved  in  water,  and  water  is  the  vehicle  in 
which  it  is  carriefl  to  all  parts  of  the  organism  and 
in  which  the  waate  products  are  finally  excreta 
from  the  bisdy. 

/loA.— The  aah, or  mineral  matter,  is  meet  obvious 
in  the  bones  of  the  animal,  but  it  is  also  contained 
in  smaller  proportion  in  every  part  of  the  body, 
and  its  presence  in  proper  kind  and  amount  is 
essential  In  the  viUil  activities  of  the  cells. 

Prnldds. — As  already  stated,  the  great  hulk  of 
what  we  may  call  the  working  niiichinery  of  the 
body  is  composed  of  proteids,  accompanied  by  ash 
ingredients  nnd  a  considerable  amount  of  water. 
It  is  obvious  then  that  a  due  snpply  of  the  proteids 
in  the  food  is  an  exceedingly  important  matter. 

Fnf.  —The  fat  of  the  Imly  is  ils  reserve  material. 
It  is  formed  when  more  fcMid  is  given  than  the 
immeiiiate  needs  of  the  animal  require,  and  is 
Klorvd  up  in  certain  special  tissues,  called  adipost* 
tis.iues,  to  bo  drawn  on  later  if  the  food  supply  is 
insufficient. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  compoei- 
tinn  of  bodies  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine  in  various 
stsge-'i  of  fatne.>ts.  As  ap|iear.-i  from  this  table,  the 
fat  is  the  variable  ingn^ient  in  the  body,  it* 
amount  depending  on  the  feeding,  while  the  relative 
amounts  of  water,  aah  and  proietds  vary  mach  less. 


PRINCIPLE  OP  STOCK-FEEDING 


VP  UVB  Amuuls 

Ok 

■a 

8lMei> 

Strinc 

• 

2 

f 
> 

2 

^ 

s 

1 

9 

1 
1 

2 

> 

1 

1 

1 

Par 

4.8 

7.1 

15. » 

lao 

««til 

50.2 

-1.4 

US 

1&.Q 

15.0 

r*ul 
43.6 
8.9 
26.8 
13.7 

12.0 

Mtil 

60.1 
4.5 

ia.i 

15.3 

7.0 

(•cr 

66.6 
8.4 
&(! 

154 

16.0 

c»nc 
B3.7 
3.3 
13.2 
14£ 

15.0 

Per 

Mnt 

60.7 

S.2 

18J3 

13^ 

14.0 

Ph 

rrnt 
44.S 
2.S 
2^.1 
12.2 

12.0 

Her 
roni 

39.0 

2.8 

37.!i 

11.0 

10.0 

P*r 

wilt 

53.9 
2.7 

22.5 

i3.d 

7.0 

Per 

rpol 
42.0 

Pkt 

1.8 
40.2 

CottUflto  of  atonuurh  Kitd  Intcs- 

11.0 

6.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

loao 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

10O.O 

Om 


rat  Caff  ^ 
imen 

MMfed 
SAtep-  Ha^fct  mA\\\\M 
Fai 

Peilfpd 


\\m\^mL 


^^i^^m\\\\\m\\\w^m^M^^m^m>. 


mnri 


Ift^^M^J.^^ 


llJMJ^:Ji^:Jfjj^ja" 


rif^iiiBimninniiss88sss^«^m  \^,v-«im 


iiiiiitJM^^i^^\^^mmmm^-^r 


Siv//i« 


r/teC 


fatm. 


J^^ 


Ash 


Pig.  SI.    PercenUee  onnpaafdaii  of  live  uumals. 


71k  efftitpotiiion  and  difftttibilitif  offeedinff'Stufft. 

The  v&lae  of  a  feedin(;>!ttuiT  eviiluiitly  ikpHTids, 
io  Urge  part  at  least,  on  the  amoQnUi  of  protei<!s, 
carbohydrates,  fats  and  aah  present  in  an  available 
ftnin.  The  t^tal  amounts  prt^^ot  may  be  di^tur- 
fflizwd  with  more  or  leaa  accuracy  by  chi^mical 
aoftlysis.  The  rcsulu  of  such  analyaoa  are  usually 
fltat«d  aa  in  the  followiog  examples: 


<.'lo«*r  hay 

Water 15.0O 

ABb ....  B.47 

Prpleidi 10.13 

Koo-pniteids 1.45 

CndtUwr 28.71 

KilrcceB-frM  extract  .  .   ,  36.86 

Cndo  fat  . 2.38 


Cam  moal 
15.00 

1.2:* 

8.67 
0.25 
1.86 
69.40 
3.59 


100.00 


100.00 


The  crude  fat  is  the  material  extracted  by  dry 
ather.  It  coDtains  the  true  fat  of  the  feedinK-«tu^ 
and  sIm  more  or  leas  other  material,  such  aa  wax. 
the  pwn  colnring  matter  of  the  plant,  and  the 
like.  Crude  Bb<er  is  the  residue  l(?ft  attvr  treating 
the  feeding-staff  successively  with  dilute  acid. 
dilute  potatih,  alcohol  and  ether.  lU  chief  ingre- 
dient }»  oelluloM.  a  satistance  (or  substances) 
belonging  to  the  group  of  carbohydrates.  CleaQ 
cotton  or  linen  fiber  are  familinr  forms  of  cellulose. 
Tile  erode  fiber  of  young  plaata  or  parts  of  plants 


and  of  seeds  is  chiefly  cellulose,  but  that  of  more 
mature  plants  conlaine  considerable  amounts  of 
encrustincsubstancea.  makine  it  woody  and  tough. 
The  nitrogen-free  extract  includes  all  the  more 
.soluble  carlmh  yd  rates,  ."(uch  as  starch,  dextrin, 
gums,  sugars,  and  the  like,  and  also,  especially  in 
the  coarse  fodders,  a  great  variety  of  other  sub- 
stances, some  of  them  little  known.  In  brief,  the 
carbohydrates  of  feeding-stuffs  are  divided  into  two 
classes:  The  less  soluble,  contained  in  the  crude 
fiber,  and  the  more  soluble,  contained  in  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract.  The  amount  of  crude  liber  aerres 
to  some  extent  to  indicate  the  bulk  and  coarseceSB 
of  the  material. 

It  itt  not  the  total  amonntfl  of  these  ingredients, 
however,  but  the  amounts  which  the  animal  can 
digest  out  of  them  which  is  the  important  factor 
in  determining  the  value  of  a  feeding-atalT,  By  the 
various  proce.tses  to  which  it  is  subjected  In  the 
alimentary  canHl,  a  part,  and  usually  only  a  part,  of 
each  ingredient  i»  xo  far  modified  as  to  render  it 
capable  of  being  taken  up  into  the  circulation  and 
of  contributing  to  the  maintenance  and  growth  of 
the  body.  The  digested  portions  of  the  proteids  and 
of  the  crude  fat  are  regarded  as  consisting  essen- 
tially of  proteids  and  true  fat  respectively.  The 
digested  portions  of  the  crude  fiber  and  of  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract  have  l>een  fhown  to  have  the  same 
cbemicai  compositios  and  energy  valne  (see  below) 


L 


GO 


fRlNCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


as  collntoae  or  starch,  and  the.v  havf  accordingly 
IxMjn  regarded  as  ccmiiiBting  of  c-.arlmhjdrateK.  It 
should  be  noUHl,  however,  ihrit  in  hi-rliivoroLia 
Hnimaiti  u  nol  inuunHiderablu  prn|Mirtiun  uf  Ihe  car- 
bolydrateH  uiwlergoua  fermuntation  in  thu  paunch 


,.    I: 


__.i-."n 


1] 


FIk.  S9-  SuU  ii»e<]  Id  diceftlon  experinwntt. 

and  caMJUDi,  yielding  cnrlion  dioxid,  marsh  ga^,  and 
goluhlu  [irodiKilH  of  iriffrior  niiLritlvfl  value,  chietly 
organic  acids.  The  mat^rialK  thuH  dis-s^ilvej  in  the 
digoativo  tract  art-  oftvn  a[ioken  of  as  iJigeslible 
nutrients.  The  undigested  part  of  the  feedlng- 
stulFs  is  rejected  in  the;  dang,  or  solid  excrement, 
which,  in  herliivnnjiEB  animalH.  may  be  regarded  as 
cc)TiHi»ting  easentially  of  the  indigestilde  part  of 
the  food,  mixed  with  anmll  amounfji  nf  resiilues 
of  the  digustivt'  juicw,  intestinal  mucus,  ami  other 
waste  products  of  tho  activity  of  th*:^  digestive 
organs.  If,  then^  we  weigh  and  analyze  the  feed 
and  thu  dungnf  an  animal  and  com|Hite  the  nnmher 
of  [K>undj4  of  asJi,  jirnterds,  crnde  fiber,  and  the  like, 
coiiUinei.1  in  each,  we  shall  thud  the  amoimts  smaller 
in  the  dung  than  inthofeed.  The difTerentre  between 
the  two  amounts  shows  in  each  caxe  how  much  of 
that  particular  substance  has  been  dissolved  _ 

out  of  the  ftjod  and  taken  up  into  the  body; 
that  ia,  it  shouH  how  much  of  that  ingredi- 
ent was  digeKlihIe.  The  rvttults  arw  com- 
monly expntstiLv!  as  [wreentages  of  the  total 
araonnLs  fed,  Thuj*  in  an  actual  experiment, 
the  feed  contained  :t.7i  pounds  of  crude 
fibujr  and  the  dung  2.80  pounds  ;  evidently, 
therefore,  2.SH  jwunds  were  digested.  Ac- 
cordingly, dividing  2.!^  hy.'>.74  we  find  that 
C0.17  per  cent  of  the  erode  filier  was  diges- 
tible. The  latter  figure  la  callwl  the  per- 
centage digestibility,  or  aometimes  the 
digestiim  coefficient,  of  the  crude  fiber,  and 
by  the  Kime  method  similar  coefficient*  may 
be  obtainetl  for  all  the  other  ingredients 
of  the  feed, 

Ctrnditioiu  affrctinff  Jigettion. 

The  digestibility  of  the  several  Ingredi- 
ents of  feeditg-etutfa  is  found  to  vary  con- 
siderably nnder  different  conditions.  Some 
of  these  conditions  afTect  digentibility  by 
modifying  the  character  of  the  material 
fod.  and  will  be  considered  later.  Others 


modify,  or  may  be  suppoeed  to  modify,  the  char- 
acter of  the  digealive  processeii,  and  may  be  taken 
ap  here. 

77fc  tfuaniily  qffrtd  cwttswmerf  seems,  under  some 
conditions,  to  affect  it«  digestion.  Differences 
in  the  amounts  of  coarse  fodder  coDsumed  have 
usually  had  no  effect  on  the  percentage  digesti- 
bility. On  the  other  hand,  inereaning  the  amount 
of  a  mi.\ed  ration  fed  haa  resulted  ia  !^ome  decrease 
in  the  ]>ercentage  digestibility,  although  the  dif- 
(erunci!  has  generally  Iswn  small.  .As  tlie  bulk  of 
the  ration  i^  iRcreuse«],  it  niut^t  naturally  pass 
through  the  digestive  tract  more  rapidly  and  iha* 
be  exposed  for  a  shorter  time  to  the  action  of  the 
digestive  fluids  and  of  the  resorbent  organs.  More- 
over, with  large  grain  rations,  it  is  pcispLble  that 
the  limit  of  the  activity  of  the  resorbent  organs 
may  be  reacheil,  and  that  material  may  be  diasoivt^d 
more  mpidly  than  it  can  be  taken  up  into  the 
circulation. 

The  projKfrtions  qf  Ike  nutrients  in  a  ration  may 
also  ajfect  its  digestion.  In  particular,  it  has 
been  found  that  an  excess  of  easily  digestible  cai^ 
hohydrates  reduces  tha  digestibility  of  both  the 
protein,  the  crude  ^l^^e^  and  the  nitrogen-free 
extract.  Thi.t  is  muet  plainly  xhowa  when  a  pure  car- 
buhydrate,  m  starch  or  sugar,  is  added  to  a  ration, 
but  the  name  effect  may  be  produced  by  any  feed- 
ing-stuff rich  in  carbohydrates,  as  roots,  potatoes 
or  corn,  when  used  freely.  On  the  other  haad,  the 
addition  of  protein  (o  a  ration  over-rich  in  carW 
hydrate.^  has  the  contrary  effect  of  increasing  its 
digestildlity.  It  is  staled  that  to  insure  full 
digL'.'^tiliility  in  case  of  cattie,  the  ration  should 
contain  nat  less  than  one  part  of  digostiblo  crude 
protein  for  each  eight  parts  of  diget^tihlo  carbohy- 
drates and  fat,  while'for  swine  thfi  ratio  may  be 
as  large  as  one  to  tw<!lve.  The  effect  on  the 
dige-Htibility  of  the  protein  is  mure  apimrent  than 
real.   It  aeems  to  arise  chiefly  from  the  fact  that 


wv>>- 


VU.  eo.   Bt«ei  la  tto  dlgwUoa  lUOl  wltk  bumw  In  pUoc. 


PRINCIPLES   OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


61 


ja  iho  dift^ioD  of  f(H>i]  of  any  kind  a  ctirtatii 
amount  of  nitrogenous  waste  products  is  prtxlimifd 
by  thv  iliguiitive  organs  anil  excreted  in  the  iec&s, 
where,  liy  the  ordinary  methods  f»f  iligestidn  es- 
perimenlft,  it  i«  reganletl  as  un<li;;fstwi  proU-in  of 
thK  ftwul.  When  Kuuh  allowanft?  jw  is  possilitu  i« 
mailt-  for  these  wawte  products,  the  rwil  dijiesti- 
btlity  of  the  protein  is  found  to  b^  little  alTected. 
On  the  other  hand,  thu  decrease  in  the  digestibil- 
ity of  the  nitrogen-fr^e  extract  and  crude  liber  is 
oot  Rnweptible  uf  any  ttnch  explanation,  but  i»  a 
real  t^tfect.  iLt  rau»e  has  nuL  tKft>n  fully  ebit^idatv^l, 
but  ^witas  to  he  connected  with  mmiit^cationH  in  tht> 
fermentations  taking  place  in  the  digestiva  organs, 
due  to  the  difference  in  the  charaeler  of  the  food 


compietHiy,  the  difference  naturally  being  greater 
with  the  less  easily  digestible  ones.  Straw  Ib 
digested  only  to  about  half  the  extent  by  the 
horse  that  it  is  by  sheep.  For  hay  and  similar 
materials  the  digestibility  by  the  horfle  is  20  to  25 
[ler  Cfnt  lowi^r  than  that  by  t)hi><^f).  With  clover  or 
alfalfa  hay  Ihu  differencu  fiillw  to  abtnit  10  per 
cent,  whilo  concentrate*  are  digi-sU'iJ  practically 
to  the  samo  extent  by  both  Fpocies.  The  crude  pro- 
tein of  all  these  materials  is  about  eqaally  well 
digested  by  both  animals,  the  ditferenc&s  falling 
chiefly  (in  the  i'.arbtihyi] rated.  As  in  theccimpariinon 
of  shoep  and  cattle,  this  probably  means  a  le»i 
extensive  fermentation  in  the  digestivu  tract,  ami 
may    not   necessarily    imply  any   lower  nutritive 


1 


Flc.  (1.    Tbe  Hsckeni  lesplMtlon  appiiranu.     (Arliipi<-il  rroui  Ulo  Lnnilw.  V^rso'-hii' 
Slaliouni.  Vol.  il!r,  Plal«  1.1 

supply  to  the  bacteria  and  other  nrgani-sms  inhabit- 
ing tbe  alimentary  canal.  This  is  inilicattHJ  by  the 
fact,  among  others,  that  addition  of  substances 
like  afiparagii)  or  ammonium  acetate  to  the  ration 
hu  been  found  as  effective  in  overcoming  this 
depreuion  in  digestibility  as  has  addition  of  true 
prot«tds. 

Sfma(!f  animal,— X  number  of  conditions  per- 
UiniB)^  to  the  animal  are  also  to  be  con^iderua  in 
regard  to  thL-ir  effect  on  digestion.  Of  these, 
the  noet  important  is  the  specie;).  The  different 
cpecie*  of  ruminants  (sp«-i-ilically,  cattk  and  sheep) 
now  no  material  differenceti  in  their  digestive 
power  for  most  feeding-stuffs,  and  especially  far 
coiu!entrati>d  feeds.  In  cose  of  the  more  ditlicultly 
dixoBtible  coarse  fodders,  such  a^  straw  or  corn 
stover,  however,  cattle  show  a  dif>tinctly  higher 
dlgostivfi  power,  which  has  been  regarded  as  due 
to  moT^  extensive  fermentations  in  the  more 
waterf  contents  of  the  lower  intestines,  The 
digMtire  organs  of  the  horse  have  n  teits  capacity 
than  those  of  ruminants,  and  the  mastication  of 
tba  food  is  leAS  complete.  Accordingly,  as  might 
be  expected,  tbe  horse  digests  coarse  fodders  less 


valae  for  the  feeding-stniff 
in  one  ca^  than  in  the  other. 
The  crude  fat  is  apparently 
le«  completely  digested  by 
the  horse  than  by  ruminants, 
but  this  seems  to  be  due  to 
the  presence  in  the  dung  of 
the  horse  of  relatively  larger 
amounts  of  ether -soluble 
waste  products,  and  thus  to 
be  apparent  rather  than  real. 

Brrcd.  A^e.  Work. —  No  significant  differences 
have  as  yet  been  observed  in  the  digestive  powers 
of  different  breeds  of  the  same  species,  Small 
differences,  seldom  exceeding  2  to  4  per  cent,  have 
been  observed  between  individual  animals,  although 
they  have  been  byno  means  constant  and  may  have 
arisen  in  some  cases  from  defective  experimental 
methods.  With  normal  animals  they  are  of  little 
practical  significance.  Neither  has  the  digestive 
capacity  been  found  to  vary  with  age.  within  the 
limita  of  full  development  of  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus. The  undoubted  differences  in  the  productive 
capacity  nf  different  animals,  or  of  the  same 
animal  at  dilFerent  times,  are  due  toother  causes 
than  differences  in  digestibility. 

Work,  even  when  very  considerable  in  amount, 
has  not  Iwen  found  to  affect  the  digestion  of  the 
ration  [irovided  it  is  performed  at  a  moderate  rate 
(ordinary  walk).  Work  at  a  more  rapid  pace  (trot) 
has  been  found  by  some  expc-riraentera  to  diminish 
the  digestibility  to  some  extent,  while  others  have 
found  indications  of  a  stimulating  effect  of  work 
on  the  digestive  processes. 


I 

L 


62 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


Considerable  stresa  haH  been  laid  by  som^i  writers 
oa  the  ordi-r  in  which  ciutrm!  fudilurH,  c<HK'«ntrated 
feed  and  water  are  jj^lvun,  parttculurly  in  case  of 
thu  horge  ;  but  BUch  exact  invu^ti^atimu  m  havu 
been  made  have  failed  to  contirm  thoso  opinions. 
Neither  does  it  appear  that  the  frequency  of  feed- 
ing, within  reasonable  limits,  materially  affects  the 
digestiun. 

Fale  of  the  digerfibif  nutrifnts. 

An  animal  — a  working  horsL*,  for  example  — may 
digest  large  amounts  of  material  from  its  food  anil 
yet  neither  gain  weight  nor  excrete  any  large  part 
of  the  digested  matter,  a^ide  from  water,  in  a  visi- 
ble form.  The  digiE«t(H]  nutrienU)  ari;  nxidiz<^>d,  mr 
Uurrtei],  in  thi-  iMidy,  and  tliw  pnxlurtH  uf  their  vnm- 
Imstion  loavtf  the  body  largely  in  thegasKoiw  fitrm. 
This  is  L-ntirely  trou  of  the  carbohydraltra,  faU  and 
other  non-nitrogcnouB  materials.  Thu  products  of 
their  combustion  are  carbon  dioxid,  excreted 
through  the  limgaiuid  toa  much  les-s  degree  through 
the  skin,  and  water,  excreted  through  lungs,  .nkin, 
and  in  Hi|uid  form  in  thu  uriut!.  The  same  thing  in 
largely  true  of  thu  protf idH  and  iinn-pniteids,  but 
their  nitrogen,  tugfthL-r  with  a  part  of  thtir  car- 
bon, hydrogen  and  and  oxygen,  is  converted  into  a 
BubHtance  called  urea  which  is  excreted  in  solution 
in  the  nrine.  Small  portions  of  tlii>  nitrogen  are 
also  found  in  the  urine  in  the  form  of  more  com- 
plex com[M)UTidH,  but  all  the  nitrogen  of  the  pro- 
tein is  ultimately  found  in  the  urine  in  one  form  or 
another.  This  procesu  of  bn.'aking  down  and  oxida- 
tion of  the  digested  nutrients  is  given  the  techni- 
cal name  of  metaboliBtn, 

Punei'ums  of  nittrientt. 

As  was  pointed  out  in  a  previous  paragraph,  the 
body  of  the  animal  may  He  regarded  as  macie  up 
subtftantiaUy  of  water,  ash.  fat  and  proteids.  When 
an  animal  iH  deprived  of  food,  it  Hubiiistii  on  ita 
own  tiiwucs,  burning  up  the  proteids  and  especially 
the  fata  contained  in  its  body.  The  object  of  the 
food  U  to  make  g<M>d  the  losses  thu^  ncciieioned. 

"Dn^  pratn'n  of  the  food  is  the  only  source  from 
which  the  animal  can  make  good  the  lofi,s  of  protetd-s 
from  its  tissues,  or  from  whit^h  it  can  wcure  material 
for  new  growth,  since  it  has  no  power  of  manufac- 
laring  proloid*  from  non-nitrogenous  ingrL-dicnts 
of  the  food.  Accordingly,  the  growing  animal  or 
one  producing  milk,  which  contains  much  prnteid^. 
require.*  a  liberal  snpply  of  thew  ingredients,  while 
a  relatively  smaller  amount  will  suffice  for  mutttre, 
fattening  or  work  animals.  The  proteids  of  the  food 
or  of  the  tittsues.  when  oxidized,  finally  yield.  a» 
already  stated,  carbon  dioxid,  water,  nrea  and  some 
other  nitrogenous  products, 

Thr  fult  and  earhohf/iiratet  of  the  food  serve  to 
make  good  the  losses  of  fat  in  the  body  or  to  pro- 
duce new  fat,  and  aUo  to  supply  the  nece.'^sary 
energy  and  heat  for  the  vital  activities  of  the  organ- 
ifliti.  This  is  likewise  true  of  the  pniteids,  if  present 
in  excess  of  the  needs  of  thf  animal,  and  also  nf  the 
tissue  proteids  broken  down,  at  least  so  far  as  sup- 
plying energy  is  concerned,  Whether  the  proteids 
can  sen-e  as  a  source  of  fat  to  the  bodv  is  still  a 


moot  point,  although  the  probabilities  are  in  favor 
of  it. 

The  ash  of  the  food  serves  to  make  good  the  con- 
stant loss  of  mineral  mattvr  which  is  taking  place] 
from  the  body  and  to  supply  material  for  new 
growth.  A  due  supply  of  it  is"  particularly  impor- 
tant, then,  to  the  growing  or  the  miik-produciDg 
animal.  The  laws  regulating  the  nae  of  mineral 
matter  in  the  body,  however,  have  as  yet  been 
rather  imperfectly  investigated. 

7^  work  fjf  the  bodrf. 

While  it  is  neither  humane  nor  economical  to 
treat  dumeslie  animals  simply  as  machines,  never-* 
thi.-luss,  fr^in  some  pcHiita  of  view,  the  animal  body 
is  a  vtiry  wonderful  miichine.  Its  mechanical  con- 
struction, which  forms  the  subject  matter  of  the 
science  of  anatomy,  is  a  fascinating  study,  but 
what  is  of  especial  interest  in  this  connection  is 
another  analogy  with  a  machine- 
All  are  familiar  with  the  optratinn  of  the  steam 
engine  and  know,  at  bast  in  a  general  way,  that 
the  htat  HUergy  set  free  by  the  burning  of  the 
fuel  under  the  boiler  is  made,  through  the  medium 
of  the  steam,  to  produce  power  in  the  engine.  In 
the  gas,  gasoline  or  alcohol  engine  the  matter  is 
still  simpler,  the  fui>!  being  burned  and  performing'" 
its  work  in  the  cylinder  of  the  engine. 

Somethiug  similar  takes  place  in  the  animal 
body.  It  consumes  food  out  of  which  it  digest* 
certain  substances.  These  subsUinces  arc  then,  in 
the  processes  of  metabolism  which  we  have  jnsl 
considered,  hniken  down  and  oxidi/^d  (i.  e.,  in  a 
sense,  burned)  sm\  yield  much  the  same  producta 
that  they  would  if  tmrn«l  under  the  boiler  of  a 
steam  engine.  In  IhiK  breakrng  down  and  oxida- 
tion—  i,  e.,  in  their  metabolism  —  the  protein, 
carbo hydra ttis  and  fats  develop  the  power  which 
actuates  the  body  machinery'  and  enables  it  to  do 
work.  The  procefw,  however,  is  very  diiferent  from 
that  in  the  steam  engine.  In  the  animal  body  we 
have  combustion  at  a  low  temperature,  ranging 
from  99"  to  104"  Fahr.  In  the  steam  engine  the' 
combustion  produces  heat  and  the  heAt  produces 
motion  ;  in  the  body,  the  combustion  seems  to  pro- 
duce motion  directly,  although  heat  is  also  pro- 
duced at  the  same  time.  The  body  is  not  a  heat 
engine, 

The<  animal  body  then  re«emMes  the  steam  or 
;;asoline  engine  in  being  a  converter  of  energy.  It 
chjinges  the  ston-d-up  energy  of  its  food,  derived 
ultimately  from  the  sun's  rays,  into  the  form  of 
work.   This  is  very  clear  in  the  case  nf  the  work- 
ing animal,  but  it  is  wiually  true,  although  not  at 
first  thought  so  obvious,  in  the  case  of  the  animal 
kept  for  the  pr(«iiiction  of  maat  ur  milk.  The  prime  i 
object  of  the  food,  in  every  case,  is  to  keep  thtti 
hoflily  machinery   running,  while  the  storage  of 
protein  or  fat  in  the  tissues  or  the  milk,  is,  in  a 
sense,  incidental.    The  fattening  animal  slorea  np< 
fat  to  be  u.'^ed  as  fnel  later  in  case  of  a  shortagSi 
of  fntnl ;  the  growing  animal  enlarges  the  machine 
that  it  may  be  able  to  perform  more  work  ;  the 
milking  animal  contributes  indirectly  a  part  of  ita 
food  to  the  support  of  ita  young— i.  e.,  to  the  ruiHi 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


63 


niDK  of  another  macbiuo.  In  all  cases,  the  chief 
phyt(iolof;iciii  L>nd  is  tlio  conversion  of  the  eaergj' 
of  the  food  into  work  of  one  eort  or  ainHher. 

Regarding  the  animal  budy  from  this  point  nf 
riew, — Uiat  is,  as  a  machine  for  Lha  convereicin  of 
potential  energy  into  work,— thf  (juiu^tion  at  once 
arises  as  to  il«  roquiremonta  in  thu  way  of  food  to 
keep  the  machine  running,  and  as  to  the  part 
played  in  its  operation  by  the  Several  ingredients 
of  the  fixid. 

The  KteAm  pngine  requirofi  occasional  rejvuni  tut 
one  or  another  part  bocomad  worn.  The  essentia] 
parts  of  that  living  machiuu  ea1k>d  thu  l>ody  arc, 
as  has  been  seen,  composed  chiefly  of  proteids. 
Accordin^y,  we  should  expect  that  a  supply  of 
proteids  would  lie  necessary  to  keep  this  machine 
in  repair,  just  as  steel,  bniss,  tLnd  tht^  like,  would 
be  needed  for  repaint  in  thu  engine;  and  Much,  in 
fact,  is  the  case.  The  body  has  thin  advantage  over 
the  engine,  however,  that  it  is  self- repairing,  pro- 
vided thu  HL-icest^ry  materials  are  suppik-d  to  it. 

In  addition  to  repair  material,  the  animal.  likr< 
the  engine,  requires  a  supply  of  fuel,  and  if  this  is 
not  fumUht-d  in  the  fmnl  it  coin.tiimKS  the  materials 
of  its  own  biMly  fur  this  purEHiHe.  This  is  true  even 
when  the  animal  is  doing  no  visiblE-  witrk.  Its 
buart,  rcepiratory  organs  and  otheT  parL»  of  the 
body  are  still  doing  work.  The  case  \s  like  that  of 
an  engine  ran  with  no  load,  which  still  requires 
a  certain  amount  of  fuel  to  keep  it  moving. 
In  both  case!<  all  the  energy  nf  the  fuel  l;mrne<] 
finally  appears  as  beat,  which  in  tb^^  animal  serves 
to  maintain  the  normal  temperaturt'  of  the  body. 
Atlthraeof  the  principal  ingredients  of  the  digesti-d 
food,  protcidit,  carbohydrates  and  fats,  may  servo 
la  foe^  nnoe  Uiey  are  all  more  or  less  completely 


proportion  of  them  in  the  fond,  is  to  be  avoided 
because  they  are  usually  the  moat  expensive  part 
of  a  ration  to  produce  or  buy. 

II.  Peeding^upps 
Reialivf  valttei  of  Jefding-iftufft. 

An  exceeilingly  important  ijne^tion  for  the  stock- 
feeder  is  what  n-lutive  jimounts  of  animal  prod- 
uct of  any  given  kind  he  can  prtKiace  from  his 
various  raw  materials  — the  feeding-stnffs.  In  tlie 
light  of  the  foregoing  discuasion,  it  is  plain  that 
tliis  miLit  dpjipnd  on  the  qnantitiea  of  protoicU 
which  they  can  furni.'^h  fur  repair  and  congtnictive 
purpcwes,  and  on  the  supply  of  energy  afforded  by 
their  digeJttiltle  matter. 

Ul^eMiUe  nutrients.— 'T\te  method  of  comparing 
feeding-stnffs  now  in  vogue  {g  based  on  their 
chemical  composition  and  the  digestibility  of  the 
several  itigrerfientB  as  determined  by  experiments 
on  animals.  For  example,  actual  trials  with  the 
samples  of  clover  hay  and  corn  meal  whose  compo- 
sition han  already  been  given  Bhi>we(!  that  cattle 
digested  th^^  following  percentages  of  the  wveral 
ingredients: 

Pebcbstace  DtcESTraiLmr 

CIoT«r  h«j  Corn  uimI 

Proteids 63.111  B6.-1S 

Non.proWid* (100.00)  (100.00) 

Cmde  fiber G0.27  .S2.-10 

NUrogiftn-fr»e  (-xtracl  .  .     68.94  97.75 

Crude  fat 65.02  35.74 

To  compute  the  percentages  of  digestible  nutri- 
ents in  oach  material,  we  proceed  as  follows,  water 
and  ash  being  omitteil  from  the  computation: 


Prx>t«Mi 

Kon-preteidi  .  .  .  . 
Cradi  lb«r  .  .  .  .  , 
SitroKeii-free  extract 
Cr«d«  fat  


dovar  hKjr 


10.13 1  0.5319  =    6.39  per  cent 

1.45x1.0        =     1.45  per  cent 

28.71  X  0.5027  =*  14.J3  per  cent 

3S.86  s  0.6894  =  25.41  por  cnnl 

^38 1 0.6502  -    l.£&  pet  cent 


Com  meAl 


8.67x0.6643  =  6.76  percent 
0.25x1.0  =  0.25  pur  cent 
1.86  X  0.3240  =  0.60  per  c«ot 
69.40  X  0.9775  =  ^M  per  cent 
3.69  X  0.9674  «    3.44  per  oant 


bamed  in  tbe  body,  but  they  are  not  equally  valu- 
able. Fat  is  the  most  concentrated  form  of  fnel. 
oae  pound  of  it  produt-ing  about  about  Lwo  jind  one- 
fourth  limn*  as  much  heat  in  the  body  as  the  same 
Weight  of  proteids  or  carbohydrates.  Moat  feeding- 
atntTri  are  rather  poor  in  fat.  however,  and  this 
nbatance  does  not  usually  play  any  large  part  in 
mpplyinf  energy  to  tbe  wxiy  in  herbivorous  ani- 
malit  The  carbohydratea  are  the  chief  source  of 
energy  to  domestic  animals,  being  abundantly 
«applied,  in  easily  digestihle  forms,  in  ordinary 
feeaing-etnffs.  The  proteids,  «o  far  as  thi-y  are  not 
8torv<]  op  in  the  pPMlucts.  such  as  meat  or  milk, 
and  Ulu!wis«  the  body  proteids  metabolized,  also 
•erre  sa  fuel  to  the  bodv.  being  about  equally 
Talnable  with  the  carbohydrates  for  this  purpose. 
Sonii*  bumiog  of  proteids  in  this  way  is  unavoid- 
able, but  an  Dnneceesary  use  of  proteida  as  fuel, 
floeb  as  would  result  from  the  presence  of  an  ondue 


Since  the  digestible  crude  fiber  and  the  digestible 
nitrogen-free  extract  have  been  shown  to  have  the 
same  chemical  composition,  they  are  commonly 
added  togi^ther  and  called  digestible  carbohydrates, 
while  the  digestible  crude  fat  la  regarded  as  con- 
sisting of  fat.  The  digesliblw  ash  ingredients  have 
TK'i  usually  been  taken  account  of,  it  Mng  assumed 
that  the  average  ration  which  is  sufficient  in  other 
rfspecte  will  contain  all  the  ash  required.  Omitting 
these,  tbe  digestible  iDgradieatB  are: 


Dif:eatible  protctdii    .   .    . 
DtgMtibV  iion-prat«i(|A 
DiKOHtihle  carbohydraleH  . 
Digestible  fat 


Ver  ront 

1.45 

3».84 

1.56 


Com  neftl 


P>ir  pent 

fi.76 

0.25 

58.44 

3.44 


64 


PRINCIPLES  OP  SrrOCK-FEEDING 


This  comparison  may  bo  still  further  simpliBed. 
A  pouDiluf  fat  produces  wlien  burned  about  two  and 
one-fourth  times  as  much  heat  a^  the  same  weight 
of  carbohydrates.  The  non-prot«ids  havesomewhere 
near  the  Hame  heat  value  as  the  carbohydrates, 
and  since  it  is  doubtful  whuthor  they  help  build 
up  prot«id  tissiKr  ve  may  class  them  with  the  car- 
bohydrate. ThH  dii^etttilili^  nutri^ntii  can  thus  he 
grouiW)d  into  two  cla&Jws.  viz..  thL-  proteids,  which 
serve  primarily  to  keep  the  working  tis-sues  in 
ropair  or  to  build  up  new  tissuen.  and  the  other 
material  which  serve  as  th<j  chief  sources  of 
energy  to  ran  the  animal  machioe. 


Olawr  hu- 

P»r  cvot 
5.39 

44.78 

Com  mMt 

DigtiflUble  prateidH  . 

DiiMtibt^    c&rbohjr- 

drata  equivalent  . 

Per  cent 

6.76 

76.43 

Total  ilieesUblo  natri- 

50.17 

82.19 

M 


ITP 


pig.  63,   &Mtioa  ol  Bomb  calorlincUr.  V»r4  to  ■li-lwrmin*  wiol  e^ofrgy  ol  tt*^ 
laK-stnflTii,  lAiUitnl  tmm  Biillpiiii  Xn,  21,  Ot&tr.  of  ExiXTriiii^uL  Slatl«u».) 

As  sources  of  total  nutrients,  therefore,  in  round 
numbera.  fifty  pounds  of  the  corn  mcHl  would  be 
eqni\'alent  to  eighty-two  poundtt  of  tho  clitvcr  hny. 
while  09  »oarc<i3  of  digvstiblc  pruteids  there  is  a 


alight  superiority  on  tho  part  of  the  corn  meal, 
due  to  its  greater  digestibility. 

A  vast  amount  of  labor  has  been  expended  during  . 
the  paAt  half  Cttntury  in  determining  the  compos^J 
tionand  digestibility  of  fweding-Blufffl  aobstantially 
in  the  manner  outlined  in  this  and  the  preceding 
iMctifinfl.  .*\t  tho  preiwnt  time,  we  have  in  general 
a  fair  knowI«dne  of  the  amounta  and  propurtiyc:*  of 
the  dige»^tible  matt^n  supplied  by  most  of  the  ordi- 
nary feeding-stuifs,  and  of  the  variations  due  to 
soil,  sea-ion,  maturity  and  other  factors.  Exteni>ive 
tables  of  averages  have  been  pabliched  by  various 
authors,  inclnding  many  of  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment Htationti.  and  it  i.s  an  eaity  matter  today  for 
thtr  feeder  to  know  afiproximately  what  amouata 
and  kinds  of  digei^tible  nutrients  any  given  food  or 
ration  will  probably  supply. 

A  table  in  a  following  section  (page  GT)  8howt| 
the  average  amounta  of  total  dry  matter  and  diges- 
tible nntrientfl  in  n  number  of  common  feeding- 
stuffK.  Individual  sampleH  may,  of  course,  vary  more 
or  kits  from  the  avi^rage,  ecpeciatly  incase  of  the 
coar»e  fodders.  Such  tablw  inform  us  as  to  the 
amounts  of  repair  mat'erials  (protuids)  and  of  fuel 
materials  (carbohydrates  and  fats)  supplied  to  the 
body  by  the  various  feeding-stuffs.  It  ha:*  V»een 
natural  to  aMnme,  therefore,  that  they  alTord  a 
measure  of  the  relative  value*  of  thf  feeding-stuffs, 
and  this  ajwuniptiim  has  been  thi-  basis  of  the  cur- 
rent methods  of  comimling  rations.  Analyses  and 
digestion  experiments  as  ordinarily 
conducted,  however,  afford  no  di- 
rect information  whatever  as  to 
the  effect  of  the  digested  matten 
in  (supporting  the  animal  or  produ- 
cing gain.  It  is  not  even  necewary^o 
weigh  the  animal  In  a  digestion  ex- 
perimenl..  The  conclusion  as  to  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  fei?ding-aluff  is 
simply  an  inference,  baswd  on  general 
phvHioli logical  facts,  and  its  correct- 
neHM  is  muri'  than  qutjstionable  in 
thi.'  liglit  of  n*eent  investigation.  In 
other  words,  the  compariimn  is  of 
what  the  material  contains  and  not  of 
what  it  accomplishea. 

This  is  true  of  the  feed  as  a  source 
of  prtiteids  and  especially  as  a  sourc* 
of  energy.   So  far  as  the  proteids  are 
cimcerned,  however,  it  is  practically 
tht?   only   basis   of  comparison    now 
avail.^bie.  Few  studies  of  the  relative 
nutritive  valuer  of  different  proteida 
hin\'  been  made,  and  few  of  these  re- 
late to  the  [in)ttiids  of  ordinary  farm 
feeding-Ktnffs.  For  the  present,  there- 
fore, we  must  continue  to  treat  the 
digestible  protwids  of  different  feed- 
ing-stuffs as  of  equal  value  ait  repair 
material,  pending  further  investiga- 
tion.   On  the  other  band,  recent  in- 
vestigations on  the  food  an  a  source  of  energy,  in 
which  the  amounts  ot  energy  concerned  have  been 
determine.)  directly,  have  uirt>wn  much  new  light 
on  thii  branch  of  the  subjoct. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


65 


Energy  valvr*.  —  i\)  Total  energy.— The  total 
*tore  of  t-Dvray  in  the  forxi  of  an  iinimal  may  Iw 
mwurarwi.  like  that  in  tlie  fapl  of  an  engine,  tiy  the 
anjoant  of  beat  which  it  [irodut-es  whfii  completely 
burm?d.  The  anit  commonly  u*ied  fur  nK'aauring 
best  is  the  Calorie,  whkh  is  thL*  amount  of  heut 
Teqnired  to  raisp  the  temperature  of  on»  kilogram 
of  W5ter  ihrouyh  1"  ('.  (or  3,9fj2  pounds  thnmRh 
1"  Fahr.t.  Thus,  one  (fram  (iri.45  grainK)  of  the 
olover  hay  and  of  the  com  meal  alreiuly  uaed  aa 
illustrations  gave  off  when  completely  burni-d  the 
(dlowtOK  amounts  of  heat : 

Ckmr  hay 8.788  CKloriea 

Care  bimJ 3.7C6  Calorie* 

Erprwwe<l  per  one  hundred  pounds,  for  Ereater 
convenience,  this  would  he 

ToTJiL  Ehekgy  Pee  One  Hdsorbii  Polsm 

CloTer  hay 172,100  CdoriM 

Corn  meal 170,900  Catoriw 

(2)  Fuel  values.— Not  all  of  this  energ>',  however, 
is  availabla  to  thd  animal  which  consumes  the  feed. 
because  the  later  in  not  completely  burned  in  the 
body.  More  or  )es8  of  it  failti  to  be  digej^ted,  and  la 
rejected  in  the  dung,  carrying  part  of  the  energy 
with  it.  Another  part  of  the  energy  la  carrie^I  off 
nnumd  in  the  urea  and  other  organic  aubBtancea 
excreteii  in  the  urine.  Finally,  the  marsh  gaa  pr<}- 
duced  in  the  diKe«tivo  tract  by  the  fermontaLion 
of  the  carbohydrates  aim  carries  olf  considerable 
anoaed  energy*.  Thus,  it  wan  found  that,  for  each 
hundred  pODodA  of  the  clover  hay  or  the  corn  nieiil 
fed  to  a  ftteer,  the  following  amounts  of  energy 
Wens  contained  in  the  waste  products: 

Pee  tiuMDRKO  Pounto 


Clowar  Imj 

Com  mui 

170.900  Cala. 

LoMM  in  nrine 

Losaw  IB  nur^  gu  .  .   . 

73.600  Cal». 
11,500  Cata. 
I2.3O0  Cab. 

iri,7UUCalfi. 

6.r)(M  CnU. 

15,<K>0Cak 

97,400  C»Ib. 

38,100  Calt 

Bmaindrr                    .   . 

7-1.700  CalB. 

132.800  Cals 

The  remaindsr  obtained  by  iubtracting  the  losses 
from  the  total  energj'  ahowa  how  much  of  the  latter 
can  be  liberated  in  the  body,  and  the  example 
mnm  to  Uloatrate  the  fact  that  this  remainder  is 
luftf  is  the  case  of  concentrated  feeding-stuffs 
than  in  that  of  coane  feeds.  chieHy  l>ecause  of  the 
lar^d  proportion  of  indif^stihle  substance  in  the 
Utter.  This  remainder  is  often  called  the  "fuel 
Taloe"  of  the  material,  hMautu^  tt  fihowH  how  much 
bast  it  can  produce  in  the  body  in  ezsv  none  of  it 
la  Qtilized  to  nroduc«  gain.  Bat  while  it  measureit 
the  value  of  toe  food  aa  a  beat  producer,  this  is  far 
from  being  the  only,  or  even  the  most  important 
function  of  the  food.  In  f.ict.  the  production  of 
beat  18  in  moat  cases  rather  incidental  to  other  pro- 
aod  hence  the  fuel  valuen  of  fe«ding-«tuffH 

C5 


do  not  measure  their  nutritive  values.    Like  the 

amount  of  digestihla  nutrients,  they  show  what  the 
various  feeding-etuffs  can  supply  to  the  body  hut 
not  what  u«e  the  body  can  make  of  it.  To  determine 
tbie  l.'JtUir  it  is  necessary  to  measure  the  etfect  of 
thtt  food  on  the  body. 

Not  very  many  determinations  of  the  fuel  value* 
of  feeding-stuffs  have  yet  been  made.  In  many 
cxses,  however,  they  have  been  computed  from  the 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  by  the  usw  of  the 
factors  proposed  by  Itubner  and  by  Atwater  for 
human  dietaries,  viz.: 

For  1  pound  dig«stLblQ  proteida  ,  .  \  .gpn  p,i. 
Pi>r  1  pound  flintcjilifalft  rarlioliydriitea  /  '"^^  '"■^■ 
For  1  pound  digertible  fau    ....      4220  C'S!*- 

It  has  l)een  shown,  however,  that  these  computed 
fuel  valufis  are  considerably  too  high  for  ruminants 
and  probably  somewhat  so  for  the  horse. 

(3)  Maintenance  values.— When  the  animal  is 
deprived  of  food,  or  given  an  insufficient  supply,  it 
L-onsumes  mure  or  hss  of  the  proteids  and  especi- 
ally tho  fat  of  its  own  body  to  supply  the  energy 
required  fur  its  functiunii.  if  food  be  given  to  the 
animal,  it  will  vjrtaally  ujte  the  energy  of  the  food, 
m  far  as  it  ia  available,  in  place  of  oxiduing  its 
own  ti»;ui«,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  loss  of 
proteids  and  fat  by  the  body  is  diminished  is  a  meas- 
ure of  the  real  nutritive  effect  of  the  food.  For 
example,  a  steer  on  a  certain  ration  was  ahown  to 
be  losing  from  his  body  daily  41.-I  grama'  of  pro- 
tL'ids  and  254.4  gram«'  of  fat.  The  energy  value 
of  thJA  Irma  is  2.57H  Cals.,  that  is,  the  steer  was 
getting  this  part  of  tho  energy  re([uired  to  run  bis 
bodily  machiner)'  by  burning  the  body  itself.  Then 
1.34  kilograms'  of  timo- 
thy hay  were  added  to 
the  ration.  On  this  new 
ration,  the  stei'r  gained 
daily  0.6  gram  of  proteids 
and  lottt  76.0  grams  of 
fat,  e()uivalent  to  758 
Cals.  The  addition  of  1.34 
kilograms  of  timothy  hay, 
then,enablfd  the  steer  to 
burn  up  leHS  of  hiii  own 
body  materials  to  the  ex- 
tent of  2,578  i:als.— 758 
Cals.  =  1.820  Cals.  Tho 
latter  number,  therefore,  expresses  the  mainten- 
ance value  of  the  1.^4  kilograms  of  this  particular 
timothy  hay  in  this  experiment,  equal  to  l.HTtd 
Cals.  per  kilogram,  or  fil7  Cals.  per  pound.  It 
should  be  observed  that  this  value  is  of  an  entirely 
different  character  from  those  secured  by  meana 
of  digestion  experimenta  or  from  determinations 
of  fuel  values.  It  shows  what  one  pound  or  one 
kilogram  of  the  hay  actually  effected  in  the  way 
of  maintaining  the  .nteer.  while  the  former  results 
showed  simply  whatamunnts  of  digiaitible  nutrients 
or  of  ent^rgy  were  supplied  to  the  animal  in  a  unit 
weight  of  th«  hay. 

I  1  gram  eqnala  about  1-28  os. 

*  2.95  poinds,  coni]nit«d  to  IS  per  cent  water. 


k 


m 


THINCil'LES  OP  SKCK- FEEDING 


A  flecond  importunt  poinL  in  Lhnt  the  muintt-- 
nance  values  of  fefMJinK-atuffH  aa  ijetupminwl  in  thin 
way  are  leas  than  their  fuel  values,  aa  Ulustratod 
in  tbe  following  table  : 

Taujb  Pei  100  FoOHiw  Fob  Cattle 


Fiul  v«laa 

value  BValUbIri 

Timoth;  ha;    .... 

777  Calft. 
802CalB. 

i;iosc&ia. 

489  Gale.  • 
685  Gala. 
1,016  CaU. 

62.92 
72.90 
77.76 

It  thus  appears  that  a  part  of  the  fuel  rahes  of 
feeiiing-staffs,  ranging  in  th«5e  instances  from  22 
to  37  per  cent,  either  is  not  avaibble  as  a.  source 
of  energy  tu  thv  animal  machine  or  is  put  tu  ttome 
other  uxe  than  maintenance.  Both  are  doobtlesfl 
true.  The  chemical  changca  which  the  food  urder- 
Rws  in  digestion,  and  particularly  tbe  ext(<Dsive 
fermentations  taking  place  in  the  digestive  tract, 
producea  considt'nihleamoant  of  heat  which,  while 
il  may  help  to  keep  the  body  warm,  is  of  do  aae  to 
it  as  a  source  of  energy.  Furthermore,  the  chew- 
ing and  digestion  of  the  food  involve  a  consider- 
able amount  of  work  in  addition  to  what  the  body 
was  doing  before,  and  part  of  the  energy  of  the 
food  is  expended  in  this  way.  It  is  only  what  is 
left  after  these  two  losses  have  been  met  that  ia 
available  for  maintenance,  i.  e.,  for  running  the 
bodily  machinery  in  general.  This  has  been  called 
the  "net  available  energy."  The  figures  given 
above  are  the  only  resolta  on  the  maintenance  values 
of  feading-stutTs  for  cattle  which  have  yet  been 
reported.  They  serve  to  indicate,  however,  that  the 
percentage  of  the  fuel  value  available  is  greater  in 
the  concentrated  feeds  than  in  the  coarse  fodders, 
presumably  because  of  the  relatively  smaller  expen- 
diiare  in  digestion.  For  the  hor.s^,  the  following 
raolts  have  been  computed  by  a  meth'id  which 
involves  a  number  of  assumptions,  the  validity  of 
some  of  which  has  been  nenott.<<ly  questioned.  The 
negative  valuo  for  atraw  shows  that,  as  thus  com- 
puted, tbe  energy  which  must  bo  expended  in  its 
digestion  exceeds  its  fuel  value. 

AVaHLABLF.  t:NRKCY  ?ER   PotIKO  FOR  TRS  HOIUIB 

Average  meadow  ha; 32?  Call. 

Alfaira  hay 421  Cals. 

Red  clover  hay 303  Cala. 

Stran  of  wifltsr  grain —209  Cals. 

Oata 8.S2CaR 

Corn 1,26a  Cals. 

Beaaa 1,084  Cab. 

P«aa 1.062  CalB. 

Linseed  cak« 1,016  Cab. 

Potatow 357  Cab. 

CarrolB 166  Cab. 

(4)  Production  values.— If  the  food  of  an  animal 
supplies  more  net  available  energy  than  is  needed  for 
maintenance,  common  experience  shows  that  a  pro- 
duction of  iHime  sort  results.  The  animal  grows  or 
fatten*',  or  it  gives  milk  or  does  work,  tluch  inves- 
tigations OS  have  yet  been  made,  however,  seem  to 


shijw  that  we  do  not  get  back  in  the  form  of  work 
iir  meat  nr  milk  all  the  surplus  of  net  available 
energy  which  we  supply  t«i  the  animal.  It  is  like 
the  case  of  a  man  whose  wages  are  just  sufficient 
to  pay  his  expenses.  When  his 
pay  is  increawd  he  puts  part  of 
the  increase  in  the  bank,  but  he 
alfio  spends  more.  This  is  most 
clearly  seen  in  the  case  of  the 
working  animal.  If  a  horse  re- 
ceives a  ration  whose  mainten* 
ance  value  -  i.  e.  its  net  avail- 
able energy-  -is,  Bay  3.000  Cals. 
in  exceita  of  that  needed  to 
maintain  the  horse  when  doing  no  work,  it  haa 
been  found  that  he  will  be  able  to  do  continuously 
only  about  1,000  Cals.  of  work  per  day.  In  other 
wordi^,  the  horse  can  utilize  about  one-third  of  tbe 
maintenance  value  of  his  excess  food  that  is,  feed 
in  excess  of  that  TEKjuired  for  maintenance-  in  the 
form  of  work.  Substantially  thesame  thing  appears 
to  be  true  in  fattening.  Thus,  the  daily  ration  of  a 
steer,  consisting  of  a  light  feed  of  clover  hay  and 
of  com  meal,  was  found  to  contain  13.61()  Cals.  of 
net  available  energy  (maintenance  value),  white  tbe 
amount  actually  required  to  maintain  this  animal 
was  8.467  Cals..  so  that  a  surplus  of  5,14^  Cala,  was 
supplied  in  the  corn  meal.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
the  steer  fattened.  The  amount  of  energy  stored 
up  in  his  gain,  however,  was  not  the  entire  S,149 
Cats.,  but  only  3,525  Cals.,  or  68.5  per  cent  of 
the  surplus.  That  is,  while  tbe  surpiutf  food  sup- 
plied had  the  capacity  to  prevent  loes  of  tissue  to 
the  extent  of  5,149  CaU.  it  could  produce  an  actual 
gain  of  only  3.525  Cals.  In  other  words,  the  main- 
tenance value  of  the  com  meal  was  greater  than 
its  production  value.  But  very  few  actual  tei^te  of 
this  sort  have  been  made,  and  it  is  not  yet  pwwible 
to  state  with  certainty  whether  this  is  generally 
the  case.  It  seems  to  be  what  might  be  reasonably 
expected,  however.  To  convert  the  food  of  an  ani- 
mal into  the  complex  compounds  of  actual  flesh  and 
fat  requires  a  greater  chemical  change  than  to 
convert  it  into  the  simpler  materials  suitable  to 
be  metabolized.  To  produce  these  more  complex 
substances,  n  greater  expenditure  of  energy  is 
necessary,  and  consequently  less  is  left  to  be 
stored  up. 

Very  extensive  and  careful  determinations  of 
the  production  values  of  feeding-stuffs  for  fatten- 
ing cattle  have  been  made  within  the  last  ten  or 
twelve  years  by  Keltner  at  the  M'>ckem  Kxperi- 
ment  Statinn  in  Germany.  The  following  table  con- 
tain*! his  production  values  calculate<l  per  100 
pounds  for  some  common  feeds.  The  table  showa.] 
also  the  digestible  nutrients  computed  in  the  onli- 
narj'  way  as  well  as  the  total  crude  fiber,  and  the 
amount  of  total  dry  matter.  The  table  shows  for 
example,  that  100  pounds  of  average  timothy  hay 
will  pupply  to  cattle  a  little  over  two  pounds  of 
digestiljle  proteida ;  while  if  fed  in  excess  of  main- 
tenance it  may  be  expected  to  produce  a  gain  by 
the  cattle  equivalent  to  Sa..S62  Cala.  In  compartaoa] 
with  the  hay,  100  pounds  of  com  would  supply  6.79  ■ 
pounds  of  digestible  proteids,  and  when  added  tu  a 


GrtnfoditT  tini  niage: 

Atfxifi 

Clonr,  re<l 

Corn  fudder 

CoraiUic* 

Bugirfan-iraflB  .  .   .  . 

ftn-Sna 

Tnuthr 

H«yj  *ii4  dry  («arttfoddtr» 

Alfalfa  hj? 

Oov«r  bay.  red 

Corn  fodder.  field-cur«d  , 

Com  itorer 

Cowpaa. 
Hufariaii 

Sojrbeaii  hay .... 
l^thy  haj .... 

Aravt: 

Oil 

ii£mi 

Carroto      

Uai^gcli 

Potatoaa 

TWtiI|» 

ffrsiat.' 

Bariey 

Corn  

Cora>aiid-cob  meaJ   . 

Oata 

Rye 

vrbwt 

Bp'/rrodaets : 
Brawere'  frainoi  *«t 
Cottooaaed  meal   .   . 
Ghrtn  f«ed.  dry   .   . 
Ghrtvn  meal  'Bnffato) 
I  JMBad  meal   - 
OU  procesB  .   .    . 
WfwprocMi.   .   . 
Malt-«pmta.  .   .   . 
Hy«  bran   ..... 
Wbaat  biu  .... 


24.3 
9U 
91.9 

91.8 

90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
88.5 


A  large  amount  of  inveittigation  has  also  \>wn 
eipeoded  in  determining  the  prmluction  valQeit  of 
f«eih  for  Lhe  borw.  These,  however,  are  more  con- 
reafenUy  couider^I  in  stndjriQR  thu  feeding  of 
that  animal.  And  for  the  present  w«  may  content 
ovaelres  with  the  cenerat  statement  already  made 
that  abottt  one-thini  of  the  maintenance  value  is 
raoovered  in  the  form  of  work.  For  other  npecies 
of  aninula,  and  for  other  prodttctive  |)ur[KMe«  we 
lum  ai  jret  no  actual  determinationa  of  pnidDctton 


investtgationH  are  far  from  being  tuffieiant  to 
entahllsh  thtjt.  For  «wine  we  have  almoat  no  data, 
but  the  production  I'alues  for  thi.'!  animal  are  prob- 
ably hiRhftr  than  thost-  for  rnmiiiantB. 

The  figures  of  the  foregoirg  tablei!  are  averagt-s 
of  more  or  lesa  numeroos  determinationa  of  the 
maintenance  or  production  valnos  of  fee<iing-flttifra 
It  is  a  familiar  fact,  however,  that  feeding-etnffs 
of  the  name  name,  esfiecially  coarse  fodders,  may 
have  quite  unequal  vabeM.   The  value  of  any  par- 


68 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDINi; 


ticular  sample  will  deiJi^nd.  finit,  on  the  tot:il 
amount  of  proteids  and  energy  which  it  contain*, 
and  Becond  and  mnro  important  on  the  proportions 
of  these  which  escape  utilization.  Of  the  sources 
of  loas,  the  largest  h  u^aally  that  represented  by 
the  undigested  matter  of  the  feces.  For  this  rea- 
son, and  also  becaiiK  this  a5|>e<t  of  the  mntter  ha» 
been  the  one  ntoet  studit^d,  particular  attention  will 
be  devoted  in  the  auccet^ling^Aectionii  to  a  consider- 
alioa  of  the  more  important  conditions  affecting 
comi>o»jtion  and  digestibility,  partkalaiiy  of  coarse 
fodders. 

Tke  prftertation  and  preparafion  of fecding-siu^f. 

In  most  regions  in  which  stock-feeding  is  prac- 
ticed extensively,  feeding  crops  have  to  be  preserved 
in  one  way  or  anotht^r  for  use  during  part  of  the 
year.  "WTiatewr  the  mi'thoil  Jiflopti-id  for  this  pur- 
IHJSe,  th(<n3  \»  usually  more  »r  Iiwk  iiiss  uf  miiterial, 
and  a  gi-euU-r  or  less  elfuct  on  tlic  dijiestibility.  In 
general,  two  niethoda  are  available,  drying  or  some 
form  of  en.'iiling. 

Drj/i'wfl.  —  Numerous  experiments  have  abown 
that  the  nimtde  removal  of  waif r  by  drying  does 
not  materially  affect  the  digestibility  of  forage. 
The  actual  preservation  of  forage  by      .^^^^^^^ 
this  method,  however,  invohvc  much 

more  than  simple  drying.    First,  the      

necL'ssary  handling  of  ihL'  muterial 
causes  mechanical  los.'«es  of  thu  leaves 
and  other  tender  parts,  which  tend  to 
become  dry  and  brittle  before  the 
Ktems  are  sufficiently  cured.  SecDnd, 
therv  is  mure  or  less  hws  of  material 
through  the  oxidatiom*  and  fermenta- 
tions which  practically  always  make  a 
part  of  thu  curing  process.  Finally,  when  exposed 
to  rain  there  is  mi)ro  or  less  loss  of  soluble  material 
by  leaching.  In  all  these  cases,  it  is  the  more  val- 
uable and  easily  digestible  parts  nf  the  material 
which  arc  mure  readily  Inst,  and  naturally,  there- 
fore, the  mired  material  is  inferior  to  the  green 
crop,  both  in  c»m[ii»<it.iurL  and  digestibility.  For 
example,  the  lowi  of  dry  matter  in  curing  alfalfa 
hay  was  found  to  be  in  one  instance  7.1S  per  cent, 
and  the  composition  and  digestibility  of  the  hay  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  same  alfalfa,  dried  with- 
out lofls,  were  : 


mechunk-a]  lottscs  than  the  groi^ses.  t'orn  cured  in 
the  field  may  suffer  largely  from  leaching  and  to 
some  degree  from  fermentation,  as  well  as  from 
mechanical  losses  in  handling  when  hauled  in.  In 
general,  it  \s  desirable  to  limit  the  drying  of  any 
crop  to  the  minimum  compatible  with  proper  pre- 
servation. 

Krtsifinff.— In  the  process  of  ensiling  in  itst  various 
forms,  the  mechanical  loiiws  are  largely  reduced,, 
since  the  material  is  handled  in  the  green  atate,  I 
On  the  otht-r  hand,  the  losses  by  fermentation  are 
relatively  magnified  and  may  easily  become  very 
considerable.   While  losses  as  low  as  2  per  cent  of 
the  dry  matter  have  lieen  reported  for  corn,  it  \a 
doubtful  whether  in  ordinary  practice  they  will  be 
much  k'Sfl  than  15  per  cent,  while  lofi^es  of  10  per] 
cent  have  been  observed  under  extreme  conditiona.' 
Since  thii*  loss  falls  on  the  more  solalde  and  dige«t-l 
ible  in;irodients  of  tlie  feedin^,'-J'lult,  tht.-  digestibility 
of  the  residue  is  naturally  depressi-d.  For  example, 
the  percentage  digestibility  of  the  organic  matter 
of  alfalfa  and  of  es{>.'irsette  in  the  green  state  and 
cured  in  different  ways    wa«  a«  shown   in  the 
following  table.  The  sihge  in  this  experiment  bad  i 
undergone  extensive  fermentation. 


fjrpen . 

Drwd  without  loss 

As  hiiy 

Partially  :lried  and  cured  in  the  cock 

Fermented  in  the  cock 

Ae  silage 


67.4 
66.7 
62.1 

44.9 


Canpoiltloii  of  dnruAltM 

Pt^r*^tiiat«  A\st-!.xih\Htj 

Dried  wlfh»ul 

ln<9 

Hmr 

Drtsd  wllhnnt 

Uw 

Cnidt  iMTOtein 

17.00 

31.8) 

4».80 

7.39 

14.&4 

S3.90 

4422 

6.94 

71 
48 
66 
29 

45 

Nitrogen. free  extract  »nd  fiit.  . 

62 
23 

100.00 

100.00 

69 

64 

The  extent  "f  the  Instill  will  i!ep*^nd.of  cuurKO, 
on  Ihn  kind  uf  mati-rial,  the  methml  nf  handling, 
degree  a(  eX\H]i'\iTv,  and  ulhur  I'onnidt'ratiiins.  The 
I^jumes,  with  rather  coarse  stalks  and  delicate 
IcaTes,    are    usually  subject  to   relatively  larger 


The  relative  elTect  of  tield-curing  and  of  ensiling 
on  the  toAK  of  (tnbstance  and  consequently  on  the 
digestiljility  idjviously  will  vary  within  wide  lim- 
its, and  une  method  or  thu  other  may  give  the 
lietter  result  according  to  the  skill  with  which  it 
is  earned  out.  As  regards  com,  the  plant  mixt 
commonly  used  for  silage  in  the  United  States,  the 
general  result  of  investigation  appears,  on  the 
whole,  to  he  in  favor  of  eneiling  under  average 
conditinns,  ?o  far.  at  lea.st,  as  the  extent  of  WseflJ 
and  the  effect  nn  the  digestibilitv  are  concerned.  It 
seems  not  unlikely,  also,  that  tW  succulent  silage 
may  reijuire  relatively 
less  labor  in  ittf  maatica- 
tion  than  the  dry  material, 
and  so  have  a  correspond- 
ingly higher  value. 

Prrpamtion. — .allied  to 
the  question  of  the  meth- 
ods of  pr«»erving  fwd* 
ing-stuffs  is  that  of  their 
preparation  for  feeding. 
This  may  be  mechanical 
(cutting,  grinding),  or  in 
a  loose  iti^nse  chemical  (cooking,  i;teaming,  ferment- 
ing and  the  like). 

(!)  Cutting.— The  cutting  of  coarse  foddei^ 
aside  from  convenience  in  handling,  serves  chiefly 
to  SGcare  mora  complete  consumption.   There  is  BO 


ertilttDc^  that  the  dig«tibility  ia  increased  by  this 
manipulation  or  that  the  work  of  nafitication  is 
materially  lesoeoed.  Even  very  Sne  grinding  of 
^traw  has  been  shown  not  to  affect  its  digestibility. 
That  it  did  diminiah  the  work  of  mastication,  white 
inlereflting  in  its  theoretical  bearingx.  is  hardly 
uf  much  practical  significance. 

(2)  Grinding.—  The  griodinK  of  grain,  on  thv 
other  hand,  Beerns.  at  least  onder  some  conditions, 
to  elTect  a  material  increase  in  its  digestibility. 
This  appears  to  be  eftnecially  true,  so  far  as  the 
recorded  data  go,  with  hordes  and  »wine,  while 
ntminantA,  In  Aom«  trialii,  hartt  (1ii;:t4ted  ungrotmd 
and  ground  grainK  wiually  woll.  Extt?n»ive  experi- 
ments with  «wirie  have  al.'^u  shown  a  dijitinct 
advantage  on  the  side  of  ground  fewl  as  (nfa«nr«i 
by  the  gain  in  live  weight.  Tho  explanation  of 
these  facts  is  not  far  to  seek.  The  t«t^ii5d-i;o;jt«  an.' 
intended  by  nature  for  the  protection  of  the  aeed 
mi  ooofiifit  of  relatively  inRoluble,  re«ii«tant  siili- 
staaoea.  When  grain  is  fud  wh«le,  n  varying  pro- 
portion, according  to  Iha  size  and  hardre!>s  of  thv 
Beeds,  the  amount  ft<l,  the  sptKries  of  animal,  tht; 
eonilitiun  of  its  ti^fth.  and  olhir  facturu,  is  likely  to 
escape  mastication  and  be  swallowed  whole.  Such 
seeds,  protected  by  their  outer  coats,  are  more  or 
l«8B  imperfectly  acted  on  by  the  digestive!  fluids. 
■Ithoogb  we  have  no  aatisfactory  data  as  tn  the 
exact  extent  to  which  thfy  arc  thu;!)  protected. 
The  km  is  likely  to  be  a  variable  une,  althiiugK  lt«s 
«Hh  ramtnants  than  with  hun^'K  and  ttwine,  while 
the  question  of  the  profitablfni-t>s  of  {^rinding  in- 
%'okee,  also,  the  (luestion  of  cost.  In  the  recordt^ 
experiments,  the  gain  frr>m  grinding  has  varied 
from  3  to  H  per  cent.  If  the  cost  of  grinding 
amonntfl  U>  10  jwr  cent  of  thi?  v;ihie  of  the  grain,  its 
economy  for  healthy  animali^  may  well  he  dmihte*]. 

(S)  Cooking.  —As  regards  th*>  "cliemicHl"  nu'lhiMis 
of  preparing  feeding-«tuff8.  it  may  t^e  mu\  that  they 
do  not  tncKue  the  digestibility,  bnt,  un  the  other 
hand,  IB  most  casee  diminish  it.  particularly  that  of 
the  protcids.  Inferinr  feeding-stuffs  may  sometimes 
be  rendered  more  palatable  by  such  treatment. 
vhlle  a  high  temperature  will  destroy  nhjectiima- 
ble  Kcrmii ;  but  normal  feetling-stufTs  are  rarely 
benefited  and  generally  injured  by  such  treats 
menl,  except  as  it  may. 

perhapEt,  to  some   extent      — ^^^^^— ^— ^-= 
reduce  the  work  of  mas- 
tication.    Potatoes,    and 

pnaaibly     other     starchy      

tabera,  constitute  an  ex-  , 

evption  to  this  rule,  and      rV.jL.  ™'t  i- 

.■^    ,  ,  ,.       .,        ,  l.niiw  protein 

MhoQld      ordinarily     he      Cnidc  flWr 

cookod  before  feeding.  Nitrogen-free  extract    . 

_        ,  *    1.    .-  Ether  extract 

Tm    flojwjf    <tf  feeatnff' 

Feeding-fttufTs  maybe  gronjxKl  conveniently  into 
tbrw  fairly  distinct  ctaAnes:  Fintt,  the  coar»e 
fotUere,  or  "  roughage,"  consisting  of  the  stalks 
and  letToa  of  varioos  crops,  with  or  without  the 
aceOBopanying  fruit;  second,  root  crops,  including 
the  tabers  aod  sT'me  fleshy  fruits:  third,  the  cnn- 
ototnt«d  feeding-stutTs,  often  called  for  brevity 


concentrates,  incloding  the  various  grains  and  a 
great  variety  of  by-prodncta  from  manufacturing 
operations. 

Coarte  fodder*. — The  coarse  fodders  are  char- 
acterized chemically  by  a  relatively  large  percent- 
age of  crude  fiWr,  which  forms  the  framework  of 
the  plant.  They  usually  do  not  contain  very  much 
protein,  although  in  some  this  ingnnlieiit  shows  a 
fairly  high  percentage.  The  projiortion  of  crude 
fat  is  smalt  and  inclucies  much  Wi;ide5  -true  fat. 
The  nitrogen-free  extract,  along  with  more  or  less 
starch  and  sugar,  includes  a  gri-at  variety  of  leas 
familiar  carhohydrate.i  and  of  other  suhatances 
whiWH  nutritive  value  is  pmblematical.  By  far  the 
larger  ]iroportion  of  the  coarse  fmlders  in  commoa 
use  \i  aujjpljvd  by  two  ctassee  of  plantf^,— the 
grasses  (riramineffi),  including  corn,  and  the 
legumes  (T^gnminosat).  Furthermore,  crci|»BlHslong- 
ing  to  both  these  classes  may  be  ased  for  fodder 
when  hut  partially  mature  (hay,  com,  forage),  or 
they  may  be  allowed  to  rii)en,  the  grain  mav  be 
removed,  and  the  residue  (straw,  stover)  used  fur 
fewlin;;. 

(l)  The  gruKKefi.— Tlie  larger  share  of  the  hay 
crop  and  of  the  pasturage  of  the  United  States  ia 
supplied  by  plants  known  in  a  restricted  and  popu- 
lar sense  as  gras-ws,  such  as  timothy,  hlue-grasa, 
red-top.  To  these  must  be  added,  .tr  a  most  impor- 
tant wjiirce  of  forage  in  the  I'nited  Slates,  com, 
which  Ijutanit'alty  is  a  grass--.  althouRh  not  com- 
monly «o  called.  Tlie  fiprage  »upplied  by  theaa 
plants  )\a»  a  very  wide  range  of  nutritive  value, 
depending  on  a  variety  of  conditions.  Chief  among 
these  is  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  the  crop 
is  utilized.  In  young,  growing  vegetation  the  cell 
watU  are  thin  and  contiisl  of  nearly  pure  celluhve, 
while  the  celis  are  fdled  with  active  protoplasm 
whcwe  chief  ingredients  are  pruteida.  Hence,  forage 
cat  at  this  stage  shows  a  relatively  low  percentage 
of  crude  fiber  and  a  high  percentage  of  proteida. 
Young  and  tender  pasture  grass,  relatively  rich  in 
proteids  and  low  in  crude  fiber,  may  even  approach 
the  concentrated  feedH  in  valne.  ai  illiistrafl,ed  by 
the  following  compHrtsnn  nf  the  dry  matter  of 
a  sample  of  young  pasture  grass  with  that  of 
average  oata: 


PsfKirr  imi'ii 


9.23 
31.88 
18.2&) 
44.39  { 

6.24 


DI|«illblo 


18.42 

46.06 

3.60 


Oku 


PnirrnliiR* 
compoiition 


3.37 

laae 

f  10.67  I 

167J)8f 

6.62 


DiftMt1bl« 


I0.t9 

54.32 
4.70 


As  the  plant  matures,  Ihe  cell  wails  grow 
thicker  and  become  more  and  more  impregnated 
with  tough,  woody  materia'.  At  the  same  time, 
more  solnbU-  carbohydrates,  as  starch  anil  sugar, 
are  being  produced  while  the  pniloplasm  comes  to 
occupy  but  a  small  |Mirt  of  the  cell.  The  fully 
mature  foruge,  therefore,  is  rich  in  crude  6ber  of 


70 


PRINCIPLES  OP  STOCK-FEEDIXO 


a  toagh.  resistant  sort,  contains  much  carbohydrate 
material  in  general  ar(J  tends  to  be  poor  in  pro- 
teiiis.  Forexample-.  three  sample.'*  of  meadow-grass, 
cut  at  different  dates,  had  the  following  compoHi- 
tioD,  redaced  to  a  uniform  perc«i)C;igd  of  wat«r.- 


. 

Hat  LI 

JumI 

Juaa  an 

WaUt 

Ash 

Cnidft  protein  .... 

Kitrujen-free  extract . 
Etlivr  «xtnct  .... 

15.0 
7.7 
IC.l 
21.0 
37.3 
2.9 

lOO.O 

15.0 
6.S 

9.5 
29.6 
36.8 

15.0 

6.2 
7-2 

3G,9 
2.3 

100.0 

1O0.O 

Acooropanying  thin  chimgL'  iri  composition  goua 
I  decrease  in  digestibility.  In  thu  first  place,  the 
erode  fiber  becomos  moru  re-sistant  to  the  action  of 
tbedi^restive  t>rgan.t.  In  the.so  three  samples,  nut 
of  each  100  partii  of  crude  fiber  present  there  were 
digw^ttL-d  79/>  parlji,  (15.7  parUt  and  61. 1  parts 
reapectivtily.  Furthermore,  the  lass  a)lubhj  crudf 
fiber  B«ema  to  have  a  temkncy  to  protect  the 
contents  of  ttiL*  cells  from  digustiun.  At  .any  rate, 
the  percentage  digestibility  of  the  protuids.  and, to 
a  less  degree,  that  nf  the  othcir  ingredienta  a\tm 
BuffeFR.  The  percentage  digesiihility  of  tiie  several 
ingretlients  of  the  above  HampIeK  of  graiv*,  omitting 
the  sah,  wua  found  tn  be  b«  follnwo: 


UftrU 

JniuS 

JaMM 

Crudo  protoifl  .... 

Ki  lroK«»*f rM  txtract . 
Etb«r  extract  .... 

7S.8 
79.5 
75.7 
66.4 

72.1 
65.7 

61.» 
61.8 

55.5 
61.1 
5o.7 
■1»X 

The  percentages  o: 
the  ordinary  way,  n-t 

tntAl  nntrientu,  expressed  in 
^re  therefore : 

Slny  11 

Javt9 

Jai»'3V 

Dii;>uitihlc  prnteln    .   . 
DiKMtihlc  carbohy- 

DigcstiNe  «t)i«r  extract 

n.8 

44.9 

1.9 

6.8 

42.S 
1.2 

4.0 

40.S 
l.O 

No  determinationfi  of  the  energy  valuer  of  these 
■amplM  were  mEule,  but  it  may  be  fairly  aasumed 


that  the  increasing  woodiRuss  nut  only  diminitihed 
the  total  amountw  of  digL-stible  nutrients  c^-ntained 
but  also  increased  the  relative  expenditart:  of 
energy  in  dige-stion  and  axsimtlation,  &o  that  the 
leitser  amount  of  digestible  matter  in  the  more 
mature  «ampleft  waa  probably  lesA  valuable  per 
unit  than  that  of  the  younger  RampleR. 

Whun  the  »ee<ls  of  graiweH  Iwgin  to  form,  there 
is  a  rather  rapid  truii^fer  of  nutritive  materiatH  to 
them  from  tho  stalks  and  leaves.  The  seeds  of  the 
ordinary  hay  grastins,  however,  are  so  small  and  so 
weil  protected  by  their  seed-coats  that  they  either 
BheU  out  and  are  lost  or  largely  escape  ma.stitation 
and  digestion.  r,ra**s  harvtjsted  after  the  treeiLi  have 
formed  practically  furni»heK  straw  rather  than  hay. 

Tho  bearing  of  the  foregoing  factj*  on  the 
much  discussed  question  of  the  bl'st  timv  lu  cat 
grass  for  hay  is  obvioun.  The  highi:'st  quality  is 
secured  by  very  early  cuttings  but  at  a  great  sac- 
rifice as  to  quantity.  The  greatest  total  dry  weight 
of  crnp  is  usually  tuKiureil  by  allowing  it  to  stand 
until  mature,  but  the  n^ult  of  tht>  luw  digestibility, 
as  weK  a«  the  lack  of  ]Ki]atability  of  the  product. 
ia  thut  the  amount  of  real  available  food  material 
secured  is  less  than  if  the  crop  haid  been  harvested 
earlier.  As  a  general  rule,  and  subject  to  many 
modificatiDns,  it  may  be  saiil  that  the  greatest 
yield  of  digiestiblB  fond  will  usually  be  secured  by 
cutting  gnuw  not  tatt-r  than  when  in  full  bloiim. 
The  hay  thua  aucured  will  be  loss  rich  in  digestible 
protein  than  that  cut  earlier,  but  richer  in  non* 
nitrogenous  materiaU.  When  condition!)  are  such 
aa  to  make  more  than  one  cutting  in  a  season  eoo- 
nomically  poa'tible  or  de.uirable,  an  earlier  date  for 
the  first  cutting  may  bi*  prf-fenJde,  yielding  a 
higher  (juality  of  hay  and  leaving  more  time  for 
the  growth  of  the  «iH!onil  crop. 

A  sumuwiiat  important  exception  to  the  general 
rule  reganling  the  inlluence  of  maturity  '»  observed 
fn  the  case  of  corn.  While  advancing  maturity 
produce-s  its  normal  etTecta  on  the  ittalks  and 
leaves,  such  targe  amounts  of  easily  digestible 
material  are  stored  up  during  ripening  in  the 
grain,  and  the  latter  makes  up  so  large  a  percent- 
age of  the  total  weight  of  the  crop  that  it  out- 
balances the  effect  of  increasing  maturity,  and  the 
ripe  or  nearly  ripe  crop,  tiiken  a.-*  a  whole— i.  e..  a> 
used  for  silage  or  ns  field-cured  furage^is  more 
digestilde  than  at  earlier  stages  of  growth.  For 
example,  the  dry  matter  of  corn  forage  at  three 
different  stages  had  the  following  composition  and 
digestibility : 


I 


Alb 

Proteids 

Nun-prut«ids .  .   .  . 
Cnide  fiber  .... 
Nitrog«n-free  extract 
EU»r«xlract  .  .   . 

Total  di7  natter  .  . 


Pervcnl  Kc"  c<tiiipi>*tll<itt 


100.00     I    100.00 


^llWlntff 

Kernel  > 

Ncntly 

7iiKiniE 

eUilriK 

mMtiM 

7.33 

8.57 

3.45 

8.^9 

7.08 

7.65 

4,77 

1,30 

0.47 

27.01 

IIJ.S8 

16X}3 

4H.2« 

e7.ir, 

6&69 

3.59 

4.02 

3.71 

100.00 


P«rr»ntM«  dIfHitlblUlT 


SllUng 


&a8 

sao 

67.7 
71.2 
74.3 

64.2 


Kvni«l« 
llMlni 

i.a 

4ti.4 

7».« 
40.0 
7S.8 


«6.3 


N«wlr 

miiiMr* 


84.8 
63.1 
35.7 
47.2 
81.2 
B2.2 


72.6 


PRINCIILBS  OF  STOCK-FEEDmO 


71 


On  the  other  hand,  of  course,  the  digestibility  of 
tbo  stalks  and  loaves  alono<stover)din]inisht.-.s  as  in 
the  case  of  other  grosses  as  the  [ilant  ^ows  older. 
The  composition  and  dijfpatibiUty  of  the  grassea 
rit  aIsi)  RiatKrially  alTccteil  Ity  the  pnipartiunK  nf 
_  ivariooH  vegetative  or;(an!4.  The  influence  of  the 
larjce  proportion  uf  see«l  in  the  cum  plant  huu 
ainauly  been  mentionc'd.  In  general,  the  k-avL-a  of 
the  Krassea,  and  of  other  forage  plants  as  well,  are 
m(»re  t#nder  and  contain  less  crude  (ihcr  and  more 
prriteidathan  theatalks.  l^afy  species  and  varieties 
therefore  tend  to  have  a  hijrher  feeding  value  than 
thuse  which  canniHt  m4)rB  largely  uf  Htatks,  Hnd  any 
influeooes,  such  a»  thieknes^n  <if  planting,  manuring, 
season,  and  the  like,  afTecting  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  leaves,  tend  also  to  atfi-ct  the  value  of  the 
crop.  The  combined  result  of  all  these  factors  is  t<i 
make  the  compoeitlon  of  gra^s.  or  of  the  hay  or 
silage  made  frcHn  it,  extremely  variable.  American 
analyses  «f  timothy  hay,  for  example,  show  total 
protein  ranging  from  S.H  per  tient  t<j  9.8  [jer  caoi 
and  fiber  varying  from  22.'i  \x;t  cent  to  ;j^.5  per 
c«nt.  The  corresponding  variations  in  hay  from  a 
few  other  gramee  are  im  follows  : 


I 


IM-top  ...... 

Kcshuikjr  Moe-graM . 

UMdvW  (MCM  .    .    . 

Otnifaud-grm  .  .  . 
Cbre  f  ong9  *  -  -  • 
Oatt 


T«1kI  protein 


5.9-10.4 
5.3-12.9 
4^11.8 
6.6-10.4 
2.7-  6.9 
5.2-  9.5 


L'rod*  Bber 


P*rorni 
24.0  31.8 
17.7-26.8 
20.8  31.9 
28.9-38.3 

7.5-24.7 
23.1-30.9 


"  Bntlrt  ptaat.  snuilt]r  eontalnlav  Fonaidvrably  mora  mtcr 

That  these  variations  in  composition  arc  occom- 
ptnied  by  corresponding  differences  in  digestibility 
haa  already  been  pointed  out.  M-ireover,  the  per- 
centage of  crude  fiber  in  courne  fcHlderH  h.i.s  been 
foand  to  be  a  fairly  accurate  index  of  the  relative 
expeDditnre  of  energy  in  digestion.  Not  only  does 
covw,  woodj  forage  contain  less  digtstihle  matter. 
hot  what  it  doee  contain  is  lu.s9  valuable  to  the 
aoimal,  pound  for  pound,  than  that  derived  from 
forage  of  a  better  qnnlity. 

(ii)  The  legumes  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  poas, 
beftna, vetches,  and  the  like  -  constitute  a  t)ource  of 
forage  second  only  to  the  grasxex  in  importance, 
whil«  their  value  as  renovating  crops  givei^  them  a 
peculiar  position  in  agriculture.  Broadly  s5>oaking, 
lagnminnos  forage  may  be  said  to  dilfer  from  that 
of  the  gnuiam  in  two  main  points.  First,  under  liko 
oonditionfl  It  is  notably  richer  in  proteids  than  the 
latter.  Second,  then)  is  a  mare  marked  dilference 
lwt«6N  tiie  i^ysical  properties  of  the  stems  and 
the  Imtvb  in  the  legumes,  the  rather  cnnr»e  Dtems 
racmaing  rvlatively  to  the  leaves  with  advancing 
maturity.  Hay  from  somewhat  mature  legumes  is 
therefore  likely  to  be  bulky,  to  have  a  higher  per- 
eeotage  of  erode  fiber  than  gnat;  hay,  and  rela- 
tfvvlf  to  be  lea*  digestible.  For  the  9ame  reason 
it  is  mnr«  subject  to  mechanical  losses  in  curing, 
which   likewise  lower  ita  quality.    For  all   thene 


reasons,  tho  composition  and  digestibility  of  legii- 
minous  forage  showaneven  greater  range  than  thoBO 
of  the  grtiHHes,  and  the  importance  of  timely  cot- 
ting  ia  Blill  more  marked.  In  brir-f,  tho  influences 
which  affect  the  eum[i<wition  inid  dige-itibiWly  of 
thu  graitses  afi'ect  tbose  of  the  tegumtni  in  sub- 
stantially tho  same  way  but  to  an  even  greater 
extent. 

(:{)  Straw  consists  nf  tho  vegetative  organs  of 
the  plant  after  the  removal  of  the  ripe  nr  nearly 
ripe  seeds.  Since  the  ripening  uf  tho  seed  constHts 
largely  in  the  transfer  to  it  of  solubla  maLerisia 
fn)m  the  leaves  and  stems,  it  follows  that  tho 
straw  wilE  be  poor  in  digestiblo  materials  in  pro- 
portion  to  tho  extent  of  seed  formation  and  tho 
degree  to  which  the  seeds  ripen.  Furthermore, 
those  parts  of  the  plant  most  liiittant  ^Tum  the 
seed  aro  found  to  he  most  completely  exhausted  of 
food  material.  The  straw  of  the  common  small 
grains  is  r<;lBlively  very  poor  in  proteids  and  fat, 
while  fitill  containing  not  inconsiderable  amounts 
of  digMtiblocarbohydratiis  and  related  substance*. 
Its  tough,  woody  character,  however,  as  indicated 
by  its  hi'gh  percentage  of  crude  fiber,  ma.ke8  reces- 
sary  a  relatively  large  expenclitur«  of  energy  in  its 
digei^tion,  and  \ln  real  nutritive  value  is  therefore 
low.  Wheat-  and  rye-atraw  stand  at  the  foot  of 
the  liift,  while  oat-  and  barley-straw  are  more  val- 
uably. Sheep  are  especially  adapted  to  utilise  straw, 
consaming  tho  upper  and  more  valuable  parts  and 
rejecting  the  coarser  parts.  The  straw  of  com 
(stoverj  constitutes  a  valuable  feeding-atuff.  U  is 
relativelyless  wtxtdy  than  that  of  the  small  grain.4, 
has  a  relatively  high  degree  uf  digi'stibility,  and  ia 
more  palatable  than  ordinary  straw.  To  secure  its 
complete  con«nmption,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  or  shred  it,  and  it  has  been  questioned  whether 
the  additional  material  eaten  in  the  cut  fodder  ia 
worth  the  labor  of  cutting.  That  it  contains  much 
digestible  matter  is  nndoubted,  but  nu  determina- 
tions  of  the  work  of  digwition  have  yet  lieen  made. 
The  straw  of  the  legitmes  iti  richer  in  protein  than 
that  of  the  cereals  and  lower  in  fiWr,  with  corres- 
pondingly hight^r  digL-stibility.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  usually  cuarso  and  unpalatable,  and  liable  to 
contain  molds  and  other  fungi. 

Raoix  and  tultera  constitute  a  distinct  claaa  of 
feeding-stuJfa.  differing  markedly  in  their  proper- 
ties from  the  citarse  fixtders  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  concentrated  feeding-stuffs  on  the  other.  With 
them  may  be  included  for  convenience  certain 
fruits,  notably  pami>kin3  and  other  cucurbita. 
They  are  characterized  especially  by  their  large 
proportion  of  w.iter.  In  the  rant  crops  proper 
(beets,  turnips,  carrots,  mangeli!  and  the  like)  the 
percentage  of  water  may  vary  from  80  to  96.  The 
tubers  (of  which  potatoes  are  the  chief  representa- 
tive) contain  less  water,  the  range  being  oppr^ixi- 
mately  66  to  8^  per  cent.  A  second  e<|ually  marked 
characteristic  of  these  feeding-staffs  is  the  low 
percentage  of  crude  fiber  in  their  dry  matter.  Their 
percentago  of  crude  protein  is  also  low.  and  a  large 
share  of  it  consists  of  noo-proteids  ^sixalied 
amides!  of  inferior  nntritive  value.  The  dry  matter 
of  these  crops  consists  Largely  of  the  more  readily 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


mlaHle  oarboh^drate^.  In  tho  tubora  »tarc]i  in  Ihe 
jiredoniBaiit  carbohydrate,  whilu  in  bwtK,  eftfjoci- 
ally  sugar-Heets,  cane^u^ar  occupies  thia  position, 
and  tlii8  HaltHtance  haa  been  8h<jwn  to  have  a  dis- 
tinctly lower  nutritive  value,  for  ruminants  at 
least,  than  nlarch.  In  wther  nxit  crops,  the  carbo- 
hydratt!:^  cohkUL  lar^ety  of  ([um»,  ^Hictin  xiibstanccj^, 
and  other  conipoundi*.  including  the  so-t-allud  pen- 
tojA  carbuhydmtei^,  whoso  f^xact  nutritlvL'  value  is 
stilt  uncertain.  Thure  are  also  present  in  rootH, 
aTid  particularly  in  fruit«,  more  or  less  organic 
acids  whose  nutritive  value  is  low.  In  eonBciiuence 
of  their  Kurculhtnt  and  U^nd«r  nature,  tubers,  and 
esp^'oially  roots,  hnva  ahi;;h  dygrt-enf  dii;e«tibi]ity 
and  n^juire  little  energy  for  thuir  dijiHHlion.  They 
are  thorefore  a  valuiihio  sourcL-  of  tiirhohydrate 
material,  even  though  some  of  their  in^n^^ients  are 
of  somewhat  inferior  value,  fn  ^enora],  the  dry 
matter  of  tnbers  is  more  valuahle  than  that  of 
HKils.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dietetic  effects  of 
nn>ts  are  ps[i«rially  prized,  hut  the  considerahle 
amount  of  tabor  rei|ntred  for  their  cultivation  tends 
to  rt'Klrict  their  usl-. 

Thf  eonceutraffii  feftiinn-stuffM,  or  "conceiitratt^a," 
as  their  name  implies,  are  thoee  which  contain  a 
lar^e  amount  of  nutriment  in  a  small  weip;ht  and 
balk.  They  stjind  in  contrast,  on  the  one  hand, 
with  the  coarse  fo«lders,  in  which  the  real  nutri- 
ment is  ac^ompanierl  hy  a  liirj^e  proportion  of 
woody  fiber  and  othwr  indijjestible  matter  which 
adds  to  the  weight  and  bulk  and  to  the  work  of 
di;CUfition  without  maU-rialty  iticroasinK  the  nutri- 
tive value.  On  the  other  hand,  they  excel  the  roots 
and  tnl>em  because,  while  the  dry  matter  of  the 
latter  is  very  v;ih]nljle.  it  ia  largely  diluted,  so  to 
Bpi'ak,  with  watnr.  The  cnnr.entrate«  are  therefore 
the  main  reliance  fur  the  raind,  intensive  pniduc- 
tion  of  meat,  milk  or  work.  The  concentrated  feed- 
jnji-stuffs  may  be  subdivided  into  (1)  the  grains 
and  (2)  the  by-product  feodinH-atuifB. 

(1)  The  graJnx  were,  until  comparatively  recent 
times,  the  main  ndianc^  of  aaera  of  concentrated 
feed,  and  indee<i  are  Htill  in  many  sections  of  the 
United  States.  C<'rn,  oats.  barl»y,  rye,  [teas,  treans, 
rice  and  at  times  even  whi-at,  an!  fpedinji-atuff* 
whose  value  needa  no  advocate.  Theso  seeiis  con- 
tain, stored  away  for  the  uae  of  the  yonnR  plantlet, 
proteids.  fat  and  carbohydrntes  of  the  most  valua- 
ble character  and  "repreaenting  the  highest  type 
of  vegetable  food,"  Their  protein  is  chieHy  in  the 
form  of  tnie  pn)teids  of  recogniwd  nutritive  value, 
their  carbohydrates  are  largely  starch,  and  th^'ir 
ether  extract  chiefly  true  fat.  lleing  closely  rela- 
ted to  the  nutrition  of  the  yining  plant,  the  eompo- 
gilion  of  the  properly  maturc-d  seed  show.*  much 
smaller  variations  than  that  of  the  coarse  fodders. 
The  degree  of  maturity  of  the  swd,  however,  mate- 
rially affects  its  composition  and  in  much  the  same 
way  as  it  dt«w  that  of  the  coarse  fodders.  In  the 
early  stages  of  »eed  formation,  the  proteids  and 
ash  flow  abundantly  from  the  vegetative  organs  to 
the  seed,  while  later  the  ripening  of  the  need  iii 
largely  an  accumulation  of  carbohydrates.  Any 
inflnences,  therefore,  which  check  the  normal  devel- 
opment of  the  Med,  such  as  drought  and  lodging  of 


the  grain,  tend  t<i  produce  a  seed  richer  in  proteil 
and  poorer  in  carbohydrate^.  Light,  shriveled 
grain,  therefore,  tends  to  be  high  in  proteids.  More- 
over, the  ingredients  of  unripe  seeds  diifer  to  a 
considerable  extent  from  thoee  of  ripe  seeds.  The 
crude  pn»tein.  for  example,  is  to  a  larger  extent 
in  the  form  of  "amides"  rather  than  true  prot^ids, 
and  the  carbohydratiM  are  in  the  form  of  sugars  of 
one  sort  or  another  rather  than  starch,  aa  in  the 
ripe  grain. 

The  cereal  grains  are  characterized  by  a  medium 
percentage  of  protein  (8  to  14  per  cent)  chiufly 
composed  of  true  proteids,  a  rather  low  percentage 
of  fat  (1..5  to  R  per  cent)  and  a  high  percentage 
of  carbc)hy(irate.s,  largely  ftarch.  Their  ash  is  small 
in  amount  and  in  it  potash  and  phui^phoric  acid  are 
prominent,  while  but  little  limo  is  found.  Turn 
contains  rather  less  protL'ids  than  the  other  cereal 
grains,  with  correspondingly  high  percentages  of 
starch  and  of  fat.  While  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  proteid  content  of  com  can  l>e  notably  increased 
by  Selection  and  hrewling,  the  effects  of  the  latter 
have  not  yet  sensibly  affecleil  the  character  of  the 
commereial  crop.  The  naked  grains  (corn,  rye, 
wheat)  show  a  comparatively  high  percentage 
digestibility,  and  both  in  this  re.ipect  and  as 
regards  their  composition  exhibit  less  variation 
than  the  hulleil  grains  (oati^,  barley).  In  the  latter, 
thts  variable  proiKtrtitm  of  the  relatively  valueless 
hulU  to  the  kernLd  causes  both  composition  and 
digestibility  to  vary  greatly.  Oats,  for  example, 
have  shown  the  extremea  of  B  and  17  per  cent  pro- 
tein and  3  to  7  per  cent  of  fat.  The  hulls  resemble 
straw  in  composition  and  value.  They  therefore 
increase  the  propnrtion  of  crude  fiber  in  the  grain, 
and  corretipondingly  dimini^^h  its  digestibility  and 
nutritive  value.  The  place  of  the  cereal  grains  in 
feeding  practice  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  fore- 
going statements.  They  enable  the  feeder  to  intro- 
duce into  his  rations,  without  undnly  increasing 
their  bulk  or  weight,  large  amounts  of  easily 
digestible  and  highly  nutritious  ingredients.  Of 
themselves,  they  contain  a  fair  (iruportiiin  of  pro- 
teida  for  many  pur|Mwea,  es|)ecially  for  mature 
animals ;  but  they  are  not  capable  of  offsetting  s 
deficiency  of  proteids  in  the  other  ingredients  of 
the  ration,  nor  do  they  supply  enough  of  this  in- 
gredient to  meet  fully  the  demands  of  the  rapidly 
growing  animal  or  the  highly  productive  dairy 
cow. 

The  leguminous  grains  share  the  general  physi- 
cal properties  of  the  naked  cereal  grains;  and  like 
them  contain  food  materials  (proteids,  carbohy- 
drates, fata)  of  the  highest  grade.  They  are 
especially  characterized,  in  oontra.'rt  with  the 
cereal  grains,  by  their  relatively  high  percentage 
of  proteids,  ranging  according  to  American  analy- 
ses from  2(1  to  42  piT  cent.  Some  of  them,  as  the 
soybean  and  the  lupine,  also  carry  notable  amounts 
of  fat,  but  the  more  common  ones  are  not  richer 
in  this  substance  than  the  cereals.  They  are  richer 
in  ash  than  the  cereals,  notably  as  regards  phos- 
phoric acid  and  lime.  Their  digestibility  is  genei^ 
ally  high.  Like  the  cereals,  they  are  valuable  as 
sources  of  total  digestible  food  in  a  concentrated 


PR[KCIPLE3  OP  STOCK-PEBDING 


73 


form,  hxtt  onlike  these  they  Ber\-e  also  to  enrich 
rations  in  protcids.  Aside  from  certain  t>:)chnical 
by-products,  they  are  the  most  available  mnterialH 
fur  1h'\s  pQipoee.  and  the  cuUure  of  legumin^u-i 
feedinf  crops,  botb  for  this  purple  and  for  thvir 
effects  on  thesoil,  deserves  carefal  consideration. 

Thn  oil  Be«da,  each  as  flax,  cotton  and  r:i[i«,  aro 
not  commonly  used  directly  aa  feedinir-stuffs 
b«cut9e  of  their  cominerrijil  valut!.  Tb^^^  seeds 
eootain  a  high  pereentape  of  proteids,  while  in 
place  of  much  of  the  carbohydrates  of  the  cereals 
and  leRDiies  a  larg^e  percentage  of  oil  is  found. 
Flax  seed  contains  a  conaiderable  quantity  of  so- 
called  "mucilaf!«,"  u-hich  swells  ap  with  water  to 
asliuy  nuu  ud  has  a  very  soothing  effect  on  the 
dicMtive  organs.  Cotton  need  is  fed  to  cattle  to 
■orae  extent,  oaually  either  boiled  or  roasted,  bat 
is  regEfded  as  dantreroui;  for  j2;rowini;  swine. 

(2)  TAft  by-jmniarl  ^ed'iivj-dhjfs  aru  the  rt-ai- 
diMB  of  t«cbaical  prixresses  by  which  the  products 
uf  the  soil  are  prepared  for  man's  use,  either  as 
food  or  for  other  purposes.  The  more  important  of 
these  technical  processes  are :  (a)  The  milling  of 
gruM ;  Q>)  the  manufacture  of  cereal  foods ;  (c> 
the  raanufacture  of  alcoholic  litfuors ;  iti)  the  manu- 
facture of  starch  and  elucoee ;  (e)  the  manufac* 
tare  of  susar  ;  (0  the  extraction  of  oils. 

(d)  Milling  residues,  particularly  of  wheat,  arc 
among  thu  moitt  familiar  of  the  by-prnduct  fet^ling- 
atuffs.  They  include  iht-  Kneninst  secured  in  clean- 
ing the  grain  for  milling  and  thft  bran  .ind  mid- 
dlingB  secured  in  the  irrindin^r  prop£<r.  The  scrt-H>Ti- 
ingiare  an  Rxceedingly  variable  mixture  accunliii^ 
to  the  quality  of  itiv-  );rain,  containing,  IvesiJes 
Itfcht  and  brokun  ^ains,  a  j>rcat  varii^ty  of  woc-d 
seeds,  fra^teiiLa  of  straw,  sand  and  earth,  as  weil 
u  spores  of  numerous  fungi,  ami  dirt  of  all  sorts. 
Whue  some  of  these  have  undoubted  feeding  value, 
tha  poRsible  danger  to  the  health  \>l  the  animaU, 
and  of  the  inf«itation  of  the  tiulds  with  weed 
seed  through  the  manure,  demand  ^eat  caution 
in  the  use  of  screenings  as  fiiod.  Its  addition  to 
brsQ  or  middlings  is  to  bo  regarded  as  an  adul- 
teration. 

The  bran,  of  wheat  or  rye  consifits  esflentially  of 
the  seed-coats  of  the  grain,  the  layt>r  uf  HiHciilltMJ 
gluten  cells  immediately  twneatb  them,  and  a  pru- 
pnrtioa  of  the  inner,  floury  part  of  the  grain  vary- 


nc.  U.    PuUsl  HBtliMi  of  wbnt  kenol  (»DlAr««d  tSEdUm- 
•f^nl.     I.  Mm4   podi    3.  tiuifrr   *«nl   cAat  .    X,  liirior  *(^ 
t.  (laMBMllli  I.  ■iMfbndli.    IJurdu),) 


ing  with  the  perfection  of  the  milling.  The  Beefl- 
coals  of  the  grain  contain  maH  of  it.-*  crude  filter, 
while  the  gluten  cells  are  richer  in  proteids  than 
the  inner  part  of  the  kernel.  In  proportion,  there- 
fore, as  the  bran  is  more  perfectly  separated  from 
the  flour,  does  it  become  at  once  richer  in  proteids 
and  in  crude  fiber  and  poorer  in  easily  digestible 
carbohydatcs.  Such  bran  is  more  valuable  as  a 
source  of  proteids  than  the  mon>  floury  bran,  bBt, 
at  the  same  timi?,  cont-ains  les.^  total  digestible 
matter,  and  probably  has  an  inferior  value  as  a 
source  of  energy. 

Mif!dUn<]f.  3Si  the  name  indicatea,  are  intermediate 
proiiucts  between  bran  and  llour.  In  modern  meth- 
ods of  milling,  variou.4  grades  are  produced,  in  the 
namfS  of  which  there  is  a  considerable  lack  of 
uniformity.  The  "brown"  middlings  contain  more 
of  the  gaed-coats  (bran)  than  the  "white"  mid- 
dlings, which  approach  the  low-grade  flour  ("red 
dog"  llour)  in  character.  Shortt  seem  to  be  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  middlings.  Because  of  their 
smaller  content  of  the  hulls,  middlings  are  decid- 
edly more  digestible  than  bran,  while  scarcely 
inferior  to  it  in  percentage  of  protein. 

Buckirkeat  middlhifff.  a  by-product  from  the 
milliug  of  buckwheat,  contains  nearly  twice  as 
muth  proteids  and  fat  as  average  wheat  middlings, 
and  correspondingly  lei's  carbohydrates.  It  is 
sometimes  called  bucktckeat  bran,  but  this  name  is 
also  applied  to  the  t<)iigh,  iniiutritioua  hulls  of  the 
bHckwhe.U,  which  have  little  feeding-vaUie,  and 
which  are  not  infrequently  URf-d  aa  an  adulter- 
ant of  the  middlings.  Tho  middiingii  are  crudited 
with  a  tendency  to  ferment  or  become  rancid  when 
stored  in  bulk,  and  also  with  producing  a  soft  oily 
bntler-fat  when  fed  in  large  amounts. 

Jiice  bran  resembles  wheat  bran,  hut  contains 
leas  proteids  and  fully  twice  as  much  fat.  The  pure 
bran  is  sold  largely  under  lh«  name  of  "  rice  meal," 
while  the  commercial  "bran"  contains  an  admix- 
ture of  varying  amounts  of  rice  hulls.  Thn  hullR, 
which  are  separated  from  the  kernel,  as  the  lir«t 
process  in  the  milling,  contain  about  40  per  cent 
of  fiber,  and  are  heavily  impregnated  with  silica 
and  covered  with  hard,  silic^ifiwl  fibers  which  are 
liable  to  cause  severe  and  even  fatal  irritation  uf 
the  digestive  organs.  Their  presence  in  the  bran 
to  any  large  extant  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  danger- 
ous adulteration.  Rice  p-^tth  results  from  the 
poliflhitig  of  the  rice  grains  after  the  removal  of 
the  bran  and  germ.  It  containa  somewhat  less  fat 
and  proteids  thnn  the  pure  hr.'in,  but  is  consider- 
ably more  digBstible.  All  thesw  rice  by-prtslucts 
contain  moru  or  less  "//ri^Jt"  or  fragments  uf  the 
kernel,  which  have  been  found  i\y  be  rather  diJRcult 
of  digestion.  The  rice  prodncU  are  also  rich  in 
fat,  which  becomes  rancid  rather  easily  and  often 
renders  the  material  unpalatable.  It  is  asserted 
that  this  rancidity  can  be  prevented  by  kiln-drying 
the  bran  or  polinh  as  smm  iis  pnxluced. 

Tho  tendwncv  haw  been  to  reganl  the  milling  by- 
products largely  aa  sources  of  prottdds.  While  it  is 
true  that  thif  bran  and  middlings  are  richer  in  pro- 
teids than  Vfhole  wheat  or  other  cereal  grains,  tho 
differenc«  is  not  sufKoient  to  enable  them  to  olfact 


t 


74 


PfirNCIPLES  OP  STOCK-FEEDING 


to  any  marked  degree  the  deSctencie«  of  other 
in^edicnU  of  the  ration  in  this  respect.  They  ara 
to  be  regarded  primarily  as  sources  of  difi^dtible 
food  as  a  whole,  with  a  tendency  to  increasa  some- 
what the  pro]>ortioii  of  pro(«idj  in  the  ration. 
Familiarity  with  the  good  qualities  of  wheat  bran 
in  particular,  its  comparative  safety  as  a  feed  in 
inexperienced  hands,  and  ita  good  dietetic  etTect 
have  tended  to  an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  food  value. 
When  it  rules  high  in  ;>rice  it  is  usually  posjiible  to 
substitute  other  feed inp-s toffs  for  it,  partially  or 
wholly,  which  will  furnish  both  proteids  and  energy 
more  cheaply.  Buckwheat  middlings,  on  the  con- 
trary, often  furnish  a  cheap  source  of  proteids  for 
a  ration  otherwise  deficient  in  it. 

(A)  In  the  manufacture  of  the  great  variety  of 
so-called  cereals,  or  breakfast  foods,  now  on  the 
market,  a  considerable  quantity  of  by-products 
accumulates.    In  the  casa  of  the  most  comman  of 


t^^f^ 


A. 


FlC.  fr*.   PATtUlMVtloaoloat  xrAlaCenlMnpHl  ITOiUiini«l«r«).  0. 
Hall;  I,i««(l  PoMl!  4,slu(«u  I'vllsi  h,  starcti  coll*.    I.lonlmi.) 

these,  outnituil,  the  riwidue  conaists  chiafly  of  the 
hulls  of  the  oat8  together  with  some  of  the  lighter 
grains.  As  already  noted,  the  hulls  themselvwi 
have  scarcely  more  fw-ding  value  than  the  straw. 
which  they  resemble  in  comprwilinn,  while  the  pro- 
{Hirtiim  of  lightoatA  is  not  suiTiciieiit  matcriully  tn 
raise  the  value.  Oat-htdU  aro  rarely  offt^red  as 
nnch  in  the  market,  but  are  usually  disposed  of  in 
OBO  of  two  ways.  Hrst.  they  are  made  the  basis  of 
TKrions  proprietary  feeds,  cheap  by-prodact«  of 
Tarinna sorts  heing'added.  usually  incinding  a  small 
amount  of  the  pmtein-rich  by-pn>ducta  shiirtly  to 
bf  di?«cribi>d.  Tliese  fee<ls  are  offered  undur  various 
numett  and  with  abundant  advertising  testimonials. 
While  tht-y  are  by  no  means  worthless,  it  is  evident 
that  the  oat-hulls  themselves  uru  no  more  valaable 
because  uf  the  addition  tfithem  of  otheir  materials, 
while  the  rnrwumer  ultimately  pnys  the  cost  of  mix- 
ing, transportatictn  and  advertising.  The  second 
use  to  whieh  i^nt-hulU  nrv  imt  is  the  adulteration  uf 
the   mixed    feeds,  especially  com  and  oat  feeds, 


which  are  freely  offered  on  the  market.  Since  it  is 
diflicult  to  rvcognize  even  a  considerable  adulu-r- 
ation  of  this  sort,  such  mixed  feeds  should  be  pur- 
chased only  from  manufacturers  of  known  integrity 
or  under  a  satisfactory  guarantee  as  to  purity. 
Barky  feed,  a  by-product  of  the  manufacture  of 
pearled  barley,  is  simitar  in  its  properties  to  oat- 
hulls  for  feed. 

In  the  manufiicture  of  hominy  from  corn,  the 
hull,  the  germ  and  the  more  starchy  parts  of  the 
kernel  are  rejected  and  constitute  hamiit]/  ehojtt 
which  is  similar  to  the  whole  kernel  in  composition 
and  digestibility,  except  that  its  perci^ntage  of  fat. 
is  gruater.  Consequently  it  has  a  higher  feedingl 
value,  although  the  fat  is  likely  to  become  rancid 
on  long  keeping,  and  thus  lower  it£  quality. 

(c)  The  manufacture  of  alcoholic  liciuors  consist! 
essentially  in  the  ennversion  of  the  starch  of  grain!.) 
vT  potatoes  into  sugar  and  the  subi^equent  fermen- 
tntiun  uf  this  sugar  by  means  uf  yuast.  The  resalt*  1 
ing  liquor  may  be  consumed  directly  (beer,  ale")  or 
it  may  he  distilled,  yielding  the  more  concentrated 
distillt*d  liquors  or  commercial  alcolnol. 

The  first  step  in  the  process  is  the  preparation  of 
malt,  hy  allowing  moistened  barley  to  germinata^ 
The  growth  of  the  sprntits  in   strtpi^ed  by  dryinj 
when  they  are  about  one-third  inch  lung,  and  taet*| 
dried  sprouts,  separated  from  the  grain,  constiiut 
vialt-gprtmtg,    Bving  young  roots  of  barley,  theyl 
have  the  general    properties  of  all  young  plant*] 
growth,  containing  a  high  percentage   of  crudtl 
protein,  much  of  it  in  the  form  of  amide.4,  and  a  tow  ( 
percentage  of  crude    fiWr.    Thts  ne.xt  step  in  the 
proceAK  is  the   m:ii;hing  of  the   ground  malt  and 
other  grain  with  warm  w&tur.   In  this  process,  tlw< 
ferment  of  the  sproutLNJ  barley  acts  on  the  starcl 
of  the  grain,  transforming    it  into  sugar.  lo  tb«j 
manufacture  of  beer  or  ale,  the  resulting  liquid  isj 
drawn  oET  and  fermented  sepanktely,  leaving  a  resi> 
due  known  as  brewer^  ffraitu,  which  is  used  exten- 
sively as  a  dairy  food.   In  the  fresh  state  it  is  a 
valuable  food,  but  is  subject  to  the  disailvantage  of 
fermenting  or  souring  very  readily,  and  tending 
this  state  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  milk.  Soni 
what  recently,  economical  procofwfts  for  drying  it' 
have  been  perfected,  and  the  dried  brewers'  grains 
constitutes  a  valuable  feed  which  can  be  shipped, 
like  any  other  dried  feed.   In  the  preparation 
distitlud  liquor  or  alcohol,  the  liquid  is  fermented' 
in  contact  with  the  grains  and    the  alcohol    then 
distilled  off,  lesiving  a  residue  known  as  diiiiUrri 
grains  or  tiiMilli-ry  Mop.    This  residue  is  much  wet- 
tor  than  brewers'  grains,  but  is  iess  subject  to  fer- 
mentation, since  thu  sugar  has  been  more  compleU-ly 
removed.   Largo  quantities  of  it  are  now  put  on 
the  market  in  the  dried  form,  both  under  its  own 
namo  and  various  trade  names,  some  of  which, 
such  as  " Ajnx. fiaktJi"  "AUti* ghten  mf-at"  and  the 
like,  ctrntain  no  suggestion  uf  the  real  nature  of  the 
material.   It  constitutes  a  valaable  source  of  stock- 
food.   The  grains  produced  from  rye  are  regarded 
as  the  pi>ore«t  and  those  from  corn  as  of  the  beM 
quality.    In  nil  thi*v  processes  the  object  is  to  con- 
vert the  starch  of  the  grain  as  completely  as  pofl- 
aible  into  sugar  and  then  into  alcohol.  This  results 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


76 


in  iccTBasbg  the  percentage  of  all  the  other  iiiRro- 
dientd  in  the  ivaidue,  Thi-y  contain  accordingly  a 
high  percentage  of  proteiilii  with  also  a  Ki)ini>what 
greater  percentage  uf  crude  lilier  than  the  urUinary 
gratuk  They  serve,  tbereforL>,  nut  uiily  to  8U[>ply 
food  as  a  whele,  but  alsu  U)  corruct  a  duficieniiy  of 
protoidB  in  the  ratiou. 

((/)  i^lart^h  and  glucose  are  made  in  the  United 
States  chiefly  from  corn.  The  starch  is  separated 
bj  coarse  grinding  and  the  use  of  water,  the  starch 


nc.  U.  P«rtUl  aochOB  of  main  kernel  (anUrgml  iTa  itlKm' 
M*r»).  I,  Oaur  Ims*t  at  «klii;  !,  lantr  la/at  at  tklm  «. 
dntvnecllt  A,  •UnhfdU.    <Jonlka.] 

being  carried  off  in  saspennion  and  allowed  to 
■etlle  out.  Glacoae  is.  mantifiictareit  by  further 
Uvatment  of  the  stareh  with  acid.  In  the  prepiira- 
tion  of  the  starch,  the  part*  of  the  k«rntfl  which 
are  rejectL-d  are  the  hull,  the  germ  and  the  mora 
glatinons  part  of  the  interior  of  the  grain  from 
which  the  starch  cannot  be  ci>niplct«.'1y  separat4.-d. 
The  bulls  BrecoRiparati%*e1y  low  in  prmteiiisand  con- 
itain  conaiderable  fiber.  When  mVX  separately  they 
\jU«  called  wrti  bran,  althuugh  the  cumpcwttiiin  of 
irrtal  aampled  indicat<--H  »onie  udmixturt^  of 
germs.  The  germ  contains  about  ;10  per  ct-nt 
of  oilf  which  has  a  commercial  value  and  is  st-cured 
by  proffiing  the  germ!^.  The  residue  conjutituU^s 
meai,  which  still  cnntainn  abniit  7  per  cent 
oil,  and  in  the  neighborhixHl  of  1 1  per  cent  of 
cmde  pnitvin.  The  glutinous  n-etidue  of  the  kernel 
cooatituttfg  gluten  meal,  containing,  in  general,  HO 
J  to  40  p«T  cent  of  crude  protein  with  a  compara- 
[■tivelv  low  percentage  of  fat  and  fiber.  Some  fac- 
lt»rit^  mix  the  gluten  meal  and  the  hiitl^.  and  sell 
'ihe  mixture  under  the  name  of  ghikn  frfd,  which 
cootaina  approximately  2-1  per  cent  of  crude  pro- 
fcria.  6  per  cent  of  crude  fiber  and  fi  per  cent  of 
fat.  SumetimeM  the  hQil«and  germs  are  »old  together 
under  the  nanuw  "  mtjar  fteii "  or  "xt'ireh  /m/." 
either  wet  nr  dry.  In  fact,  various  mixtuiea  of 
tlkt  three  main  products  are  made  and  sold  under 
diverae  commercial  names.  The-se  various  glucose 
prodocta  nhould  invariably  be  purchased  on  a  guar- 
antee BA  regards  compoaitinn  and  purity. 

ie)  l^Qgar  has  come  to   he    mnniif:w*tt]r»l  froTn 
iMgar^wets  to  a  couiderable  extent  in  the  Unite<l 
The  mgar  i»  extracted  from  the  finely  cut 
hf  means  of  water  in  what  L«  known  oa  the 
iffwimi  process.  The  iBBidue  from  this  cunstitntes 


what  is  commonly  known  as  fcee/  pulp,  which  is 
essentially  sugar-beets  miniLs  the  su^dr  and  Kome 
of  the  other  soluble  sulMtanceH.  In  the  fresh  8tat« 
it  omtains  ftO  to  95  per  cent  of  water,  which 
may  bo  ruducud  to  about  85  to  87  per  cent 
by  pressing.  Its  general  properties  are  similar  to 
those  of  roots  and  it  occupies  much  the  same  place 
in  the  ration.  Its  diget^tible  matter  consists  chiefly 
of  carbohydrates  belonging  to  the  group  of  pectins 
and  gums,  somewhat  inferior  to  the  sugar  of  the 
beets,  but  according  to  recent  investigation  fully 
ati  valuable  tut  thu  dige»tiblii  matter  of  mangels. 
The  wet  beet  pulp  is  too  heavy  to  bear  long  trans- 
portation, but  may  be  preserved  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  factory  by  ensiling.  It  is  now,  how- 
ever, driai  and  put  on  the  mtirket  as  dried  l)eet 
pnip,  containing  not  more  than  5  to  10  per  cent  of 
water.  The  dried  pulp  is  relatively  about  equ^klly 
vnluuble  with  the  wut  pulp,  es|>eciH.lty  if  soaked  in 
water,  as  it  should  be  before  feuding. 

In  the  further  manufacture  of  sugar  either  from 
sDgar-heets  or  sugar-cane,  there  remains,  as  a  final 
residue,  the  rrtnlaiw*.  This  contains  '20  to  25  per 
cent  of  water,  apnn>ximately  .^0  per  cent  of  sugar, 
scarcely  more  than  one-half  per  cent  of  true 
proteids,  and  8  to  M)  per  cent  of  auncalled 
non-proteids,  along  with  other  substances  of  doubt- 
ful nutritive  value  It  'm  essentially  a  source  of 
easily  soluble  carbohydrates^  principally  sugar. 
Beet  mol!i*w3,  in  particular,  has  a  marke4  laxative 
action,  cnmmonly  ascribed  to  the  potash  salts 
present  in  it  but  perhaps  due  qoiti.>  a^  much  to  the 
sugar.  For  this  rea-ion.care  is  rei|uireij  to  aceu.'^Lom 
animals  to  it  griidually  and  not  Lo  over-feed  with 
it.  Its  laxative  qualities  are  satd  to  be  valuable 
when  used  in  small  amounts  for  honics  in  prevent- 
ing attacks  of  cnlic.  Owing  to  its  physical  proper- 
ties, it  is  an  inconvenient  materiat  to  handle.  To 
avoid  this  tlifliculty.  the  so-i^allHl  mola*tes  ftvda 
have  lMM*n  put  on  the  market.  These  consiwt  of 
molasaes  dried  down  on  some  suitable  material 
A  large  numlwjr  of  concentrated  feeding-staffs  have 
been  used  for  this  purpose,  and  it  has  also  been 
dried  together  with  the  beet  pulp,  forming  the 
so-called  miJjisxts  pulp.  .Ml  these  feeds  are  of 
value  in  pn>])iirlion  to  the  materiala  out  of  which 
they  are  made. 

(/)  The  extraction  of  commercial  oils  from 
various  oil-bearing  seeds  leaves  by-products,  called 
mt-cake  OT  oU-meai,  some  of  which  have  a  high 
feeding  value.  Of  these,  coflnnKai  and  tiiuwd 
mml  are  the  only  ones  extensively  used  in  the 
United  States  and  are  typical  of  the  i^them.  The 
seeds  of  cotton  and  Aax  ant  rich  in  both  fat  ami 
proteids.  Hulled  coiton.see<l  eontainn  about  :S0  per 
cent  of  each  and  flaxseed  about  22  per  cent  proteids 
and  .%  per  cent  fat.  the  tatter  percentage,  how- 
ever, being  somewhat  variable.  The  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  seeds  either  by  pressure  or  by  the  use  of 
solvents.  Ieai.*)ng  a  residue  still  containing  .••iOme  fat 
and  very  rich  in  protein.  .At  present  cotton  oil  is 
extracted  only  by  preesore,  the  resulting  hard  cake 
being  ground  to  cottonwed  meal.  The  highe^^t 
grade  of  cottonfiL'<»)  meal  is  mode  from  the  hulled 
seed  and  contains  40  to  42  per  cent  of  erode  pro- 


76 


PRINCIPLES  OP  ^rOCK-FEEDING 


tein  and  7  to  9  per  cent  of  fat.  It  should  \te  practi- 
cally free  from  the  hiiUfi  and  therefore  contain 
little  crudu  irbor.  <*ottonRi:>ed  meal  iA  iutaltt-raied 
extensivuly  with  tlm  tough,  black  hul]«  of  tha  eut- 
tona.'ed,  which  havo  a  very  low  (e&ilinp  valin*.  Thia 
ia  especially  troo  of  the  inferior  ffrade*  of  commer- 
cial cottonftued  m^'al,  which  are  aold  at  a  lower 
price  than  the  standard  ^rade. 

Linseeii  f  il  is  extracti-d  from  the  flaxwed  both  by 
presfiore  and  by  meanK  of  iLai>hth<t,  the  latter  hein^ 
complettily  retnovud  from  the  retfultiog  oil-meal 
and  resiovered  for  use  a^^ain.  The  "new  process" 
(tf  extraction  removustho  fat  more  completely  than 
the  "old  pn»cc««"  of  pressure,  and  the  resulting 
linseed  meal  is  somewhat  poorer  in  fat  and  con- 
tains somewhat  more  protein  than  the  olii-proerKi 
meal.  The  procetw  of  extraction  by  presflure  has 
been  m  far  perfecLeii  in  rerent  years,  however, 
that  the  diffHrence  Itetwt't-n  the  oUl-prucesa  and 
neu^pniceM  mail  m  diHtinetly  leas  than  formerly. 
The  pnitein  of  the  n«w-proct«s  meal  appears  to  be 
slii^htly  less  digestible  than  that  of  the  old-pro- 
cess meal,  which  tends  still  further  to  reduce  the 
difference  between  the  two. 

The  carn-gmn  mral  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  gluten  feedii  may  aUo  be  clatuKKl  uh  an  uil-meal. 

III.   FESDCNa 

The  details  of  the  practice  of  feedinK  are  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  dictcussion  of  the 
various  animals,  in  a  subKeqnent  part  of  this  work, 
and  only  the  prinr.i|>l>ea  involved  are  taken  up  here. 
The  practice  iif  feedinj;  is  now  miMliiifd  and  aimpli- 
fied  by  many  maehinwtf  that  preparv  the  fuH«l,  aonie 
of  the  tyiie«of  which  are  shown  in  Figs.  77  to  103. 
These  fiKiires  may  !«ugfjest  devices  for  particular 
needs;  but  it  is  not  the  intention  to  recommend 
any  particular  machine. 

MainUnance  rcqairemcati, 

A."*  shown  earlier  in  this  article,  the  animHl  boily 
is  comparable  in  some  ntspects  with  a  heat  motor 
in  that  it  \si  a  converter  of  enersy-  It  applies  tho 
proteids  of  its  food  to  maintain  its  bodily  ma- 
ehinory  in  repair,  while  it  utilizes  the  avnilahlt' 
energy  of  its  food,  first,  to  keep  the  iHHlily  ma- 
ehinery  in  operation,  and  secimil,  to  pnxluce  exter- 
nal work  or  mat*?riaL  prtiducta.  As  in  the  c&ae  of 
an  engine,  ti  certain  expenditure  of  fuel  ia  rHi]uirud 
to  keep  the  machine  runninn  when  it  is  doing  no 
visible  work.  In  other  words,  as  common  experi- 
ence shows,  an  nnimnl  requires  food  even  when  idle 
and  producinK  nothing.  The  amount  reqaired  just 
to  prevent  the  bitdy  consuming  its  own  tissues  is 
called  the  maintenance  requirement.  The  word 
maintenance,  therefore.  tsUHed  in  a  restricted  sense 
and  not.  as  it  sometimes  is  in  common  parlance,  to 
indicate  the  total  amount  of  food  required  by  a 
working  horse  or  boef  animal.  The  actual  feeding 
of  animals  aimpty  to  maintain  them  is  not  usually 
economically  deBirable,  and  when  it  is.  observation 
usoally  suffices  to  determine  whether  the  ration 
consumed  is  adequate.  The  importance  of  the  main- 
tenance requirement  lieu  in  the  fact  that  a  coiuid- 


erable  proportion  of  every  productive  ration  is 
consumed  in  ftimple  maintenance,  and  that  it  is 
therefore  important  to  know  what  proportion  ia 
thuH  UKeil  and  what  |urt  remains  available  for 
productive  purpoaeg. 

The  maintenancu  requirement  includoa  the  de- 
mand for  protvids  and  for  energy.  The  proteid 
tissuefl  of  the  animal  are  constantly  breaking  down 
and  we-aring  out  even  In  a  state  of  rest.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  amount  so  broken  down  when  no  food 
is  given  rejirfTtcntH  the  nmallej^t  amount  on  which 
thu  animal  can  be  maintained.  It  in  impracticable 
to  apply  this  test  to  domestic  animaia,  however, 
and  their  maintenancti  requirements  as  regards 
proteids  must  ba  tuicertained  by  direct  experiment. 

As  regards  the  energy  requirements  for  mainte- 
nance, the  case  is  similar.  Were  the  animal 
deprived  of  food,  the  energy  reciuired  for  its  vital 
activities  would  ho  supplied  Ky  the  burning  up  of 
tianue  and  there  would  be  a  liws  of  the  latU^r.  The 
maintenance  ration  must  be  sufficient  juj«t  to  pre- 
vent the  losH  that  would  occur  without  food.  In 
other  words,  it  must  contain  energy  available  for 
maintenance  in  amount  equal  to  that  which  would 
otherwise  be  supplied  by  the  breaking  down  of 
tifli<iieB.  The  mOBt  logical  methiHJ  of  stating  the 
maintenance  re(|uirement,  therefore,  is  in  t«rms  of 
net  available  energy,  or  "maintenance  values." 
Unfortunately,  however,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
maintenance  values  of  only  a  few  feeding-etuffa 
have  been  determined.  Most  of  the  results  of  exper- 
iments thus  far  have  lieen  oxprntned  in  terms  of 
totail  digeifltible  matter  or  of  fuel  values,  and  for 
the  pnwent  this  seema  the  most  practicable  method 
of  statement. 

Infltitnre  of  kind  (^  fetiliag-ituff.  —  Aa  we  hftTe 
seen,  the  fuel  values  of  different  feeding-etoflTs  are 
not  equally  available  for  maintenance  because  of 
difFerenceK  in  the  amonnt  of  energy  expended  in 
digeHtion  and  :L'<»imil.ition.  It  follnwH,  therefore, 
that  with  the  same  animal  under  identical  condt- 
tion.><  the  amount  of  food  required  exactly  to 
maintain  it  will  differ  according  to  the  degree  of 
availability  of  tho  energy  of  the  food.  For  example, 
according  to  the  ftgurcj*  previously  given,  to  prevent 
a  loss  of  100  Calories  fmm  the  lisaueB  of  the  animal 
would  nvjuire  a  fuel  value  of  ?flV  ~  1-f*^  ralorii-a  in 
timothy  hay  but  only  of  .Vn"  =  l28  Calories  in  corn 
meai.  Since  the  energy  of  concentrated  feeds  ia 
more  available  than  that  of  coarse  feeds,  the  larger 
the  proportion  of  the  former  in  the  ration  the  lees 
will  be  the  amount  of  digestible  matter  or  of  fuel 
value  required  for  maintenance,  f^mversely,  the 
more  of  the  difficultly  digestible  fet-ds  the  ration 
contains  the  larger  will  be  the  apparent  main- 
tenance requirement. 

it{jlKencf  'if  tize  of  anmai.~\t  is  obvious  that  the 
maintenance  requirements  of  different  animals  of 
the  siime  species  will  vary  with  thotr  sin;  or  weight. 
It  has  been  shown,  however,  that  the  amount  of 
energy  required  for  the  vital  activity  of  the 
fasting  animal  is  approximately  proportionate 
to  the  amonnt  of  surface  exposed  by  the  animal. 
This  being  the  ca^c.  the  amount  of  any  given 
feed  actually  required  for  maintenance  will  also 


PRLNCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


be  pfoportionat  to  the  snrface  of  the  animal. 
We  cannot  moaeuru  reii'lily  thv  surface  area  of  an 
animal,  bat  since  animals  of  the  same  specios  am 
approximately  of  the  same  ahajie,  it  fn!Ir>w8  from  a 
well-known  geometricjil  principle  that  their  Hiir- 
facus  wilt  be  nearly  {jriJiHirtinniil  tu  the  Hquaren  of 
the  CO  be  Tools  at  their  weighUi,  and  the  mainte  nance 
iv^uin-mtfnt  may  be  safely  comimtifd  on  this  basis 
fi>r  similar  animalu.  Th«  increase  in  wclt^tit  of  a 
fattening  animal  also  causes  the  Tuaintcnancc 
rt^atremcnt  to  increaso.  and,  as  it  would  seem, 
mure  and  more  raitidly  as  the  completion  of  the 
fattening  is  appninched. 

7>wpcra/«rc.^-The  t^'mperatnre  of  the  animal's 
snrroondinics  may  aUu  influence,  to  a  certain 
dt'erw,  the  maintenance  re>iuirement,  although  nut 
to  the  extent  often  Buppo*od.  The  primary  object 
of  the  maintenance  ration  is  to  supply  energy  to 
keep  tbe  animal  tniichinery  in  action,  and,  in  a  scn^e, 
tbe  production  of  heat  is  incidental.  \VKile  only 
poft  of  the  fuel  value  of  the  frnxl  h  avmlahle  ftir 
actual  maintenanci!,  it  is  all  finally  liberated  a^ 
iK>at,  arising  in  part  from  the  work  of  di^t-iAtion 
and  in  part  from  the  oxidation  of  the  available 
part  of  the  food.  At  moderate  tomperoturi's,  the 
btMit  thuH  pmduce^l  mny  ho  enough  or  moro  than 
«noagh  to  maint'iin  tht>  temperature  of  the  body, 
while  at  low  temperatures  it  may  be  insufiicient. 
At  tin*  lower  temperature,  then,  the  animal  must 
receive  additional  f'>'>d  simply  to  keep  it  warm  or 
it  will  barn  up  its  own  tissues  for  that  purpose, 
while  above  a  certain  point  the  heat  supply  ariHttiK 
frora  the  cmaumption  of  the  maintenance  ration 
will  be  ample,  and  tho  maintenance  re<]uiremont 
vill  not  be  alTected  by  changes  of  temperature. 
Tb«  dais  now  accessible  render  it  pr<.>baMe  that 
with  oor  common  domestic  animaU  it  ii!  only  at  a 
rather  low  temperature  that  extra  food  is  required 
limply  for  beat  production. 


ifainlenajux  rttjuirf^enh  n/mW./f.— The  resolts 
of  earlier  experimentw  on  the  raiiintenainiu  rt><iHire- 
mentD  of  cattle,  as  welt  as  tin;  fetNiing  «t;uiilards 
battel)  on  them,  have  in  rviujiit  years  Ixiun  ubuwn  to 
be  entirely  too  high.  The  data  givon  U-luw  anj 
based  un  moru  recent  cxinTimonts  at  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Experiment  Station  and  the  experiment 
station  at  Moockern  in  Germany. 

(1)  IVoteids. — In  nine  exfieriments  by  the  Ger- 
man investigatom,  the  smallest  amount  of  digeRti- 
ble  r:rHde  pnitein  which  (tuDkei!  fur  maintenance 
for  a  l,fXK)-poiinii  animal  was  .firi  puundn.  Tim  ex- 
pyrimeiilM  at  the  IVniisylvania  Kxperiraent  Station 
huvu  f^ivvn  somewhat  lower  figures,  namely  about 
.4  pounds  of  true  pruteids.  As  was  pointed  oot  in 
considering  the  digestibility  of  the  food,  hnwever. 
ratinns  very  low  in  proteidni  tend  to  suffer  as  rt-gardB 
their  digestibility.  Since  it  is  c<jmparatively  easy 
tu  supply  abundance  of  pniU-ids  fur  niaintenuneu  in 
the  ordinary  coanw!  fodder  of  the  farm,  particularly 
if  legumes  aro  available,  it  is  probably  safe  to  in- 
crease the  figures  in  coso  of  actual  nuiinCenance 
feeding  to  O-U  or  0.6  pounds  true  proteids. 

(2>  P'nergy. —  The  following  tabnlation  shows 
the  fuel  value  required  for  maintenance  according 
to  the  earlier  Pennsylvania  experiments,  the 
Mueckern  experimenta,  and  the  later  Pennsylvania 
experimenta. 

Per  1.000  Pounds  Live  Wekjbt 

Earlier  P^-nnBylviuiiii  vxpi-rimcntjt  ,    .    .  12,320  Gate. 

Mfwi-kem  «x|>{-rimeaL-i 10.1)00  Cala. 

Two  later  Pennsylranin  oiperinivntH  .   .  11,430  CbIk. 

In  the  case  of  a  ration  consisting  as  largely  as 
possible  of  grain,  the  earlier  Pennsylvania  extwri- 
ments  give  a  result  in  accordance  with  the  theo- 
retical considerationa  already  mentioned,  the  fuel 

value  of  the  maintenance  rwiuircments  per  l.fjO) 


iQ  H   \i  u>g    *  ■»    b   fe  T  a   ■  .0  "  li  \t*i  \  if  %  6  "f  k        10  li  'g  I'rna  j   ft   j  a    y 
tig-  SB-    R>tt  of  beat  efRlulw.    Tho  afT<i«r«  liiiUii?«i«<  vrhen  the  tvnlcnal  itDod  np  atid  laj  down. 


Individuatitj/.  — Considerable  dilferonces  have 
been  obften-ed  in  the  maintenance  requirements  of 
dirfirrent  individuals  of  the  same  s[>ocueHon  simibr 
fead  and  under  like  conditions.  It  seems  prohnble 
that  much,  at  least,  of  this  variation  is  due  to  dif- 
fanocea  In  tbe  temperamenUt  of  the  animals.  Rest- 
Ihhmm.  that  ia,  muscutar  activity,  h:iR  been  shown 
to  bar*  a  very  marked  effect  on  the  rate  uf  oxida- 
tiOB  in  tbe  body,  while  the  mere  etfurt  of  standing 
ia  theoue  of  cattbi  may  increase  the  nietaboli.iim 
by  30  to  50  pet  cent.  Obviously,  the  maintenance 
nqaiMmeat  of  a  quiet  animal  will  l>e  considerably 
Ml  than  that  of  a  reatless  one. 


pounds  livB  weight  being  9,8fiOCals.,  or  2,460 Cals. 
](»»  than  the  average  of  the  experiments  with  the 
same  animals  on  coarse  feeds  exclusively.  This 
dilfer^nce,  therefore,  may  lie  considered  fairly  to 
represent  thi'  ptissible  range  tn  the  maintenance 
requirement  if  we  exclude  rations  consisting  of 
Very  indigtistiblH  mat<'riats. 

The  two  IuUt  experiiiienbi  (with  the  respiration 
calorimeter)  at  the  Pennsylvania  KxperinientStatioQ 
gave  as  the  net  avai'able  energy  required  for  main- 
tenance per  l.fXW)  pounds  live  weight.  7,S.f">0  Cals. 
Sinro  these  two  experiments  agree  well  with  tho 
otheni  at;  reganls  ths  fuel  valuee  reciuired  with 


Mi 


^t^ 


78 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


similar  fpetU,  we  ni;iy  probatily  consider  thct  above 
G^ru  to  rwtinatent  with  a  fair  di!>;r«h;  of  acuuracy 
the  maintenaoce  retiuirernent  in  terms  of  available 
enersy. 

Maintenance  reqtnremen(.»  of  ehrrp. — The  matnte- 
nance  ration  of  sheep  ncce&sarily  includes  the 
amonnt  reqtiirwl  for  the  growth  of  wnol,  and  to 
this  extent  de[j.'irts  from  the  KtrictdefiniLion  of  the 
maintenanire  ration  prpvimiBly  given. 

(1)  ProLeida.— Aa  r^^^arda  proteid  rHquiniments, 
few  definite  data  arc  on  record.  It  \&  i:l«?ar,  huw- 
ever,  that  it  must  bu  relatively  grcaU^r  tliitn  in  the 
case  of  cattle,  since  the  wool  fiber  ia  essentially 
proteid.  The  amount  of  proteids  in  the  average 
daily  growth  of  wool  per  1,(XK)  ponnda  live  weight 
may  \vi  said  in  genenU  tennn  to  range  from  .1  to 
.2  |)Ound.  If  we  were  to  aHsunie  that  the  remaining 
demand  for  proteids  was  comparable  with  that  of 
cattle,  we  should  have  a  total  of  .6  to  .8  pound 
per  1,000  pounds  live  wcijiht,  but  there  are  indica- 
tions that  the  figures  for  sheep  should  be  placed 
materially  higher.  Several  exjjeriments  in  which 
1.1  to  1.3  ptmnd  of  digestible  crude  protein,  per 
1,000  pounds  live  wn!ght,  wa«  fed  have  shown 
that  theiw  nmounU  wiire  aaffieient  when  the  total 
amount  of  the  ration  was  odvquate,  while  some  of 
them  at  least  indieate  that  the  tower  lignrc  named 
is  about  the  minimum.  These  figures  refer,  as 
stated,  to  cnide  pntteiu.  If  we  state  the  require- 
ment at,  ."(ny  one  pound  nf  true  prnteiila  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight,  we  nbalL  prnbaldy  lie  aafe. 

(2)  Knergy.— Ab  regards  the  energy  rwtuire- 
ment.  a  larger  numbur  of  n-sultfi  are  on  record, 
although  they  are  based  chiefly  on  live-weight 
experiments.  Two  respiration  experiments,  after 
allowing  as  accurately  as  possible  for  the  smai! 
gain.i  madtt,  give  an  average  of  1,420  Cala.  fuel 
valuu  jier  100  poundii  live  weight  for  maintwnanee. 
The  avtrrage  of  thrtie  oeriea  of  live-weight  experi- 
menta  ia  dL'cidedly  higher,  namely.  1,761  Cals.  If 
we  average  these  two  figures  (thus  giving  double 
weight  to  the  respiration  experiments)  we  obtain 
1,591  Cals.,  or  in  round  numbers  1,6(.H)  Gala.  This 
amount  covers  the  actual  growth  of  the  wool  as 
well  as  the  retiuirements  for  maintenance  of  the 
body.  All  the  experiment*  were  chiefly  or  exclu- 
gively  on  coarse  fo<tdur.  When  much  grain  id  fed, 
the  figuroa,  aa  in  the  case  of  cattle,  are  lower. 

These  results  make  it  clear  that,  in  proportion 
to  its  surface,  the  sheep  requires  less  for  mainte- 
nance than  cattle.  Thus,  if  we  compute  the 
maintenance  reqioirement  for  sheep  per  1,000 
pounds  in  proportion  to  the  mt°A'^  nf  the  nulw  root 
of  the  live  weight,  we  obtain  7,;W.t  Cals.  in  plaire 
of  approximately  11.000  Cals.  ri-tiuired  for  cattle. 
The  cause  of  this  dilference  ia  not  clear.  It  can 
hardly  he  attributed  to  the  immediate  influence  of 
the  w(Hil,  becaase,  as  already  stated,  domestic  ani- 
mals are  onlinariiy  producing  an  excess  of  heat 
and  the  maintenance  demand  repre-Hents  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Uxiy  for  energy  and  not  for  heat. 
It  is  another  question  whether,  in  the  contse  of  its 
development,  the  sheep  may  not  have  adjusted  its 
internal  work  to  the  lessened  heat  radiation  doe  (o 
its  thick  coat 


The  connideratinn  of  the  maintenance  require- 
mentM  of  the  tthuep  le-ids  naturally  to  the  quentioD 
of  the  influence  of  food  on  wool  jiroduction.  In 
considering  this  question,  it  ia  mtcesaary  to  dwtin- 
guiah  between  the  growth  of  the  pure  wool  fiber 
and  the  production  of  fat  and  other  materials  which 
accompany  it  in  the  crude  wool.  In  brief,  it  may  be 
stated  that  jiartial  starvation  or  lack  of  sufficient 
pnitifiils  in  the  food  decreaf^ea  the  rat«  of  growth 
of  the  wool  fiber  but  does  not  stop  it  entirely.  A 
liberal  maintenance  ration  ensures  the  normal 
growth  of  the  wool,  but  heavy  feeding  in  excess' of 
this  has  not  been  found  to  increase  the  growth  of 
the  pure  wool  liber,  although  it  may  increase  the 
total  weight  of  the  fleece. 

Mainlctuinee  rrquiremenU  nfawinr. — Scarcely  any 
data  are  on  reeord  as  to  the  maintenance  require- 
ments of  swine,  either  m  regards  proteiib  or 
energy.  Two  respiration  esperkncnta  showed  a 
con.sumption  of  tissue  during  fasting  equivalent  to 
about  1,200  Cals.  per  100  pounds  live  weight,  and 
accordingly  this  would  indicate  the  amount  of  net 
available  energy  required  to  support  the  animal. 
Since,  however,  we  bav«  no  satisfactory  data  aa  lo 
the  maiulenaoce  values  of  foods  fur  swine,  the  alxn-e 
figures  are  at  present  of  little  practical  stgnificancv. 

Maiiitenaaef  rvjuircmerifa  of  the  korte. — 1.1)  Pf*- 
teids. — As  regards  the  proteid  requirements  of  the 
horse  for  maintenance,  no  definite  data  are  avail- 
able, f^ince  the  worthing  animal  must  have  a  well- 
develojMHl  and  well-nourished  museolar  syBlem,  it 
may  Ik?  praaumeil  that  Lha  proteid  rwiwiremenls  are 
Botnewhat  greater  than  for  the  maintenance,  for 
example,  of  a  lieef-  or  milk-producing  animal.  The 
question  of  the  proteid  requirement,  however,  can 
he  considered  most  profitahly  in  connection  with 
the  dinriiKHinn  of  the  feeding  of  working  animaU. 

(2)  Energy. — The  energy  requirement  for  main- 
teniinee  is  somewhat  less  readily  determined  iu  the 
caae  of  the  horse  than  with  cattle,  owing  to  the 
more  nervous  nature  of  the  horse.  Food  sopplied 
in  excess  of  maintenance  is  likely  to  lead  to  rest- 
lessness and  unnece*4Sary  activity  in  the  stall,  so 
that  a  ration  might  aimply  maintain  the  weight  of 
the  animal,  yet  lie  greater  than  was  absolutely 
necTewiary  for  this  purpose.  By  comparing  the 
amounts  of  food  required  to  enable  the  horse  to 
jwrform  two  different  amounts  of  work,  Wolff  was 
able  to  figure  back  to  the  amount  necessary  if  no 
work  had  been  required.  In  this  way  he  found  that 
the  amount  of  food  required  for  maint4>nanre 
varied  with  the  proportion  of  crude  fiimr  contained 
in  it,  as  did  also  lis  value  for  work  production,  the 
maintenance  reqairement  per  GOO  kilograms  [1. 100 
p4>undB)  live  weight  varying  from  7.30  pounds  tfl 
10.24  pounds  of  total  digestible  matter  (including 
the  fat,  multiplied  by  2.4).  In  other  words,  it  was 
found,  exactly  as  in  the  case  of  cattle,  that  the 
coarser  and  more  wooily  feeding-stuffs  were  le«« 
efficient  for  maintenance.  Wolff  found  further 
that  if  ha  omitUnl  the  crude  fiber  entirely  from  his 
computations  his  results  for  the  maintenance  re- 
quirement agreed  very  satisfactorily,  averaging 
7.27  pounds  of  flbor-free  digestible  nutrients  per 
G(K)  kilograms  live  weight    In  other  words,  Uis 


I'RINCIPIiB  OP  STOCK-FEEDING 


TO 


expenditure  of  energy  in  dinestion  and  assimila- 
tion seemed  to  be  proportional  to  the  erode  fiher. 
It  id  to  be  notod,  however,  that  but  a  limited  vari- 
ety of  feeds  was  used  in  theiw  experimenUi.  Miintz 
and  Grandesu  have  reacbed  a  mnintenance  require 
ment  similar  to  WoIlPa  by  placing  the  horse  on  a 
ration  imraHicient  for  maintenance  and  then  fcrud- 
aally  increasing  it  nntil  equilibrium  was  reached. 


r^^^''"5 


Plf.  &T.    Tbe  "  ntarbllDE  "  of  raoat. 

Kontl  and  HaKemann.  after  correctinK  what 
they  refiard  as  errors  in  WolfTR  method  of  calcula- 
tion, compute  the  average  tnaintpnance  re<iuirement 
from  hi»  experiments  an  SJ^'Z  p<iundEj  digeHtihlt!  mat- 
ter ppr  TiOO  kiluj^raniK  live  weight,  thin  including  the 
erode  fiber.  From  ont  of  their  own  exp^^rimtnls 
with  a  ration  containing  loaa  crude  liber  they  obtain 
a  requirement  of  T.'A)  pounds.  These  amount*  are 
equivalent,  respectively,  to  14,9orO  Ciils,  and  12.93U 
Cals.  nf  fnel  value,  the  greater  amount  lK?ing  re- 
quired with  th4?ci)an;erand  more  wtuMiy  finK).  Com- 
puting the  work  of  di|;^tlun  and  uMtttmilation 
according  to  their  method,  and  subtracting  it  from 
Ibe  fuel  vaioe  of  the  ration,  they  Rnd  the  amount 
of  avaibble  energy  to  be  very  nearly  the  Rame  in 
the  two  cases,  averaging  7,920  Cain.  Accordingly, 
■  ration  rontaining,  according  to  the  table  of 
"Available  Energy  \>pt  Pound  for  the  Horse"  (page 
06)  previously  given,  the  abovt^namt'd  amount  of 
■Tailable  energy  would  bi>  a  maintenance  ration 
for  a  500-ktlogram  horse.  Zuntz  and  Ha^^mann, 
however,  present  evidence  to  show  that  a  consider- 
able ^lare  of  this  reprp»enta  energy  require*!  to 
prodace  heat  to  maintain  the  It^mperaLure  of  the 
body.  When  the  horse  is  doing  work  on  a  medium 
or  heavy  ration,  however,  it  has  abundance  of 
heat  from  other  8ourct«.  and  this  port  of  the 
maintenance  ration  is  not  needed.  They  estimate 
dw  actual  demand  for  energy  for  the  internal 
work  of  the  body  at  4,:{fiA  rTtln.  per  BOO  kilograms 
live  weigbL,  and  make  this  the  basis  of  their  eurn- 
pQtatioofl  of  rations. 

ifM/  ptvdudUM. 

By  meat,  in  the  general  sense  of  the  term,  is 
■KaDt  the  edible  part  of  the  carcass.  This  part  is 
maAc.  up  of  the  adip(mo  tinme  anil  of  the  lean  meat, 
or  meat  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  tt-nn.  The 
adtpoae  tissue,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  fat,  is 
Mi  pore  fat,  but  consists  of  cells  of  connective  tis- 


Buewhich  have  become  loaded  with  fat  and  contains 
8n  to  90  per  rtint  of  pure,  dry  fat,  the  remaimlor 
consisting  of  the  proteid  malerial  of  tho  connec- 
tive tissue  together  with  thu  accompanying  ash  and 
water,  .\diposc  tissue  is  chiefly  found  immediately 
beneath  the  skin  and  about  the  internal  organs, 
hut  smaller  masses  of  it  are  wrattered  throughout 
the  body.  The  lean  meat  is  practically  equivalent 
to  muscular  tiRdUe.  The  esKentiii.1  part  of  the  mus- 
cleH  consists  of  various  proteids,  together  with 
accompanying  ash  ingredients  and  a  large  percent- 
age of  water.  In  addition,  tho  lean  meat,  as  ordi- 
narily met  with,  always  contains  more  or  less  fat 
tissue,  which,  if  abundant,  produces  the  well-known 
marbling  of  the  meat.  For  example,  the  lean  meat 
of  an  unfattened  flt*er  twenty-seven  mnnlh!>  old 
bad  the  following  percentage  composition  : 

Water 70.09 

Ash 95 

Protein 1930 

Fat      ^M 

100.00 
In  other  wonis,  of  the  dry  matter  of  this  meat 

about  two-thirds  was  protein  and  something 
less  than  one>-third  fat.  The  water  of  lean  meat 
is  associated  with  the  proteids,  the  fat  tissue  con> 
tsining  little. 

Gjrrwtk  and  faltening. — Two  tolerably  distinct 
prucessea  are  involved  in  meat  (iroduction,  namely, 
growth  and  fattening.  Growth  may  be  said  to 
consist  substantially  in  an  increase  of  the  proteid 
tissues  of  the  body,  including,  of  course,  not  merely 
the  muscles  but  the  bones,  ligaments,  cartilage 
and  connective  tissue.  Fattening,  on  the  other 
hand,  as  its  name  implies,  is  simply  the  more  or 
leHK  rajiid  formation  uf  adi[Mis(<  tissue,  which  does 
not  form  a  necessary  part  of  the  structure  of  the 
body.  As  related  to 
meat  production,  it  is  fc-ai'^l'^''''^ 

e-ssentially  an  improve'        R  2*  " 
ment  in  the  quality  of 
the  product  by  the  ac-        .     , 
cumulation  of  fat  tin-       I     .-■'■. 
sue  between  the  fibers       f  -M' 
of  the  loan  meat  and      e  -  {''f^    ^\ 
incidentally    in    other     £i-i]f"-"  iA      \ 
parts  of  the  carcass,     ^^^il*^''^''  ■* 
Obviously,  no  tine  can     ^^^ 
lie  drawn  between  the     i^^-y     -f^-f    -*>    i'" 
two     processen.     The     ^S"/--   '^-1     A     li' 
growing  animal    pro-     ^^J      '-I  ,^    -J     \^? 
duces  more  or  loss  fat     ^df       t  '    ^'     "'V' 
on    a    liberal    ration,      feiV  ■   v^' 

while     fattening    is      ^  .'  \ 

often   effected    with      ^'^--.■-^  .   .j  [Jjc 
animalH    wliich     have  p.t-ceu.  is  »«eie. 

not    fully    completed 

their  growth.  At  tho  same  time,  there  is  a  clear 
distinction  between  the  two,  as  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  they  are  often  undertaken  by  different 
individuals. 

Rate  of  i/rowih. — Growth  is  evidently  the  funda- 
mental factor  in  meat  production,  since  it  coneists 
in  an  increase  of  the  essential  constituents  of  the 


Lk 


dMb 


so 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


meat.   In  this  prcKeEi3.age  is  the  chief  detennining 

factor,  the  rate  of  growth  decreasing  from  hirth  to 
maturity.  By  rate  of  growth  is  meant  the  increase 
of  the  protoi(3  tissues,  exjire-^sed  a^  a  p(^rc<!ntage 
of  the  aiDDUut  already  pro«unt  in  the  animal. 
Otherwise  expressed,  the  nam  of  luan  meat  In  a 
unit  of  time  becomes  constantly  a  smaller  and 
smaller  percentage  of  the  amount  of  lean  mi>at 
already  present  in  the  carcass,  or,  in  Kiiiieriii,  of 
the  live  weight.  The  Hccompanying  diagram,  rep- 
resenting the  approximate  average  results  regard- 
ing the  rail!  uf  growth  on  a  considerable  number 
of   domestic    animaU, 


CompMitioK  t(f  incr«(ue  in  iitt  uxight. — It  is  evi- 
dent, then,  that  the  composition  of  the  iocreasB  in 
livt!  weight  of  an  animal  will  contain  relatively 
more  proteids  and  coneeqaently  more  water  {since 
the  water  is  assticiated  with  the  proteids)  and  leas 
fat  in  a  ycinng  animal  than  in  an  older  animal,  and 
atitti  that  on  a  fattening  ration  the  increase  of  an 
animal  at  any  given  iige  will  cnntnin  more  fat  and 
relatively  \am  proteidn  than  that  u{  an  animal  <m 
Bimply  a  growing  ration.  Tim  folluwtng  table  shows 
the  average  results  of  a  number  of  detenninations 
and  may  serve  to  illostrato  the  statement  jost  made: 


CaLtlB . 


Shfep — 
On  growing  ration 


On  fattening  r»- 

ti-UE      .... 


Swine 


Dajs 
IB 
840 
1,460" 


290 

468 

G48* 


shows  clearly  that  the 
rate  is  high  in  youth 
and  decr»nses,  at  tirst 
rapidly  and  then  more 
slowly,  an  the  animal 
matures.  Jt  should  be 
noted,  of  course,  that 
the  results  expressed 
hy  tho  diagram  are  re- 
lative to  the  weight  of 
the  animal  and  do  not 
show  the  actual  num- 
ber of  pounds  of  in- 
crease per  day. 

Growth,  then,  is  a 
function  of  thu  iniina- 
tureanima!.  Itappears 
to  take  place  at  a  rate 
fixed  by  the  species 
and  individuality  of 
the  animal,  and  so  far 
as  a])[iear»  cannot  be 
materially  KtiniulatwJ, 

if  at  ail,  by  a  large  supply  of  proteids  in  the  food, 
although  it  can  be  checked  hy  a  deficiency  of  them 
because  of  lack  of  material.  Fattening,  cm  the 
other  hand,  is  largely  di^pumlent  im  the  total 
amount  uf  food  consumed  in  excess  of  that  required 
for  mainU-nance.  It  may  take  place  at  any  agu. 
provider]  the  food  supply  is  sulTicient,  but  is  brought 
about  more  easily  io  fairly  mature  animaU,  partly 
because  less  of  the  food  is  demanile)]  for  gruwth 
and  partly,  perhaps,  because  the  older  animals 
cortsnme  less  in  mnscnlar  activity. 


CiiMPORinoN  op  Incrkasb  in  Live  Weight 


WalQf 


i'er  ff«nl 
U1.99 
S9.65 
24.B0 


A«1a 


Per  Bent 
3.4S 

S.t8 
1.-17 


43.84 
27.27 
22.18 

33.41 

16.03 


20.10 


2.34 


12.24 


79.48 
40.37 
47.47 
22.00 


1.02 
2.99 
3.40 

ao6 


Prolelits 


P«Tcent 
18.51 
13.57 
7.69 

U.31 
7.03 
5.72 

9.91 
4.13 

7.13 

3.16 

17.87 
9.41 

10.11 
6.44 


Fikl 


pound 


P«r  «•■( 

16.01 
40.60 
66.20 

44.813 
6fi.70 
72.10 

&1.68 

78.84 

70.40 

8160 

1.63 
47^ 
39.02 
71.50 


1,169 

2.100 
3,0.^ 

2.225 
3,014 
3,25a 

2^84 

3,547 

3,218 

8,727 

533 

2,279 
1.943 
8,247 


« 

* 

^f* 

1 

1 

t 

D 

\ 

\ 

^ 

-— 



MO 


400 


300 


<« 


?la.  64. 


20a  300 

Ann   lU  <la>a 

Jtata  at  iaatue  ol  prould  Ussse  p«r  i.DOU  pouod* 
Ut«  wdgbt  Kt  dilTentot  UM. 


'ApDTtnliDiiiB. 

Itijliuiiee  nf  age  af  animal  on  meat  prodttetian.—' 
From  the  ^ove  facts,  it  is  clear  that  age  is  a  very 
important  factor  in  meal  production.  It  is  a  familiar 
fact  that  animals  gain  most  rapidly  when  young, 
and  tho  abnve  table  rcveaU  the  cauec.  In  the  first 
plaee.  they  store  up  relatively  large  amounts  of 
proteids  as  compared  with  older  animals,  and  in  the 
second  place,  the  proteids  thus  stored  carry  &  large 
amount  of  water  with  them,  which,  of  cour^  adds 
til  the  Weight  of  the  animal.  A  further  conse()uenoe 
of  these  facts  is  that  gain  is  made  more  cheaply  by 
the  young  animal.  A  glance  at  the  foregoing  table 
shows,  for  example,  that  a  pound  of  gain  by  toler- 
ably mature  cattle  contains  stored  up  tn  it  nearly 
twice  as  much  energy  as  a  similar  gain  made  by 
young  calves.  Since  this  energy  is  derived  from  the 
food  of  the  animal,  it  is  clear  that  it  must  rw]uire 
much  larger  nmiiunts  of  feed  to  pniduoe  a  jKtund 
of  gain  in  the  second  case  than  in  the  tirst.  On 
the  other  hand,  as  ulreaily  noted,  fattening  doee 
nut  take  placti  so  readily  in  the  young  as  in  the 
mature  animal.  Fattening,  however,  is  a  mora 
rapid  process  than  growth.  In  the  early  stages  of 
the  animal's  life,  then,  we  shall  naturally  direct 
our  efforts  largely  to  the  pnxinction  of  growth, 
while  the  fattening  procesa  may  begin  after  the 
rate  of  growth  ha.t  iihickeneii  considerably,  yet  early 
enough  30  that  wlien  the  normal  limit  of  growth 
of   Ibe  animal  is  reached  the  fattening  process 


..Vf. 


PRINCIPLES  OP  STOCK-FFIEDINO 


HI 


will  also  be  completed,  and  the  animal  be  ready 
for  sale. 

InHiirirltialiiy. — It  is  ■  familiar  observation  that 
iadividual  animals  differ  as  to  their  rate  of  growth. 
A  tendency  to  early  matarity,  which  is  in  fact  syn- 
onymotu;  with  rapid  growth,  is  a  di&tinct  advantagii 
to  tht*  moat-produccr  in  that  it  tends  to  shorten 
tb«  time  durinj;  which  the  aniroiil  must  \yi  fed, 
and  thus  to  reduce  the  expenditure  for  mere  main* 
tcnance  and  Becure  quiclter  returns  for  the  invest- 
ment. Animals  alsodiffer  in  their  feedingcapacity, 
that  is,  in  the  returns  made  for  the  feed.  This 
difference  is  often  ascribed  to  difference  in  diges- 
tive or  assimilative  power,  but  at  present  there 
is  no  good  evidence  of  any  ver>'  marked  dilTer- 
enece  between  animals  in  this  respect.  It  aeem» 
probable  that  the  observed  ditferences  in  feeding 
capacity  may  be  traced  largely  to  differences  in  tho 
ability  to  consume  large  amounts  of  fee-d  and  per- 
hapi  to  differences  in  the  maintenanre  reqcirement. 
Anything  which  increases  the  former  or  diminishes 
the  latter  would  render  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
food  available  for  productive  purposes,  and  thus 
increase  the  retoms  from  the  total  foed.  This  is  a 
point,  however,  on  which  further  investigation  is 
much  needed. 

Food  requirtmenU. — (1>  Proteids. — The  proteid 
reqairements  for  meat^prodncing  animals  evidently 
must  be  relatively  greater  in  youth  and  decrease 
with  advancing  maturity,  while  in  fully  mature 
animals  they  are  comparatively  small.  The  proteid 
reqairements  of  mature  fattening  animals  have 
been  greatly  exaggerated  in  the  past.  Abundant 
evidence  is  at  hand  to  show  that  a  proteid  supply 
scarcely  greater  than  that  required  for  mainte* 
UBce  will  suffice  for  the  mature  fattening  animal, 
altbcuKh  at  some  sacrifice  as  regards  the  percent- 
age dis:eetihility  of  its  food.  In  the  I'nited  States, 
however,  most  commercial  fattening  is  dunu  with 
more  or  less  immature  animals,  and  numerous 
experiments  have  clearly  shown  tho  advantage 
of  a  somewhat  more  liberal  supply  of  proteids 
than  is  afforded  by  many  of  the  rations  in  common 
ase. 

From  the  remltA  of  a  considerable  numtier  of 
fattening  experiments  with  i^atlle,  the  writ«^r  hux 
formnlatAd  the  approximate  proteid  requiremt^nts 
shown  in  the  following  table,  wh^re  thc-y  an>  com- 
pared with  thoee  fur  growth  formulated  by  KelEner, 
the  leading  German  authority : 

AfnunmutE  Pkotbiu  BKt|iiiaKMENTs  or  Cattue,  Pek  I.ooo 
Pmriroa  Lira  WaioaT 


Few,  if  any,  American  data  regarding  the  pro- 
teid requirements  of  sheep  are  at  present  available. 
Kellner  recommends  the  following  amounts  at  the 
ages  name<] : 


PKOTEm  Keqcieeitckts  for  Sheep.  Per 
UvE  Weight.— Kellnw 

1,000  PoOSDS 

Wm>I  licveds 

BdnttoD  bited« 

Age    &-  6  months    .   .    . 
Age    G-  8  munths    .  .    . 
Ago    8-[l  monUia    .   .    . 
Age  11-15  Riuntbi    .   .    . 
Ago  I&-20  monthfl    .   .   . 

8.0  lbs. 
2.G  lbs. 
1.S  Iba. 
1.5  Ibe. 
1.2  ]b«. 

4.5  lbs. 
3.5  Ib8. 
2.5  Iba. 
2.0  lb«. 
1.5  Iba. 

Pigs  are  distingoished  by  a  remarkably  rapid 
growth  and  therefore  nued  a  relatively  large  sup- 
ply of  proteids  in  tho  food.  Numerous  wi;ll-kn«wn 
experiments  have  shown  that  a  deficiency  of  pro- 
teids in  the  food  of  the  young  pig  produces  disas* 
troua  results,  leading  to  a  deficiency  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bony  and  muscular  system  and  an  over- 
loading of  the  carcass  with  fat.  As  a  natural 
result  there  in  a  tentlency  to  set  high  pniteid  stan- 
dards for  the  [jii- — perhaj>«  nef<nes»Ey  high.  Kell- 
ner's  standards  for  growing  pigs  are  as  followa  ; 

PaoTEiD  REQi:titEUE>rTS  op  Swine,  Pbk  1,000  Poukds 
Live  WBiiiHT.^Kellner 


Bn-«dtn( 

FkitMiliMI 

iiainiBla 

•ntmaU 

Aga  2-  3  monlhH  .... 

6.2  Iba. 

6.2  1b«. 

Age  3-  5  nuinths  .... 

4.0  Ihfl. 

-1,5  Ibe. 

Agft  &-  6  mnnlhit  .... 

3.0  lbs, 

3.5  iba. 

Age  S-  8  tnontba  .... 

2.3  lUi. 

S.0  Ibi. 

Ago  9-12  nnonlhs  .... 

1.7  Iba. 

2.4  )ba. 

Am^ricAti  r— alls 


Ag*  1  Bioath  . 
Acs2aMntka. 
AflaSmaatk. 

A|«  1-li  7»ara 


.4.aOUia. 
.4.00  lbs. 
.8.60  lbs. 

2.00  lbs. 


Ace  2  rean    ....  1.76  Uml 
Ap  21  yean.   .  .    .  1.50  Dm. 


German  reialu 


AgB  2-3  moDtlu 
Affe  3-^  tnoDtha 
Age  6-12  m»nth« 
AgB  1-1 1  yearB . 
Age  1ft  2  yean. 


4.50  lb». 
'■iM  lbs. 
2.80  lb*. 
2.20  lbs. 
1.60  lbs. 


Uaton.  fatteaicg . .  .  1.60  lbs. 


No  systematic  compilation  of  American  results 
on  thid  point  is  at  present  available,  but  there  is 
not  lacking  a  number  of  experiments  indicating 
that  considerably  lower  amounts  of  pntteids  for 
pigs  two  to  six  months  old  may  give  equally  satis- 
factory results. 

(2)  Energy. — The  total  amount  of  fooii  to  be  sup- 
plieil  to  a  nieatr producing  animal  must  necessarily 
remain  largely  a  matter  for  the  skill  and  experience 
of  the  feeder  in  adapting  his  feeding  to  the  indi- 
vidnality  of  the  animal.  Nevertheless,  certain  gen- 
eral principles  may  W.  indicated. 

FirKt,  the  maintenance  reijuirement  of  the 
animal  must  be  satisfied  iM-fchns  any  gain  can 
be  produced.  The  mom  feud  an  animal  can 
be  induced  to  consume  in  excess  of  its  main- 
tenance ration,  the  more  rapid  will  be  the 
gain,  and  the  more  cheaply  it  will  be  pro- 
duced,  because  the  smaller  will  be  the  pro- 
portion of  the  tutJil  ration  which  must  be 
a]>p]ii>d  to  rnaintfnnnre  purposes.  For  ex- 
ample, if  a  ration  has  n  pr^^xlut^tion  value  of 
9.00O  Cals.,  and  t5,fHX)  Calw.  are  rtxiuinsJ  for 
maintenance,  only  one-third  of  the  ration  is 
applicable  to  the  production  of  gain.  If  the 
gain  OR  this  ration  h  one  pound  per  day,  it 


C« 


82 


PRINCIPLES   OP  STOCK-FEEDING 


takes  a  total  of  9,000  CaR  to  proHuce  it.  If  now 
the  ration  be  iucruai^xt  to  12,000  C,a\&.  prtx^uctiou 
ralao,  ooe-half  the  ratiun  is  apidbablu  to  jirinluc- 
tion  purposes,  tho  gnin,  other  things  bcin^  (.■f]aa\, 
will  lie  two  poand«  per  day  inetead  of  one,  and  the 
total  focKl-ctwt  of  a  pyund  of  gain  will  be  6,000 
Calfl.  insU-ad  of  9,0*X)  V&h. 

Sticonij,  rapid  f;ain!4,  (W]KHiially  in  fattening  ani- 
mals, can  Iw  producKd  only  by  thu  ime  iif  concen- 
trated feeding-stuffs.  In  Ihe  first  place,  as  has  been 
shown,  the  production  valut-it  of  concentrutia*  aro 
higher  than  those  of  coarse  feeds,  although  by  no 
means  always  che.T.per  per  unit.  It  in  only  by  the 
ase  of  cwnnentratfiH,  however,  tliat  it  is  priHHihte  for 
the  animal  t*)  cottBume  the  lar;;e  amount  of  fuuS 
required  to  produco  rapid  gains.  The  advantajie  of 
being  able  to  give  a  large  amuont  of  fiHfd  in  excess 
of  the  maintenance  requirement  offsets  tho  usually 
greater  relative  cost  of  the  concentrated  feeding- 
stuffs. 

(3)  Feeding  fttandards  in  the  ordinary  sense 
would  seem  tii  have  comjHirativety  3ittl«  application 
in  meat  production,  but,  nevertheltaw,  Bcime  gen- 
eral statementa  regarding  the  t«tal  amount  of  food 
may  be  made.  These  statements  include  tbe  amount 
requireii  for  maintenance.  For  young  animals  larger 
amounts  are  retiuirei!  in  pniportion  tn  the  live 
weight  than  for  mature  anima!s  because  of  their 
emaller  size,  and,  therefore,  relatively  greater 
surface-  For  eattle  and  sheep,  amnunU)  of  feed 
varying  from  the  equivalent  of  20.CX)0  Cala.  of 
prodaction  value  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  for 
very  young  animals  to  hiilf  that  amount  for  nearly 
mature  animals  are  reonmmended  by  good  authnri- 
tiea,  ThtiHe  amounts  are  computed  per  1,0(XI'  pounds 
live  weight  in  pmptjrtion  to  the  weight,  Sincuswine 
subsist  largely  on  concentrated  fcetling-ntuffn,  Ihey 
are  able  to  consume  relatively  larger  amounts  of 
food  than  cattle  and  shfep.  The  current  feeding 
standards  call  for  a  production  value  of  about 
36,000  Cals.  per  1,000  pounds  live  weight  for  ani- 
msla  two  to  three  months  old,  the  amount  grailu- 


S- 


Tit.  TO.    iMytag  Uie  fonnddUon  Idi  a  lila. 


ally  diminishing  to  approximately  17,000  Gals,  at 
ten  to  twelve  months. 

Sfanagemeni. — Without  entering  on  a  full  de- 
scription of  the  methods  of  handling  meat-pro- 
ducing animala.  the  influence  of  certain  factors  in 
their  environment  calls  fiir  consideration. 

(I)  Exercise, —All  forma  of  muncular  exertion 
are  effected   ultimately  at    the   expense  of   food 


material.  In  the  handling  of  fattening  animala, 
tharefore,  which  are  to  be  fed  for  a  comparatively 
short  time  and  where,  accordingly,  the  question  of 
health  and  vigor  ts  of  less  importance,  it  is  desir- 


/// 


PiE    71.    Modes  of  (eedlDK.    Slloa  on  k  lUlrr-fariR 

able  to  reduce  the  amount  uf  exercise  taJcen  as  far 
as  practicable.  In  particular  it  is  important  that 
the  surroundings  of  the  animals  be  made  such  as 
to  induce  them  to  lie  down  as  large  a  part  of  the 
time  as  may  be,  since,  afl  was  noted  in  dixcus«:ing 
the  maintenance  requirement,  the  mere  effort  of 
standing  may  largely  increaM  the  amount  of  tissue 
or  of  food  material  oxidized,  at  leAst  by  cattle. 
In  the  ease  of  growing  animals,  however, 'other 
important  considerations  come  in.  Activity  of  the 
muHcles,  as  is  welt  knon'n,  has  a  tend&ncy  to  stim- 
ulate their  growth,  and,  since  the  muscular  ttf;:<me 
\s  the  essential  part  {if  the  meat,  the  benufitr)  in 
this  respect  of  moderaUt  exercise  may  much  more 
than  otf^et  the  ailditionai  amount  of  food  material 
oxidized.  Furthermore,  the  maintenance  of  the 
health  and  vigor  of  the  animalH,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  breeding  animals,  is  a  consideration 
which  must  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

(2)  Tem].)eratnn'.— It  was  jMiinted  out  in  discus- 
sing the  maintenance  requirement  that  except  at 
comparatively  low  temperatures  a  simple  mainte- 
nance ration  HU|>pli<«  sufficient  heat  to  maintain 
the  body  temperature  of  domestic  animals.  With 
the  conaumption  of  heavy  growing  or  fattening 
rations  the  amount  of  heat  incidentally  lilierated 
in  their  digestion  ii  greatly  increased,  and  con**- 
quently  fattening  animals  may  be  exposed  to  a 
very  rnnsiderahle  degme  of  cold,  not  only  without 
increasing  the  use  of  the  food  for  heat  prodaction, 
but  to  the  very  decided  advantage  of  the  animals 
in  many  cases.  Numerous  practical  feeding  experi- 
ments have  8ho«Ti  that  animals,  particularly  cattle, 
yield  quite  as  large  returns  for  their  fo«I  when 
the  feeding  is  cinduct^Ml  in  open  sheds  or  even  !■ 
feed-lots  as  when  conducted  in  a  warm  bam.  This 
is  esi)ecially  true  in  the  eomjiaratively  dry  winters 
of  the  middle  and  far  West,  The  greater  the  rela- 
tive humidity  of  the  air,  the  more  rapidly  doee  it 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


83 


abstract  beat  from  the  animal,  a^  eominon  exper- 
ience shows.  In  a  muist  cUmati;,  therefore,  animals 
tre  more  Hk^ly  U)  suffer  from  t.'xposurti  to  cM  than 
En  a  dry  elinmtu,  but  »o  far  as  cattle  are  concerned 
the  indications  are  that  outsiife  Teeiling  l»  qiiit« 
practicable  in  moat  if  not  all  pflrla  of  the  Unitwi 
States. 

(3)  Shelter.— The  qoeetion  of  shelter  for  meat^ 
prodncini;  animals  involwjt  much  mure  than  the 
mere  matter  of  t^^mpeniture.  In  particular,  shelter 
from  precipitation  Cniin  or  snow)  seems  to  be  a 
matter  of  coBJiidHrabk'  impi»rtance.  When  the  cnat 
of  an  aninnal  bccom(-«  thoroughly  wet,  a  large 
amoont  of  beat  is  required  to  evaiiDratv  the  moiit- 
tore  and  this  may  readily  overpass  th«  limit  beyond 
which  ill  effects  are  produced.  This  seems  to  be 
e.'specially  tme  of  shpep  as  compared  with  cattle. 
Furthermore,  a  dry  bwJ  ia  of  importance.  In  the 


rU.  71.     Hodea  ol  ftedllx.     Bnuk  %\ln  Iti  Hrilhh  Colnrablm. 

first  place,  the  heating  of  wet  bedding  and  espe- 
cially the  melting  of  anow  requires  the  expenditure 
of  a  large  amount  of  animal  heat,  while,  in  the 
•ecoDd  place,  comfortaltle  tiuartera  are  impfirtant, 
ai  already  noted,  in  inducing  theanim.il  to  lie  down 
freelT.  A  shelter  is  also  of  nome  importance  aa  a 
vind^reak.  Moving  air  aKstravts  heat  from  tbt.- 
l*o«ly  much  more  rapidly  than  a\a\\  air  of  the  same 
temperature  and  humidity. 

(4)  Water-supply.— A  sufficient  water-eupply  is 
important  for  all  classes  of  animals.  With  our 
domestic  animals  the  normal  consumption  is  Lhrue 
to  four  times  that  of  the  drv  matter  of  the  food. 
When  practicablcthewater-BuppIyHhouid  itealwaya 
acceMible.  The  teroperature  of  the  water  for  fatr 
tfoing  aairaalft  is  prohably  rather  unimportant, 
since,  as  ha»t  been  tieen,  such  animals  are  usually 

trodocing  an  excesfi  of  heat.  It  is  not  impossihle, 
owerer,  that  the  drinking  at  one  time  of  mui^h 
wry  cold  water  may  temporarily  rwiuin?  an 
rocnianod  prodnction  of  hent  t»  warm  it  pnimptly 
to  tiM  tenperatare  of  the  My.  For  this  reason,  as 
irell  aa  in  onler  to  give  op|>ortunity  to  the  animals 
to  conmine  all  the  water  needed,  a  water-supply 
lible  at  all  limes  is  very  desirable. 


Milk  produetion  diffurs  very  esaenttally  from 
meat  production.  In  the  latter  wedaaira  to  secure 
an  increase  in  the  sine  and  weight  of  the  animal, 
and,  hroadly  speaking,  all  the  food  suppHed  in 
pxress  of  the  maintenance  requirement  aids  in 
}>r(Kltj(;ing  t ho  desired  result.  In  milk  pnxluction, 
on  the  contrary,  what  we  desire  is  the  product  of 
a  ttingle  gland  of  L}iu  body.  An  tncrense  in  the 
weight  of  the  mature  animal  \&  not  desired;  it  is 
at  beBt  a  diversion  of  the  food  to  a  use  other  than 
that  intended,  while  any  considerable  fattening  of 
the  animal  has  a  tendency  to  check  the  milk  pro- 
duction. Pee<!iiig  for  milk  then  is  not  simply  a 
question  of  supplying  certain  quantitier;  of  proteids 
am!  of  energy  in  tlie  fewl  in  excess  of  maintenance, 
but  also  of  the  distribution  which  the  animal 
makea  of  these  amounts.  The  art  of  milk  produc- 
tion consists  in  stimulating  the  milk  glands  to  the 
largest  profitable  production,  and  in  supplying  in 
the  feed  the  necessary  material  for  this  purpose., 
while  avoiding  any  considerable  prtMloctionof  body 
tissue.  Tliree  factors  may  be  said  to  detennlne 
milk  production,  namely,  tb«  animal,  its  environ- 
ment, and  its  feeding. 

7'Ap  nnima/.-  The  characteristics  of  the  individ- 
ual animal,  including  both  the  characteristics 
common  to  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs  and  its 
own  individual  [leculiaritieK,  may  he  said  in  brief 
to  determine  the  capacity  of  the  animal  as  a  milk- 
producer.  While  the  uclual  amount  of  milk  yielded 
is  alTected  by  fi^ed,  care  and  the  like,  these  influ- 
ence* simply  determine  whether  or  not  the  animal 
shall  reach  her  maximum  capacity  of  production. 
This  capacity  might  be  compared  with  the  limit  of 
sjieed  of  a  horse.  Conditions  ileterniine  whether 
it  reaches  or  falh)  short  uf  its  nia-ximum  ability. 
These  individual  diffLTunces  are  a  familiar  fact, 
although  their  importance  is  not  always  fatly  real- 
iied.  C)n  the  capacity  of  the  cow  more  than  on  any 
other  single  factor  does  the  dairyman's  sncceHs 
depend.  Capacity  as  a  milk-producer  has  been 
fonnd  by  extwrience  to  be  usually  aasarlated  with 
certain  characteristic*  of  appearance  and  confor- 
mation which  differetitiato  the  "dairy  type  "of 
cattla  from  the  "beef  type."  Individuals  of  the 
dairy  type  arc  moat  frequent  among  animals  of  the 
recognized  dairy  breeds,  hut  technical  purity  of 
breeding  by  no  means  ensures  a  high  degree  of 
excellence  an  a  milk-producer,  for  individuals  of 
the  same  breed  differ  widely  in  their  capacity. 


Siace  but  little  milk  is  produced  in  the  United 
EtatM  except  by  cows,  the  following  diacussion  will 
bs  omfttad  to  the  feeding  of  these  animals. 


PiB.  n.  BTtek-Ttnd  faea-tet.  wllb  Km-mnleat  ibHtet.  wiur 
and  fc«diDK  4niLiiKcincDl.  A0>vi7>l  rruin  Clrrulmr  No,  Ot. 
lUluot*  AitnriLlttiral  Exp«nmvrt  j^tnllon 


mam 


84 


PaiNCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


As  regards  the  composition  of  the  milk,  too,  the 
individuality  of  Cho  animal  is  practically  the  dcter- 
mining  factor.  While  minor  efFects  on  the  compo- 
sition have  sometimes  been  pnxluced  by  changes  m 
feeding,  I  hey  are  relatively  small  ami  of  little  vr 
00  ecunumic  importance.  For  practical  purjiiwes, 
the  comptinilion  of  tha  milk  is  fixed  by  tha  inhL'ritw! 
breed  and  individual  poculiarititia  of  the  animal. 
ThiB  statement  applioato  the  average  composition 
of  the  milk.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  com- 
position may  differ  from  day  to  Hay  or  from  milk- 
ing to  milking,  enpecially  aa  regnrdii  the  percent- 
age of  fat.  Some  animal.H  show  very  marked  ditfer- 
ences  of  thU  aort,  while  in  others  they  are  much 
less  :  oa  the  average  of  auvural  days  or  a  week  ttiey 
&lmo:tt  entirely  disappear. 

Tho  stage  of  lactation  is  another  factor  in  the 
animal  which,  as  is  wwll  known,  affecta  the  yield 
of  milk.  A  Blight  increa.'Mi  in  the  quantity  is  fr*^- 
qaently  noticed  in  the  first  month  or  .^o  after  calv- 
ing. Following  that,  the  typical  course  Lt  u  hIuw 
falling  off  for  several  montlis  followed  by  a  rapid 
decreaw^  as  parturition  is  approached.  Many  ir- 
rogularitie^  occur,  however,  varying  from  animal 
to  animal  and  from  year  to  year  with  the  same 
Bnimitl.  The  comfuwition  of  the  milk  is  also 
aifected.the  percentage  of  iiolid  matter  and  especi- 
ally of  fat  tending  to  increaae  with  advancing 
lactation,  but  these  changes  aru  alao  irregular  and 
vary  in  ditforont  animaLi. 

Bnmroninrnt  and  rare.. — Tho  gurroondings  and 
care  of  the  animal  may  also  affect  the  milk  yield. 

(1)  Milking.  —  The  greater  the  frequency  of 
milking,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  the  more  and  richer 
milk  has  k'en  found  to  lie  pro<luced,  at  leaat  in 
certain  rather  short  experimenta,  aithougb  it  may 
perhaps  be  doubted  whether  the  difference  would 
be  very  marked  over  a  considerable  period  of  time. 
On  the  other  hand,  incomplete  milking,  allowing 
reaiduea  of  milk  to  remain  in  the  udder,  tends  to 
<(epres3  the  activity  of  milk  secpption.  It  is  import- 
ant, therefore,  that  cows  should  be  milked  fre- 
quently enough  to  prevent  this.  Beyond  this  point 
it  simply  becomes  a  question  wiiether  the  extra 
milk  secured  by  more  frequent  milking  id  suiBcicnt 
to  pay  for  the  additional  lalior  involved.  Various 
methods  of  manipulating  tho  udder  after  milking, 
«uch.  e.  g.,  as  the  Hegelund  method,  have  been 
found  of  practical  advantage  in  increasing  the  yield 
of  milk  and  especially  of  milk-fat.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  part  at  Itast  of  their  good  effect  is  due 
to  the  more  complete  removal  of  the  la^t  residuos 
of  milk  from  the  udder. 

(2)  Exercise-  Since  mnscular  work  increases 
the  expenditure  of  food  material,  there  has  been 
a  tendency  to  deprive  dairy  animals  of  a  due 
opiwrtunity  for  exercise.  Direct  experiments  have 
shown  that  a  moderate  amount  of  work  may  be 
performed  by  weil-fed  cows  with  but  a  slight 
decrease  in  the  actual  yield  of  the  valuable  sub- 
fltAooefl  of  milk,  althou^  the  amount  of  water  in 
the  milk  was  somewhat  lessened.  On  lighter  rations, 
work  tends  to  draw  on  the  body  fat,  but  the  amount 
of  energy  expended  in  this  way  is  probably  slight 
as  compared  with  the  beneficial  effects  on   the 


health  and  general  condition  of  the  animals  of  daily 
opportunity  for  fr^ie^lom,  motion  and  fresh  air. 

(3)  Temperature. — A  dairy  cow  is  pnittahly,  like 
a  lieef  steer,  pnxlucing  more  heat  in  her  iHMiy  than 
te  needed  to  knep  her  warm  under  ordinary  c»n- 
ditions.    Exposure  to  raoderiilo  cold,  therefore,  dowi 


not  necessarily  result  in  increasing  tho  amount  of 
material  burned  up  in  the  body.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  however,  that  a  typical  dairy  c«w  probs- 
biy  exposes  more  surface  t^i  radiatiim  than  a  lieef 
steer  of  the  same  weight,  and  that  she  u.Haally 
lacks  the  protective  layer  of  fat.  She  is,  therefore, 
probably  unable  to  withstand  as  low  temperatures  sa 
tlie  Btcer  without  extra  consumption  of  food  for 
warmth.  But  above  a  certain  degree,  what  is  true 
of  tho  steer  will  also  be  true  of  the  cow. 

This  is  not  ei]iiivalent,  however,  to  saying  that 
eKpmure  to  cold  will  have  no  effect  on  the  milk 
yield.  The  danger  is  that  a  sudden  chill,  through 
nerv-iiua  influence,  will  che<;^k  the  activity  of  the 
udder  and  turn  the  current  of  nutrition  away  from 
milk  production  to  fat  production.  Accordingly,  it 
is  advir^able  to  prevent  abrupt  changes  of  temper- 
ature or  exposure  to  cold  draughts.  On  the  other 
hand,  certain  experimenters  have  been  successful 
in  keeping  dairy  cows  thniugh  the  winter  in  a  cold 
but  dry,  covered  barnyard,  the  animals  having  been 
aceuytomed  to  this  treatment  gradually  during  the 
fall.  The  question  is  of  more  importance,  however, 
us  regards  stable  ventilation.  It  seems  probable 
that  rather  lower  temfniratures  than  have  hitherto 
been  considered  advi.'iable  may  Iw  admissible  in  a 
dairy-ham,  and  that,  consw^^iuently,  l»etter  ventila- 
tion may  be  practicable  without  the  necessity  for 
ariLlicial  healing. 

{4>  \Vater-«npply. — An  abundant  supply  of  pure 
water  is  even  more  essential  to  dairy  cows  than  to 
other  classes  of  stock.  Not  only  do  they  consume  a 
large  amount  of  dry  matter,  requiring,  as  already 
stated,  about  four  times  ifci  weight  of  water,  hut 
about  87  per  cent  of  the  milk  produced  is  also 
water.  The  water-supply  not  only  ehoald  be  abun- 
dant, hut  also  should  be  accessible  to  the  cows  as 
frequently  a.4  practicable.  From  this  point  of  view, 
the  various  self-watering  devices  constitute  an 
ideal  method  of  watering.  Comparisons  have  shown 
that  when  water  is  constantly  accessible  cows  may 
consume  sensibly  more  than  when  they  are  watered 
but  once  or  twice  a  day.  and  that  the  larger 
consumption  of  water  may  result  in  ao  increased 
production  of  milk  withont  any  falling  off  in  the 


PRINCIPLES 


qoallty.  If  self-watering  device  are  not  too  expen- 
sive, aai  can  hv  ktpt  clean,  they  are  to  be  recom- 
mtnAvd,  especially  for  dairy  calUo. 

Unch  has  been  vritt«n  regarding  the  proper 
temperatore  of  the  w&t«r-sapply.  In  the  lipht  of 
the  precedini;  paragraph,  it  would  appear  that 
simply  from  the  point  of  view  of  heat  savine  there 
M  liltle  if  any  occasion  for  heating  the  water- 
sopply.  Numvroua  teats  have  Bhown  increased  pro- 
daction  of  milk  as  a  result  of  warminur  the  drink- 
ing water,  but  it  is  prohablu  that  much  of  thia 
effect  at  least  arises  from  the  fact  that  very  cold 
water  is  not  conxiimMl  in  BUtlicient  quantity  to 
Bupply  the  iKiedR  of  the  animal.  To  this  extent, 
warming  the  supply  ia  advisable. 

(5)  UaadlinR.— the  secretion  of  milk  is  to  a 
fjeatar  or  leee  def^ree  under  the  control  of  the  ner- 
vous system  of  the  animal.  Any  abui^e  c^f  the  ani- 
mal or  umlue  excilemunt  is  likely  to  diminish  the 
milk-production,  and  the  same-  thing  is  true  of 
discomfort  from  any  source*.  Dairy  cows  should  be 
kept  as  qaiet  and  comfifrtable  as  practicable,  and 
oofuideratinn  and  humanity  in  their  handling  have 
a  distinct  monetary  value. 

{•baling.— \s  regards  the  feeding  of  the  dairy 
cow,  we  need  to  cooitider  both  the  proteid  supply 
and  the  energy  aupply. 

(I)  Proteius. — Milk   U  decidedly  protvid  in  its 

'Composiliott.    If  the  carbohydrates  (niitk-augar)  of 

(the  milk  be  reduced  to  their  equivalent  of  fat  by 

dividing  by  2.25,  the  ratio  of  proteid^  to  fat  and  ita 

M|uivaleat  in  average  milk  is  approximately  one  to 

jtwo.  This  is  a  much  Urger  proportion  of  protf  ids 

is  contained  in  the  gain  in  body  i^uight  in  any 

[except  very  young  animaK    Naturally,  therefore, 

lie  production  of  milk  calls  for  a  liberal  supply  of 

Dteids   in  thv  food.    Wolffs  familiar  standard 

lis  for  2.5  pounds  digestible  protein  per  day  for 
a  1,000-pound  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk.  The  later 
Wolff-Lehmann  .itandnrda  have  modiiieil  thiA  by 
aaking  the  rMjuirement  somewhat  in  proportion  to 
tike  milk  yield.  American  investigations  in  rL-cc^nt 
rears  seem  to  indicate  that  ihe  amounts  called  for 
u  the  German  standards  may  be  unnecessarily 
large. 

The  dairy  cow  requires  proteids  for  two  purpoeee, 

I  first,  for  the  maintenance  of  her  body  tifvues  and, 

fAecond,  as  a  source  of  flujiply  of  the  prnteidn  of  the 

■ilk.   Hios,  a  1,000-ponnd  cow  would  rL>uuire,  as 

w«  hare  aeen,  ^ut  .5  pounds  of  digfatible  pro- 

l4rids  for  maintenance.   If  she  is  producing  twenty 

|.|K>unds  per  day  of  milk,  of  average  compotfiitian, 

that  milk  will  contain  .(14  prmncls  of  proteids.  The 

row,  therefore,  will  require  in  hfr  daily  ration  at 

least  1.14  pounds  of  digc'ittlbte  proteids  for  thej<e 

Ptwo  parpOMS  tofcetber.    ExperiL'nce,  shtm-K,  bow- 

[■var,  that  a  certain  excess  uvor  this  minimum  is 

unn.  Id  the  first  place,  it  is  doubtful  whetliiT 

food  proteids  can  be  converted  into  milk  pro- 

jteids  without  some   loss  in   the  process.   In  the 

Lnooad  place,  a  certain  exctes  of  proteids  fteemn  to 

[bs  DflOMsary  to  maiutain,  or  at  leact  to  stimulate, 

[Ibft  activiliefl  of  the  udder,  hy  which  milk  in  \iTit- 

[dw!«d.    How  large  an  excess  is  neo«sary  for  thiA 

pofpoae,  bowever,  is  still  to  a  degree  an  unsettled 


question.  German  authorities  recommend  an  excess 
of  5Ci  to  100  per  cent  over  the  proteid?  of  the  milk, 
according  to  the*  extent  to  which  the  cow  is  being 
pushed.  This  would  make  the  total  proteid  require- 
ment in  the  ca.ie  supposed  1.78  pounds.  There  are 
not  wanting,  however,  experiment'i  which  seem  to 
indicate  that  so  large  an  excess  it;  unnecessary  and 
that  possibly  an  excei»e  of  not  more  than  25  to  35 
per  cent  may  be  sufficient.  Twenty-five  per  cent 
excess  would  make  the  requirement  in  the  above 
case  \.'3i)  pounds.  Of  the  above  results,  tnen,  even 
the  highest,  it  will  be  observed,  is  less  than  the  old 
Woltf  standard.  One  reason  for  this,  however,  is 
that  they  refer  to  true  proteids  and  not  to  the 
total  protein  of  the  ration.  The  question  of  the 
proteid  aupply  is,  in  part,  an  economic  question. 
As  the  proteids  in  the  ration  arc  increased,  while 
they  probably  stimulate  the  milk  production,  an 
increasing  proportion  of  them  is  simply  metabol- 
ized in  the  body  and  goes  to  enrich  the  excreta. 
Consequently,  the  stimulation  of  the  milk  produc- 
tion is  secured  at  a  relatively  increasing  price, 
and,  ultimately,  mQ.st  reach  an  economic  limit. 

(2)  Energy.— The  solids  contained  in  one  pound 
of  average  milk  correspond  to  about  J-10  Cals. 
of  energy.  This  amount  varies,  of  course,  with 
the  composition  of  the  milk,  being  greater  the 
larger  the  percentage  of  total  solida  and  especially 
of  fat,  so  that,  for  example,  one  pound  of  fairly 
good  Jersey  or  Guernsey  millc  would  be  equivalent, 
to  about  390  Cals.  For  the  present  purpose, 
however,  it  seems  preferable  to  base  comparisons 
on  railk  of  average  composition.  Tn  produce  one 
pound  of  such  milk  it  is  evident  that  tnecow  must 
be  supplied,  in  addition  to  her  maintenance  rtfquire- 
nient,  with  food  having  a  production  value  of  340- 
Cals.  Unfortunately  no  direct  determinations  of 
the  production  values  of  feed  I  ng-tt  tuffs  for  milk 
have  yet  been  reported.  Kellner,  however,  adduces 
reiisons  for  believing  that  the  values  for  meat  pro- 
duction as  tabulated  on  aprfviouK  page  are  approxi- 
matidy  applicable  also  to  milk  production,  and 
conftrms  this  conclusion  by  examples  drawn  from 
practice.  If  this  belief  is  justified,  it  becomes  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  to  compute  the  food 
retuirementf  of  a  dairy  cow.  If,  for  example,  w& 
have  a  cow  weighing  1,000  pounds  and  producing 
22  poundit  of  average  milk  dailv,  her  tlally  ration 
must  contain  a40x  22  =  7,480*  Cals.  of  produc- 
tion value  in  addition  to  her  maintenance  require- 
ment. As  we  have  already  seen,  the  maintenance 
requirement  of  such  an  animal  is  approximately 
7,350  Cals.  of  net  available  energy,  of  which  not 
over  70  per  cent— e*iual  to  about  .'),l'iO  C-ils. — 
would  W  pniductlon  value,  {^n  this  basiit,  then,  the 
retiuiremerit  of  the  animal  in  terms  of  production 
values  will  be ; 

Formilk  production 7.480  Cals. 

For  main  ten  anee 5,150  CbI*. 

TotaJ 12.630  Cal». 

A  study  of  experiments  on  milk  production,  bow- 
ever,  shows  that  the  ratio  between  fiKxi  aiH)  milk 
is  by  no  means  constant.    The  tendency  to  milk 


PRIKCIPLES  OP  STOCK-PEEDtNG 


prodnctbn  in  snch  that  the  activity  of  the  glands 
will  cunLiniie  for  a  long  time  even  on  an  insuffi- 
cient ration,  the  lacking  materiHl  being  drawn 
from  the  tiH«ue«  of  the  Iwnly.  In  such  a  ciwe  the 
apparent  food  rmiuinirnBnt  ubviuusly  will  lie  beldw 
the  truth.  Dn  the  other  hand,ht.'avy  fuc'dinE,  whili? 
tending  to  incfvasc  thu  milk  production,  also  ti'nds 
to  cause  a  gnin  of  tiBsnc!.  especially  of  fat,  by  thu 
animal,  and  in  thin  case  the  apparent  food  rLi|iiirc- 
rtient  is  larjrer  than  the  true  ohb.  Eletween  thcise 
two  ostrenn'tt  u!cpt>rimimtfi  in<lica.tit  that  the  »moimt 
of  IkkmI  whin'h  iniuft  he  Kup])lied  for  the  pr<xhiption 
of  a  pound  of  milk  after  the  maint^nanctj  rHcpiire- 
ment  is  satisfitid  ia  approximaU-'ly  unifurra,  and 
that  if  not  exactly  meaHured  by  Kellni-r's  produc- 
tion valuer  it  is  at  bast  fairly  proportional  to 
tham.  If  this  be  trpe,  it  is  clear  that  the  more 
liWral  tliB  feeiling  can  lie  made  without  canning 
tha  animal  tu  fatten  (that  is,  the  gn^ater  the 
capacity  of  the  cow  aa  a  milk-proitucing  marhine) 
thii  larger  will  bo  the  return  pL-runit  of  total  fotnl, 
precisely  as  explained  in  the  caao  of  thL-  fattening 
steer,  since  the  proportion  of  the  ration  uavd  for 
productive  purpo^ea  b«>comes  greater.  In  pnictice, 
liuwaver,  we  havo  to  reckon  with  the  fact  that  on 
a  liberal  ration  there  ia  an  increasing  tendency  for 
the  animal  to  get  fat,  and  that  wh^-n  cows  are 
pashed  to  their  capadty  a  eonsideraidt?  prop(>rttnn 
of  the  food  ia  liable  to  be  applied  tn  thif*  way,  this 
proportion  increasing  as  the  limit  of  milk  produc- 
tion is  appniacheil.  Consequently,  on  heavy  feed- 
ing, the  milk  prodtictiitn  hecomes  more  and  more 
expensive,  and  a  liinrt  is  a<>on  reached  beyond  which 
it  ia  not  (jconomieally  profitable  to  force  the  cow. 

(3)  Pat  reqiiirt-'menta. —Comparatively  recent 
experiments  scorn  to  show  that  for  a  dairy  ratioa 
to  reach  its  maximum  etticiu-ncy  it  must  contain  a 
certain  minimum  amount  of  digestihte  fat.  While 
it  has  tieen  demonHtrateiJ  that  milk-fat  can  be  and 
is  pn«liiced  from  other  ingredient**  of  the  food  than 
fat,  neverthuleiia.  a  diminution  of  the  fat  below 
.75  to  I.O  pounds  per  day  siyems  to  affect  unfa- 
vorably the  production  of  milk  and  e«i>ocially  of 
milk-fat.  Thi^  fa{^t  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  the 
computation  of  rations,  although  iis  a  rule  Ameri- 
can ration.s  tend  to  be  high  rather  than  low  in  fat. 

(4}  Choice  of  feeding-.-ituff*. — The  proportion  of 
coarau  fodder  in  a  dairy  nition  may  vary  within  wide 
limita  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  feeding  and 
the  capacity  of  the  digwative  organs.  The  total  dry 
matter  of  a  ration  may  range  from  twenty  to  thirty 
poands,  the  smaller  amount,  of  coar.'w.  indicating  a 
lera  percentage  of  coarse  fodder.  Wh«n  the  cow  is 
to  be  poshed  to  her  full  capacity,  it  will  l^e  necessary 
to  increase  the  proportion  of  concentrated  feeding- 
ittuffs,  while  in  modoratt;  feeding  coarae  fodder  may 
form  a  conaiderable  proportion  of  the  ration,  especi- 
ally if  palatable  and  of  good  quality. 

Practice  shows  that  a  supply  of  succulent  food  is 
ao  important  factor  in  the  welfare  of  a  dairy  herd. 
A  part  of  its  advantage  doubtless  art.<ie^  from  the 
Ion  amuDnt  of  energy  which  haa  U)  be  expended  in 
its  mastication,  digestion  and  assimilation,  but  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  this  factor  playn  a  very 
large  part.  It  seems  more  probable  that  the  chief 


advantage  of  succulent  food  ari^-s  from  its  dietetic 
effect ;  that  it  tends  to  stimolatti  milk  prodDctinn 
rather  than  fattening.  The  various  root  oroi>ii, 
incluiling  such  ra'^idues  as  sugar-beet  pulp,  are 
nicugniwd  as  the  miMt  desirable  kind  of  succulent 
food,  but  thtair  use  ia  rather  limited,  owing  to  the 
expense  of  growing  and  handling  them.  In  Ameri- 
can practico,  silage,  especially  of  corn,  is  more 
widely  used  for  succnlent  food. 

Finally,  the  elTect  of  the  ration  on  the  taste  and 
wlnr  4)f  the  milk  is  an  important  element  in  the 
chidce  nf  feeding-stutTs  for  the  dairy  cow.  Certain 
niutL'rials,  as  liirnl)is,  cjibbage,  rape,  garlic,  wild 
mustard  and  the  like,  transmit  tht^ir  [jeculiar  flavor* 
directly  In  thu  milk,  with  more  or  luds  readiness, 
while  other  feeding-stuffa  seem  to  affect  the  milk 
indirectly  through  the  air  of  the  stahle  rather  than 
directly  throngh  the  organism.  The  longer  the  time 
elagising  lietween  the  feeding  of  one  of  thette 
materials  and  the  mdkiiLg  thQ  less  is  likely  tu  lie 
the  injurious  elTect.  t^nsequantly  these  effects  can 
often  bo  prevented  or  moderated  by  giving  the 
feeding ■«tuff  in  question  immediately  after  milking. 

Fe^ditiff  Jor  trork  production. 

The  horse  (or  mule)  is  almwt  the  exclusive  work- 
ing animal  in  the  United  States,  and  the  following 
diacusaion  will  be  confined  lo  this  animal. 

Houretufeturijij. — Work  is  performed  by  an  animal 
by  the  contraction  of  its  muscles,  and  the  energy 
required  isfurni-shed  by  the  breaking  dctwn  of  mate- 
rials cnntaine<l  inthem.  l^iiicethe  museW  are  largely 
proteid  in  their  nature,  it  via&  fur  a  long  time 
thought  that  in  the  performance  of  work  this  pro- 
teid material  was  broken  down  and  oxidiw«l.  Exact 
experiments,  however,  have  demonstrated  that  this 
is  not  necessarily  the  rase.  It  has  been  found  that 
when  the  animal  is  receiving  an  adequate  amount 
of  total  food,  the  breaking  down  of  proteids  in  tho 
body  ia  not  increased  by  the  ]ierforriance  of  work. 
Cln  the  other  hand,  muscular  exertion  causes  a  very 
marked  incrtnase  in  the  amount  of  non-nitrogen- 
ouji  matter  metaboliKt-d.  In  the  contraction  of  a 
muscle  there  appears  to  be  a  sudden  breaking  dowa 
of  some  non-nitrogenous  material  in  the  mu.4cle,  a 
part  of  the  energy  liberated  appt^aring  as  beat  and 
smother  part  as  mechanical  work.  The  products 
resulting  from  this  chemical  action  are  snbsequently 
burned  up  by  moans  of  thy  oxygen  carried  to  them 
by  the  blood,  so  that  the  net  result  is  an  increased 
consumption  of  oxygen  and  an  increased  evolution 
of  carbon  dioxid  and  water  by  the  animal.  Under 
normal  conditions,  then,  the  energy  exftended  in 
work  is  deriveii  from  the  breaking  down  and  oxi- 
dation of  non-nitrogen 008  materials.  If,  however, 
the  supply  of  tht'se  in  the  food  is  not  snfficient  to 
make  good  the  amount  oxidized,  a  part  of  the  pro- 
teids of  the  food  or  the  body  may  also  serve  as  a 
source  of  muscular  energy.  In  brief,  then,  all  the 
ingrerlients  of  the  fooil  may  serve  as  sources  of 
power,  hut  normally  the  latter  ia  derived  chieSf 
from  the  cai-ljohydratesi  and  fata. 

(.'■ertain  secondary  effects  of  muscular  exertion 
must  also  bo  taken  into  account  In  order  to  sup- 
ply the  muscles  with  the  necessary  oxygen  taact 


■ 


PRINCIPLES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


oa  tbe  prodncte  of  the  breaWiDg  down  of  matter. 
and  also  to  carry  away  tht?  rarbfin  dinxid  resulting 
from  the  oxidation,  the  rapiiJity  of  the  circutntiDn 
of  the  blocK]  DiiiHt  bo  tDi^ruaAed,  and  in  onler  tu 
porify  the  blood  in  the  Iuiikh  Ibe  reHjiiratioD  muHt 
alM  be  quickenud  and  doofi^ned.  All  this  invtilvt.>.s 
work  on  the  part  of  the  muscles  of  tho  heart  and 
respiratory  or^ns,  and  this  work,  tike  the  cxtemiil 
work,  is  at  the  expense  of  material  contained  in 
Hume  mnaclee,  and  has  to  be  provided  for  in  the 
food  as  well  sa  the  expenditure  by  the  mu.s<-lea 
directly  concerned  in  tbe  perfurmance  of  the 
external  work. 

AvailtUiU  aiertfy. — The  ultimate  source  of  enorRy 
for  mnscular  work  is,  of  coarse,  the  food  consumed 
by  the  animal,  and  chiefly,  aa  has  bi>en  Hecn,  its 
carbohydrates  and  fats.  It  is  important,  however, 
to  remember  that  thi;  immediate  ttource  of  muiicu- 
lar  energy  is  the  breaking  duwn  of  mate.rial  in  tbe 
tiasiMB.  A  fascintf  animal  can  perform  wurk  fur  a 
certain  leni^h  ot  time.  The  fonction  of  the  food 
ta  to  replace  tbe  lose  of  Iisbho  cauM>d  by  the  mus- 
colar  activity.  For  this  parpcwe.  only  that  part  of 
the  «aer^  of  the  fo<M!  is  available  which  in  left 
after  the  neceiwnry  expenditure  for  th«  ditf^stion 
and  afisimilatiDD  of  the  food.    In  other  words,  it 


of  oxygen  taken  op  and  carbon  dioxid  ^ven  off 
dnring  work.  From  these  results,  it  is  ea-iiJy  pos- 
Hible  to  determine  the  amntinls  of  carbnhyilratea 
ftnd  futH  tm'tabulixjM]  in  the  body,  and  fmm  thej^e 
the  amount  of  energy  !iberat*Ml.  This  latter  amount 
is  then  compared  with  the  actual  amount  of  work 
done. 

(1)  Locomotion.— In  doing  work,  the  home  has 
first  of  all  to  move  his  own  body,  and  this  requires 
a  certain  expenditure  nf  energy.  In  addition  to 
thin  he  nifiy  dniw  a  hmd,  or  carry  it  on  hi«  back, 
either  on  a  lewl  or  u|>hill,  thus  doinj;  usefnl  work 
and  requiring  an  additional  ex|M.'riditure  of  enerj^y. 
For  moving  his  own  body  a  distance  of  ont  mile 
along  a  level  surface,  it  has  been  found  that  a 
horwe  weighing  51X1  kilograms  (l.IOO  pounds)  oxi- 
dizBrt  c^-irimhyd rates  and  fata  equivalent  to  the 
foliowinR  amounts  of  energy  : 

Walking— 

Spewed  of  2.38  milee  per  hoar  ...  264  CbIb. 

Speed  of  .^Xi  milM  per  hour  .    .   .  298  C&Ik. 

SfweJ  of  S.G2  miles  per  hour  .   .    .  319  Cals. 

TroUing 445  Cals. 

It  apiiears  that  the  exertion  required  to  walk  a 
given  distance  on  level  ground    increa.'ies  as  the 


M'.  TVT.T.r 


T^ 


Fla.  IS.    Sketch  trf  tbt  Zuuti  bead-power  lyiuiiKiiaetn.    (AtlBpietl  from  L&nilw.  Jkhrb.,  Vol.  xvUI,  Plat*  I.) 


voold  appear  that  the  food  is  of  value  for  the  pro- 
daction  of  work  in  proportion  to  its  net  available 
UKrgy<  *^^  maint«nance  valae.  On  s.  preceding 
page  there  has  been  given  a  table  .showing  the 
reanlts  secured  by  Zuntz  and  Hai^emann.  for  the 
available  energy  of  certain  feeding-stuffs  for  the 
bone.  Aasamtng  those  flgur*«  to  be  correct,  thu-y 
•how,  for  example,  that  one  pound  of  meadow  hay 
will  supply  sufficient  energy  to  the  body  of  the 
faoTM  to  make  good  an  expenditure  by  the  muscles 
of  327  Cala.  of  energy  for  the  performance  of 
Dinciilar  work,  while  one  pound  of  oats  would 
make  good  a  loss  of  882  Calf.  Unfortunately. 
however,  the  data  oo  which  this  table  is  con- 
•tocted  involve  a  number  of  assumptfons  and  the 
reealu  are  of  somewhat  questionable  value. 

Vtiliialum  of  arnihhte  frufrj^j/.— Very  extensive 
and  caryfol  experiments  have  been  made  to  detcr- 
Dine  how  much  of  tbe  energy  liberated  in  the 
body  by  tbe  breaking  down  and  oxidation  of  tissue 
dorinf  DMcalar  work  is  actually  recovered  in  the 
form  of  work.  The  general  method  of  these  experi- 
ments has  been  to  determine  the  increased  amount 


speed  increases.  When  the  gait  ia  changed  to  a 
trot  there  is  a  marked  increase  in  the  energy 
expend)^  in  traveling  the  same  distance,  bat  the 
requirement  remained  unaffected  by  the  speed  op 
to  a  rate  of  about  7.5  miles  per  hour,  beyond  which 
no  experiments  were  made.  It  may  be  safely 
a«siimed,  however,  that  at  high  »peed«  the  expendi- 
ture of  energy  is  much  greater.  There  is  no  way  of 
directly  measuring  the  actual  amount  of  mechanical 
work  performed  in  simple  locomotion,  so  as  to 
compare  it  with  the  amount  of  energy  liberated  io 
the  body.  The  f»est  available  computations  of  it, 
however,  indicate  a  percentage  otilixation  of  the 
energy  in  this  form  of  work  of  about  3fi  per  cent, 
or  rather  greater  than  that  observed  in  most  forma 
of  useful  work  ;  but  no  very  great  accuracy  can  be 
claimed  for  the  result. 

(2)  Uaeful  work.— The  useful  work  of  a  horae 
or  other  prima  motor  ia  commonly  measured  io 
foot-pounds,  one  foot-pound  being  the  energy 
required  to  lift  one  pound  one  foot  vertically.  One 
Calorie  of  heat  energy  U  equivalent  to  3.087  foot- 
pouuds.  If,  DOW,  we  require  a  hor»e  to  do  3,^7  foot- 


PRlNTIPr.ES  OF  STOCK-FEEDING 


pounds  of  useful  work,  we  lind  that  the  amoiint  of 
energy  which  he  expends^  in  addition  tn  that  re^ 
guirpil  for  movijiR  his  own  lifxly  hnrizon tally,  will 
DP  iilwut  thr«e  Calnriea ;  in  other  WimlH,  about 
one-thirJ  uf  the  energy  lilwraltMl  ia  rmiuverL'd  in 
thu  work  dont'.  Tho  iiroiportion  utilizL-d  varies, 
however,  with  differtnt  kinds  of  work,  a&  the  fol- 
lowing table  ehows : 

FCKCSNTAQE    UTIUZATtflfl    OF  NBT   AVAILABIJi:    BSEBGY 
BY  THE  HOKSE 

Wattinff—  PvrretU 

Aacvniiiiig  11  per  cent  grail« 34.3 

Ascending  18  per  cent  f^oile S3.7 

Atci^ndrng  IG  per  c«ot  gr»d«  wltli  load  on  back  .  33.2 

])raft  DJi  [ler  cent  Kf&de 31.3 

Draft  8.5  per  rwit  griid* 22.7 

Trotting  ■  ~ 

Aacrniling  It  per  cent  grad« 31.96 

Draft  0.5  jier  cent  grid* 31.7 

It  is  wen  that,  in  (iwneral,  about  one-third  of  the 
entTj»y  actually  lilMjiratai  in  the  body  is  rt-covered 
in  the  form  of  work,  the  remaining  two- 
thirds  taking  the  f«rm  of  herit  and  cauning 
the  familiiir  iniTease  in  htwit  priMiiiirtinn  dur- 
ing work.  It  will  Ijt?  observed,  however,  that 
thu  [tercentageufthBenergy  recovered  varies 
more  or  leas,  it  being  affeeteil  by  the  kind 
of  work,  by  the  speed  of  the  animal,  by  the 
gait  (whether  trotting  or  walking),  and 
other  factors,  The  individuality  of  the  ani- 
mal also  jihiye  a  part,  hnrsea  of  one  type 
showing  ii  greater  efliciency  as  riding  horses 
and  others  a  greater  efliciency  aa  draft 
horses. 

The  foregoing  results  are  often  cited  to 
show  the  high  efficiency  of  the  animal  aa  a 
prime  motor  in  [-omparison  with   artlFicial 
motom.   Such  a  compariHun,  however,  is  to  a 
certain  degree  niish>ading.    U  fails  to  take 
account  of  the  fact  that  to  perform  work 
the  animal  must  expend  a  considerahle  amount 
of  energy  in  moving  his  own   body,  and    that  a 
further  exfieniliture  of  energy  is  required  for  his 
maintenance  Bven  when  dinng  nci  work.    Mort'over, 
it  ignoreH  the  exjH'nditiirti  of  energy  recjuireJ  to 
digest  the  food  and  [jrepare  it  for  uk«  in  the  organ- 
ism. When  all  those  factors  are  included,  but  little 
remains  of  the  supposed  superiority  of  the  animal 
over  the  artificial  motor. 

Eitcrgij  rr^virrrrti-atf  oftJip  korsr.. — The  foregning 
data  alfont  a  luu^is  fur  crtmpiiting  the  expenditure 
of  energy  by  the  home  En  the  [lerformance  of  a 
known  amount  and  kind  of  work. 

For  example,  suppose  a.  horse  weighing  1,100 
pounds  is  required  to  haul  a  load  of  one  ton  "iO 
miles  per  day  on  a  level  road  at  the  rate  of  2.88 
miles  per  hoor,  the  draft  ai-ernging  100  ponndH. 
The  useful  work  will  then  be : 


=  10.92&  Cals.  of  energy  in  the  body.  The  ex- 
pendilure.  of  energy  for  locomotion,  acirording  to  a 
previous  table,  will  Iw  2fU  X  2()^r..280  CaU.  To 
ihem  must  be  added  the  maintenanco  reqairumeat 
of  the  animal  as  computed  hyZuntz  and  Hageniano, 
viz.,  4,356  L'als.  The  available  energy  required 
per  day  then  will  be  : 

For  u«eful  w»rk 10.929  Cals. 

For  locamottoD 5,2S0  Cala. 

Fur  nmialenuiKt) i,'XiG  Cak. 

Total 20,565 

The  forogoing  computHtion  furnishes  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  statements  previously  made  reganiing 
the  et1i(;ieTicy  of  tho  animal  as  a  motor.  In  this 
instance,  the  [lerformanre  of  work  e(|niva1ent  to 
S,421  Caltiriea  retiuires  an  ex|H!ndtture  of  20,565 
Calorie-s  of  net  available  energy.  To  supply  this 
amount  of  not  available  energy  to  the  animal  in 
ordinary  feeding-stuifs  would  require  fo<»d  having 
a  fuel   value   of    approximately    27,500   Calories. 


^Msieht. 


Crundrtss 


Pl«.  76.    Sketch  of  dyufltnometer  uwd  by  Woltt.     (Adjiptad  from 
Lnndw.  Vrnurhn'SUiIlciiru.  VuL  xil  ) 

Accordingly,  the  actual  utilization  of  the  fuel  value 
of  the  font!  is,  in  this  instance,  12.4  per  cent,  or 
less  than  that  of  a  good  steam  engine. 

If  we  aa»ume  ten  pounds  of  hay  and  ten  pounds 
of  oats  a&  the  basis  of  the  ration  of  the  horse  in 
the  foregoing  example,  the  remainder  of  the  food 
to  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  corn,  we  make  the 
following  computation  (based  on  the  table  of  avail- 
able energy  alretidy  referred  to  on  page  66): 

Net  Avuladle  Bsbrgy 

Reqnlrenient 20,565  C«lt. 

BaiMil  ratlDS— 

10  poundf)  meadow  hny  .  3,S70  Cai*. 
10  pounds  OAU   ....  8,820  Cals. 

12.090  Cato. 


5.280  X:OX  100=1  n,r,60,(100  ft,-Il».=3.42I  Cab. 

According  to  the  table  just  given,  31.3  per  cent 
of  the  energy  lilterated  in  the  body  is  utilized  in 
draft.  To  perform  3,421  Cals.  of  work,  therefore, 
will    require    the    expenditure    of    3,421-»-0.313 


Lacking 8,476  Calt. 

CorD  tu  cumt>l»t«  thv  mtioii    .... 

«,475-(-l,26;i=6.72  pouniid. 

So  far  as  concerns  the  amount  of  energy  actually 
expended  by  the  working  animal,  the  basis  for  such 
computations  as  the  foregoing  appears  well  estab- 
lished. Unfortunately,  tlie  same  is  not  true  of  the 
data  for  the  available  energy  of  feeding-stufFs  for 


PRINCIPLES  OP  STOCK-FEEDING 


8» 


tbe  horse,  tat  was  noted  In  connection  with  the 
table.  Thiey  do  not  represent  the  direct  result  of 
experimental  work,  but  are  compated  from  data, 
Bom«  of  which  appear  of  qoeationable  validity. 

Pending  more  accurate  determinations  of  the 
available  energy  of  feeding-statrd  for  the  horw?, 
ellnerhas  made  the  attempt  tontiiixtf  for  this  fiur- 
the  production  values  of  fcetiiiig-stalTs  which 
bafi  worked  out  for  cattle.  The  method  is  adrait- 
t*dly  a  temporary  expedient,  but  he  reeards  it  aa 
more  aatiafactory  than  the  estimates  of  available 
energy  on  which  the  foregoing  computation  was 
based.  He  uses  as  the  bafiis  of  his  method  the 
intenance  re<iiiirement  as  formulated  by  Wolff, 
finely,  7  27  poundfi  fiber-free  nutrients  per  500 
Icframs  live  weight.  Assuming  this  to  be  equiva- 
t  lo  an  eqaal  w*eight  of  starch,  it  corresponds 
a  pradnction  value  of  7,788  Cals.  EYrther,  on 
basi«  of  the  average  results  of  Zuntz  and  Uage- 
Kellner  assume;^  that  one-third  of  the  starch 
Talo6  of  feeding-stuffs  can  be  utlliied  for  work, 
which  i«  equivalent  to  a  utilization  of  53  per  cent 
of  the  production  value.  The  actuu)  work  done  by 
the  animal,  then,  divided  by  Xui,  with  the  mainte- 
aance  reqnirement  added,  would  give  Che  ration 
required  for  any  given  amount  of  work.  Comparl- 
■008  of  this  method  of  computation  with  the  results 
of  Wolff's  extensive  experiments  show  a  ver>-  fair 
Bgreement.  Applying  Keilner'a  method  to  the  ex- 
ample previooaly  given,  we  should  have  the  follow- 
ing resaltfl,  exprewed  in  terms  of  production  values : 


of  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  of  the  food.  Provided, 
therefore,  that  tbe  ration  of  the  working  animal 
contain.'i  ample  pniteids^  to  maintain  the  proteid 
tiASuesof  the  body  when  at  rest,  no  more  need  be 
added  because  of  the  work  perfonnecl.  All  that  is 
nt>cessary  is  that  the  ration  shall  contain  a  suffici- 
eiitly  large  proportion  of  prote'in  to  insure  its  full 
digestibility.  It  b  probable  that  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  one  to  eight  or  pt-rhaps  even  wider  is  ample  for 
all  piirpo.'*e»  of  work  producti'>n. 

standards.— By  either  Zuntz's  or  Kellner'smethod 
it  is  possible  tu  compute  a  ration  correi^Fiunding 
accurately  to  any  given  requirement.  The  practical 
difSculty  is  that,  as  horses  are  ordinarily  used, 
these  requirements  are  variable  and  not  readily 
capable  of  exact  measurement.  When  the  work  of 
a  horse  is  fairly  uniform  from  day  today,  and  par- 
ticularly if  a  cundiderable  number  are  kept,  such 
computations  as  those  indicated  may  pro%'e  of  value. 
In  most  cases,  however,  the  amount  of  food  must 
be  proportioned  to  the  work  clone  in  accordance 
with  the  skilled  observation  and  judgment  of  the 
feeder.  As  a  general  guide.  Kellner  recnmmends 
the  following  amounts  per  1,000  pounds  live 
weight : 


For  lifiht  work  .  . 
yor  mvdinm  work . 
For  h«avy  work 


,  1.0  lbs. 
.  I.)  \b». 
.  2.0  lbs. 


product  lo-D  v&liu 

9,800  CnlsL 

12,-I00  Citk. 

16,000  CftJs. 


» 


For  weM  work  .    .    .  3.421-i-0..i3=6,4r).l  CaU. 

For  loeomotioD 3,118  CjiIs. 

Fur  iiuiint«DaiiDe 7.788  Caltt. 


Totml 17,360  CiiU. 


In  an  inrestigation  of  the  practice  of  horse- 
feeding  in  the  rnited  States,  Langworlhy  ubtained 
the  fallowing  average  results  for  the  digestible 
nutrients  consumed  per  1.000  pounds  live  weight. 
The  result"!  on  heavy  work  are  based  on  only  a 
few  observations  on  heavy  draft  horses. 


Piottln 

CradeAtwr 

NLtn»cMi-(n« 
•xinct 

P»t 

PnK<rfr*o 
<f*tz9.4) 

Pound* 
0.1)9 
L4B 
1.12 

pound* 

1.24 
1j6S 
1.85 

Pofllld* 

6.06 

e.09 

6.94 

Poanil* 

0.32 
0.42 
0-49 

Pound* 
6.82 

10.59 

Beavy  work  ....           - 

9.24 

Amming  as  before  the  basis  of  the  ration  io  be 
t«n  poonds  of  hay  and  ten  pounds  of  oats,  and  noting 
K«Uaer'B  production  values  (page  67),  we  have  : 


pRODtlcnOH   VAI,rB8 


BaqairvHtit .  .  .   . 
Bwalradcfi— 

10  powids  hay  . 

10  pooadi  oato. 


17.360  Cab. 


.3,SG6CalK. 
.  6,628  Cals. 


Lsekiic 

Cam  to  complete  ration  .  .   ,  . 
7.376-1-888  «  8.90  pounds. 


9.964  Cab. 
7^6Cdfc 


As  will  be  seen  by  this  example,  Kellner's  method 
of  eumpQtation  tends  to  give  somewhat  higher 
R<Qlt«  than  the  one  previously  omployed. 

ProUid  rtquirtmentr.  -It  ha?  already  been  pointed 
oot  that  raoKoIar  work  is  performed  at  the  expeasu 


Assuming  the  fiber-frea  nutrients  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  starch,  the  above  figures  correspond  to  the 
following  production  values : 

Light  work 7,302  Cals. 

Moderate  work 11,830  Cak. 

Heavy  work 9,893  Cals. 

These  figures  are  considerably  Utwer  than  those 
recommended  by  Kellner  and  Huggest  the  neeii  for 
further  invei*tigntion,  although  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  Langwortby's  figures  are  based  on  digestive 
coetRcients  obtained  with  the  horse,  while  Kellner 
uses  those  obtained  in  experiments  on  cattle. 

The  somewhat  limited  capacity  of  the  digestive 
organs  of  the  hiir»i>  makes  it  evident  that  if  a  large 
amount  of  energy  is  to  lie  supplied  it  must  bv  con* 
taine<l,  U*  tv  conaidfnible  degrw,  in  concentrated 
feeding-Htuffs,  since  otherwise  it  would  be  impos- 
aible  for  tbe  animal  to  consume  a  sufficient  weight 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION   TABLES 


of  food  to  beequivriant  to  the  work  requiremeiit. 
As  the  aei.'erity  of  the  work  incFeasea,  the  ration 
Rhoulil  conBiHt.,  U>  a.  larger  and  larger  exttrnt,  ii( 
j^rniii,  wiLii  only  sufiicient  course  ftHJikT  to  furniah 
tht*  ruH-vaaary  l»ulk.  I'robably  the  maprity  of  farm 
hursca  aru  fed  an  i.'XiM?9»ive  amount  of  hay.  This 
excess  not  only  fails  to  produce  the  d^Miired  nutri- 
tive effect  Init  nverloacis  the  digestive  organs 
and  tend»  to  interfere  with  the  breathing  of  the 
nnimal. 

It  should  he  noted  that  nil  the  foregoing  can- 
HiderationB  relate  to  wiirk  hor8t;e.  While  some  of 
thoin,  notahly  the  QVtiidu:ice  of  an  exceijj*  of  coarso 
fonider,  apply  equally  to  thu  race  horse  or  faat 
roadster,  the  feeding  of  such  animals  is  an  art  hj 
iteelf.  In  many  casea  the  total  amount  of  work 
which  they  perform  is  lesa  than  that  of  the  ordi- 
nary work  horw,  but  they  are  required  always  to 
he  in  eonditinn  for  atrenuou-t  exertion  for  a  short 
lime.  No  scientific  data  are  avaiiablu  a»  to  the  ex- 
pendituri*  of  eni^r^y  or  the  food  retjuirenitnts  at 
high  speed. 

Likraturt. 

Armaby,  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding,  Mew  York. 
John  Wiley  &.  Sons  (li^O);  Stewart,  Feeding  Ani- 
mals, third  edition,  Lake  View.  N.  Y-  The  Author 
(188(;);  Henrv.  Feeds  and  Feeding,  second  edition. 
Madiaon,  Wis.,  The  Author  (l^CK)):  Jordan,  The 
Feeding  of  Animals,  New  York,  The  Macmillao 
Company  (1901);  Ware,  (!attle  Feeding  with  Sugar 
Beeta.  Kugar,  Motasaea  and  Sugar  Beet  Rwiduum, 
!%iladeLphia,    Th>e    Philadelphia    Book    Company 


(19021;  Wjurington,  The  Chemiatry  of  the  Farm, 
ir>th  aditiun,  Ixindon,  Vinton&  Co.  (1902);  Armsby, 
Principles  uf  Aiiiiiial  Nutrition,  New  York,  John 
Wiley  &  Sons  (]90a);  Shaw,  The  Feeding  and  Man- 
agement of  Live  Stock,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 
(19U2);  Anderson,  Inllueneea  Affecting  Milk  Pro- 
duction. Ithaca,  N.  Y.  ilWly.  Snydur,  The  Chem- 
intry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life.  Kaston,  Pa,,  Tho 
Chemipal  Puhlinhing  Company  (1EK>3);  Smith,  i*rof- 
itable  Stock  Feeiling,  Lincoln,  Nebraska.  The 
Author  (]90<>>;  Shaw,  Feeding  Farm  Animals,  New 
York,  Urang«  Jndd  Co.  (liXTf). 


FF.EDING    AND  COMPLTTATION 
TABLES 

Mach  effort  has  been  expended  in  compiling 
tablea  for  the  cnmpuLM.tirin  of  rations  for  farm  ani- 
mals. For  extensive  tables  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Voorheea,  Forage  Crops;  Jordan,  T!n)  Feeding 
of  Farm  Animals;  Roberta.  The  Fertility  of  the 
Land,  The  Horse,  and  The  Farmer's  Business  Hand- 
book (3  books);  Woll.  Handbook  for  Farmers  and 
Dairymen;  Wilcox  &  Smith,  Fanner's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agricukiire;  Smith.  Profitable  Stock-Feeding; 
Brooks,  .'Agriculture,  Vol.  IV.  Animal  Husbandry ; 
Allen,  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,  Farmer's 
Bull^^tin  No.  22,  United  States  r>epartment  of  Agri- 
culture; Bulletin  No.  81,  Vermont  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.  The  three  tables  that  follow 
here  are  adapted  from  Henry's  *'  Feeds  and  Feed- 
ing," by  the  coDfteay  of  Prof.  Henry. 


TaRLB  1.     AVEBAGB  CoUFOSlTION  OP  AuEEKjIN  FeEDI.NC-STITFS. 


Ft«dit»s-*itiiri 


COKCENTEATES 

Com,  dent 

Corn,  Hint 

Com,  Rweet 

Cora  m-eal 

Com  cob 

Com-  snd-cob  meal  .... 

Corn  lirun 

Com  germ 

Hominy  chops 

Germ  meal 

Dried  Htarub  anj  sugar  Teed 

Starch  ffted,  w<>t 

Mme  feed(ChicasD)    .   .    . 

Gra  no -gluten 

Crwun  gluten 

Gluten  mt^ 

Glat«n  feeJ 

Wheat,  all  anulynn  .... 

Whe;it,  spring 

Wh*at.  wint»r 

Flour,  high  grade 

Floar.  low  grad* 

Flour,  darli  feeding .... 
Bran,  all  analysM  .... 


pprcrnltK*  corojwpittdii 

Walrt 

A  Kb 

Pr'l'iii 

Cnul* 

NKiuiKii 
f  r«n  Ntntri 

Eikcr     ' 
«xinm 

10.6 

15 

103 

2  2 

70.4 

5,0 

1L3 

1.4 

105 

1.7 

70.1 

5.0 

88 

1.9 

U.C 

2,8 

608 

8.1 

150 

14 

02 

1.9 

fiS7 

8^ 

10.7 

1.4 

2.4 

30.1 

54.9 

05 

IS  1 

1.5 

8,6 

0  6 

618 

3.5 

0! 

13 

9.0 

127 

62  2 

5.8 

10.7 

4,0 

9.8 

41 

64.0 

7.4 

111 

2.5 

9.8 

3.8 

64.5 

8.3 

8.1 

1.3 

n.i 

9.9 

62.5 

7.1 

ID.9 

o.» 

19.7 

4.7 

54.8 

94) 

0.1.4 

0.3 

6.1 

3.1 

22.0 

3.1 

»1 

0.9 

22.8 

7.0 

S2.7 

eja 

.IS 

28 

;n.i 

120 

334 

14.9 

8.1 

0.7 

3I>,1 

1.3 

39.0 

143 

8.2 

0.9 

211,3 

3^ 

46.5 

11.8 

7.8 

1.1 

24.0 

5.3 

51.3 

1D.6 

10.5 

1^ 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

10.4 

1.9 

12.5 

1.8 

71.2 

3.2 

10-5 

18 

11.8 

1.8 

72.0 

2.1 

12.2 

0.6 

14.9 

0.3 

70.0 

3JI 

12.0 

2.0 

16.0 

O.D 

«3.3 

S.B 

B.7 

4,3 

10.9 

3.8 

56.3 

e.3 

11.9 

£.8 

15.4 

9.0 

S3.9 

4.0 

■I 


80 
68 
26 

n 

18 
7 
5 
3 

12 
6 
4 

12 
3 
1 
3 

30 

11 

310 
13 

269 
I 
1 
1 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 
Table  I.    Avbbage  GoKPoainoN  or  Auebican  Feeding-stuffs,  continued 


93 


F««dliiB'ttuirs 


C0?(CE.vnUTE3,  COatittDdd 

Bn>n,  ttprisg;  wheat  ....... 

Bi-ikD.  winter  wheat . 

Hiddlingn 

Shorts    .   ,   , 

Wlieat  ecreenioga 

Ry^ 

Bj-e  tovr  ,  ,   ,   , ,  , 

Rye  bran , 

Rye  sborta 

Barley   ............ 

Barley  meat      , 

Barley  screenings 

Brenera'  gruinii,  wet 

Brewere'  gTsiiui,   dri^   .   .   .    .   . 
Uait-eprOUU 

O&tfl 

Oat  meal  ....    .   .    .   .    .   .    , 

Oat  fwd ,   .    .    ,    . 

Oat  duat 

Oat  hnllA 

Rica 

Rice  meal . 

Ric«  halla 

Rice  bran 

Rice  poliah   .......... 

UTickwheat .   .    .   ^ 

Backwb^at  flour   , , 

Bucliwhent  balls  . 

Buckwh^fat  bran 

Barkwbeat   fthurta 

Bcckffb«at  tnid4Eing«  ...... 

Snr^hoin  seed 

Broom-com  i«eed 

Kafir  s6^  .   , 

Uillet  aeed 

EttHgariU  grasB  S^ed , 

Flax  M«a 

Flax  B&e^i,  ;;round ^    , 

Lici8e«ij  meal,  old  proceaa  .    .    .    . 
Ltiweed  meal,  new   prucesa    .    .    . 

Cotton  B«ed 

Cotton  seed   roaated    ...... 

C(rttowe«d  meal ........ 

Cottonaeed   hglln 

Cottonneed  kernels  (witboat  halla]  . 

Coconot   cake  

Palmnut  meat 

Sunflower  seed  .....    .   ,    .   , 

Son  flower- seed   cake    ...    ,   .    , 
Peiinul  kernel  fwitbout  Lalla)  .    .   . 

Peanut  meal 

Rape-seed    cake 

Pea  meal 

Soybean  

Cowpen 

Hone  bean 


FerUntaM  CQmppVltlpU 


Waler 


11,5 
12.3 
121 

11.8 
11,6 

11,6 

131 

11.6 

9.3 

10.9 
11.9 
122 

75.7 

8.2 

10.2 

110 
7.9 
7,7 
6.5 
7.3 

12,4 

10,2 
8,2 
9.7 

10.0 

126 

14.0 
13  2 
10,.^ 
11. 1 
13.2 

12,8 
11.5 

9.3 
14,0 

9.5 

9.2 
SI 

9.2 
10.1 

10.3 
fl.t 
S,2 

11.1 
0,2 

10-3 

10,4 
8.6 

1Q.J^ 
7...') 

10.7 

10,0 

10,5 
10,8 
14,8 
11.3 


Aih 


5.4 
5.9 
3.3 
4.6 
2.9 

1.9 

0.7 
3.6 
5.9 

2.4 
2.6 

3.C 
1.0 
3.6 
6.7 

3.0 
2.0 

3.7 
6.9 
&.7 

0.4 
8.1 

13.3 

10.0 

6.7 

2.0 
1.0 

2.2 
3.0 
5-1 
4.8 

2.1 
3.4 
l.'i 
3.3 
5.0 

4.3 

4.7 
5.7 
5,8 
3.5 
5.5 
7.2 
2.R 
4.7 
5.9 
4.3 
2.6 
fi.7 
2,4 
4,9 
7,9 

2.6 
4.7 
3.2 
3.8 


[■rotitlii 


16.1 
16.0 
15,6 

14.0 
12.5 

10, s 

6.7 

14,7 

ISO 

12.4 
10,5 

12.3 
5.4 

is.n 

232 

11.8 
14.7 
16,0 
13.5 
3,3 

7.4 
12.0 

3.6 
12.1 
117 

100 
6.9 
4.6 
124 
27  1 
28.9 

9.1 

10.2 
9,9 

11.8 
9.9 

22,6 

21.6 
32,9 
33.2 
18.4 
18.8 
42,3 
4,2 
31.2 
19.7 
15,8 
1R.3 
32.R 
27.15 
47.6 
31.2 

20.2 
34,0 
20.8 
26.6 


Crade 
flb«r 


I   Nltraaen- 


8.0 

8.1 
4.6 
7.4 
4.9 

1.7 
0.4 
3.5 
5.1 

2.7 
5.5 
7.3 
3.8 
11.0 
10.7 

9.5 
0.0 
6.1 

18.2 
29.7 

0.2 

5.4 

35.7 

9.5 
6.3 

«.7 
0.3 
435 
31.9 
8.3 
4.1 

2.6 
7.1 
1.4 

9.5 
7.7 

7.1 
7.3 
8.9 

2.3.2 
20.4 

,^.fi 
46,3 

3.7 
U.4 
24.0 
2*).9 
1.1  .-i 

7,0 

5.1 
11.3 

14.4 
4.8 
4.1 
7.2 


54.5 

53.7 
00,4 

m.s 

65  1 

72,5 

78.3 
63.8 
59.9 

69.8 
663 

61,8 
125 

51.7 
4S,5 

597 
07.4 
69,4 

50,2 
52.1 

79.2 
512 

38-9 
49.9 
5S.0 

64.5 

75,8 
353 
38.8 
40.8 
41.9 

69.8 
63  S 
74.9 
574 
63,2 

23.2 

27.9 
35,4 
38  4 
24.7 

23,5 
23.6 
334 
17,6 
387 
35,0 
214 
27.1 
1 5.0 
23.7 
30.0 


Elber 
est  nut 


45 
4.0 
4  0 
4.5 

3.0 

1.7 
0.8 

2.8 
2.8 

1.8 
2.2 
2.8 
1.6 
5.6 
1.7 

5.0 
7.1 
7.1 

4.8 
1.0 

0.4 

13.1 

0.7 

8.8 
7.3 

2.2 
1.4 
1,1 
3.3 
7.6 
7.1 

3.6 
3.0 
3.0 
40 
4.7 

33.7 
30.4 

7.9 

3.0 
19.9 
27.7 
13.1 

2,2 
36  0 
11.0 

9.5 
212 

9.\ 
39.6 

8.0 

9.6 


51.1 

1,2 

28,8 

16.9 

55.7 

1.4 

50.1 

1.0 

!l 


fin 


10 
7 
32 
12 
10 

6 

4 
7 
1 

ID 
3 
2 

15 
3 
4 

30 

6 
4 
2 
1 

10 

2 
3 
5 

4 

B 
4 
2 
2 
2 
3 

10 

2 
1 


50 

2 

21 

14 

6 

2 

35 

20 

2 

600 
2 

7 
2,480 
;    500 

i        2 

8 
5 

I         1 


94 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 
Table  I.    Avbkage  Compobition  of  Aubsicak  PB£DiNR-sniPP&,  contiQadd 


FeedlDB-at'ulFB 


ROUGUACB 
Com  foraj/e,  field-currd — 

Fodder  corn 

Corn  Btov^er 

Cum  hoakj 

Curn   Jeavpf  .    .    .    .    .    . 


PsTcentJiee  eam^tMoa 


WKt«r 


Com  forage,  green — 
Fodder  corn,  all  varieties 

Dent  varieties 

Dent,  kiimel.^  glaMd  .  . 
Flist  varieties  .... 
Flint,  kernels  Riazed  .  . 
Sweet  varieties  .... 
Leaves  and  husks  .  .  . 
Stripped  stalks 


Hay  from  gnuaa — 

Hajr  from  mixed  grasses 

Timothy,  all  analyses 

Timothy,  cat   in  fnll  bloom 

Timothy,  cut  soon  after  bloom  .... 
Timothy,  cnt  when  nearly  ripe  .... 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top,  cut  at  different  stages  .  .   . 

Red-top,  cut  in  bloom 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

Kentucky  bloe-grass,  cut  when  seed  is 

in  milk 

Kentucky  bine-grass,  cut  when  seed  is  ripe 

Hungarian  urass 

Meadow    fescue 

ItKliiin  rye-gra.sa 

Perennial  rye-grass 

Eowen    ImiJedl 

Mixed  grasses  and  clovers 

Barley  hay,  cut  in  milk 

Oat  hay,  cut  in  milk 

Swamp  hay 

Salt-marsh  hay 

Wild-oat  grass 

Buttercups 

White  daisy 

Johnson-grass 

Freik  gran — 

Pasture  grass 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

Timothy,  different  stages 

Orchard-grass,  in  bloom 

Red-top,  in  bloom 

Oat   fodder 

Rye  fodder  

Sorghum  fiwlder 

Ba^rley  fodder 

Hungarian  graaa 

Meadow  fescutj,  in  bloom 

Italian   ryB-^aai!.  coming   into  bloom  . 

Tsl     oat'graf^i,  in  bloom 

Japanese   millet 

Barnyard   millet 


42.2 
40.5 
50.9 
30.0 


79,3 
79.0 
73.4 
79.8 
77.1 
79.1 
66^ 
76.1 


15.3 

13.2 

15.0 

14.2 

14.1 

9.9 

8.9 

8.7 

21.2 

24.4 
27.8 

7.7 
20.0 

8.5 
14.0 
16.6 
12.9 
15.0 
15.0 
11.6 
10.4 
14.3 

9.3 
10.3 
10.2 


80.0 
651 
61  G 
73.0 
05.3 
62.2 
76. G 
79.4 
79.0 
71  ! 
69.9 
73.2 
69.5 
75,0 
75.0 


Aflb 


Ptwleln 


2.7 
3.4 

5.5 


1.2 
1.2 
1.5 
1.1 
1.1 
13 
2.9 
0.7 


5.5 

4.4 
4.5 
4.4 
3.9 
60 
5.2 
4.9 
6.3 

7.0 

6.4 
6.0 
6.8 
6.9 
7.9 
6.8 
5.5 
4.2 
5.2 
6.7 
7.7 
3.8 
5.6 
6.6 
G.l 


2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2  0 
2.3 
2.5 
!.S 
1.1 
1.8 
1.7 
1.8 
2.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.9 


4.5 
3.8 
2.5 
6.0 


1.8 
1.7 
2-0 
2.0 
2.7 
1.9 
2.1 
0.5 


74 
5.9 
6.0 
5.7 
5.0 
8.1 
7.9 
8.0 
7.8 

6.3 

5.8 
7.5 
7.0 
7.5 
10.1 
116 
10.1 
8.8 
9.3 
7.2 
5.5 
6.0 
9.9 
7.7 
7.2 


3,5 
4.1 
3.1 
2,6 
2.8 
3.4 
2.6 
1.3 
2.7 
3.1 
2.4 
.3.1 
2.4 
2.1 
2.4 


14.3 
19.7 
15.S 
21.4 


5.0 
5.6 
6.7 
4.3 
4.3 
4.4 
8.7 
7.3 


27.2 
29.0 
29.6 
28.1 
31.1 
32.4 
2S.6 
29.9 
23.0 

24  5 
23.8 
27.7 
25.9 
30.5 
25.4 
22,5 
27  6 
24  7 
29.2 
26.6 
30.0 
25,0 
30.6 
30.0 
28.5 


4.0 
9.1 

11.8 

8.2 

ll.O 

11.2 

11.6 

6.1 

7.9 

9.2 

10.8 

6.8 

9.4 

7.8 

7.0 


34.7 
3I.S 
283 

35.7 


12.2 
12.0 

15.5 
12.1 
14.6 
12.8 
19.0 
14.9 


42.1 
45.0 
41.9 
44.6 
43.7 
41.0 
47.5 
46.4 
37.8 

34.2 
33.2 

49.0 
38.4 
45.0 
40.5 
39.4 
41.3 
44.9 
39.0 
45.9 
44.1 
48.8 
41.1 
42.0 
45.9 


9.7 
17.6 
20.2 
13.3 
17.7 
19.3 

6.8 
11.6 

8.0 
U.2 
14.3 
13.3 
15.8 
13.1 
13.1 


1.6 
1.1 
0,7 

1.4 


0.5 
0.5 
09 
0.7 
0.8 
05 
11 
05 


2.5 
2.5 
3.0 
3.0 

2.2 
2.6 
1.9 
2.1 
3.9 

3.6 
3.0 
2.1 
2.7 
1.7 
2.1 
3.1 
2.6 
2.4 
2.3 
2.0 
2.4 
3.3 
3.5 
3.4 
2.1 


0.8 
1.3 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
1.4 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
1.3 
0.9 
0.5 
0.6 


35 

60 

lA 
17 


126 

G3 

7 

40 

10 

21 

4 

4 


126 
ti8 
12 
11 
12 
10 
9 
3 
10 

4 
4 

13 
9 
4 
4 

23 

17 
1 
1 
8 

10 
1 
•> 

2 


18 

56 

4 

5 

6 

7 
II 

1 
14 

4 
24 

3 
12 


Bay  from  legumet — 

15.3     ' 
20.8 

1 

6.2     1 
6.6     1 

12.3 
12.4 

24.8 
21.9 

38.1 
33.8 

3.3 
4J> 

38 
6 

FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


96 


Table  L    Aveeage  CtowoeiTiOH  or  Aheeican  Feeoing-stuffs.  continued 


P<rNxiun  eoBpofitioti 

,i 

Foeilat-itidlt 

Wkler 

Aftb 

Pni1»Ln 

Cnidv 
fiber 

Ether 

«XlEWt 

^1 

Ro[rc?ACE,  continued 
Bag  from  Ugumei,  continued- 

: 

SI  .2 
9.7 

&.7 

9.0 
11,0 

8.4 
10.7 
11.3 
15.0 
11.3 

92 

8.4 

7.6 
15.0 

70.8 
74.8 

80.4 
71.8 
83.0 
75.1 
79.5 
84,2 
60.7 

9.ft 

7.1 

9.2 
14.2 
14.3 
14.3 

9.9 
lOJ 

9.2 

79.1 
70.1 
72.0 

74.2 
85.0 
79,3 
09.8 
."iO.I 
79.0 
70.O 
80.8 

7«.ft 
fiS.,5 
SO,.") 
90.9 
00.5 
S8.6 
SS.6 
SS.3 
79.5 
71.1 

61 
8.3 
83 

8.0 
8.5 
7.4 

7.5 
7.2 

e.7 

7.9 
7.2 
7.9 
108 
7.3 

2.1 
2,0 
1.7 
2.7 
1,7 
2.6 
3.2 
12 
2.9 

42 
3.2 

5.1 
6.7 
6.2 
10,0 
5,5 
.1,8 
8,7 

1.4 
1.1 

2.6 
2.S 
0.0 
2.9 
4.5 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.6 

1.0 
i.O 

0-9 
1.1 
0.8 
12 
1,0 
0,7 
1.0 
1.0 

10.7 
12.S 
15.7 
16.2 
13.8 
14.3 
16.0 
15.4 
13.7 
17.0 
15.2 
22.0 
10.7 
14.8 

4.4 
3.9 
3.1 
4.8 
2.4 
4,0 
2.7 
2.8 
8.7 

3.4 

3.0 
4.0 
3.5 
4.5 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 
8.S 

1.7 
0.8 
4.2 
41 

1.2 

2.7 
.^.8 
5.9 
2.8 
2.5 
3.4 

2.1 

1.5 
1.8 
1.1 
1.1 
1.2 
l.I 
16 
2,0 
1.5 

24.5 
25.0 

24-1 
27,2 
2J0 
25,0 
20.1 
22.3 
24,7 
25,4 
31.6 
26.2 
23.0 
20,4 

8,1 

7.4 
5,2 
7,4 
4,8 
67 
5,4 
4,9 
7,9 

38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36  0 
30.0 
34.0 
43,0 
40  4 
37.0 

6.0 
6.4 
R,4 
9,7 
3.3 
6  0 
9.5 
13.0 
7.2 
7.2 
5.8 

0.0 
0  9 
0.9 
0  9 

1.2 
1.3 
1.3 
1.0 
0.8 
1.3 

33.0 

40,7 
39.3 
36,0 
39.0 
42.7 
42,2 
38,0 
37.0 
36,1 
44.2 
31,4 
42.7 
39.5 

13.5 
11.0 

8.4 
12-3 

7-1 
10.0 

S.0 

6.5 
12.2 

43,4 
46,6 
42,4 
.39.0 
34. S 
.36  2 
.3.5.1 
374 
34,3 

11,0 

1.5.3 

11. S 

6.9 

8,8 

70 

11,1 

260 

7,2 

11,1 

9.2 

17,3 

8-0 

fl.« 

H'i 

6.2 

I.'i 

7.0 

10,2 

15.9 

24.7 

3.9 
2.9 
2.0 
2.8 
3.7 
2.2 
2.2 
5.2 
2.3 
2.3 
2.6 
3.2 
4.6 
3.0 

1.1 
0.9 
0.7 
1.0 
0.4 
I.O 
O.T 
0.4 
1.6 

1.3 
1.2 
2.3 
1.6 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
1.7 
L.4 

0.8 
0.3 
1.2 
2.2 
1.1 
1.5 
1.3 
1.6 
1.0 
0.8 
0.3 

O.l 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 

■n.2 

0.2 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 

10 
9 

7 

7 

2 

21 

8 

6 

1 

Vetch.  .                                

5 

3 

5 

Prttk  UgumeB — 

6 
1 

43 
4 

3 

Alfalfa 

23 

10 

27 

9 

2 

Plat  pes 

Shvw — 

2 

7 

7 
12 
07 

3 

4 

1 

Silage— 

99 
6 

.«> 

Cowpea  Tiii# 

Co>Tpea  and  wrbean  vines,  mixed  .   .   . 
Field-pea  vina   .   ■    , ,   - 

Com  and  soybean 

Rye 

BooU  and  tubrti — 

1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
9 
4 
1 

12 

g 

19 

Beet,  maiif^c^l        

9 
3 
4 
8 

2 

fl 

96 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


Table  L    Average  Cohposition  op  American  Feeding-otufps,  continned 


Feed!  af -staffs 


Miscellaneous 

Cabbage    

Sparry  ....  

Sugar-beet  leaves 

Pumpkin  (field) 

Pnmpkin  (garden) 

Prickly  comfrey 

Rape      

Aconts,  fresh 

Apples 

Cow's  milk 

Cow's  milk,  coloetrum 

Mare's  milk 

Ewe's  milk 

Goat's  milk 

Sow's  milk 

Skim-milk,  gravity 

Skim-milk,  centrifugal 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Dried  blood 

Heat  scrap 

Dried  fish 

Beet  pulp 

Beet  molasaea 

Apple  pomace 

Sorghum  bagasse 

Distillery  slops      

Dried  sediment  from  distillery  slops 


Perce  Dtag«  Compositlnn 


Wmter 


90.5 
75.7 
88.0 
90.9 
80.8 
88.4 
84.5 
55.3 
80.8 

87.2 
74.6 
91.0 
81.3 
86.9 
80.8 
90.4 
90.6 
90.1 
93.8 

8.5 
10.7 
10.8 
89.8 
20.8 
76.7 
83.9 
93.7 

5.0 


Ath 


1.4 

4.0 
2.4 
0.5 
0.9 
2.2 
2.0 
1.0 
0.4 

0.7 

1.6 
0.4 
0.8 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.4 

4.7 
4.1 

29.2 
0.6 

10.6 
0.5 
0.6 
0.2 

11.3 


Protein 


2.4 
2.0 
2.6 
1.3 

1.8 
2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
0.7 

3.6 

17.6 
2.1 
6.3 
3.7 
6.2 
3.3 
3.1 
4.0 
0.6 

84.4 

71.2 

48.4 

0.9 

9.1 

1.4 

0.6 

1.9 

27.4 


Crude 
fiber 


1.5 
4.9 

2.2 
1.7 
1.8 
1.6 

2.6 
4.4 
1.2 


2.4 

3.9 
3.2 
0.6 
8.0 


Nltroien 
tree  extract 


3.9 

12.7 
4.4 
5.2 
7.9 
6.1 
8.4 
34.8 
16.6 

4.9 
2.7 
5.3 
4.7 
4.4 
4.8 
4.7 
5.3 
4.0 
5.1 


0.3 

'  6.3" 
59.5 
16.2 
11.7* 

2.8 
36.1 


Ether 
extrMt 


0.4 
0.8 
0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.3 
0.5 
1.9 
0.4 

3.7 
3.6 
1.2 
6.8 
4.1 
7.1 
0.9 
0.3 
1.1 
0.1 

2.5 
13.7 
11.6 


1.3 

6.9* 
12.3 


^S 


41 

2 


793 
42 


7 

96 

7 

85 

46 

3 

144 

6 

16 

35 

7 

2 

1 

1 


'Inelades  fat. 


Table  II.    Average  Digestibility  of  Auerican  Feeding-stuffs,  with  ADomoNS  proh  the  German  Tables 

A.  Experimentt  with  RuminanU 


Feed  ins-staff  a 


Concentrates 

Dent  com 

Com  meal 

Com  cob 

Com-and-cob  meal 

Gluten  meal 

Gluten  meal  (Chicago) 

Gluten  meal  (King's)     

Gluten  feed 

Gluten  feed  (Buffalo) 

Gluten  feed  (Pope's) 

Gluten  feed  (Peoria) 

Gluten  feed  (Atlas) 

Uaise  feed  (Chicago) 

Cream  gluten  (Pope's) 

Wbeat  bran 

Wheat  bran,  spring 

Wheat  bran,  winter 

Wheat  middlings 

Rye  meal 

Barley 

Malt-sprouts 


Xo. 

ot  tiisla 


12 

5 
2 
3 
8 
2 
2 
8 
4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 

11 

2 
3 
4 
2 
4 
1 


Dry 
matter 


Per  cent 
91 

88 
59 
79 
87 
88 
81 
84 
83 
87 
86 
80 
84 
93 

61 
63 
62 
79 
87 
86 
67 


Protein 


Per  cent 

76 

60 
17 

52 
88 
89 
91 
85 
86 
86 
83 
73 
84 
84 

79 

80 
77 
82 
84 
70 
80 


Cniile 
fiber 


Nflroxen-      Ethei 
free  extmet  axtrMt 


Per  cent 
58 

'  65" 
45 


72 
66 
77 
78 

72 


22 
24 
27 
36 

50 
34 


Per  eent 

93 

93 
60 
88 
88 
93 
79 
87 
84 
90 
90 
84 
85 
88 

60 
70 
05 

85 
92 
92 
69 


Per 

cent 
86 
92 
50 
84 
93 
93 
94 
83 
87 
81 
79 
91 
90 


68 
76 
64 
85 
64 


100 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


OT 


Table  II.    Avebagk  Decgstibilitt  of  American  Feeding-shtffs,  continned 


Fnedinc-itnifi 


CONCBNTKATES,  CODtinoed 

Brewers'  grains,  wet 

Brewers'  grains,  diied 

Gate 

Rice  meal 


Flax  seed 

Linseed  me&l,  old  process 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 

Cotton  seed 

Cotton  seed,  roasted 

Cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  hnlls 

Cottonseed  hnlU,  when  fed  with  cottonseed  meal 
Cottonseed  hulls,  when  fed  with  cottonseed  meal 

Cottonseed  feed  (halls  and  meal) 

Cottonseed  feed  (hulls  and  meal)      

Pea  mea) 

Soybean  meal     

Peanut  feed 


ROUGBAGB 

Fodder  eom,Jield-tured — 
Dent  and  flint  varieties,  average  . 

Dent,  mature 

Dent,  in  milk 

Dent,  immature,  B.  t  W.  (coarse) 
Dent,  immature,  no  ears  formed   . 

Flint,  mature 

Flint,  ears  jnst  forming    .... 
Sweet,  mature    ...  ... 


OwTt  il(nxT,jield-eured — 
Com  stover,  all  varieties  .  .  . 

Com  stover 

Com  stover,  shredded,  fed  dry 
Com  stover,  shredded,  fed  wet 
Cots  stover,  tops  and  blades 

Con  stover,  leaves 

Com  stover,  stalk  below  ear 
Cora  stover,  stalk  above  ear    . 

Com  stover,  hnsks 

Com  stover,  leaves  below  ear  . 


Can  foragt,  green — 
Dent  fodder  com,  average,  glazing  and  mature 

Dent  fodder  com,  mature 

Dent  fodder  com,  glazing 

Dent  fodder  com,  in  milk      

Dent  fodder  com,  immature 

Dent  fodder  com,  glazing,  B.  A  W.  (coarse)  . 
Sweet  fodder  com,  roasting-^ar  stsge  .  .  . 
Sweet  fodder  com,  in  milk 

Hay  from  grauta — 

Ueadow  bay,  rich  in  protein 

Ueadow  hay,  medium  in  protein 

Ueadow  hay,  poor  in  protein 

Timothy,  all  trials 

Timothy,  cut  in  bloom 

Timothy,  cut  soon  after  bloom 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top 

Hungarian  grass 

Mixed,  rich  in  protein 

Mixed,  medium  in  protein 

Rowen,  average 


No. 
of  tiiali 


12 
2 

39 
12 

7 
3 
3 
2 
2 
6 

13 
3 

U 
3 

11 
2 

10 
2 


23 

14 
11 
4 
8 
9 
3 
6 


13 

4 
9 
9 
11 
2 
6 
2 


48 

94 

28 

26 

5 

10 

3 

3 

2 

20 

2 

8 


Dry 
matter 


Per  cent 

63 
62 
70 
75 

77 
79 
80 
66 
56 
76 
41 
41 
45 
46 
55 
87 
79 
32 


68 
66 
63 
57 
65 
71 
70 
67 


60 

62 
57 
60 
60 
50 
67 
55 
72 
65 


66 
65 
67 
70 
68 
52 
72 
77 


67 
61 
56 
57 
60 
53 
56 
60 
65 
58 

65 


Protein 


Per  cent 

73 

79 
78 
63 

91 
89 
85 
68 
47 
88 
6 


45 

62 
83 
87 
71 


55 
48 
50 
27 
62 
65 
70 
64 


45 
52 
40 

36 
55 
56 
21 
22 
30 
35 


53 
51 
54 
61 
66 
24 
62 
77 


66 
57 
50 
48 
56 
45 
60 
61 
60 
58 
40 
68 


Cmde 
fiber 


Nitrogen - 
free  axtnKt 


P«T  cent 

Per  cent 

40 

62 

53 

59 

20 

76 

26 

86 

61 
57 
74 
76 
66 
32 
47 
38 
46 
37 
46 
26 

12 


65 
57 
64 
59 
71 
76 
72 
74 


67 
67 
65 
70 
71 
61 
74 
71 
SO 
78 


52 
55 
51 
64 

67 
46 
00 
75 


63 
60 
56 
52 
.58 
47 
61 
61 
68 
60 
49 
66 


55 

78 
84 
50 
51 
64 
34 
49 
51 
50 
54 
94 
73 
49 


73 
72 
66 
61 
64 
73 
71 
68 


61 

64 
56 
59 
62 
59 
69 
54 

68 


74 
72 
75 
76 
71 
59 
77 
81 


68 
64 
59 
63 
63 
60 
55 
62 
67 
59 
58 
64 


Ether 
extract 


Per 

cent 
86 
91 
83 
85 

86 

89 
93 
87 
72 
93 
79 
78 
76 
82 
85 
55 
85 
90 


74 
76 
75 
76 
66 
70 
67 
74 


62 
52 
72 
74 
71 
63 
80 
64 
33 
56 


76 
73 

78 
78 
68 
78 
79 
74 


57 
53 
49 
57 
57 
53 
55 
51 
64 
48 
50 
47 


C7 


98 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


Table  II.    Average  Digestibiuty  of  American  Feeding-stuffs,  continued 


FeedlnB-itaffs 


Roughage,  continued 
Hay  from  gra$ta,  continued — 

Dried  paatore  graaa 

Barley  hay 

Oats  and  vetch 

Timothy  and  clover,  poorly  cured 

Blue>joint  grass   {CalavuigToitii   Cbiuufnuu)  in 

bloom 

Blue-joint  grass,  past  bloom 

Witd-oat  grass  {DaiUkoniea  tpieata) 

Pear!  millet  (Pennittium  ipicatum) 

Johnson-grass 

Witch  (qnack)  grass  iAgropj/rot  rgwfu)    .... 

Sorghum  fodder  (leaves  I 

Sorghum  bagasse  (stalks  after  juice  is  removed)   . 

Swamp  hay 

Salt  hay  of  black  grass  iJuneiu  Gerardi)  .... 
Low  meadow  fox  grass  [Spartina  jitneea)  .... 
High-grown  salt  hay  (largely  Spartina  juneea)  .  . 
Branch  grass    (Spartina  juneea   with   Spartina 

ttrieta,  var.  glahra) 

Bnttercups  (Aanviteti/ui  aeru) 

WUte  weed  (Ox-eye  daisy)  ILeueanthenum  vulgarel 

Strain  and  ekaff— 

Wheat-straw 

Rye-straw 

Oat-straw 

Barley-straw 

Soybean-straw 

Oat  chaff 

Wheat  chaff 

GrautM,  grten — 

Pasture  grasses,  mixed 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass,  in  bloom 

Oat  fodder,  in  bloom      

Rye,  formation  of  heads 

Sorghum,  average 

Barley,  in  bloom 

Hungarian  grass,  early  to  late  bloom 

Barley  and  peas,  full  bloom 

Oats  and  peas,  bloom  (?) 

Rowen  grabs,  mostly  timothy,  two-thirds  grown     . 

Hajffrom  legumet — 

Red  clover,  in  bloom 

Red  clover,  late  bloom,  fair  quality 

Red  clover,  good  quality 

Alsike 

White 

Crimson 

Alfalfa 

Alfalfa,  i:tte  bloom 

Alfalfa,  stage  not  given 

Cowpea-vine,  fair  quality 

Soybean  

Vetch 

Serradella,  in  bloom 

Peanut  vines 

Sainfoin 

LtyuitiM,  green — 

Red  clover,  late  bloom 

Rowen,  late  bloom 

Crimson  clover,  late  bloom 


Nf>. 

Dry 

of  irieli 

mattar 

Per  c«nt 

1 

71 

4 

59 

2 

58 

2 

65 

2 

69 

I 

40 

3 

64 

2 

62 

1 

55 

4 

61 

2 

63 

1 

61 

2 

39 

2 

60 

2 

53 

2 

53 

2 

56 

2 

56 

2 

58 

7 

43 

9 

46 

19 

48 

5 

53 

4 

55 

2 

42 

2 

26 

4 

71 

5 

58 

1 

56 

2 

64 

2 

74 

4 

67 

4 

67 

8 

63 

2 

60 

2 

68 

2 

66 

46 

61 

2 

55 

2 

52 

3 

62 

1 

66 

9 

62 

28 

60 

2 

.    .    . 

1 

2 

59 

2 

62 

6 

65 

2 

62 

2 

60 

2 

62 

2 

66 

2 

61 

3 

69 

Protein 


Crude 
flt*r 


Nltras«ii'  I  Etbrr 
tree  estrMt,  extract 


P«  Mnt      Per  cent 


72 

65 
60 
38 

70 
57 
58 
63 
45 
58 
61 
14 
34 
63 
57 
63 

62 
56 
58 


11 
21 
30 

20 

60 

38 

6 


70 
60 

69 
76 
79 
46 
72 
63 
77 
81 
72 


62 
55 
49 
66 
73 
69 
74 
77 
69 
65 
71 
76 
75 
63 
70 


67 
62 
77 


77 
62 
66 
53 

72 
37 
68 
67 
58 
62 
70 
64 
33 
60 
51 
50 

52 
41 
46 


52 
60 
54 
56 
38 
45 
37 


76 
52 
51 
60 
80 
59 
61 
70 
43 
67 
64 


40 
46 
48 
53 
61 
45 
43 
49 
43 
43 
61 
54 
50 
52 
36 


£3 
52 
56 


Per  cent 

73 
63 
54 
60 

69 
43 
65 
59 
64 
66 
66 
65 
46 
56 
52 
63 

64 
67 
67 


38 
37 
44 
54 
66 
49 
20 


73 
64 
54 
63 
71 
74 
71 
67 
61 
66 
68 


69- 
64 
58 
71 
70 
62 
66 
64 
72 
71 
60 
66 
63 
70 
74 


78 
«5 
74 


P«r 
e«nt 


60 
41 
19 
58 

52 
37 
50 
46 
39 
57 
47 
46 
44 
41 
24 
47 

31 
70 
62 


31 
32 
33 
42 
60 
48 
34 


63 

47 
61 
70 
74 
74 
60 
62 
60 
74 
52. 


62 
53 
43 
50 
51 
44 
39 
54 
48 
50 
29 
60 
65 
66 
66 


65 
61 
66 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 
Tabls  II.    AVBRAGB  DiGBSTiBiUTY  OF  Ahekican  Feeding-stdtps,  continoed 


99 


rMdiuff-ttuirs 


RouGBAGE,  continue 
LefKvut,  grtn,  caDtiDaed — 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea.  ready  for  eoiJiitg 

SoylM^an,  before  bloom 

So^Wan.  Be«4  half  grown 

Caniidu  peas,  jtut  he,toK  bloom  .  .    . 

n«nt  coETir  grain  tnilk  stage  to  mstiire 

Dent  com,  immature 

DenE  com,  stage  ancertain  ,  .  .  .  , 
Dent  corn,  fin»?  cmslied  (steen)  .  .  . 
DenL  aora,  £n»  cnmhed  (sheep)  .  .  , 
Dest  C<H1i,  tmcooked,  eaie  maLiire  .  . 
Dent  com,  cooked,  e&ra  matote  .  .  . 
I^Rt,  «sr8  glazing  ^  ...,...,  . 
Sweet,  gome  ears  matared     ..... 

EojtWBQ    .     

Covrpea-viae    ........... 

BArnyafd  millet  am)  SOfbeaii     .... 

Com  and  soybean „    ,    .    . 

JtooU  and  luberi — 

PoUto 

Potato     .   .   .    .   ^ 

Beel.  mangel 

Beet,  niaiTgel .    ,   ,    ,   , 

Sugar-beet 

Eag^-be^t  ......<.,... 

Tvnufi,  flat 

Rstabaga 

UlBCELLANEOD^e 
Cow's  milk  ,,,.,.,,    ..... 

AcomB,  fresh      

I>ried  blood 

Neat  scrap 

Fuh  guano 

Beet  pulp 


No. 

riry 

PmiBln 

Crud* 

KltrocEti' 

of  irlalB 

mnircr 

fiber 

Tree  enr*et 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

P*i  cent 

2 

67 

81 

45 

76 

2 

70 

74 

57 

81 

2 

r»r> 

79 

50 

72 

2 

GZ 

6!1 

41 

73 

2 

71 

82 

62 

71 

17 

M 

52 

02 

69 

13 

64 

54 

70 

66 

4 

60 

24 

56 

68 

2 

64 

5S 

75 

65 

2 

54 

22 

04 

55 

1 

. 

43 

59 

71 

1 

.    .    . 

31) 

70 

75 

11 

75 

&5 

77 

79 

2 

68 

54 

71 

72 

4 

AS 

S6 

49 

57 

4 

60 

57 

52 

72 

4 

S9 

57 

69 

59 

a 

6i> 

65 

65 

75 

23 

85 

61 

M 

3 

77 

44 

.    .    . 

91 

18 

88 

77 

. 

96 

2 

7& 

75 

43 

91 

28 

89 

62 

95 

2 

n 

&1 

100 

100 

2 

03 

eo 

100 

97 

2 

87 

80 

74 

95 

5 

i)g 

ft4 

98 

2 

88 

83 

62 

91 

2 

63 

62 

.    .    . 

IDO 

S 

93 

93 

,    . 

.    .    ■ 

2 

,    . 

00 

7 

82 

63 

83 

S4 

Etlisr 
extract 


Pw 

52 
,i9 
54 
54 
52 


85 
71 
70 
76 

08 
86 
87 
82 
83 
61 
S3 
72 
82 


50 

98 
S4 


lOO 
88 

100 
08 
76 


B.   licperimeiUi  vrith  Pigi 


r«edlns-ilnfls 


Cmiimeal  .... 
Corameal  .... 
Com  Icenela,  whole 
Com-and-cob  meal 
Pea  meal  .... 
Barley  meal  .  .  . 
Barl^  meal  .  .  . 
Wheat,  whole  .  . 
Wheat,  cracked  .  . 
Wheat  dwrts  .  .  . 
Wheat  bru  .  .  . 
Rye  bran    .... 

Potato 

Potato 

Dried  blood  .  .  . 
Pleahneal.  .  .  . 
Soar  milk    .  .    .  . 


No. 
of  trials 


Dry 
DiKttrr 


For  cent 

92 
90 
83 
76 
90 
82 
80 
72 
82 
77 
61 
67 
93 
97 
72 
92 
05 


Pro  tain 


P«r  cent 

86 
88 
69 
76 
89 
76 
81 
70 
80 
73 
75 
66 
73 
84 
72 
97 
06 


Crndo 
llbor 


Per  cent 

40 
39 

38 
29 
78 
15 
49 
30 
60 
37 
34 
9 
55 


Nltrosen 
free  extract 


Per  cent 

95 
94 

89 
84 
95 
90 
87 
74 
83 
87 
66 
75 
98 
98 
92 


Ether 
sxtraet 


Per 

cent 
76 
80 
46 
82 
50 
65 
57 
60 
70 

72 

58 


87 
95 


100 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


Table  TIL    Average  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Ferhlizing  CoNffnrnENTS  in  Ahebican  Feeding-8tupf8 


Namft  of  fud 


CONGENTHATEa 

Corn,  all  analTses 

Detit  corn 

Fliat  corn  ,,....   ^    ,   ...   , 

iSws^t  cam 

Corn  cob ,   .  . 

Com- ^nd- cob  meal 

Cora  bran  .   , 

Gluten  taeu.1 

Germ  meal -    . 

Starch  refmw 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy  chope 

Glucose  meiil     4    ........   . 

Sugar  meal 

Gluten  feed 

Difltilltry  jjrflira  Mried)  princijially  cotn 
Atloa  glutBD  feed  (djatillery  by-pradncta) 

Wheat    , ,    -    . 

High-grade  floar 

Low.|fP!«le  floor 

Bark  feeding  fiour    ...,..,. 

Whtat  hraT3 

Wheut  bran,  spring 

"Wheat  bran,  winter 

Wheat  shorta 

Wheat  uiiddliTigs 

Wheat  BcreeniEigBi 

Ryg 

Rje  bran ,  .    .    ,  . 

Rye  shorts 

CiatJllery  grains  (dried)  pTrncipally  rye 

Bsriey 

Malt-sprouts. 

Birewere'  grains,  wet 

Brewers'  grains,  dried  ....... 

Ottte 

Oat  mea)    , 

O&E  tped  or  shorta 

Cat  du^t 

Oat  hulls 

Rice 

Rice  huHa 

Rica  bran 

Bice  poliah 

Buckwheat     

Bijckwheat  bulla 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  shorta      . 

Buckwheat  QLiddhnga 

iSorghnm  seed 

Brooui-com  seed    .......... 

Kafir  .    , ,   ,    . 

Millet      

FJax  need 

Linseed  meal,  a\i  proceM 

Liofteed  meal,  new  proceaa 


Dry 

tnallEf  Id 
LOil  Lbi. 


L1i«. 

89.1 
89. 4 

8S.7 
91.2 

89  ;j 

S4  9 
90.9 
91.8 

89  3 
91  8 
94.3 
SS.9 
91.9 
932 
922 
93  0 
92.6 

89.5 
87  6 

87.6 
903 

88.1 
88.a 
87. 7 
88.2 
87.9 
S8.-1 

88. 4 
88.4 
90.7 
03.2 

Sfi.l 
8fl.8 
24  3 
91.8 

89.0 
92.1 
923 
93.5 

90.6 

87.6 
91.8 

90.3 
90.0 

87,4 
8C.8 
S9.5 
88.9 
S7.3 

S7.2 

85.9 

86.0 

90.8 

90  .S 
89.9 


Dlcemible  nutTiejiti  In  ISO  Lbi. 


Protpin 


Lbi. 

7.9 

7.8 

8.0 

8.S 

04 

44 

7.4 

25  .S 

BO 

U.4 

20  7 

75 

30.3 

IS.  7 

20  4 

2133 

2:^33 

102 

8,9 

82 

13  5 

122 

129 

12.3 

12.2 

128 

9.8 

9.9 

11.5 
119 
10,38 

8,7 
18.6 

3.9 
15.7 

9.2 

11.5 

125 

8.9 

1,3 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 

7.7 
21 

74 
21.1 
22.0 

7.0 

7.4 
7-8 
8.9 

20.6 

29-3 
28.2 


(.'■rbtt 


Ether 
est  met 


66.7 
Ge.7 
G6,2 
63.7 

52  5 
60.0 
59.8 
43..^ 
01.2 
58.4 
38.8 
55.2 
35.3 
51  7 
48.4 
39.00 
35.64 

6B,2 
02  4 
62.7 
013 
39.2 
40,1 
37.1 
50.0 

53  6 
51.0 

67.R 
S0.3 
45  1 
42.48 

&56 

37.1 

S3 

36.3 

47.3 
52.1 
46.9 
38  4 
40.1 

72.2 
44.5 

45.1 

5e.4 
49.Z 

279 
30.4 
33.5 
33,4 

52.1 
48.3 

57.1 
45.0 

17.1 
32.7 
40.1 


Lbi. 

4.3 
43 

4.3 
7,0 
0.3 
2-9 
4.6 

110 
C.2 
6.5 

12.4 
6-8 

14.5 
8.7 
88 

10.83 

11.88 

1.7 
09 
09 
20 
27 
34 
2.6 
3.8 
3.4 
2.2 

11 

20 
1.6 

6.38 

1.6 

1.7 
!-4 
5.1 

4.2 
5.9 
2.8 
5.1 

0.6 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 

1.S 
0-6 
l.fl 
5.5 
5.4 

3.1 

2.9 
2.7 

3.2 

29.0 
7.0 

2.8 


b'urtlliiinic  wiiMltueiiLB  In 


Nirror-n     f '"lllll"'  ,  P»"»fc 


uiJ 


Lbi. 

1S.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
5.0 
141 
16.3 
50.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.S 
16.3 
57-7 
36  3 
38  4 


23-6 
18.9 
28.9 

31.8 
26.7 


28.2 
26.3 
244 

17.6 

2;J-2 
18.4 


15.1 

35.5 

S.9 

302 

20.6 
23  5 
17  2 
21.6 
5.2 

10.8 
5.8 
7.1 

19.7 

U.4 

4.9 
36.4 

'42.8 

U.8 
16.3 

20-4 

36.1 
543 
57.8 


Lbi. 

7.0 


0.6 
57 
12.1 
33 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 
9.8 

4  1 
4.1 


7.9 

22 

5  6 

21.4 

28.9 


13  5 
9.5 

117 

8.2 
22.8 
126 


7.9 
143 

3.1 
10  3 

82 

"9.1 

'   2.4 

1-8 

17 

29 

26,7 

4.4 

0.7 

17.8 

'21.9 

8,1 

'  8.5 

13.9 
10.6 
18.3 


I.bi. 
4.0 


6.0 
47 
6.S 

o.s 

5.0 
52 

1,5 
4.9 

03 
03 


5.0 

15 
3,5 

10.9 
16.1 


5,9 
63 
84 

54 
14.0 

8.1 


4.S 

163 

0.5 

0.9 

'5.3 

5.2 

0  9 
1.4 
24 

7.1 

21 

5,2 

12,8 

11.4 

4,2 

3.6 

10.3 
13,7 
13.S 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


101 


Table  UL    Avbbags  Digbstiblb  Nutrients  and  Febtilizing  CoNsnTUBNTS,  contioned 


Name  of  f«ed 


Dry 

matter  In 
100  Lbs. 


Concentrates,  continaed 

Cotton  seed 

CottoDseed  meal 

Cott-snseed  hulls 

Coconut  meal 

Palm-Dot  meat 

Sunflower  seed 

Sonflower-seed  cakea 

Peanut  meal 

Rape-seed  meal 

Peas 

Soybean     

Cowpea 

Horse  bean 

Rough AGS 
Fodder  corn — 

Fodder  com,  green 

Fodder  corn,  field-cured   .  .   . 
Com  stover,  field-cured     .   .    . 

Freik  grau — 
Paoture  grasses  (mixed)   .   .   . 
KentQckf  blue-grass     .... 
Tmiothy,  different  stages     .   . 
Orchard-grass,  in  bloom   .   .    . 

Red-top,  in  bloom 

Oat  fodder 

Rye  fodder 

Sorghum 

Ife^ow  fescue,  in  bloom      .   . 

Hungarian  grass 

Green  barley 

Peas  and  oats 

Peas  and  barley 

Kafir  fodder 

Timothy 

Orchard-grass 

Red-top 

Kentucky  blue-grass     .   .    .   . 

Hungarian  grass 

Utxed  grasses 

Rowen  (miied)      

Meadow  fescue 

U Lxed  grasrtes  and  clorer  .   .    , 

Soybean  hay  

Oat  hay 

Uarsh  or  swamp  hay     .   .    .    . 
Marsh  or  swamp  hay     .   .    .   . 

White  daisy 

Barley 

Wheat 

ly- 

Oat 

Barley 

lATieat  chaff 

Oat  chaff 

Frt$k  Uguma — 

Red  clover,  different  stages     . 
Aliike,  bkxHn 


Lh<. 

89.7 
91.8 
88.9 
8y.7 
89.6 
92.5 
91.8 
89.3 
90.0 

89.5 
89.2 
85.2 
85.7 


20.7 
57.8 
59.5 


20.0 
34.9 
384 
27.0 
34.7 
37.8 
23  4 
20.6 
30.1 
28.9 
21.0 
16.0 
160 
27.0 


86.8 
90.1 
91.1 
78.8 
92,3 
87.1 
83.4 
80.0 
87.1 
88.7 
91.1 
88.4 
92.1 
85.0 
89.4 


90.4 
92.9 
90.8 
85.8 
85.7 
85.7 


29.2 
25.2 


DlgMtlble  nutrieotB  in  100  Lbs 


Protein 


Lbs. 

12.5 
37.2 
0.3 
15.6 
16.0 
12.1 
31.2 
42.9 
25.2 

16.8 
29.6 
18  3 
22.4 


1.0 

2.5 
1.7 


2.5 
3.0 
1.2 
1.5 
2.1 
2.6 
2.1 
0.6 
1.5 
20 
1.9 
1.8 
17 
0.87 


2.8 
4.9 
4.8 
4.8 
4.5 
5.9 
7.9 
4.2 
6.16 
10.8 
4.3 
2.4 
3.5 
3.8 
5.11 


0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.3 
1.5 


2.9 
2.7 


Curbo- 
bydrates 


Lba. 

30.0 
16.9 
33.1 
38.3 
52.6 
20.8 
19.6 
22.8 
23.7 

51.8 
22.3 
54  2 
493 


11.6 
34.6 
32.4 


10.2 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
21.2 
18.9 
14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
71 
7.2 
13.80 


43.4 
42.3 

46.9 

37.3 

51.7 

40.9 

40.1 

43.3 

42.71 

38.7 

46.4 

29.9 

44.7 

40.7 

35-94 


36.3 
40.6 
38.6 
41.2 
23.3 
33.0 

14.8 
13.1 


Ether 
extract 


Lbi. 

17.3 

12.2 
1.7 

10.5 
9.0 

29.0 

12.8 
G.9 
7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

l.I 

12 


0.4 
1.2 
0.7 


0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.6 
1.0 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
02 
02 
0  43 


1.4 

1.4 

1.0 

20 

1.3 

1.2 

1.5 

1.7 

1.46 

1.5 

1.5 

0.9 

0.7 

1.2 

1.55 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 

0.7 
0.6 


FertUUloK  constituents  in 
1,000  Lbs. 


Nftrosen 


Lbs. 

31.3 
67.9 
6.9 
32.8 
26.9 
22.8 
55.5 
75.6 
49.6 

308 
53.0 
33.3 
40.7 


4.1 
17.6 
10.4 

9.1 

'  4.8 
4.3 

4.9 
3.3 
2.3 

3  9 


12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 

'23.2 


5.9 
4.6 
6.2 
13.1 
7.9 


5.3 
4.4 


Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

12.7 

11.7 

28.8 

87 

2.5 

10.2 

16.0 

24  0 

11.0 

5.0 

12.2 

5.6 

21.5 

11  7 

13.1 

15.0 

20.0 

13.0 

8.2 
18.7 

'  12.6 


15 

5.4 
2.9 


23 

2.6 
1.6 

i.3 

1.5 

0.9 

i.6 


5,3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 

6.7 


1.2 
2-8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 


1.3 
1.1 


99 
19.0 

12.9 


3.3 

8.9 
14.0 

7.6 

7.6 
7.6 

■3.S 
73 
23 

'5.5 


9.0 

1S.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 
21.0 

ib.8 


5.1 

7.9 

12.4 

20.9 

4.2 


4.6 
2.0 


102 


FEEDING  AND  COMPUTATION  TABLES 


Table  in.    Average  Dicestiblb  Nutrientb  and  Febtujzihg  CoNmTDBNTs,  coDtinoed 


Kame  at  lead. 


Frrth  itifumti— 

Cfimaon  clorar 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea  ,,.,..,,. 
SoybeaiL      

Ltgitme  hatj  ^nd  slraie-- 
Red  <^!over,  medium  .    ,    .    , 
Red  clo-Ver,  maitirdath   .   .    . 

Alsike  clover 

White  L'bver 

Crimaim  clover • 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea  . 

Sojbeun-Btraw 

Pea-vine-Btraw 

Com ,  .  ,   .  , 

Clover     .   , 

Sorghum, 

Alfalfa 

Graaa      

ConpeA  vinfi 

Soybean      

B&m.vard  millet  and  soybean 
Cdth  and  soybean 

Boott  aitd  ivhert— 

Potato 

B««t,  comraon    ...... 

Beet)  sugar- 

Beet,  mangel     

Fl&t  turnip 

-  Rotaboga 

Carrot 

Paranip 

Artichoke 

MlSCELLAKXOUa 

Cabbage     

Spiirry 

SuRar-lwflt  leaTSB  .  ,  .... 
Pumpkin,  Gel*]  ,..,.,. 
Pumpkin,  garden  .  ,  ... 
Prickly  eorafrey    ...... 

Kape 

Acoma.  fresh     .,,,,.    , 

Dried  blood 

Meat  scrap     . 

Dried  fieh 

Beet  pulp  >),...  .  .  , 
Beet  moIoAaea 

Cow's  milk      

Cow'a  milh,  colostrum  .... 

Sktm-milk,  gravity 

Skim-milli,  centrifugal  .    .    .    . 

Bnttemiilk     

Whay      


Dry 
niali^f  III 
100  Lin. 


Dlc«lttile  butririitB  in  lUD  Lbs. 


fr&tKin 


19  I 
28.2 
16.4 
24.!) 


84-7 
78  8 
903 
903 
904 
9L0 
S9  3 
89.9 
86  4 


20.9 

2S.0 
23.9 
27.ft 
32.0 
207 
25H 
21.0 
240 


21  1 
130 
135 
9.1 
9.5 
11  4 
114 
11,7 
20.0 


15.3 
20.0 
12.0 

0.1 
19,2 
11, G 
14.0 
447 

91.5 
89. a 
89.2 
10.2 
79.2 

12.S 

25.4 
9.6 
9.4 

9.9 

6.r> 


LIh. 

2.4 
3.9 

1.8 
32 


0.8 

5.7 

8.4 

11.5 

10.5 

11.0 

10.8 

23 

43 


0.9 
2.0 
0.6 
3.0 
I.U 
1.5 
2.7 
16 
I.O 


0.9 
12 
11 
1.1 
1.0 
iD 
0.8 
l.fi 


L8 
1.5 
1.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
2.1 

52.3 

66.2 

44.1 

0.6 

&.1 

3.6 

17.6 

3.1 

2.9 
3.9 

0.8 


hfdratpii 


Lbs. 

9.1 
12.7 

87 
11.0 


35.8 
320 
42.5 
42  2 
34,9 
3D.6 
3Se 
400 
32  3 


113 
13.5 

149 
8,5 

13  4 
8.G 
87 
S2 

130 


16  3 

8.8 

10  2 

5.4 

72 

8.1 

7.S 

112 

168 


8,2 
9,8 
4.6 
5.8 
83 
4  6 
8.1 
34  4 

00 
0.3 
0.0 
73 
5S.fi 

4.9 

2.7 
4.7 
5.2 
4.0 
4.7 


extnet 


l.bs 

0.5 
0.5 
0.2 
0.5 


1.7 
l.S 
15 
1.5 
1.2 
1.2 
1.1 
1.0 
fl.8 


0.7 
1.0 
0.2 
1,9 
1.6 
0.« 
1.3 
07 
0.7 


0.1 
01 
0,1 
0  1 
02 
0.2 
0-2 
0.2 

o.s 


0.4 
03 
0.2 

0.3 
0.8 
0.2 
0.2 
1.7 

2.5 
13.7 
10.3 

6.6 

3.7 
3.6 
OS 

0.3 
1.1 
0.3 


P^nUbiiii  muatlliieiili  Iti 

1.000  Lbs. 


KH  Kigali 


Lin. 

43 
72 

27 
2.9 


20.7 
22.3 
23.4 
27.5 
20.5 
21.9 
19.5 
17.5 
14.3 


2.8 


3.2 
2.4 
22 
l.S 
1.8 

i.g 

15 

1.8 
2.6 


3.8 
3.8 
4.1 

i.i 

4.2 

i.5 


135.0 

113.9 

77.5 

1.4 

14.6 

5.3 
2S.2 
5.0 
5.0 
4.8 
1.5 


PLotpburic 

Mid 


LbH. 

13 
1.3 
10 
1.5 


3.8 
5.5 
6.7 
5.2 
4.0 
5.1 
52 
4.0 
3.5 


1.1 


1-2 
09 
10 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
14 


l.l 
2-5 
1.5 

i.6 
1.1 
1.5 


13-5 

7  0 

120.0 

02 

0,5 

1,9 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 


Potuh 


Lbi. 

'4.9 

5-6 

3  1 
6.3 


22.0 
122 
22.3 
ltl.l 

13  1 
16.S 

14  7 
13  2 
10.2 


3.7 


4  6 
4.4 

4.8 
3S 
3-9 

4.9 
.■>  I 
44 
4.7 


4.3 
5  9 
6,2 

0.9 
7.5 
36 


7,7 
10 
2.0 
0-4 
5fi3 

1.8 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 


METHOD  OP  EXACT  BALANCING  OP  RATIONS 


108 


METHOD  OF  EXACT  BvVLANCING 

OF   RATIONS 

By  J.  T.  Wiliard 

Balancing  b  ration  constitts  in  choosing  the  feuda 
entering  into  it  so  that  it  will  possess  the  proper 
wuigfat.  bulk  and  chemicnl  compotiition  for  the 
animals  to  which  it  m  to  be  fed,  and  fnr  the  im- 
mediatt)  purpose  in  view  in  ft^ting  them,  whether 
for  labor,  growth,  fatteninic.  milk  iirucliicLiim  nr 
aainbunaoce.  Thy  limits  of  this  artifk'  will  iirevent 
any  discussion  of  the  sulijiKt  in  a  broa*l  way.  and 
we  will  consider  only  the  mode  of  culcuiatinn;  the 
quantities  of  the  foeds  chiwffn,  in  order  to  aecure 
a  ration  having  the  chemicnl  comiMwition  decided 
OQSH  moot  suitable.  XutwitbKtanding  the  fict  that 
recent  investigations  are  landing  to  Riinimtze  the 
inpartaoce  of  th*^  balanced  rutiontt  hh  hithertti 
held,  tbe  fe«dint;  standard.-*  thus  secured  miLstcon- 
tinoe  to  be  the  guide  in  practical  feeding  opera- 
tions for  dome  time  to  come. 

All  oboervatinn  and  experiment  have  shown  that 
there  are  certain  bodily  fiinctiona  for  which  only 
BitrogenoDS  conxtitnenbt  of  fenli^,  thnt  m  protein, 
will  serre,  while  there  are  others  which  are  p^'r- 
formwi  with  greater  pbysiulogiu'ul  economy  by 
RUR'nitrogenous  substances.  Hence  there  is,  for 
each  purpose  and  condition  of  feeding,  botwoen  the 
digestible  nitn^ennua  canstituenta  of  thu  ration 
and  ltd  diges^tibje  non-nitrogenous  constituents,  a 
ratio  that  ii*  physiolngic»IIy  the  rooHt  eccmomiral. 
This  ratio  la  expresAwl  not  in  terms  of  the  r*'!ative 
weights  of  the  constituents  named  but  in  term^  of 
the  relative  quantitie.-*  of  energy  yielded  by  them. 
Protein  and  carbohydrat^j^s  nre  about  eaual,  weight 
for  weight,  in  energy-yielding  power,  but  average 
fat  of  feedH  yiekia  about  two  and  one-fourth  times 
aa  much  energy  aa  an  <x]Ub)  weight  of  avenigo  cnr- 
bAydrates.  Whut  b  known  a>*  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  a  feed  or  a  ration  in  the  ratio  of  the  energj-  of 
ha  digestible  protein  to  the  energy  of  it^digcittihle 
nan-pmtein.  It  xa  equal,  therefore,  to  the  ratio  of 
tbe  weight  of  the  dige»til)1e  protein  to  th>e  weight 
of  tbe  digecitible  carb»hydnite«(  t>ltis  two  ard  one- 
fourth  tiroes  the  weight  uf  the  digestible  fat. 
Thus  com.  having  digestible  protein,  T.14  per 
cent,  carbohydratca,  *Jt!.!2  per  cent,  and  fat,  4.97 
percent,  haai  nutritive  ratio  of  7.14:6t5.rj  -  (2|  x 
457)  or  7.14:77.3.  If  wc  make  the  protein  unity 
by  dividing  both  temw  of  this  ratio  by  7.14,  we  do 
Bot  alter  it-!  value,  and  we  get  it  in  a  form  that 
facilitates  comparinun  with  others.  It  thii.s  be- 
comes I:I().sa.  Thia  means  that  for  every  unit 
of  energy  in  the  digeatible  protein  of  com  there 
are  10.83  units  in  the  digestible  carbohydrates  and 
fat,  the  noD-protein. 

Rations  cao  be  best  comfiared  in  respect  to  eompO' 
sition  and  digestibility  by  means  of  nntritive  ratios. 
The  principles  of  alligation  are  employ(-d  in  thia 
method  of  balancing  rations,  which  consists  essen- 
ttally  in  balancing  feeils  in  pairs,  using,  however. 
aay  feed  u  ort«n  as  desired  in  balancing  others. 
It  It  is  desired  to  compound  a  ration  in  which  the 
BOtriUve  ratio  shall  be  1:6.5,  using  corn,  com 
•tonr  and  alfalfa  hay,  we  find  on  making  the  nec- 


essary calculationfl  that  th«  nutritive  ratio  of  corn 
is  1 :  10.82,  of  corn  stover.  1 :  17.39,  and  of  alfalfa, 
I:S.82.  The  second  temut  of  these  ratios  repre- 
sent the  non-protein.  The  first  term,  representing 
the  protein,  Iwing  made  unity  in  each  case,  a  com- 
parimm  of  the  second  terms  is  all  that  i»  nccenuiry 
todiw-loKc  the  relative  ]>reilu  mi  nance  of  nim-pro- 
tein.  We  »ee  that,  for  each  unit  of  ent^rgy  In  pro- 
tein, alfalfa  bod  leus  non-pruttfiii  enert;y  than  tha 
proposed  ration,  while  corn-stover  and  corn  each 
uostk-sses  an  excess  of  non-proti>in  energy.  It  must 
be  clear  that,  since  two  of  these  feeds  are  too  rich 
in  non-protein  while  one  is  too  poor,  it  is  possible 
to  use  quantities  of  each  th.it  will  prodHce  ii  mix- 
ture having  the  desired  nutritive  ratio.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  when  three  or  more  such  feeila  are 
involved,  an  infinite  number  of  pro]>orti<ins  is 
possible,  but  there  must  be  at  least  one  fet'd  that 
is  richer  ia  non-protein  thiin  the  proposed  ration, 
and  at  least  one  that  is  poorer  in  nor-;irotein. 

If  we  compare  corn,  alfalfa  and  the  proposed 
ration  a.H  to  second  tenns  of  nutritive  ratios,  we 
see  that  that  of  com  is  10.83  —  B.5^=  4.S3  larger, 
while  that  of  alfalfa  ia  6.5— 3.82  =  2.68  smaller 
than  the  si-cond  term  of  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the 
propased  ration.  The  numbers  4.33  and  2MS  thus 
represent,  in  some  sense,  the  excess  and  the  defi- 
ciency of  non-prot*rin  in  corn  and  alfalfa,  respect- 
i%'ely.  There  is  only  one  ratio  in  which  these  two 
feeds  may  be  mixed  to  pniduce  the  desired  nutri- 
tive ratio. 

To  balance  corn  and  alfalfa  to  the  nutritive  ratio 
of  ]:6.r»,  they  must  be  taken  in  such  quontitics 
that  the  excess  of  non-protein  in  the  total  amennt 
of  corn  used  is  exactly  equal  to  the  deficiency  of 
ron-protein  in  the  total  amount  of  alfalfa  used. 

If  fjireach  unit  of  protein  in  corn  there  is  an 
exce.'ia  of  -i.',^  unitw  of  non-protein,  and  for  each 
unit  of  protein  in  alfalfa  a  deficiency  of  2.6^  units 
of  non-protein,  the  excess  from  one  and  the  defl- 
ciency  of  the  other  will  be  dinal  when  we  take 
enough  corn  to  get  2.68  units  of  protein  and 
enough  alfalfa  to  get  4.33  units  of  protein.  For, 
if  with  one  unit  of  protein  in  corn  we  have  an 
excess  of  4.33  units  of  non-protein,  with  2.f»8  units 
of  protein,  we  .should  have  an  exceiw  of  4.33  x  2.68 
=  11.60  unitii  of  non-protein.  Also,  if  with  each 
unit  of  protein  in  alfatfa  we  have  a  deficiency  of 
2.68  units  of  non-protein,  with  4.33  units  of  pro- 
tein in  alfalfa  we  should  have  2.68  x  4.33  =  11.60 
nnits  of  non-protein,  and,  this  deficiency  being  ex- 
actly equnl  to  the  excess  accompanying  the  corn, 
the  mixture  would  be  balanced  to  a  nutntive  ratio 
of  l:6.o. 

What  proportions  by  weight  do  these  repreaent? 
If  the  amount  of  energy  yielded  by  one  pound  of 
protein  be  taken  as  equal  to  one  of  the  "units" 
just  referred  to.  then  the  weight  of  com  that  con- 
tains a  pound  of  protein,  multiplied  by  2.68,  will 
give  the  nnmber  of  pounds  of  com,  and  the  weight 
of  alfalfa  that  contains  a  pound  of  protein,  multi- 
plied by  4.!^3,  wil!  give  the  number  of  pounds  of 
alfalfa.  The  weight  of  corn  that  contains  a  pound 
of  protein  ia  found  by  dividing  100  by  the  per- 
centage of  protein  in  com.  That  is,  if  corn  ooq- 


104 


METHOD  OF  EXACT   BAUVNXING   OF  RATIONS 


tains  7.U  p«r  cent  of  prott-in.  each  100  pounds 
ctintaitui  7.1-1  piiUDdB  of  protL-in,  and  KK)  divided 
\>y  7.14  ifi  tht'  rmml>Hr  of  pounds  of  corn  that  con- 
tain one  paund  of  prot«in.  Thi.s  quotient  it)  ciilM 
the  protoin-equatinff  factor,  and  for  corn  it  in 
14.0,  The  protein-ei|u.iting  fact<>r  of  alfalfa  is 
10fM-10.53=a-l.':. :  that  ifl,  9.45  pDundn  of  alfalfa 
contain  one  pound  of  protein. 

SuliHtitnling  thv  |inituin-«|uatinj;  fitctorK  in  the 
prpe*fftintr  statemenU  as  the  wyi^hU-  of  the  feeds 
that  contain  one  [wum!  of  prott-in.  wl-  havt*  14.0  x 
2.68=!{7.r)2  as  tho  numlivr  of  pounds  of  corn,  and 
9.45  X-I.SH  -  4iiM2  a.H  the  nrnnWr  of  pounds  of 
alfalfa.  Corn  and  alfalfa  of  the  com  position  as- 
flumed,  if  mixed  in  the  ratio  of  y7.-S2  to  -10.92  only, 
will  produne  a  ratiim  with  thi-  niitritivw  ratio  of 
l:6,fi.  If  themj  two  numhet:^  be  addwl  tojiethi-r 
a»  I  each  dividwl  by  thu  num.  tlw  amnunta  required 
of  i^aeh  to  priKluee  one  |K)und  of  the  mixture  will 
be  obtained.    Thiwo  are  .47X  and  .522  pounds. 

Letus  arrange  in  tabnlar  form  the  data  that  by 

((roce-sses  exactly  similar  to  those  described  have 
leen  calciilati^d  frjr  alfalfa  and  corn  ritover,  hal- 
ancinK  tliem  tn  a  nutritive  r-itto  of  !:*>..').  A  tali- 
ular  aiatement  id  aluu  prmseiittjd  fur  the  corn  and 
alfalfa  ration. 


Second  trrni 

Hilton  A—  "'  ™<if> 

Ci>rn  Blovt-r  ....  17,39 
ProiMWi;(J  ration  .  .  6.50 
Alfnlfn 3.82 

Mixture  B  — 

Cora 10.83 

PropQfled  ration  ,  .  6.50 
Alfalfa 3.82 


llilTer-    I'riitcin  «qu*t' 
onrr  iiiK  fMtor 

2.68    X    UaSl     =     135^6       .r^68 


10.89    X      9.15  =  102.91  .432 

2.G8    X     14.0  =  37.-12  .478 

or 

4.33    X      9..15  =  40.8^  .522 


We  have  thua  calculated  two  mixtures,  A  and 
B,  each  possessinn  the  dej»ireti  nutritive  ratio.  It 
is  obvious  that  these  two  mixtures  may  lie  com- 
bined in  any  ratio  whatever,  and  that  thua  there  is 


[HiBsible  an  infinite  numbi;r  »f  compound  mixtures 
of  the  tha'u  feeda,  the  nutritive  ratio  Wing  1:6.5 
in  each.  As  grain  m  found  in  B  imlr,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  ratio  of  to^in  to  rouKhB>i;e  can  be 
ma^le  anything  desired  by  proportioning  properly 
the  amounttt  of  .\  .-ind  B  in  the  compound  mlxtunt. 
It  is  very  convenient  to  have  the  roughage  and 
the  concentrates  of  a  ration  separately  balanced. 
Tbe  rougha;ru  may  th<>n  be  treatefi  an  a  ha^at 
ration,  with  which  greattfror  leas  (luantitiea  of  tbe 
concentrate  are  M  aocording  to  individual  neeiU. 
Of  course  the  »iime  care  ^l«^t  be  exercised  in  the 
choice  of  foods  to  be  mixed  as  in  the  cut-and-try 
method,  in  onter  that  the  proper  bulk  and  palata- 
bility  may  rennlt. 

Furtbermore,  by  study  of  the  detailed  chemical 
compo»iLion  of  .\  and  H,  it  haH  been  found  that  the 
ratio  of  fat  to  csirlobydrates  in  A  is  1:38.02, 
while  in  B  it  is  1:  Ui.u3.  By  tlie  use  of  alligation 
itt  a  manner  similar  to  that  describiiil  in  the  fore*i 
going,  and  employing  fat-<>qnating  factors,  it  is 
possible  to  calculate  the  ratio  in  which  A  and  B 
may  be  combined  so  a»  to  prodnce  a  compound 
mixturei  having  any  desire*!  ratio  of  fat  to  car- 
bohydrates between  ];H>.iViaiHl  ItliK.OS. 
By  similar  reawonin^,  if  feeds  in  Buffictent  vari- 
ety of  com[M)sition  arc-  availa- 
ble, it  is  postiible  to  calcolata 
exactly  the  amounts  of  each  to 
balance  the  ration,  not  only  in 
rps|iect  to  nutritive  r.ittn  and 
ratio  of  fat  U}  carbobydralet, 
but  in  respect  to  percentage  of 
digestible  matter  and  other  dif- 
ferences. To  facilitate  the  work 
of  computing  the  quantities  of 
feed  to  be  given,  a  table  show- 
ing the  nutritive  ratio  and  the  pruleiii-^jualing 
fjietor  of  many  of  the  common  feeding-stuiF.-*  is  here 
introducvd.  Fuller  tables  of  composition  and  digeet< 
ibility  will  be  found  in  the  pre<^eding  pages. 


HUH  It  til  If  4 


TABI.B  Show]n<;  tub  NtmunvE  Ratio  ami  PRirrEJN-BtitJATiHr,  Factok  op  Comios  FsEDiNC-sTvm 


FMilltiiC-"t«1T 


Nillritire 
mtio 


Grten  and  drj/ fodder — 

Cora  f udder  (av.  all  varietiw]   .  L:  11.7 

Kafir  fftdHer 1:17.0 

Sorghum  fodder 1:22.0 

R.tp« 1:   4.3 

Rye  fodder 1:   7.4 

Oat  fodder 1:   8.3 

Red-top  in  bloom 1:10.9 

On^hanl-grasK,  in  bloom  .  .  .  .1:  9.0 
Moadow  feecue,  in  bloom  .  .  .  1:11.9 
Timothy,  different  atot^ea   .  .  .  lill.^'l 

Xeaticky  blne-KTSM I:  7.3 

Hungarian  grass 1:  S.6 

K«d  clover,  different  staeea  .   .  1:  6.3 

Criiuoo  ciorer I:  4.S 

Alfalfa,  different  Btajies  .  .  .   .  1:  3.1 

Cowpea      ... 1:   5.1 

Soybean I:  4.7 

Sci^uin  sihMte \: 25.6 

Cora  idlue(rerent  analyses)  .  .1:13,7 
Cora  fodder,  liflld-ciired  .  .  .  .1:14.9 
Cora  Htover,  fleM-eared  .  .   .   .1:17^ 


tartar 

ao.y 

166.7 
46.3 
48.8 
41.0 
48.6 
52.4 
67.1 
49.8 
,"17.6 
&2.1 
32.6 
46.3 
25.7 
&9^ 
S5.8 

166.7 
B2.& 
42.7 
&0.5 


Kc0(llTic*iafr 


Nntrlllv* 
ratio 


Grten  and  drff  fodder,  conliniwd — 

Kolir  v,Uiv(.T,  liuld-curvd  .  .  .  .1:^.0 
Kafir  slnver.  fit'Id^nired  (KiUMi.)  .  1: 1B.9 
Sorghum  fodder,  cured 1:219 

Has  from  — 

Barley 1:  7.7 

Data 1:  9.1 

Orehard-^oes 1:   9.4 

Red-top 1:10.2 

Timothy  (alUnalysae) 1:16.2 

Kentucky  bln^grute 1:   8.8 

Hnng&rian  gross 1 :  I2£ 

Meadowfeacoe 1:11.3 

Miierl  grames 1:  IIX) 

Rt>wt>D  (mixed) 1:  6-2 

Buffalo-grus 1:    7.2 

Prairie-grasa 1:84.2 

liavi  grUMve  and  ciorer  ...  I:   7.& 

Red  clover 1:    6.7 

Al&ike  clariT 1:  6.6 

White  clover 1:  3.9 


PruiriB- 
r«nor 

55.0 
31.1 
36.6 


19.6 
24.6 
20.9 
20.8 
34.6 
21.0 
22.S 
23.8 
23.7 
13.9 
16.1 
163.9 


METHOD  OF   EXACT  BALANCING  OF  RATIONS 


106 


I 

I 
I 


Bajf  fnm — 

CrimKn  clovtrr L:    3.S  9^ 

Alfalfa 1:    a.8  9.S 

Alf&lTa  bB5,  Am  fta«e  ....  1:  3.1  7.G 

Alfalfa  bay,  aecond  sfjige  .    .    .  1:    aG  8.4 

Alfalfa  ha?,  third  atae«  .  .    .  .1:  4.8  9.G 

Cowpea 1:    3.9  9.8 

Scjrbeaii 1:  3.9  9.3 

WbHl-itniw 1:100.5  270.3 

Rye^traw 1:S6.8  158.7 

Oat-«U-jiv 1 :  33.6  83.3 

Sorbean-straw 1:18.4  4;^.^ 

SaoU  and  tvbn^— 

PoUtoM 1:12.1  73.5 

Beeto 1:   7.4  82.6 

Bmu.  n«ar^ 1:   9.f^  M).9 

Umagjeia 1:   5.7  ^.l 

Tmilpi \:  8,a  123.5 

RDUbafis l:    9.1  LI2.5 

CarroU 1:10.3  12;(.5 

Grains  anJ  alker  teeJt — 

Cora  (av.  of  ittit  and  flint) .  .  .  1: 10.8  14.0 

Kaflr 1:   9.8  17.3 

Barley 1:   7.9  11.5 

OatK I:   6.2  10.8 

Kye I:   8.0  11.0 

Wbut  <all  varietiK) 1:   7.1  9.8 

CMlOMwd  (whole) 1 :    6.7  9.0 

tiiU  prcdmeta- 

Coni  meal 1 : 1 1.7  10.0 

Com-ud-cob  meal 1:14.0  21.0 

Oalokea] I:  5.7  9.7 

BorlL'j  mcu! 1:    9.1  13.6 

Grffoml  coni  and  ofiU  equal  parts  1 :  10.0  14.S 

Pea  nesl 1:  3.2  6.0 

Kiftr  ncH) 1:  8.9  16.3 

Sejbtaa  nmal 1:  2.1  2.8 

Bf^niwti*  iMnijud  in  Mrious  in- 
dmilrif — 

Ghitvn  meal — 

BtfTslo 1:   3.2  4.6 

Chicago 1:    1.5  3.0 

Haranand 1:   2.8  4.0 

EinfC 1:    2.3  aS 

Cream  Ktaten  (recent  aitalyaea)  .  1:   1.7  8l3 

GhtM  fMd  (r*c«tit  aaalyMi)  .    .  1 :  3.3  5.0 

BsfTalo  (recmt  analyww)    .    .    .1:   '2J%  4.3 

Rw:ltford  (Diamond) 1:  3.1  4,9 

Hucniay  choiM 1:  9.1  11.9 

Mah-apnMrta 1:  £5  5.3 

fimrarv' gruiw  (mU 1:  3.1  2.':>.0 

Brvwcn'  grahu  (dried)  ....  1:   2.4  5.3 
DiiUl]ti7  graina  (dried),  piinci- 

paltycofB 1:   2.8  4.S 

Diitill<i7  grains  fdriiKl].  princi- 

tkally  rjo 1:   fi.5  9.fi 

Allaa  Kliit«B  f«e(l  fdiatillery  by- 

pn»doct> 1:   2.7  4,8 

Bf»  bru 1:  4.9  a7 

Wbtdrt.  bran  (all  aaalyBes)  ...  1:   4.0  8.3 

WbMt  middlmnH 1:  4.6  7.8 

WhMt  ahorOi 1:   4.8  8.2 

BHWhMtbran 1:    2.2  5.2 

BMkwhMt  niddliaKB 1:   2.3  4.5 

Cauoiseed  f en) 1:    t.8  10.4 

CotU>iiw«d  oMl 1:    1.2  2.7 

CaUoiwMd  holla 1:34.7  95.2 


Bp-produeti  obtained  in  mrienu  in- 
(iualritt,  confiniu'd— 

Liii8iH*il  mral  [old  [irocRus)  ...  1;  1,7  8.5 

Licfleed  nwal  (new  prureiMl   .   .  1:  1.5  3.3 

Sugar-bM't  pulp  (trashj  ....  1:11.3  158.7 

Sugar-lwet  pulp  (dry) 1:  9.S  14.7 

Sutfar-be«t  ]«ave« 1:  3.0  58.8 

Htff^t  mulnHHen I:  6.1  11.0 

Meat  scrap 1;  0.5  1.6 

DriL-l  blood I:  0.1  1.9 

yitk  and  ilt  /tp-prtuJiirfa— 

Whole  milk I:  3.9  29.S 

S)(lm.milk,  i-reAm  raised  by  »ct- 

tinn I;  2.1  a2.3 

f^kim-niilk,  creain  rnjited  by  tepa- 

rutflr 1'.  1.9  33.2 

Rnlt^milk 1:  2.1  35.5 

Whey 1:  9,3178.G 

i^iim  mary. 

The  fdllowinj;  rales  may  be  aptilied  by  any  one 
in  baluncinti;  fee<lK  tn  a  Hpecifie'l  niitritive  ratio; 

To  bttlancti  two  feedit  so  that  the  reMuUitig  mix- 
ture t^hall  liavv  a  ct:rtititi  riiitrJtivo  ratio,  it  ia 
esHontiiil  that  iti  the  first  of  thy  foeiis  the  wcond 
torm  of  the  nutritive  ratio  hi?  larger  than  that  of 
the  proposed  ration,  and  that  in  ttic  second  it  hi; 
smaller.  To  ajscertain  tho  relative  amounts  to  b« 
taken  to  balance  the  two  feed.-' : 

8ubtrii(Tt  Ihe  !uy;i)nil  term  of  the  jiropcttied  nutri- 
tive ratio  from  llie  wcond  term  of  the  nutritive 
ratio  of  the  first  ftwd,  and  multiply  the  differerce 
by  the  protL-in-fiiuating  factor  of  the  i«econd  feed  : 
the  product  will  be  the  relative  ainoant  of  the 
second  feed. 

Subtract  the  second  term  of  tho  nutritive  ratio 
of  the  aecond  feed  from  the  second  term  of  the 
proposed  nutritive  ratio,  and  multiply  the  differ- 
ence by  the  proteiti-^qoatinji  factor  for  the  first 
feed  ;  the  product  will  be  the  relative  amount  of 
the  first  feed. 

If  the  numbers  representins  the  relative  amounta 
be  ibdded  together,  and  each  number  divided  by 
their  aura,  the  quotients  will  be  numbers  represent- 
ing the  weight))  of  each  necessary  to  make  one 
pound  of  the  mixture;  and,  by  multiplying  these 
nuralwrs  by  the  weight  of  the  ration  to  he  com- 
pounded, the  amount  of  each  feed  to  be  weighed  is 
easily  calculated. 

It  is  obvious  that  calculating  rations  is  much 
facilitated  by  tables  which  show  the  nutritive 
ratios  and  protein-equating  factors  for  the  sev- 
eral feeds,  each  as  are  inserted  in  thi:^  article. 
Tables  have  been  calculated  showing  pairs  of 
feed.t  balanced  to  the  nutritive  ratiott  of  the  most 
important  rations. 

LiteraiuTt. 

The  reaiJer  should  consult  nulletin  No.  115.  of 
the  Kanww  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  for 
full  detail)*  of  thin  method.  In  that  btillt-tin,  exten- 
sive tables  of  balancinl  mixture-s  are  given,  as  well 
as  much  other  helpful  information. 


106 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


COMPUTING    BALANCLIU   RATIONS 

By  John  L.  Stone 

The  principles  of  nutrition  and  the  composition 
and  (liffeb'tibllity  of  feedini^r-t^tiiiiT;^  ure  diflcuased  and 
tabtitat«d  in  ptvceding  jmc?)*.  The  purpose  of  thiis 
article  is  to  indicate.'  a  prat-ticahle  method  hy  which 
busy  farmers  may  determine  approximately  how  to 
combine  the  rarious  nvailablo  food-stuffa  ao  as  b*J8t 
t«  meet  the  requirementrt  of  the  variiios  farm  ani- 
mals. It  is  well  understood  by  the  writer  that  the 
method  porsued  does  not  take  inU>  account  all  the 
recent  resutta  secured  by  invejttigatorsof  nutrition 
problems.  Id  re^rd  to  many  fueda  and  sotne  cUiflsea 
of  animals,  the  necessary  data  are  not  available  to 
enable  this  to  be  done.  ARsin,  the  necessity  of 
avoiding  complicated  computations,  which  the  busy 
or  unskilled  would  scarcely  undi-rtake,  leads  to  dis- 
regarding certain  factors  in  the  feeding  problem 
which,  though  important  from  the  scientist's  point- 
of-riew.  do  not  greatly  affect  results  aa  secured 
by  the  practical  feixlvr. 

There  are  questiona  besides  those  having  to  do 
with  the  nutrients  supplied  in  feeds,  such  as  pala- 
tability,  variety,  bulk  and  condiments  that,  perhaps, 
call  for  mention  in  this  connection. 

Palaiabiliin. 

This  subject  has  received  little  attention  at  the 
bands  of  expvrimentera.  In  fact,  palalability  may  be 
80  intimately  associated  with  otiier  qualities  of  feeds 
as  to  render  definite  experimentation  dilficult.  In 
the  case  of  persons,  w«  know  that  relish  for  given 
foods  has  much  to  do  with  their  nutritive  effect.  In 
some  cases  of  sicknesp,  a  chief  consideration  is  to 
find  foods  that  the  patient  will  relish  in  order  to 
nourish  and  build  hitn  up.  It  is  not  likely  that  the 
domeiitic  animals  are  as  suscei>tihle  to  palatnbility 
as  persons,  bat  this  quality  will  malt-Tially  alTtM^t 
the  completeness  of  consumption  and,  const?<(UL-ntly, 
the  percentage  of  waste.  It  will  also  afect  the 
amount  that  the  animal  will  eat,  and  when  extreme 
pro<luction  is  sought  this  is  a  vital  factor.  So  long 
as  thorough  assimilation  is  s^nred,  it  is  the  last 
pounds  consumed  that  prodnce  larjjeat  returns. 

Variety. 

This  is  closely  associated  with  palatahility. 
Many  practical  feeders  and  some  fxporimuntLTs 
have  pointed  out  that  animals  thrive  bettor  when 
receiving  several  kinds  of  fooii  rather  than  few, 
and  this  even  though  the  latter  may  supply  as 
much,  or  moru,  nutriunta  as  tlte  former.  The-  prob- 
able explanation  of  this  is  that  the  \-jiriety  :uldK  to 
palatability  and  that  thus  a  more  abundant  How  of 
Secretions  is  .""ocure*!.  which  leads  to  more  thorough 
dige-'ition  and  .tssimilalion.  At  any  rate,  experi- 
ence teaches  the  practical  feeder  that  it  pays  to 
givtt  attention  to  variety  and  to  palatability  to 
compounding  rations. 

Bulk. 

!n  most  casea,  if  the  total  dry  matter  is  kept 
within  allowable  limits  the  hulk  of  the  food  will 
talce  care  of  itaelf.    In  exoeptional  eases,  it  may 


need  looking  after.    .Alfalfa  hay  and  com  silage: 
may  be  combined  so  that  the  nutritivo  ratio  will! 
conform  to  the  standard  fur  a  dairy  cow  and  thai 
total  dry  matter  nut  be  very  excessive,  yet  bothi 
being  loaw,  porous  materiaH  the  hoik  wilt  be  such 
that  the  cow  cannot  consume  enough  nf  it  to  pro- 
vide for  highfst  production.  The  reverse  condition 
may  also  occur.   Both  should  be  avoiiled. 

Condimenit, 

Kumeroufl  condimental  foods  and  condition  pow*J 
ders  are  advertised  extensively  and  claims  madi 
that,  when  fed  in  small  amount^,  continuously,  they 
wondi-rfully  increase  production  of  milk  or  meat. 
The  basis  of  nearly  all  of  these  is  corn,  linseed  or 
cottonseed  meal  and  wheat  middlings.  Other  ingre- 
dients are  salt,  fenugreek,  gentian,  gingvr,  sulfate! 
of  iron  and  soda,  pepper,  arsenic,  potassium  iodid,.] 
sulfur,  iron  (as  Venetian  red,  for  color]  and  char- 
coal. 

The  effect  that  the.ie  substances  might  have  oa 
the  animal  system  may  be  classed  as  condimental. 
tonic  or  alterative.  In  case  of  illness,  one  or 
another  of  these  might  well  be  administered  forilB 
medicinal  effect,  but  there  is  nothing  to  show  chat 
the  normal  animal  will  be  caused  to  produce  morttj 
abundantly  by  their  use.  The  effect  of  their  con- 
tinued use  will  d(^|iend  on  the  amount  administered 
and  the  condition  of  the  animal.  A  stimotant  or 
tonic  action  on  an  organ  is  followed  by  a  reactton 
characterized  by  weakness  and  depression,  and 
when  carried  to  excess  results  in  congestion  and 
inHammation.  Numerous  experiments  have  failed 
to  aubiitantiate  the  claims  put  forth  by  the  vendors 
of  condimental  foods,  or  the  benefits  that  some 
feeders  have  fancied  they  derived  from  them. 

In  "Fooii  in  Health  and  Disease."  Yco  remark* 
conct'ming  condimental  foods,  "Many  of  these,  by 
conferring  agrueable  Aarors  and  by  their  warm,, 
carminative  properties  promote  appetite  and  aMl 
digestion ;  but  their  excessive  use  is  calculated  to' 
excite    irritation  and   disorder  of    the  digestive 
org;inB.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  when  tonic 
foods  or  condition  powders  appear  to  be  neceasary. 
they  can  be  dispensed  with,  and  usually  to  the 
advantage  of  the  animal.    Any  real  or  apparent 
diseased  condition  that  can  be  cured  by  the  admin- 
istration of  an  indincnminate  mixture  of  drugs  caaj 
ordinarily   be   relieved    with   l«ss  danger  to   th«] 
patient  by  the  adoption  of  a  rational  system  ofl 
treatment  and  feeding.  In  those  instances  in  which 
drugs  are  nec&ssary,  it  is  far  better  to  employ  ona 
or  more,  adaptt-d  to  the  treatment  of  the  particular 
ailment,  than  to  attempt  a  cure  by  the  administra- 
tion of  a  "shot-gun"  mixtnre.  in  the  form  of  a 
patent  food  or  condition  powder.   In  the  end,  such 
specific  treatment  is  infinitely  lass  expensive,  lea 
dangerous  and  more  satisfactory." 

Nvfrifhx  ratio. 

Since  the  protein  on  the  one  hand  and  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fat  on  the  other,  serve,  in  the  main, 
different    purposes    in    the  animal    economy,    it 
become«  evident  that  the  relative  amoant^i  of  xhtm< 
nutrients  in  the  food  are  important.  This  relatioB.J 


OOHPCTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


bexpreand  tathe  "nutritire  ratio,"  which  means 
tbe  relation  of  digeatilik*  (irotein  in  di^titilkte  car- 
bohydrates and  fat  -the  fat  haviiiK  bwn  niuUtj)lie(i 
by  two  and  one-fourth  b«tfore  adding  to  th«  rarlio- 
bydRite.<«,  for  reasorui  esplitiiied  in  Dr.  Armsby's 
j^kle.  The  nutritive  ratio  in  found  by  dividing 
the  carbohydratea,  plos  two  and  one-fourth  times 
tbe  f»t,  by  the  protc'tn.  In  the  accompanying  table 
tbe  anm  of  the  carboh>'draU-R  and  fat,  thus  obtainied, 
tfl  given  in  the  third  cultimn,  which,  dividt'd  by 
tbe  protein  m  given  in  Ihi?  second  column,  jiWes 
the  Accond  term  of  the  nutritivtj  ratio  in  tbu  fifth 
column. 

A  feeding-«tufr  having  a  larti:e  proportion  of 
carbohydrat«s  and  fat  as  compared  to  protvin  is 
said  to  have  o  "wide"  nutritive  ratio,  while  one 
hiving  a  small  proportion  of  carbohydrates  and  fat 
as  compared  to  protein  haa  a  "narrow"  ratio. 
White  these  terms  are  relative,  it  may  )h>  said  that 
a  ratio  greater  thun  1:6  in  widt?,  while  one  le»a 
than  1:5  is  narrow.  The  composition  of  feeding- 
atuffs,  that  is,  the  proportion  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent nalricnta  occur,  is  determined  by  chemical 
analyxis,  hut  the  amonnt  of  each  nutric-nt  thnt  is 
actniilty  diKe.'<tihle  has  been  determined  by  care- 
ful experiments  with  living  animalji.  Only  the 
digestible  nutrients  aru  considered  in  the  lable:s 
given  in  this  article. 

Fitding  ttatulards. 

Tbe  amount  of  natrlents  required  and  the  propor- 
tiona  in  which  each  nhotitd  be  given,  varies  with 
tbe  kind  of  animal  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
kept :  whether  it  i»  growing,  being  fattennl,  doing 
work,  or  prodocing  milk  or  wooL  Thus,  an  ox  at 
rest  r«<itiires  k-sit  food  and  the  various  nutrients  in 
different  proportions  than  an  ox  at  work  ;  a  cow 
producing  a  large  flow  of  milk  rwjaires  more  food 
and  the  nntrients  differently  biLlnncetl  than  one 
producing  less,  or  not  producing. 

Various  investigators  have  condensed  the  results 
of  many  exporimenta  and  much  practical  experi- 
ence into  what  are  called  "feeding  standards," 
which  attempt  to  state  what  in  general,  and  under 
average  conditions,  is  a  good  ration  for  the  purpose 


in  view.  While  thew  standards  cannot  be  con* 
sidered  as  mathematically  exact,  still  the  large 
number  of  pra*jtical  feeders  who  testify  to  secur- 
ing bettHr  results  after  approximating  rations  to 
the  atandanls  ia  warrant  for  continuing  the  use  of 
this  method  till  more  sciontiiic  methods  arc  worked 
out  in  simple  form. 

In  Ifif^e  I.  under  the  title  of  "  feeding  standards, " 
are  given  the  approximate  requirements  of  various 
classes  vt  animal»  and  tindttr  varying  condiLi(*ns. 
Thpjie  Htandar4!s  nrv  mowtly  frum  Gerinao  sour'W), 
but  thoy  have  been  found  very  bL-lpful  to  American 
feederfi.  The  standards  oro  for  animals  of  1,000 
pounds  live  weight,  and  may  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished for  larger  or  smaller  animals,  though  it  is 
probable  that  tbe  individuality  ot  the  animal,  its 
power  to  assimilate  and  proiJure,  will  have  more  to 
do  with  the  varying  of  the  ration  than  iln  weight. 
It  is  premi.ssiblu,  [mrhapa,  to  depart  from  the 
umounta  given  in  the  lirst  column  under  the  head 
of  "  dry  matter,"  more  than  in  any  other  way.  The 
dtgcstivo  apparatus  of  farm  animals  is  elastic  and 
accommodates  itself  very  rea<tiiy  to  the  var>'i;ig 
bulk  of  its  food.  In  the  last  column  is  given  tho 
nutritive  ratio,  which,  jjerhaiw,  should  be  adhered 
to  with  some  care,  trusting  to  the  appt-tite  of  the 
animal  (which  will  bo  controlled  largely  by  its 
power  of  digesting  and  prtwiucing)  to  indicate  the 
amount  of  nutrients  retjuired.  As  a  rule,  the  most 
rapid  fattening  or  growth  and  abundant  production 
are  most  economical,  and  thei)e  results  are  best 
secured  hy  feeding  an  abundant  and  well-balanced 
ration  (well  up  to  thb  limit  of  the  animal's  appctit*.-), 
while  the  dry  matter  is  not  pormitteil  to  rise  much 
above  the  standard. 

These  standards  pre-suppose  comfortable  stables 
for  the  animals  during  cold  weather.  If  the  stablea 
are  not  comftirtabie,  make  them  so  if  ponsible  ;  tut 
if  the  animals  must  i>e  ei]KWed  t*>  cold  either  in- 
doors or  out,  it  will  be  well  to  increase  the  amount 
of  carbohydrates  in  the  rations.  On  tho  other  hand, 
if  tbe  stables  are  so  constructed  that  tbe  tempera- 
ture never  falls  below  32"  Fabr.,  a  ration  even  nar- 
rower than  that  given  in  the  standanLs  may  be  fed 
to  advantage. 


Tablk  1.— Kekding  Standards. 
A. — Per  day  and  l.OOfl  poundt  live  vtfight* 


(hn  *t  r«at  hi  tbe  stall 
Wool  abaep,  ooaner  braeds  . 
Wobl  akwp,  finer  brteJs  .  . 
Om  nwdcrately  worked 
OxM  bMtvily  woii«<j  .  .  .  . 
BonM  lightly  worked  .  .  . 
Ronei  iw>dirat«ly  worked  . 
BotMt  bBmly  workad  .  .  . 
Hibh  fowi.  WolfTi  Ktandard 


[HrMllbl* 

DiT 

Buttier 

PtoMln 

Uarbolir- 
dnlM 
■ndtM 

ToUl 

Nutrltiv* 

Ftiimda 

PaiiDdt 

Foaitils 

Founita 

17.5 

0,7 

8-3 

&.0 

1:11.9 

•MS 

1.2 

IH.S 

12.0 

IrU.O 

22  o 

1.5 

12,0 

13,0 

ISO 

24.0 

1.0 

12.0 

i:i.o 

l:7.rt 

20.0 

2.4 

14  3 

ift." 

IflO 

20.0 

1.5 

lO.-i 

U.9 

1:0.9 

21.0 

1.7 

ll.« 

13.5 

1:6  0 

23j0 

2.3 

11.3 

lO.U 

1:0.2 

24.0 

2.5 

13.4 

15.9 

1:5.4 

*TW  fBitMiIng  mioDt  ■(*  rmkalMrd  for  I.OM  poaadc.  Hv«  w*ltht.  at  tha  bpslntilDB  of  iho  fatlralng. 


108 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


Table  I.— Feeding  Standaedb,  coatinned 
A. — Per  day  and  1,000  poundt  live  weighi*  continued 


Milch  cows,  when  yielding  daily — 

11      pounds  milk 

16.6  ponnda  milk 

22.0  pounds  milk 

27.5  pounds  milk 

Fattening  oxen,  preliminary  period  . 
Fattening  oxen,  main  period .... 
Fattening  oxen,  finishing  period  .  . 
Fattening  sheep,  preliminary  period. 
Fattening  sheep,  main  period  .  .  . 
Fattening  swine,  preliminary  period 
Fattening  ewine,  main  period  .  .  . 
Fattening  swine,  finishing  period  .  . 
Growing  cattle : 

Attragr  Hvf  ueigM 
Age  Imontht),  pfr  head. 

2-3  150  lbs.  .    . 

3-6  300  lbs.  .   . 

6-12  500  lbs.  .  . 

12-18  700  lbs.  .  . 

18-24  850  lbs.  .  . 

Growing  sheep: 

5-6  56  Ibe.  .   . 

6-8  67  Ibfl.  .  . 

8-11  75  lbs.  .  . 

11-15  82  lbs.  .  . 

15-50  85  lbs.  .  . 

Growing  fat  pigs : 

2-3  50  lbs.  .  . 
3-5  100  lbs.  .  . 
5-6  125  lbs.  .  . 
6-8  170  lbs.  .  . 
8-12        250  lbs.  .  . 


Dry 
matter 


DicHtibls 


Poaudi 
25.0 
27.0 
29.0 
32.0 
27.0 
20 .0 
25.0 
20 .0 
25.0 
36.0 
31.0 
23.5 


22.0 
23.4 
24.0 
24.0 
24,0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22  5 
22.0 

42.0 
34.0 
31.5 
27.0 
21.0 


Protein 


Founds 

1.6 

2.0 

2.5 

3.3 

2.5 

3.0 

2.7 

3.0 

3.5 

5.0 

4.0 

2.7 


4.0 
3.2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 

3.2 
2.7 
2.1 
1.7 
1.4 

7.5 
5.0 
4.3 
3.4 
2.5 


CMbo  hy- 
drate* 
and  fat 


Poundt 
10.7 
11.9 
14.1 
14.8 
16.1 
16.4 
16.2 
16.3 
15.8 
27.5 
24.0 
17.5 


18.3 
15.8 
14.9 
13.9 
12.7 

17.4 
14.7 
12.5 
11.8 
11.1 

30.0 
25.0 
23.7 
20.4 
16.2 


Tot»l 


Pound* 

12.3 
13.9 
16.e 
18.1 
18.6 
19.4 
18.9 
19.3 
19.3 
32.5 
28.0 
20.2 


22-3 
19.0 
17.4 
15.9 
14.3 

20.6 
17.4 

14.6 
13.5 
12.5 

37.5 
30.0 
28.0 
23.8 
18.7 


KutritlTB 
ratio 


1:6.7 
1:6.0 
J:  5.7 
1:4.5 
1:0.4 
1 : 5.5 
1:6.0 
1:5.4 
1:4.5 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 


1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:4.0 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 


B. — Per  day  and  per  head 


Growing  cattle: 

2-3 

3-6 

6-12 
12-18 
18-24 
Growing  sheep: 

5-6 

6-8 

8-11 

11-15 

15-20 

Growing  fat  swine  : 

2-3 

3-5 

5-6 

6-8 

8-12 


1.50  lbs. 
300  lbs. 
500  lbs. 
700  lbs. 
850  lbs. 

56  lbs. 
67  lbs. 
75  lbs. 
82  lbs. 

85  118. 

50  lbs. 
100  lbs. 
125  lbs. 
170  lbs. 
250  lbs. 


Dry 
matter 


Pounds 

3.3 

7.0 

12.0 

16.8 

20.4 

1.6 
1.7 
1.7 

1.8 
1.9 

2.1 
3.4 
3.9 
4.6 
5.2 


DlKeKtihle 


Protein 


Pounds 

0.6 

1.0 

1.3 

1.4 

1.4 

0.18 
0.18 
0.16 
0.14 
0.12 

0.38 
0.50 
0.54 
0.58 
0.62 


Carbohy- 
dntea 
and  fat 


Pounds 
2.8 
4.9 
7.5 
9.7 
11.1 

0.974 
0.981 
0.953 
0.975 
0.955 

1.50 

2.50 
2.96 
3.47 
4.05 


Total 


Pounds 

3.4 

5.9 

8.8 
11.1 
12.5 

1.154 
1.161 
1.113 
1.115 
1.075 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4.05 
4.67 


Nnrrltive 
ratio 


1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1 :5.4 

1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:4.0 
1 :5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1-6.5 


*  The  fattenlni  rations  are  calculated  for  1,000  pounds,  live  weight,  at  the  becinalni  of  the  fattening. 


COMPUTING   BALANCED    RATIOKS 


109 


Talk  II  gites  a  list  of  the  feedinK-«^iiIft4  in  most 
common  osu,  r<ilumn  one  i«  ht-aiiwl  "dry  matter "'; 
colnmn  two,  "dipt-istiblf!  protein";  column  three, 
"iligestiblu  carlioh  yd  rates  -  (falX-i)";  coUimn 
four,  "  total "  I  which  Ik  th«  Mim  iif  two  iind  thnw) ; 
column  fivtt,  "notritivi;  raliLi."  hi  each  uf  thesy 
columnn  is  Kiv«ii  tho  LMmimtutiim  of  tlie  various 
foodtttulTi'  from  ono  jioucwl  ii[i  tu  Ihv  amount  that 
ia  likely  to  be  uwd  in  wiminmndinn  any  ration.  In 
the  case  or  the  eoarse  fuddyrw,  to  aavc  ajmee,  th* 
iDcreaw  biaade  by  more  than  niK<  pound  ut  a  time. 
but  tnteimedtate  nmoant^  can  roa<lily  be  obtained 
fn>m  the  table  if  desirwi.  In  no  caso  are  the  calcui- 
latiuna  for  ten  pO'Undn  of  a  feeding-stulf  given,  aa 


thene  e»n  he  obitained  at  once  from  the  Saunas  for 
one  [loiind,  Aimpty  l>y  moving  the  decimal  point  one 
place  Co  the  ripht. 

Th(fSL>  compuLfitiuiiA  are  biuied  on  tho  tabic  of 
".■VviraKe  DigerttiblH  XutrieritM  in  .American  Feed- 
in  g-Stuffn,"  Riven  on  paRen  9*1-99,  ailapted  from 
Henry's  "  ruL-dit  and  Tix-dinK-"  The  aim  haa  Iteen 
tu  carry  the  coiii]iutations  involvud  in  fiirinuhitinj; 
rations  as  near  contidetion  as  poi^ible.  and  io  pre- 
sent the  fijfiires  in  wiich  simple  form  that  no  feeder 
will  have  difficulty  in  comparing  the  ration  he  is 
fep(]ing  with  Ihe  sUindiinlK  and  cnrrectinp  it,  if 
nocfwaary,  to  tronforni  thfreU).  A  little  time  and 
Lhout^ht  may  bt-  thti«  invmUxl  tci  lulvantnge. 


Tabu  TI.— DiCEartBU  Noteknts  d*  the  Stated  AMnir^;r3  of 

THiv  Mofir 

COUIIOK   PKSDINfrnUPFS. 

ToUl  diT 

mil  Its  r 

Fonnil*  o(  <lla«Btlti1«  nutrltnta 

Kind  and  amoanl  or  f«Ml 

Pr9t«la 

Curlinhy. 

ToUI 

Kntriilv* 
railo 

S^Ung  foddrr— 

.20 
1.00 

:i.oo 

.010 
.OJW 

.KW 
.21)0 
.250 
.TOO 
.350 
.430 

.018 
.000 
.270 

.3' 10 
.430 
MO 
.630 
.720 

.017 

.029 
.145 
.435 
.580 
725 
.870 
1.015 
1.160 

.03S 

105 

.586 

.780 

.975 

1.170 

1.36S 

1.560 

.020 
,100 
..■300 
.400 

.(100 
.700 
iiOO 

.125 
.625 
1.875 
2..'Wa 
3.125 
3  750 
4.376 
5.000 

.076 

.380 

1,140 

1  520 
1.900 

2  280 
2.660 
3.040 

.077 

.164 
.820 
2  460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
fi.740 
6.560 

.138 
.090 
2.070 
2,760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.8.30 
5.520 

.169 

845 
2.535 

.-{ -ifsa 

4.225 
5.071) 
5,915 
6.760 

.135 

.675 
2,025 
2.700 
3.375 
1.0.V) 
4.725 
5.400 

.470 
1.410 
I.K80 
2.350 

2.820 
3.290 
3.700 

.094 

.193 
.965 
2.895 
3.860 
4.825 
5.700 
6.755 
7.720 

.177 
.885 
2.655 
3,540 
4.425 
5.310 

7.080 

.189 
.{MS 

2.835 
3.780 
4.725 
5,670 
6.615 
7.560 

1 : 12.5 

"        5  lbs 

"       IB  " 

■•      20  " 

.5.00 

"          "       25  "    

0.00 
7.00 
8.00 

.16 

.80 

2.10 

4.UU 
4.80 
S.60 
6.40 

.16 

.29 
1.45 

4^; 

5,S0 
7.25 
S.70 

"      3S  " 

"          "       40  " 

1:4.2 

6  iba. 

"               15  "      

"              20  "      

"             25''     

"             SO  "      

"             86  "      

"             40  "      

1:4.5 

Red  cloTer,     1  Ih 

5  IW. 

1:5.6 

!fi  "      

"        "        20  "     

25  •■      

30  '• 

as  -    

10.15 

11.60 

.28 
1.40 

4.20 
5.90 
7.00 
8.40 
9.R0 
1 1.20 

.29 

1,4.'; 

4. .'15 
5.S0 
7.25 
8.70 
10.15 
11.60 

"        "        40  " 

AIf»lfa,     Mb 

I:;j.S 

15  " 

20  " 

26  " 

30  " 

S6  " 

40  '* 

l:«t.4 

"           "        Ifi  " 

•*         ••       ao " 

*•           "       26  " 

••           -       30  " 

"           "       85  "    

"           ••       40* 

no 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


Table  II.— Digestible  NimtiBNTs  in  the  Stated  Auochts  of  the  More  Cohiion  FEEDiiiG«iiFra,  emtiiiiied. 


Kind  and  Hmaniit  of  («ed 


Soiiing  fodder,  continued- 
Corn  ailage,    1  lb.    .  . 
5  lbs.  .  . 


15  " 

20  * 

25  " 

30  " 

35  ■' 

40  " 

45  ■' 

50  ■' 


Roott  and  tvbtrt 


Potatoes, 


I  lb. 

5  lbs. 
15  ■' 
20  " 
25  " 


Beett  mangel,     1  lb. 

5  Ib8. 

15   '■ 

"  "        20  " 

25  " 

30  " 


Beet,  Hngar-, 


1  lb. 

5  lbs. 
16  •■ 
20  " 
25  " 
30  '• 


Carrot, 


lib. 

5  lbs. 
15  " 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 


Flat  turnip,  1  lb. 
5  Iba. 
15  " 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 

Bay  and  *fraw — 
Timothy,     1  lb.  .    . 


31b8. 

5  ■'  . 

7  "  . 

8  "  . 

9  "  . 
12  "  . 
15  "  . 
18  "  . 
20  "  , 


Mixed  grasses  and  clover, 


1  lb. 
3  lbs. 
5  " 
7  " 
8" 
9  " 


Tnlkl  Atj 
matt«r 


.21 
1.05 
3.15 
420 
523 
6.30 
735 
8.40 
0.45 
1050 


.21 
1.05 
3.16 
4.20 
5.25 

.09 

.45 

135 

1.80 
2.25 

2.70 

.13 

65 
1.95 
2.00 
325 
390 

.11 
.55 
1.05 
2.20 
2.75 
3.30 

.10 
.60 
1.60 
200 
2.50 
3.00 


.87 

2.61 

435 

6.09 

6.96 

7.83 

10.44 

13.05 

15.66 

17.40 

.87 
2.61 
4.35 
6.09 
6.96 
7.83 


Ponndt  of  dtiestlbls  nntHt-at* 


Protein 


.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 
.270 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.450 


.009 
.045 
.135 
.180 
.225 

.Oil 
.055 
.165 
.220 
275 
.330 

.011 

.055 
.166 
.220 
.275 
.330 

.008 
.040 
.120 
.100 
.200 
240 

.010 
.050 
.150 
.200 
.250 
.300 


.028 
.084 
.140 
.196 
.224 
.252 
.336 
.420 
.504 
.560 

.062 
.186 
.310 
.434 
.496 
.658 


Ckrbobr- 

dnrte^+ 

(fMX2  25) 


.129 

.645 

1.935 

2.580 

3.225 

3  870 

4  515 
5.160 

5  805 
6.450 


.165 

.826 
2.475 
3.300 
4.125 

.056 

.280 

.840 

1.120 

1.400 

1.680 

.104 
.520 
1.560 
2080 
2.600 
3.120 

082 
.410 
1.230 
1.640 
2.050 
2460 

.077 

.385 

1.155 

1.540 

1.925 
2.310 


.465 

1.395 
2^25 
3.255 
3.720 
4.186 
5580 
6.975 
8.370 
9.300 

.460 
1.381 
2.300 
3.220 
3.680 
4.140 


.138 
.690 
2.070 
2.760 
3.450 
4.140 
4.830 
5.520 
6.210 
6.900 


.174 

.870 

2.610 

3.480 

4.350 

.067 
.335 
1.005 
1.340 
1.675 
2  010 

.115 
.575 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 

.090 

.450 

1.305 

1.800 
2  250 
2.700 

.087 
.436 
1.350 
1.740 
2.175 
2.610 


.493 
1.479 
2.465 
3.451 
3.944 
4.437 
6.916 
7.395 
8.874 
9.860 

.522 
1.666 
2.610 
3.654 
4.176 
4.698 


KntritK* 
nilo 


1:143 


1:18.3 


1:5.1 


1:9.4 


1 ;  10.3 


1:7.7 


1:16.6 


1:7.4 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS  111 

Tabu  n. — Digbshbu  Niitkients  in  the  Stated  Ahounts  op  the  More  Common  Feeding-stuffs,  coatinned. 


Kind  ktid  ftmonnt  of  fMd 


Ha]f  and  ttraw,  continaed — 
Mixed  grasMfl  and  clover,  12  Ibe. 
15  " 
18  " 
20  " 


BotiKarian  hay. 


lib. 
3  lbs. 
5  " 
7  " 
8" 
9  " 
12  " 


Red  clover 


lib.  . 
3  lbs. 
5  "    . 
7"    . 

8  "    . 

9  ■'  . 
12  "  . 
15  '•  . 
18  •'  . 
20  "    . 


Alfalfa  hay. 


lib.  . 
3  lbs. 

6  "    . 

7  **    . 

8  "    , 

9  "  . 
12  "  , 
15  "  . 
18  "  . 
20  "    . 


Corn  fodder. 


1  lb.  . 

5  lbs. 

8"  , 

12  "  , 

16  "  , 

18"  . 

20  "  . 


Com   atovflr. 


lib.  . 

6  lbs. 

8  "  . 

12  "  . 

15  ■•  . 

18  "  . 

20  ••  . 


Pes-vine-Btraw,      1  lb. 

3  Ibi. 

5  " 

8  " 

«         •<        J2  " 

15  " 


Bean-atraw, 


lib. 
21ba. 
8  " 
*  " 
5  " 
7  " 


I     Pounds  of  dis«ttibl«  natrieDts 


Total  drj 
matter 


.92 
2.76 
4.G0 
G.44 
7.36 
8.28 
11.04 

.85 
2.55 
4.25 
5.95 

6.80 
7.65 
10.20 
12.75 
15.30 
17.00 

.92 

276 

4. GO 

6.44 

7.36 

8.28 

11.04 

12.80 

16.56 

1S.40 

.58 
2.90 
4.64 
6.96 
8.70 
10.44 
11.60 

.60 

3.00 
4.80 
7.20 
9.00 
10.80 
12.00 

.86 

2.58 

4.30 

6.88 

10.32 

12.90 

.95 
1.90 
2.85 
3.80 
4.75 
6.65 


I  Carbohy- 
Protein         dr«le«+ 
'  (f*tX2,25) 


Total 


10.44 

.744 

5.520 

6.264 

13.05 

.930 

6.900 

7.830 

15.66 

1.110 

8.280 

9.396 

17.40 

1.240 

9.200 

i  10.440 

.045 

.135 
.225 
.315 
.360 
.405 
.540 

.068 

.204 

.340 

.476 

.544 

.612 

.816 

1.020 

1.224 

1.360 

.110 

.330 

.550 

.770 

.880 

.990 

1.320 

1.650 

1.980 

2.200 

.025 
.125 
.200 
.300 
.375 
.450 
.500 

.017 
.085 

.136 
.204 
.255 
.306 
.340 

.043 
.129 
.215 
.344 
.516 
.645 

.036 
.072 
.108 
.144 

.180 
.252 


.546 

1.638 
2.730 
3.822 
4.368 
4.914 
6.552 

.396 
1.18S 
1.980 
2.772 
3.168 
3.564 
4.752 
5.940 
7.128 
7.920 

.423 

1.269 
2.115 

2.961 
3.384 
3.807 
5.076 
6.345 
7.614 
8.460 

.373 

1.865 
2.984 
4.476 
5.595 
6.714 
7.460 

.340 
1.720 

2.720 
4.080 
5.160 
6.120 
6.880 

.341 
1.023 
1.705 
2.728 
4.092 
5.115 

.397 
.794 
1.191 
1.588 
1.985 
2.779 


.591 
1.773 
2.955 
4.137 
4.728 
5.319 
7.092 

.464 
1.392 
2.320 

3.248 
3.712 
4.176 
5.568 
6.960 
8.352 
9.280 

.533 

1.599 
2.665 
3.731 
4.264 
4.797 
6.396 
7.995 
9.594 
10  660 

.398 
1.990 
3.184 
4.776 
5.970 
7.164 
7.960 

.357 

1.805 
2.856 
4.284 
5.415 
6.426 
7.220 

.384 
1.152 
1.920 
3.072 
4.608 
2.700 

.433 
.866 
1.209 
1.732 
2.165 
3.031 


NntritWe 
ratio 


1:12.1 


1:5.8 


1:3.8 


1:14.9 


1:19.9 


1:7.9 


!    1:11.0 


112 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


Table  II. — Digestible  Ndtribnts  in  the  Stated  Amounts  op  the  More  Cohhon  Feedim 

s-smrFS,  continued. 

Total  dry 
mutter 

Found*  of  dlgeitible  nntrients 

Kind  knd  amooDt  of  feed 

Protein 

.324 
.432 

.004 
.012 
.020 
.032 
.048 
.060 

.012 
.036 
.060 
.096 
.144 
.180 

.079 
.158 
.237 
.316 
.395 
.474 
.553 
.632 
.711 

.102 
.204 
.306 
.408 
.510 
.612 

.099 
.198 
.297 
.396 
.495 
.594 

.087 
.174 
.261 
.348 
.435 
.522 

.092 

Cu-bohy- 

dr*tea+ 

(f»tX3.25) 

Tolkl 

Nutritive 
ntlo 

Hay  and  ttraw,  continued — 

8.55 
11.40 

.90 

2.70 

4.50 

7.20 

10.80 

13.50 

.91 

2.73 

4.55 

7.28 

10.92 

13.65 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
8.01 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3.56 
4.45 
5.34 
6.23 
7.12 
S.Ol 
10.68 
13.35 

.87 
1.74 
2.61 

3.573 
4.764 

.372 
1.016 
1.860 
2.976 
4.064 
5.580 

.404 
1.212 
2.020 
3.232 
4.848 
6.060 

.764 

1.528 
2.292 
3.056 
3.820 
4.584 
5.348 
6.112 
6.876 

.730 
1.460 
2.190 
2.920 
3.660 
4.380 

.700 
1.400 
2.100 
2.800 
3.S00 
4.200 

.692 
1.384 
2.076 
2.768 
3.460 
4.152 

3.897 
5.196 

.376 
1.128 
1.880 
3.008 
4.512 
5.640 

.416 
1.248 
2.080 
3.328 
4.992 
6.240 

.843 
1.686 
2.529 
3.372 
4.215 
5.058 
4.901 
6.744 
7.587 

.832 
1.664 
2.496 
3.328 
4.160 
4.992 

.799 
1.598 
2.397 
3.196 
3.995 
4.794 

.779 
1.558 
2.337 
3.116 
3.895 
4.674 

.660 
1.320 
1.980 
2.640 
3.300 
3.960 
4.620 
5.280 
5.940 
7.920 
9.900 

.610 
1.220 
1.830 

12  '*      

1:93 

3  Iba. 

5  " 

•*               8  " 

"             12  •* 

"              16   " 

1:33.6 

"           3  lbs 

•'           5  " 

"           8  " 

12  " 

15   " 

Grain — 

1:9.7 

"           2  lbs 

3  ■' 

4  " 

5 ":::..:::.... : 

.  "           6  " 

"            7   " 

"              H    '• 

9   " 

1:7.2 

"        2  lbs 

"        3  " 

"        4  " 

5   " 

6  " 

Bye     1  tb   .          ...              

1:7.1 

2  Iba 

3  " 

4   " 

5   " 

"      6  " 

1:7.9 

2  lbs 

3    " 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 

Oatfl     1  lb 

1:6.2 

"         2  lbs 

.184     1     1.136 
.276     '     1.704 
.368          2.272 
.460          2.840 
.552         3.408 
.644         3.976 
.736     ,     4.544 
.828     :     5.112 
1.104     '     6.816 

1.380     ,     8.520 

1 

.077           .533 
.154         1.066 
.231          1  .ISO 

"        3   ■' 

4   "      

5   "      

6   "      

7  " 

8  " 

9  " 

11      jij  >• 

"       16   *•      

1:6.9 

2  IbB 

"           3  ■' 

COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS  113 

Tabue  II. — D1GB8TIBLB  Nutrients  in  the  Stated  Ahodnts  op  thi  Mobb  Cohhoh  FBEDlNG-srurPS,  contiimed. 


Kind  and  amonnt  of  faed 

Total  drr 
matter 

Pound!  of  disMtlble  natri«nta 

Carbotajr- 

Protein         drat«a-t-           Total 

(fatX2.25) 

NntriUT* 
ratio 

Grain,  con 
Bockvhe 

Peao,  1 

"       2  1 
"       3 
■■       4 
"      5 
"      6 
"      7 
"      8 
"      9 

MUl  prodv 

Corn-anc 
it 

•1 

41 

a 
•« 

it 
•I 
•1 

u 

Wheat  b 

tinned — 

at,   4  lbs 

3.48 
4.35 
5.22 
0.09 
6.96 
7.83 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.85 
1.70 
2.55 
3.40 
4.25 
5,10 
5.95 
6.80 
7.65 
10.20 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.88 
1.76 
2,64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
0.30 
7.20 
8.10 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 

[ 

.308     1    2,132 
.385     !     2.005 
.402     :     3.198 
.539     1     3.731 
.610     '     4.264 
.693         4.797 

.168           .534 

.330     1     1.068 

.504         1.602 

.672     [     2.136 

.840          2.670 

1.008     :     3.204 

1.176         3.738 

1.344          4.272 

2.440 

3.050 
3.660 
4.270 
4.880 
5.490 

.702 
1.404 

2.106 
2.808 
3,510 
4.212 
4.914 
5.616 
6.318 

.709 
1.418 
2.127 
2,836 
3.545 
4  254 
4.963 
5.672 
6.381 
8.508 

.575 

1.150 
1.725 
2.300 
2.875 
3.450 
4.025 
4.600 
5.175 

.735 
1.470 
2,205 
2.940 
3.675 
4.410 
5.145 
5.880 
0,615 

.793 
1.586 
2.379 
3.172 
3.965 
4,758 
5.551 
6,»44 
7.137 

.729 
1.458 
2.187 
2.910 
3.645 

6  •* 

7  •' 

8  " 

9  " 

1.3.2 

be 

■1 

tf 

tt 

at 

« 

tl 

X 

1.512 

.044 

.088 

4.806 

.665 
1.330 

eU~ 

1:15.1 

2  lb« 

3  " 

.132     :     1.995 
.176     1     2.660 
.220         3.325 
.264          3.990 
.308          4.655 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 

7  " 

8  '■ 

.352 
.396 
.528 

.122 
.244 

.366 
.488 
.610 
.732 
.854 
.976 
1.098 

.128 
.250 
.384 

5.320 
5.985 
7.980 

.453 

.906 
1.359 
1.812 
2.205 
2.718 
3.171 
3.624 
4.077 

.007 
1.214 
1.821 

9  " 

"      12  " 

1:3.7 

2  lb«. 

" 

8  " 

tt 

4  "     

u 

5  " 

u 

6  "     

it 

(         T    " 

44 

•        8  "     

Wheat  t 

•        9  "        

"           2  Iba. 

1:4.7 

4i 
tt 
tl 
U 
U 

M 

Dark  fee 

tt 
*■ 

Low  grm 

II        1 

tt        1 
tl        1 

3  " 

4  "     

.512     1     2.428 
.640          3.035 
.768          3.642 
.896          4.249 
1.024          4.856 
1.152          5.463 

.1.35     '       .058 
.270          1.316 
.405          1.974 
,540          2.032 
.675          3.290 
.810          3.948 
.945          4.000 
1.080          5.204 

1.215          5.922 

1 

.082     1       .047 
.164          1.294 
.246          1.941 
.328          2.588 
.410          3.235 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

"           9  "        . 

1:4.9 

"      2  lb« 

"      3  " 

"      4  •' 

"      5  " 

"     6  " 

A                    t4           rv      U 

"      8  " 

"      9  " 

1:7.9 

"      2  Iba.     

"      3  " 

11      ^  It 

"      5  " 

C8 


114 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


Table  n.— Digestible  Nutbibnts  in  the  Stated  Ahodnts  op  toe  Mobe  Cohhon  Feeding-8TD?fs,  continoed. 


Kind  knd  ftnumnt  of  f«ad 


Milk  prodv^t,  contiDoed — 
Low  grsde  flour,  6  lbs. 

H  4*  If  m      ■• 

If  II  41  ii     ^ 

H  U  II  Q      41 


Rjre 


braD,  I 
2 
3 
4 

5 
6 

7 


lb. 
lbs. 


Bvckwheat  bran,  1  )b. 

"  2  lbs. 

•'  3   " 

"  5  " 

...  6   ■. 

..  ..  8  .. 

"  9  " 


Buckwheat  middlings,  1  lb. 
2  lbs. 
"  •'  3   '■ 

4   -• 

"  5  " 

..  ..  6  ■' 

7  " 

"  "  8  " 

"  "  9  " 

Bs-prvduet$ — 

Halt-eproute,  1  lb.     ... 
2  1b6.   .   .    . 


Brewers'  grains,  wet. 


1  lb. 

2  liis. 

3  " 


C 

7 

8 

9 

11 

12 

15 


Brewers'  grains,  dry, 


1  lb. 

2  lbs. 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 


Total  diT 
mtttut 


5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.88 
1.7G 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5.28 
6.16 
7.04 
7.92 

.CO 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 
8.10 


,87 
.74 
.61 
.48 
,35 
,22 
.09 
,96 
,83 


,90 
SO 
,70 
,60 
,50 
,40 
.30 
20 
,10 


Found!  of  dlseatlblo  nntrlenti 


.24  1 

.48 

.72  , 

.% 

1.20  ' 

1.44  , 
1.68 

1.92  , 

2.16  : 

2.64  ' 

2.88  I 

3.60 

I 

.92 

1.84  ' 

2.76  I 

3.68  j 

4.60  1 


Prateln 


.492 
.574 
.656 
.738 

.115 

.230 
.345 
.460 
.575 
.690 
.805 
.920 
1.035 

.074 
.148 
.222 
.296 
.370 
.444 
.518 
.592 
.666 

.220 

.440 

.660 

.880 

l.IOO 

1.320 

1.540 

1.760 

1.980 


.186 

-372 

.558 

.744 

.930 

1.116 

l.:i02 

1.488 

1.674 

.039 
,078 
.117 
.156 
.195 
.234 
.273 
.312 
.351 
.429 
.468 
.585 

.157 
.314 
.471 
.628 
.785 


Carbolu- 

dr«t«i+ 
(f«tX2.») 


3.882 
4.529 
5.176 
5.823 

.548 
1.090 
1.644 
2.192 
2.740 
3.288 
3.836 
4.:t84 
4.952 

.347 
.694 
1.041 
1.388 
1.735 
2.082 
2.42!) 
2.776 
3.123 

.456 
.912 
1.368 
1.824 
2.280 
2.736 
3.192 
3.648 
4.104 


.409 
.818 
1.227 
1.636 
2.045 
2.454 
2.863 
3  273 
3.681 

.125 

.250 

.375 

.500 

.625 

.750 

.875 

1. 000 

1.125 

1.375 

1.500 

1.875 

.478 

.9.76 

1.434 

1.912 

2.390 


ToWl 


4.374 
5.103 
5.832 

6.561 

.663 

1.326 
1.989 
2.652 
3.315 
3.978 
4.641 
5.304 
5.967 

.421 
.842 
1.263 
1.6*4 
2.105 
2.526 
2.847 
3.:i(i8 
3.789 

.676 
1.352 
2.028 
2.704 
3.380 
4.056 
4.732 
5.408 
6.084 


.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.975 
3.570 
4,165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 

.328 

.492 

.656 

.820 

.984 

1.148 

1.312 

1.476 

1.804 

1.968 

2.460 

.635 
1.270 
1.905 
2.540 
3.175 


Nntrittve 
ratio 


1:4.8 


1:4.7 


1:2.1 


1:2.2 


1:3.2 


1:3 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS  115 

Table  IL — Digbstiblb  Nutrients  in  the  Stated  Amounts  of  the  Hobs  Common  Peeding-stiifps,  continued. 


Kind  and  amoniit  of  fMd 


By-produeU,  continaed — 
Brewere'  grains,  dry,  6  lbs. 

4t  41  If  IT        If 

"        "     8  " 
"     9  " 


Bnffalo  gluten  feed,    1  lb. 
2lb6. 

II  It  II  n       II 

II  II  II  t        It 

II  II  11  z       II 

o 

II  If  <l  c      II 

II  II  II         7     fi 

II  If  II         a    I' 

Chicago  glnten  meal,  1  lb. 
"      2  lbs. 

II  II  II  O        ■! 

.1  >•  ..  ^       II 

5    ■' 

' 6   " 

il  fl  II  7     II 

•  I  II  II  Q       (I 

Diatillera'  dried  grains, 
Bile's  xxxx,     1  lb.    .  .   . 


2 
3 
4 
"  6 

■•  6 

7 
8 

Hominy  ohopo, 


lbs. 


1  lb. 
2lb8. 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

9  " 


Liiueed  meal  (old  process),  1  lb. 
2lbe. 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 


LinM>ed  meal  (new  procetw),  1  lb- 

•^  2  lbs 

II  'I  If  n 

,1  If  II  '^ 

- 

II  II  II  I* 

II  II  ■■  rt 


Cottonseed  meal,  I  lb. 

*'  2  Ibe. 

'I  II  Q      If 

"  6   " 


Totftl  dry 
matter 


5.52 
6.44 
7.36 
828 

.90 
1.80 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 
7.20 

.88 
1.76 
2.64 
3.52 
4.40 
5  28 
G.16 
7.04 


.92 
1.84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 
552 
6.44 
7.36 

.89 
1.78 
2.67 
3,66 
4,45 
5.34 
6-23 
7.12 
8.01 

,91 
1,82 
2.73 
3.64 
4.55 
5,46 
6,37 

.90 
l.SO 
2.70 
3.60 
4.50 
5.40 
6.30 


.92 
1,84 
2.76 
3.68 
4.60 


Ponndi  of  dlcMtlMe  nntrienU 


ProWtn 


.942 
1.099 
1.256 
1.413 

.232 

.464 

.696 

.928 

1.160 

1.392 

1.624 

1.866 

.322 
.644 
.966 
1.288 
1.610 
1,932 
2.254 
2.576 


.248 

.496 

.744 

.992 

1.240 

1,488 

1.736 

1.984 

.075 
.150 
.225 

.;iOO 

.375 
.450 
.525 
.600 
.075 

.2.3 

.586 
.879 
1.172 
1.465 
1.758 
2.051 

,282 
.564 
.846 
1.128 
1.410 
1.692 
1.974 

.372 

.744 

1.II6 

1.488 
1.860 


Carbohr- 

draU»+ 

<tMX2.25) 


2.868 
3.346 

3.824 
4.302 

.699 
1.398 
2.097 
2.796 
3.495 
4.194 
4.893 
6.692 

.468 
.936 
1.404 
1.872 
2.340 
2808 
3.276 
3.744 


.652 
1.104 
1.656 
2.208 
2.760 
3.312 
3.864 
4,416 

.705 
1.410 

2.116 
2.820 
3.525 
4.2;«) 
4.935 
5.640 
6.346 

.485 
.970 
1,456 
1.940 
2.425 
2.910 
3.395 

.464 
.928 
1.392 
l.a.^>6 
2.320 
2.784 
3.248 

.444 

.888 

1.332 

1.776 

2.220 


Total 


3.810 
4.445 
5.080 
5.715 

.931 

1.862 
2.793 
3.724 
4.665 
5.686 
6.517 
7.448 

.790 
1.580 
2.370 
3160 
3.950 
4.740 
6.530 
6  320 


.800 
1.600 
2.400 
3.200 
4.000 
4.800 
5-600 
6.400 

.780 
1.560 
2  340 
3.120 
3.900 
4,680 
5,460 
6.240 
7  020 

.778 
1..556 
2  334 
3.112 
3.890 
4.668 
5.446 

.746 
1.492 
2.238 
2.984 
3.730 
4,476 
6.2.32 

.816 
1.G32 
2.448 
3.264 
4,080 


NutritWe 
ratio 


1:3 


1:1.5 


1:2.2 


1:9.4 


1:1.7 


1:1,6 


1:1.2 


116 


COMPUTING  BALANCED  RATIONS 


Table  II. — Digbstibu!  Notrients  in  the  Stated  AuotrNra  op  the  Uorb  Cohhon  PEEDiNC-Brnm,  continned. 


Kind  and  amannt  of  feed 


By-produet>,  continued — 

Cottonseed  meal,  6  Iba. 

It  II  -7     II 

II  II  Q       tl 

II  II  n     II 

MUcellaneoui — 
Cabbage,     1  lb. 


5  lbs. 

15  " 

II  20  " 

"         25  " 

"         30  " 

"  35  " 

40  " 

Sufi:ar-beet  leaves, 


1  lb. 

5  lbs. 
15  " 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 
35  " 
40  " 


Pea-vine  nilage, 


Sugar-beet  pulp, 


lib. 

5  lbs. 
15  '■ 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 
35  " 
40  " 

1  lb. 

5lbe. 
15  " 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 
35  " 
40  " 


Beet  moloBsef, 


1  lb. 

2  lbs. 

3  " 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 

7  " 


Apple  pomace. 


lib. 

5  lbs. 
15  " 
20  " 
25  " 
30  " 
35  " 
40   " 


Apples, 


lib. 
5  lbs. 
15  " 


Total  diT 
matter 


Ponudi  of  dlsMtibla  nntiienta 


5.52 
6.44 

7.36 
8.28 


.15 
.75 
2.25 
3.00 
3.75 
4.50 
5.25 
6.00 

.12 
.60 
1.80 
2.40 
3.00 
3.60 
4.20 
4.80 

.27 
1.35 
4.05 
5.40 
6.75 
8.10 
9.45 
10.80 

.10 
.50 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
300 
3.50 
4.00 

.79 
1.58 

2.37 
3.16 
3.95 
4.74 
5.53 
6.32 
7.11 

.233 
1.165 
3.495 
4.660 
5.825 
6.990 
8.155 
9.320 

.19 

.95 

2.85 


Protaln 


2.232 
2.604 
2.976 
3.348 


.018 
.090 
.270 
.360 
.450 
.540 
.630 
.720 

.017 
.085 
.255 
.340 
.425 
.510 
.595 
.680 

.025 
.125 
.375 
.500 
.625 
.750 
.875 
.900 

.006 
.030 
.090 
.120 
.150 
.180 
.210 
.240 

.091 

.182 
.273 
.304 
.455 
.546 
.637 
.728 
.819 

.011 
.055 
.165 
.220 
.275 
.330 
.385 
.440 

.007 
.035 
.105 


Cwtbohy- 
drat*a+    I 
(fatX2.29)  { 

1- 


2.664 
3.008 
3.552 
3.996 


.091 
.445 
1.365 
1.820 
2.275 
2.730 
3.185 
3.640 

.051 
.255 

.765 
1.020 
1.275 
1.530 
1.785 
2. (MO 

.141 
.705 
2.115 
2.820 
3.525 
4.230 
4.935 
5.640 

.073 
.365 
1.095 
1.460 
1.825 
2.190 
2.555 
2.920 

.595 
1.190 
1.785 
2.380 
2.976 
3.570 
4.165 
4.760 
5.355 

.164 
.820 
2.460 
3.280 
4.100 
4.920 
5.740 
6.560 

.188 

.940 

2.820 


Total 


4.896 
5.712 

6.528 
7.344 


.109 
.545 
1.635 
2.180 
2.725 
3.270 
3.815 
4.360 

.OCS 
.340 
1.020 
1.360 
1.700 
2.040 
2.380 
2.720 

.166 
.830 
2.490 
3.320 
4.150 
4.980 
5.810 
6.640 

.079 
.395 
1.185 
1.580 
1.975 
2.370 
2.76.S 
2.160 

.686 
1.372 
2.058 
2.744 
2.430 
4.116 
4.802 
5.488 
6.174 

.175 

.875 
2.625 
3.500 
4.375 
5.250 
6.125 
7.000 

.195 

.975 

2.925 


Nntrlttva 
ratio 


1:5.1 


1:3 


1:5.6 


1:12 


1:6.5 


1:14.9 


1:26.8 


!NG  BALANCED  RATIONS 


1!T 


Table  D. — Otoamsui  Notusiits  in  thr  8tatbd  Auauirra  op  tub  Uokb  Cohhon  FBOiHO-arvrra,  contnned 


Klud  uid  uniNuit  vt  tnni 


MitfflUiiiteut,  concluded— 
AwK  2Q  Ibe 


SlEim-milk,  cenlhfogal,  1  lb, 


Bstumilk, 


'..""*' 

II 

8   " 

•I 

12  " 

II 

16  " 

■■ 

20  " 

II 

25  " 

11 

30  " 

1  lb. 

5  Ih*. 

8  " 

12  " 

15  " 

20  " 

28  " 

SO  " 

Total  dry 
nuilter 


3.1)0 

5.70 

.094 
.470 
.752 
1.128 
1.410 
1.880 
2.3.10 
2.820 


IVinndi  of  dliMUlbl*  naniimu 


Pnrtelu 


.140 
.175 
.210 

.02fl 

.145 
.2:12 
.348 

A:i& 

.580 

.725 
.870 

.039 

.195 
;iI2 
.468 

.585 

.780 

.075 

1.170 


Cartiohy- 
dniiiMi+ 


3,760 
4.71)0 
3.6-10 

.060 
.295 

.472 

.708 

.885 

l.ISO 

1.476 

1.770 

.065 
.325 
.5'20 

.780 

.075 

1. 300 

1  .(i'i5 

1.1160 


ToUl 


3,900 

4.875 
5,850 

.088 
.440 
.704 

1.056 
1.320 
1,760 
2.200 
2020 

.104 
.520 
.832 

1.248 
I.SflO 
2,080 
2.(KK> 
3.120 


NulrltlY* 
nilv 


1:2 


1:1.7 


To  niustnite  how  these  tables  may  lie  vseA,  wv 
will  examine  a  systein  of  feeding  which  the  writer 
observed  recently  in  a  certain  section  »f  New  York, 
and  which  he  waa  lold  in  extensively  practiced. 
The  Bection  referred  to  is  tiavnttA  almffst  exrtii- 
avidj  to  dairyinc.  and  timothy  hay  conatitutes  the 
Enstcr  part  of  the  coarw)  fodder  during  the  fee<t- 
faif  iauoo.  Oat«  are  about  the  only  grain  K^o^^7l. 
Corn  tfl  parchaiKd  and  ground  with  the  oat^,  in 
abont  equal  weightii,  to  make  "chop"  which  is  fed 
with  the  hay.  The  cows  will  not  vary  greatly  from 
l.OfiO  poiimiis  live  Weight.  While  thejie  cown  are  in 
fall  flow  of  milk  in  the  spring  Iwforc  the  pasture 
is  ready,  they  are  fe*l  al>out  twL'nIy  pounds  of  hay 
and  eight  ]>oundi>  of  chop  per  day.  Turning  to  the 
Ubkfl,  we  lind  that  twenty  poimdfi  of  hay,  four 
pOBods  of  (nt<>,  and  four  pi>u[iditof  corn  conLiiin 
d^pwtible  nutrients  aa  follows : 


tive  ratio  of  each  of  the  throe  foodii  entering  into 
the  ration.  They  are:  timothy  hay,  1:10.6:  oat«, 
1:6,2;  com,  1:9.7.  Neither  of  them  is  as  narrow 
as  the  standard,  and  it  i.4  impossible  t«  combine 
them  into  a  ration  Ihitl  i*  approxi  nately  halanct'd. 
.limt  here  is  whero  farmers  fre(]uenily  fail  to  gel 
lieKt  refiultw  in  feeding.  Tho  fact  that  they  are 
feuding  some  concontratea  (in  this  caae  corn  and 
oatA)  along  with  the  bay  misleads  them  into  think* 
ing  that  the  cows  are  getting  a  proper  ration  ;  ant) 
if  the  C0W8  lay  on  fat  under  this  carbonaceoim  diet 
they  are  the  fnrther  minleil,  when,  jw  a  matter  of 
fact,  maximum  production  is  not  Iwingsecnred. 

In  thif  c'lse,  af  cum  i^  a  purchased  i>ri)duct,  the 
natural  suggestion  is  that  the  cum  Rhoiild  bo 
replaced  by  siomi?  food  having  a  high  proportion  of 
protein,  or,  in  other  words,  a  very  narrow  nutritivo 
ratio.  Consulting  the  table,  it  i»  found  that  among 


Dry  wiilttT 

I'tolrln 

C.  H.  nd.  M 

Total 

NnlrtdTB  nito 

17.40 
8.56 

.560 
.S«8 

9.800 

2.772 
3,056 

9J60 
2.640 

3.372 

Totd 

24.52 
24.00 

1.244 
2.5 

14.628 
1S.4 

15.872 
15.9 

1:11.7 

I:  6.4 

On  cumparif^un  of  the  nulriunt«  rurnished  by  Lhi» 
ration  wiUi  WwlfT*  Btandurrl  at;  given  in  Tablo  1,  it 
Id  discovered  that  while  the  dry  matter  and  total 
Rotrientft  are  0'»t  far  out  nf  the  way.  the  protein  it* 
much  U)ft  8malt,  the  carhohydratec  and  fat  are 
•amrwhat  ((Ki  KTCTit.  while  the  nntritive  ralin  is 
fur  Inn  «id<>.  Thia  ro8ult  might  re.-ulily  hav«s  lieen 
fcffeaevo  had  we  paaaed  a  mmnunt  tii  n<^  the  nutri- 


Kuchare  linseed  meal,  cottonstfet]  meal,  gluten  feed, 
inult-fipronUi,  buckwhe.at  middliiigp,  and  others.  As 
buckwheat  middlings  is  a  New  York  st;ite  pr«diiot> 
and  can  readily  be  put  in  stock  during  the  winter, 
it  is  BUggested  to  saWtitate  it  for  the  corn  in  the 
ration,  .'\g3in  taking  the  figures  from  the  table, 
nnd  sti1)Htituting  burkwheat  middlings  for  corn,  wa 
have: 


N( 


C-P0I90I 


D17  mitl«r 

Vnuia 

C-  H  knd  fkl 

Total 

17.40 

3.4S 

24.44 

.560 
.368 
.880 

1.808 

9.300 
£.272 
1.824 

13.396 

9.860 

2.640 

2.704 

15.204 

Nutritive  ratio  1:7.4 


While  this  ration  is  much  improVHx!  over  thu 
pruvlous  Dn«.  and  will  prctduco  a  moru  abundant 
flaw  uf  milk,  it  ii  stilt  too  wide  to  protlnco  the  beat 
results. 

If  the  timothy  hay  is  reduced  two  pounds,  and 
two  pnundii  of  coltunwed  moul  put  in  its  place, 
we  get : 


corn  id  used  a  more  proti^inuceons  concentrate  ia 
need&d  than  if  gruen  clover  ur  alfalfa  la  used. 

Liientiare. 

This  article  is  adapted  from  RuKetin  No.  154, 
Cornell  Univeraily  .\gricultaral  ExperimentStation, 
prepared  by  thu  writer. 


18  lb«.  timothy  hay    .  ,   .    , 

4  Vtm.  onto 

4  lb*,  bnckwhcnt  middlinits 

2  lbs.  cottotumd  meat     .   . 

Total 


Dry  mallsr 


15.66 
3^ 
8.48 
1.84 


24.54 


PratolB 


.504 
.368 

.880 
.744 


2.196 


C.  B.  ud  fM 


8.370 

2.272 

1.824 

.888 


13.354 


Tvtal 


8.874 
2.640 
2.704 
1.632 


15.850 


Nutritive  ratio  1:5.3 


This  ration  corregpondft  very  closely  to  the  stand- 
ard, and  while  the  purchase  of  the  cottonseed  meal 
will  add  ,<>oniething  to  the  expenee.  etlll  it  is  the 
experience  of  careful  fealerft  th.'it  the  increased 
production  will  pay  abundantly  for  thus  securiiig 
a  pro|H>r  talaace  to  the  ration.  The  same  result 
may  be  obtained  by  using  other  feeding-s tuffs  bav- 
in^ a  narrow  nutritive  ratio. 

The  question  is  lilcely  to  be  raised,  which  of  the 
various  ffwding-Htuffa  offered  in  the  market  may 
bo  used  miwt  eronnmically  in  supplemwntin);  the 
home-grown  fooda  to  produce  a  balanced  ration? 
This  liuestioit  18  btwt  aiww&red  by  fornmlalinjj  prop- 
erly balanced  rations  containing  each  of  the  foods 
under  consideration,  and  by  assigning  the  actual 
market  value  per  pound  to  each  of  the  constituenta 
of  the  ration,  its  cost  \fi  readily  ascertained,  and 
the  cheapPMt  may  t^*  st-lected. 

Suppltrmmtini}  pnntun  with  a.  baUtnecd  ration. 

Often  it  ia  tiwi'sitary  or  deflirable  to  Bupplament 
the  food  recoivyd  by  animals  whilo  running  on  pas- 
tun*.  Two  somewhat  different  cases  may  arise. 
First,  when  the  pjisturage  is  fairly  abundant  hnt  it 
is  desired  to  force  pniduction  to  the  highest  p(H=»i- 
ble  point.  Since  the  hcrha;rt'cnjp])ed  f rem  paHturefl 
DHually  ii^  approximat,t.'ly  bulanuud,  to  thi«  case  the 
fiupplumentary  food  may  consist  of  concentrates  so 
combined  aa  in  themselvos  to  have  abont  the  nutri- 
tive ration  that  would  be  appropriate  for  the  entire 
ration.  Second,  when  the  herbage  is  markedly 
deficient  in  amount  and  probably  in  ftuccnlonce  also. 
In  thb  ca»Q  it  w  dpjiirable  to  provide  some  bulky 
food  as  well  aa  some  concentrat^is.  These  (thould 
be  Helected  with  K'furence  to  one  another  so  as  in 
tbenuutlves  to  be  fairly  well  balanced.    If  green 


STOCK -POISONING 

By  iV.  S.  Mayo 

Malicious  poisoning  of  domestic  animals,  witli 
the  exception  of  do^s  and  cats,  ia  very  rare,  but 
accidental  poisoning  of  farm  stuck  is  not  infre* 
quent.  When  a  number  of  animals  die  without 
symptoms  of  disease,  accidental  poisoning  i?  to  be 
suspected,  and  a  careful  e.xamination  of  the  food, 
water,  and  surrounding  conditions  should  be  made, 
to  determine  the  cause.  A  number  of  methods  of 
poisoning  must  bo  considered.  Throughout  the 
western  range  country  probably  the  commonest 
source  is  the  eating  of  poLsonous  weeds  by  the 
stock.  This  phA.<w  of  the  suhject  is  discussed  sepA- 
ralely  in  the  succeeding  article  by  Wilcox. 

Chcm  iail-pifiaoij  ins  • 

Farm  animals  are  Hometimes  poisoned  by  bo1q> 
tions  used  for  spraying  plants  or  by  lead  paints, 
and  sometimes  by  nitrateof  soda  which  cattle  securd 
by  chewing  old  fertilizer  sacks.  Sheep  are  some- 
times poisoned  by  eating  excessive  quantities  of 
common  salt  when  not  accustomed  to  it  In  arid 
regions,  stock  may  he  poisoned  by  drinking  alkali 
water.  City  garbage,  somftimes  used  as  food  for 
poultry  and  swine,  frequently  contains  poisonoDS 
substances,  particularly  excessive  qnantitiee  of 
soap,  or  soap  powders  in  solution. 

When  animals  are  poisoned  by  chemical  sub- 
stanceA,  there  is  usually  severe  alMJominal  pain  and 
irritation  of  the  bowels.  As  most  farm  animals  can 
not  vomit,  it  Is  adviaable  to  give  doses  of  raw  lin- 
sued  or  castor-oil.  followed  by  linseed-meal  gruels, 
with  a  little  fresh  milk  containing  the  beaten 
whites  of  eggs. 


NOTES  ON  STOCK-POISONING 


119 


Foragt  -  poiton  ing. 

Conditions  of  th«  plants  and  animals  pLay  an  tm- 
portanC  part  in  foraf^e-poisoning.  Sume  plants  are 
poidODoiu  only  in  certain  stages  of  their  growth, 
and  it  is  certain  that  climatic  conditions,  by  check- 
ing the  growth  of  plantfl,  may  caiui«  the  formation 
or  depoditioa  within  the  tissues  of  the  plant  of 
toxic  snbstances  that  aru  not  present  in  appreciable 
qnantities  undvr  normal  conditions. 

If  an  animal  is  thin  in  flesh,  or  hungry,  poison- 
ous substances  will  atfect  it  more  seriously,  while 
the  presence  of  other  foods  in  the  digestive  organs 
•ometimed  tends  to  modify  the  elfect  of  tht>  iKiinorLti. 
In  some  eases,  the  presence  of  a  considerable 
MDOant  of  undigested  food  in  the  digestive  organs 
Menu  to  caoM  a  paralysis  of  the  digestive  fnnc- 
tions  to  Boch  an  eitont  that  decomposition  of  the 
contents  of  the  d  igeslive  organs  follows,  and  poison- 
OBS  substanccfi  may  be  produced  and  cause  deuth. 

Uore  frequently  farm  anintaU  suffer  from  forage- 
poboning  from  eating  either  moldy  or  decompos- 
ing fooiiii,  or  iilants  that  contain  poisonouB  snb- 
stancea.  Any  decomposing  or  moldy  food  may  be 
poisanoiu  for  stock,  moldy  silage,  grain  and  hay 
particularly.  Hea%7  \o»sv»  of  hordes  occar  in  some 
years  in  the  middle  West  from  inflammation  of  the 
brain  (Curebritie)  or  its  coverings  iMeningitia), 
commonly  called  "mad  HtagtJfjra."  This  disKaa<?  ia 
caujwd  by  eating  corn  that  has  be&n  injured  by  the 
green  corn>worm  and  attacked  by  a  mold.  Low- 
bod  hay  that  contains  mold  or  other  fungi  may 
caoae  death,  and  hay  that  has  been  flooded  may 
oontain  sand  or  other  irritating  materials  that 
OSBM  nrious  purging  of  animals. 

Oam-*t«Ik  di»MM. — \Mien  stalk-flelds  are  pas- 
tored  by  cattle  after  the  com  is  harvt^sted,  fre- 
quent and  heavy  lotueii  sometimes  occur  from  what 
is  called  "corn-stalk  disease."  Thin  disease  s^ems 
to  be  a  combination  of  acute  indigestion  and  poi- 
aoDing.  It  occurs  most  frequently  when  cattle  are 
fitBt  tamed  into  a  field  or  changed  from  one  field 
to  another.  The  disease  appears  suddenly.  The 
animaJ  ahawn  symptoma  of  aMominal  pain,  ful- 
bwed  by  delirium  and  death  usually  within 
tventjr*(oar  hours.  Medical  treatment  is  of  little 
Tklne. 

Tbe  preventire  is  to  give  the  cattle  access  to 
Aomtr  laxative  food,  such  as  green  rye,  alfalfa  or 
alfalfa  hay,  to  give  plenty  of  water  and  small 
quntities  of  salt  f  re(iut.>iitly,  and  never  to  turn  the 
stock  into  tbe  stalk-tields  hungry. 

SorgkuM'pouoHiag.  -.Sorghnm,  and  particularly 
second-growth  sorghum,  may  cmitiun.  under  condi- 
tions that  are  not  entirely  undenttowl,  sufficient 
['  pnsslc  acid  to  kill  cattlequickly  when  thfv  pa:4tnre 
oa  ft.  Tbe  aniroaln  uf;ually  die  so  quickly  that  lit- 
tls  can  be  done.  If  possible,  give,  as  a  drench, 
sixty  to  eighty  grains  of  pannsDganate  of  potash 
dtaaolvod  in  a  quart  of  water.  [See  Vol,  11,  page 
661,  for  fuller  Dat«a.] 

Cottmuetd  me»L 

CottoniBod  meal  is  a  rich,  easily  digested  and 
vatnaUe  food  if  fed  judiciously,  (f  fed  to  cattle 
u  cooaiderahle  qoaottties  for  mure    than  three 


months  it  is  liable  to  produce  symptoms  of  poison- 
ing. It  cu'ntains  alknluid.",  betain  and  cholin,  and 
these  cir  othem  tieem  to  have  a  cumulative  elTect. 
There  is  a  peculiar  vacant  stare,  impaired  vision 
and  twitching  or  trembling  of  tbe  voluntary  rous- 
clea.  As  soon  as  the  symptoms  are  noticed,  the 
cottonseed  meal  should  be  withheld. 

.Swino  are  more  ea.'tily  poisoned  by  cottonseed 
meat  than  cattle.  The  inympUimH  are  drowsiness, 
labored  breathing,  feeble  heart-action  when  exer- 
cised, congestion  of  tbe  lungs  and  irritation  of  the 
bowels.  Swine  following  cattle  that  arc  full-fed 
on  cottonaeed  meal  may  get  sufficient  to  cause 
poisoning.  The  amount  required  to  affect  animal* 
varies  with  the  amount  and  kind  of  other  foods 
that  they  receive.  Six  pounds  of  cottonseed  daily 
to  cattle  on  full  feed  is  nearly  the  limit,  and  oven 
this  may  be  injurious. 

Poisonous  Weeds  and  Their  Eradication 
By  E.  V.  Wiieox 

The  problems  connected  with  plant-poisoning  of 
stock  have  been  brought  to  the  farmers'  attention 
in  parts  of  the  country  by  the  loss  of  stock  as  a 
result  of  feeding  these  weeds.  The  ^-ariety  and 
number  of  poiaonous  weeds  are  much  greater  in 
the  western  slatea  than  in  the  more  thickly 
settled  parts  of  the  East.  This  obviously  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  eastern  states  land  is  more 
valuable  and  is  more  systematically  cultivated. 
There  is,  therefore,  a  smaller  proportion  of  native 
pasture  land.  Pasturee  are  plowed 
from  time  to  time,  cultivated  to 
various  crops,  and  allowed  to  run  to 
pasture  again.  As  a  result,  the  for- 
age found  in  such  pastures  belongs  to 
cultivated  species  of  grasses  and 
contains  comparatively  few  weeds 
of  a  poisonous  nature. 

In  the  western  states,  however. 
particularly  in  the  range  country, 
many  wild  sjH.iie8  of  poisonous 
plants  are  found  and.  for  the  mo?t 
part,  are  enabled  to  persi.^t  for  the 
reason  that  no  cultivation  is  at- 
tempted on  range  lands.  In  favor- 
able Seasons,  tho  amonnt  of  grass 
and  other  valuable  forage  plants  on 
range  land  is  sufficient  for  the  main- 
tenance of  stock.  In  seasons  of  short 
grass,  however,  the  amount  of  whole- 
si>me  forage  may  1*  insuflictent  for 
the  stock  which  grates  on  range  land, 
and  the  slock,  therefore,  may  be 
forced  by  hunger  to  cat  unpalatable 
or  poisonous  weeds  that  they  other- 
wist'  would  not  touch.  The  extent  of 
plant-poiaoning,  therefore,  is  an  in- 
dication of  the  condition  of  the 
range.  In  the  earlier  days  when  the 
range  was  not  so  badly  overstocked, 
cases  of  poisoning  were  of  much  leas 
frequent  occurrence.  With  the  ever-crowding  of 
tbe  range,  however,  and  conseqoeDt  deetruction  of 


/ 


DMtk  CUBM 


120 


NOTES  ON  STOCK-POISONING 


the  ^jaes,  plBnUpoisoning  has  l>eGomc  a  noK  sen- 

0U8  problem. 

Dtath  camat.    (Pijj  ICM.) 

Among  the  important  poisonous  plants  of  th« 
western  states,  death  camas  {Zugadenat  trneaofuf) 
occupiea  a  prominent  place.  This  plant  is  distrib- 
uted from  British  Columbia  to  N'el)riL«lta  ami 
westward  to  t'ulifornia.  It  ia  known  by  variona 
common  names,  such  as  crowfoot,  lobelia  and  wild 
onion,  in  varioaa  parts  of  the  country.  It  p-ows  at 
altitudes  from  1.500  to  8,000  fe«t.  It  ia  a  smooth, 
single-stemmed,  perennial  plant  with  onion-like 
bulb,  narrow  leaves  which  appear  early  in  the 
spring.  Rpreading  apart  in  such  a  manner  as  tn 
suggest  the  name  crowfoot.  Jhe  leaves  are  some- 
what more  succulent  than  grae^  and  appear  before 
most  prasaes  have  started  in  the  sprirp.  The  plant 
therefore  appears  ti.-mpting  and  ia  frenuuntly  eaten, 
especially  by  eheep,  with  serious  conaeqaencea. 
Throughout  the  western  .ttates  losses  are  reported 
from  eating  thin  plant  In  general,  about  20  per 
cent  of  the  cm<^s  ap[>ear  to  b«  fatal.  The  bulb  is 
also  poiaonouii  to  man.  The  symptoms  of  poisoning 
are  uneasinesB  and  irregularity  in  movement, 
accompanied  soon  by  *pa;*ma  and  rapid  brL-athinK. 
Later  the  animaU  show  almoist  complete  paralysis 
and  lie  on  their  side  with  rapid  respiration  and 
frequent  irregular  pulse.  In  some  cases  death 
results  within  one  or  two  hours,  while  in  others 
the  animal  may  lie  on  the  side  one  to  two  days. 

The  beat  means  of  counteracting  the  poisonous 
effects  of  this  plant  havu  bMTi  found  in  the  u^e  of 
permanganate  of  potash.  As  a  dreucJi,  for  shrep 
about  five  to  ten  grains,  for  horses  fifteen  to 
twenty  grains,  and  fur  cattle  thirty  to  fifty  grains, 
are  suitable  doses.  The  permanganate  of  potash 
can  be  combined  with  an  djual  amount  of  sulfate 
of  aluminum,  and  liollii  shutiM  be  dissolve)]  bc^fore 
bi-ing  adniinisU-red.  This  antidote  is  not  a  physio- 
logical one  but  dt-pends  for  its  efTirienty  on  a 
chemical  action.  IVrmanganato  of  potash  is  an 
active  oxydizer  nnd  readily  renders  harmless  poi- 
sonous subsLinces  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  in 
thestfjmach.  They  an?  thereby  prevented  being  aV 
aorbed  in  a  poisonous  condition.  If  the  symptoms 
of  poisimlng  are  oliserviM)  simn  enough  the  animjil 
may  lie  saved  in  most  casts  by  this  remedy,  and, 
since  its  action  is  L-hemieal  and  not  Bpecilieally 
physiuiogieal,  it  is  obviously  indicated  as  a  remedy 
in  the  case  of  poisoning  by  other  plants. 

Larkspur   and  aoinite.    (Tig.  105.) 

Another  important  gnmp  of  plants  that  cause 
poisoning  iif  livt>-sttrk  Inrludes  the  larkspurs  and 
aconite,  ^ime  of  the  Ijirkspurs  are  commonly  called 
aconite  by  stoeknien.  Many  uf  thtf  s[>wie«  of  lark- 
Mur  have  Iji-L-n  shown  t<i  bo  poisonous,  particularly 
Ddpkinmm  birolar  and  /'.  ijfauetiin.  Tbo  symptoms 
of  poisoning  from  birkspiir  nro  a  rapid  respiration 
and  pulse,  slight  lowering  of  the  body  tempera- 
ture, profuse  sweating,  and  oct^iisional  blont.  The 
western  Hpecies  nf  aconite  {Aratiifum  Cnlumlmtnum) 
Is  not  tite  same  as  the  om-  that  is  commonly  omm) 
in  the  preparation  of  the  w«lt-known  drug,  but  it 


has  been  shown  to  contain  potaoo  In  the  leavM, 
stems,  and  roots. 

The  antidotes  that  have  proved  anccewful  in  the 
treatment  of  such  cases  of  poisoning  are  perman- 
ganate of  iwtJLsh,  as  mentioned  for  death  camas 
poisoning,  and  physiological  antidotes  to  counteract 
the  etf'ect  of  larkspur.  These  inclutie  atropin  In 
doses  of  one-sixth  to  one-third  grain,  depending  on 
the  size  of  the  sheep,  and  in  corresponding  doses  in 


-C^. 


«/ 


:-y 


>:yM 


FfK.  lOS.   Pntple  Ivbtpur,  jmnit  vIaM  {Drt^hinitnm  Heolor). 

larger  animals.  Atrojrin  is  a  heart  stimulant  and 
e.xercis(u  an  immwiiale  elFrtt  in  cuimLf nutting  the 
influence  of  the  alkaloid  of  larkspur  on  the  heart 
and  respiratriou.  In  mitd  cas^^  of  poisoning  by 
larkspur,  the  administration  of  a  tables jKionfuI  of 
ammoni.%  or  a  half-cupful  of  alcohol  in  water  may 
give  giMwl  rwults.  The  use  of  ammonia  fumes  in 
tin.'  nostrils  is  sumelimes  successful.  Alropin  »<huuld 
be  administered  in  a  Kolutiun  uf  water  as  a  hypt^ 
dermic  injection. 

WnliT  hmh^k.    (l-'ig.  ItiT.  Vol.  11). 

In  the  WLwtern  range  country,  along  moist  plac«s 
and  waterways,  various  species  of  water  hemlock 
are  found,  whii-.h  are  extremely  poisonous  in  nearly 
all  stagt-s  of  growth.  One  uf  the  most  common 
Hpecies  is  Cicuia  ueciiivntatit.  This  is  a  Bmooth  (ler- 
ennial,  two  to  iwv  fuut  hiKli,  with  lung,  flisshy  rootis 
large-branched  leaves,  and  flat-top;ied  clusters  of 
greeni.sh  white  flowers.  It  is  commonly  known 
among  utockmen  as  wild  parsnip.  This  plant  has 
been  shown  to  be  very  poiwmoiis  to  sbwp,  CAtlle. 
and  other  dtimt'Stic  animals,  as  well  ns  to  man. 
The  Hymptums  uf  imiHoninc  are  evidenceaof  acnte 
pain.  frL'nzy,  museular  spa^mis  irregular  respira- 
tion, and  a  hard  pulsu.  In  some  cases  death  takes 
place  within  liftcen  minutes,  and  nearly  alwavN  the 
symptoms  are  more  violent  than  in  other  c-asi-s  of 
plant-poisoning.  As  a  nile,  the  symptoms  de%'elop 
so  rapidly  thai  )H<rmHng.-iniit.f  uf  poU'ishcan  not  he 
used.  OccusioHiilty  the  administration  of  morphine 
or  chlural  hydrate  gives  relief,  but  these  drugs  cai 
not  be  depended  on. 


1 


NOTES  ON  STOCK-POISOMNG 


121 


. 


<Pig.  106». 

Sinee  the  earllent  days  of  the  range  buHinen?  the 
lootHveed  has  been  refKrivil  b)  m  ihv  causae  ot  the 
M-calJed  loco  Rondiltno  m  iiDiniubi.  Many  att«ni|il« 
bare  been  maide  to  dttU^rmine  tht-  puiwinoiuK  prin- 
ciple which  may  he  foam]  in  these  pinntfi,  but  witli- 
out  succBsa.  In  Colurado  it  was  supposed  that,  loco 
acid  WHS  found  in  the  coninioD  species  of  loco-weed 
of  that  sUite,  hut  this  hart  nul  been  sulmtantiated. 
In  Colorado  and  KaUKias  the  most  common  fli>ecie*i 
of  loco-weed  is  A'trat/aiuf  trmlliiximus,  while  in 
Montana  ih»  nrinie  is  usually  applit'd  U>  npt-fik^a  of 
Aragaliua,  eapeciaily  .'1.  gpiralm.  Ni-arly  aU  stock- 
men of  the  westt-rn  raiine  havt>  had  e\j>uri«Ufe  with 
loco,  and  in  some  casft*  the  raisinu  of  horsL'n.  sliwp 
and  cattle  on  eortain  tracts  of  range  hns  been 
absndooed  becanst^  of  the  pcraistence  of  this  tronhle. 
Notwithstandirtji  the  numernus  investigations  that 
have  heen  m:idc,  hnwover.  the  exact  canne  of  the 
truulile  still  apjM'iira  dimlitf  u).  Several  diseiwes  have 
bevn  rL-f«rrBd  to  hy  this  nanm.  In  hihhh  instances, 
cases  of  gid  in  eheep  have  LLt.'n  eallLnJ  loeu,  in  others^ 
a  condition  of  anemia  and  malnutrition  duu  to 
warcity  of  forage  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
Stomach  worms  and  the  common  tapeworm  of  the 
sheep  have  atso  Iwen  <<upp(]Re<l  to  cause  loco  diseatie. 
It  ifl  im]KiiiKib]e,  however,  for  thii^  to  he  the  main 
cause  of  loco,  since  stomach- worms  an?  coinpiira- 
tivtfly  rare  in  the  region  where  loco  most  prL>vai]5i, 
and  very  abundant  in  the  eastern  states  where  loco 
b  anknown.    It  still  appears  to  be  probable  that 


PlM.  IM.    White  loco-wved  41r«woIliu  tfltatui], 

RQfne  of  the  cnae;*  referred  to  as  loco  disease  arc  due 
to  eating  the  plants  referred  to  above. 

No  diriTt  antifliile  or  medicinal  treatment  has 
bmo  worked  nut  for  this  truuUe.  N'umeroDs  .ttitck- 
Dien.  however,  have  found  that  by  confining  the 
■toek  in  corrals,  preventing  their  feeding  on  loco- 


weeds,  and  giving  them  plenty  of  nutritions  forage, 
SQch  as  alfalfa,  grains,  and  root  crops,  the  syin)> 
tomfi  of  loco  rli^ppB&r  and  the  animals  may  again 
bec<im«  utieful.  In  the  case  of  horBes,  the  alfected 
animal  may  b«comi>  apparently  mirmal,  hut  he  is  not 
strictly  rL'Utihle  and  may  shuw  fright  from  lime  lo 
timi!  without  apparent  cau»e.  In  the  caMuuf  tiheep, 
howL'vvr,  the  conditionH  an-  different,  sinee  theso 
animals  are  not  considered  so  good  fur  breL'ding 
purposes  after  ha^nng  once  become  locoed.  They 
are  therefore  fattened  as  soon  as  ptjssible  and  sold 
for  mutton.  No  injurious  properties  attjurh  to 
mutton  of  locoed  shi'ep. 

Coeklc-bur. 

The  common  cockte-bur  i.Xantiiiu'Bi  Canadcntf), 
when  very  young  and  in  the  two-leaved  stage  of 
its  growth,  may  be  very 
poisonous  for  swine  and 
sometimes  forcattle.  The 
animals  seem  greatly  de- 
pressed and  die  qnicMv- 
The  treatment  Li  tr>  give 
pemanganate  of  jtotanh 
followed  by  dtirinilants. 

MUeeUaneous  poitanous 
pJanti. 

Among  the  numeroufl 
other  poisonous  plants  of 
teas  importance,  mention 
should  be  made  of  lupines 
(Fig.  107).  ergot,  swamp 
camas,  milk -weed,  corn 
flower,  nights liades, 
HTieeKe-weed,  dogbane, 
bane-berry,  hiorels,  and 
wild  cherry  {Fig.  108). 
Hay  containing  the  com- 
mon horsetail  (A^iV/um  crivnur)  sometimes  causes 
IKjifloning  of  horses. 

Prt^€etiit  mranurei. 

An  ini]]ortunt  point  to  consider  in  connection 
with  poiwn<,ius  plant*)  is  that  the  iwisum'us  princi- 
ples are  not  always  present  hut  may  appear  only 
at  one  stage  of  growth,  and  be  absent  at  all  other 
8tage«.  or  may  be  strictly  localized  in  only  one 
part  of  the  plant,  as  for  example  in  the  root  or 
seeds.  This  is  strikingly  the  ciute  in  lupines,  which 
are  used  extensively  for  grazing  and  fur  bay  and 
which,  under  ontinary  eircuniHtances,  are  exceed- 
ingly valuable  for  this  purp(«e.  At  times,  how- 
ever, tht  poisonous  principle  appears  particularly  in 
the  ripe  seed  and  caases  extensive  lossi's,  especially 
among  sheep.  In  a  few  instancej*.  1,500  to  2.000 
sheep  have  been  killed  thud  within  a  few  hours. 
The  farmer  whtmld  l»ear  in  mind,  therefore,  that  a 
plant  is  not  shown  to  be  harmless  by  fee<ling  in 
one  stage  without  bad  results.  Many  tiheepmon 
have  learned  this  fact  by  sad  experience. 

In  order  to  prevent  serious  results  from  poison* 
ous  plants,  it  is  desirable  to  improve  the  grazing 
conditions  for  stock  so  that  animals  wilt  not  l« 
forced  to  eat  the  poisonous  plants.  If  such  plaata 


Pie.  107. 

phylfuti. 


DISEASES  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  ANIMALS 


-^- 


are  studied  by  the  ranchmen  and  fanners  it  will 
be  observed  that  they  have  differt'iit  habitats  and 
may  be  expected  to  <wcur  under  the*»«  conditioM. 
It  in  ■pftfjiible,  therefore,  in  many  instanoea  to 
eradicatfl  a  jwiaonoiis  plant  from  a  Riven  ranf;e 
with  little  expensi-,  since  it  may  occur  ouly  in  a 
few  restricted  localities. 
M!U.  When   such  eradication 

is  irapoBsible.  becaust  of 
the  general  dJHtribution 
'  '_'  _     - ;   iif  the  |t!ant,  [misotiing 
t  f'  from  this  source  may  be 

avoided  by  dividing  the 
range  so  as  to  keep  the 
.^■*4i£  stock  away  from  tho 
\"^'-^  [>'ii.4(»nou8  areas  during 
^\  -.j"  the  season  of  the  year 
when  the  plant  is  |)oi- 
sonuuK.  By  thiis  nytttein 
it  is  unnocv&tary  to  lose 
the  use  of  any  part  of 
the  range,  and  tho  ranch- 
man is  inttured  against 
looses  from  p^^^^H'^i- 
Honinp.  Certain  stock- 
men, particularly  in  the 
ranj^  sLatejt,  have  found 
that  animals  are  especi- 
ally likely  to  eat  poi- 
oonous  plants  along 
streams  and  marshy  placeB.  In  fnich  localities  the 
poisonoaa  plants  may  bo  eradicated  by  digging,  or 
the  danger  may  be  greatly  leaeened  by  sowing 
grass  Seed  ^o  as  to  improve   the  quality  of  the 


Fif.  los.   WMtcrnnritd  ctienr 


forage  in  these  places,  thus  minimiiing  the  promi- 
nence and  importance  of  the  undeiiirable  weedA. 

The  following  li«t  of  referencM  contains  some  of 
the  more  important  articles  on  poisonous  plants  in 
this  country :  V.  A.  Moore,  Cornstalk  Disease,  Bnl- 
letin  No.  10,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry ;  V.  K. 
Chesnut  and  E.  V.  Wilcox,  The  Stock-roisoning 
Plants  of  Montana.  Division  of  Botany,  Bulletin  No. 
26  ;  .!.  W.  Blankinship.  The  Ixtco  and  Some  Other 
Poisonous  rianCii  in  Montana,  Montana  Hulletin 
No.  4">;  E.  V.  Wilcox,  Larkspur  Poisoning  of 
Sheep,  .Montana  Bulletin  No.  15;  E.  V.  Wilcox, 
Lupines,  etc.,  as  Poisonous  Plants,  Montana  Bulletin 
No.  22;  N.  S.  Mayo.  Poisoning  of  Stock,  American 
Veterinary  Medical  Aeeociation,  1902;  D.  A.Brodie, 
Poison  Parsnip  in  Wefitem  Washington,  Washing- 
ton Bulletin,  No.  45;  TJ.  P.  He<lrick,  Cicuta 
Vagans,  Oregon  Bulletin  No.  46 ;  N.  S.  Mayo,  Some 
ObsiTvations  on  Ixjco,  Kansas  Bulletin  No.  35  :  H. 
B.  .Slade,  Stock- Poisoning  in  Idaho,  Idaho  Bulletin. 
No.  37  ;  C.  E.  Beascy,  Poisonous  Weeds^  Nebraska 
Experiment  Station  Report,  Pagee  14-G2 ;  V.  K. 
Chesnut,  Principal  Poisonous  Plant*  of  the  Unit«d 
States,  DiviKion  of  Botany.  Bulletin  No.  20;  P.  A, 
Rich.  TheCommon  IIitrmHail,  Vermont  Bulletin  No. 
ftfj ;  P.  W.  Morse,  Poiaonoua  Properties  of  the  Wild 
Chcrrv  Leaves.  New  Hampshire  Experimont  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  5G  ;  B.  D.  Hal.-ited,  The  Poisonous 
Plants  of  New  Jersey,  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station,  Bulletin  No,  V^;  L.  Van  Es  and  L.  R. 
Wiildron,  Some  Stock-Poiiuining  Plants  of  North 
DakotjL,  North  Dakota  Bulletin  No.  ijS. 


A 


CHAPTER  V 


DISEASES   AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  ANIMALS 

By  JAMES   l^W 

ISBASES    LARGELY    DETF-:RMINB    the    character  and    the 

proiiiabjtfotisg  of  live-stock  interests.    These  diseases  are  tbe 

special   field   of  study   of  the  veterinarian.    The  value  of 

vettrinary  mwJicine  to  the    United    States  may  be  inferred 

from  the  number  of  farm  iiuiidrupeds  -  over  200,000.000. 

worth  four  and  a  half  billions  of  diiHsn!,  and  auhjecl  to  all 

kinds  of  acTJdents  and  i^iKiraitie  ditteaKee.    The  saving  of  bat 

one-half  of  one  per  Cent  of  this  stock  would  mean  a  yearly 

revc-nue  of  some  twenty  millions  of  dollars  and  could  easily 

strike  the  balance  between  gnccess  and  failure.    If  we  consider  farther  that  the 

'  ••'Ji^^-^^'"  fertility  of  onr  soil  depends   in  the  final  coont  on  the  number  of  live-stock 

and  tho  quantity  of  their  products  that  can  be  used  as  fertilizer,  we  enhance  the  value  of  any  great 

increase  in  our  Hocks  and  herds  almost  beyond  computation. 

A  saccessftil  live-stock  indnstry,  and  the  m\\  fertility  which  comos  from  a  dense  aggregation  of 
animals,  depend  far  more  on  the  prevention  and  exclusion  of  communicable  diseases,  than  on  the 
skilful  dealing  with  the  common  every-day  affections  which  are  not  transmissible.  Formerly  rinderpest 
ravaged  Europe  at  frequent  int«rvab,  as  soon,  as  the  few  recovered  and   immune  animals  hat]  beea 


1 


DISEASES  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  ANIMALS 


123 


replaced  by  stwceptible  ones.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  rinderpest  alone  ctwt  Europe  20,000,000  head 
of  cattle  worth  $l.OO0.WK).O00.  From  1813  to  1892  lung  plague  wwt  the  Unitize!  StJiU*,  nn  exporte 
Ah)iie,  $2,D0lV^00  per  aiintini.  Foot-aml-tiinuth  Hiftease.  whenever  it  [wnptralccl,  jiaralyzed  Um  dairy 
[nduetry,  and,  attacking  all  biKulcaten  and  tniiny  i.>thtir  warm-biooiled  animals,  c^iust-d  incalculable  Iusimjs. 

The  two  diseaaes— lung-pIagiiH  and  foot-and-mouth  diiteaae— are  the  only  two  animal  plaf^ies  that* 
in  America,  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  accompliBhed  veterinary  sanitarians  with  plenary  power 
to  extirpate  them,  and  each  has  been  exterminated  and  banished  from  the  continent.  This  safe- 
gnarding  of  the  country  from  those  alone  abolished  at  once  a  yearly  tax  of  many  milliuns  from  which 
the  nation  had  been  HufFering,  and  cut  off  the  nteiulily  increasing  atlditiomt  tii  thijt  tax  which  would 
otberwiKe  have  been  Lmpri(«ed  by  their  inevitable  progrem^ive  exU>nKiun. 

Our  remaining  animal  plagues  prejtent  other  probtema  in  sanitary  economy,  bat  they  are  allowed 
to  prerail  and  extend  with  no  such  effective  control  as  gives  promise  of  their  extinction.  At  least 
three  different  febrile  places  of  swine  carry  off  tens  of  millions  of  d(dlAnt  yearly;  contagions 
abortion  of  cows  is  now  almost  coextensive  with  tho  dairy  interest,  and  in  place  nf  intelligent  sani- 
tary control  is  made  the  occasion  of  the  widespread  sale  of  empirical  no^^LrumH  which  claim  to 
prevent  a  repetition  of  abortion  by  the  same  animal,  a  work  which  unaidi^d  nature  accomplishes. 
Contafpoua  abortion  can  lie  in  moAt  ca^eK  exterminated,  but  this  entails  the  most  stringent  measares 
against  any  transfer  from  a  herd  in  which  the  disease  exists  or  has  existed.  With  this  enforced, 
prevsnltve  treatment  can  be  made  successful  in  destroying  the  germ  and  eradicating  the  disease. 
Bat  with  free  sales,  and  a  diaeaae  progne^ing  unseen  for  six  or  eight  months,  without  manifest 
symptnma,  in  what  appears  to  be  &  perfectly  healthy  animal,  it  will  continue  to  be  propagated  with 
diaaalrona  rBsult. 

Texu  fever  has  long  dwarfetl  the  cattle  industry  of  the  South.  The  coast  Btatea  from  Virginia 
to  Texas,  if  stocked  like  Illinois,  could  easily  sustain  40,000,000  head  worth  $l.r]00,000,000.  Tha 
aouthem  cattle  indostry  is  awaking  to  the  truth  that  the  systematic  extermination  of  the  cattle 
tick,  the  bearer  of  the  germ,  would  be  a  most  remunerative  investment. 

The  common  shipping  fevera  of  dealere'  hnrHes,  Hlrangles,  influenza  ami  contagious  pneumonia,  cauae 
Dotold  losses  to  the  country  every  year,  and  it  is  a  very  ri^ky  spucutatlon  to  buy  a  young  honu;  that  baa 
JBSt  run  tfa«  gauntlet  of  railway  cars,  fei'dingistabW,  stuck-yardu  and  sale-AtableK.  .\s  in  the  case  of 
other  plagues,  tfaeee  could  all  be  done  away  with  under  a  system  which  required  an  official  guarantee  of 
the  absence  of  infection  from  the  district  from  which  the  shipment  takea  place :  the  obligation  of  tha 
carrying  companies  to  carry  no  soUpeds  without  this  evidence,  and  to  have  all  c-ars  and  stables  thoroughly 
disinfected  after  (lach  shipment ;  also  the  ubligatitin  on  dealei'n  to  admit  only  such  guaranteed  horftea, 
and  instantly  to  ijuarantine  all  mcM  bor»»<,  and  fwh  as  have  Iwen  exposed  to  them. 

At  present,  tubt-rculosis  occupie>i  thu  public  mind  itioru  than  any  other  contagious  disease  of  animals. 
Its  extcnaloD  has  been  almost  phenomenal  in  spite  of  tho  ineffective  measures  taken  for  iia  control. 
The  gnnt  extension  of  the  dairy  industry  has  led  to  the  demand  for  a  herd  in  full  milk  all  through  the 
year.  Failing  cows  are  sold  and  replaced  by  fresh  ones,  and  in  many  cases  the  whole  herd  is  changed  in 
the  coarse  of  a  year.  Every  such  purchaac  is  in  tbif  nature  of  a  gamble,  with  the  added  riak  that  the 
former  owner  is  anxious  to  get  rid  of  his  unthrifty  or  unht-althy  cowi*,  rather  than  the  sound  and  thrifty. 
Some  states  have  bean  especially  uuhappy  in  their  trade  in  dairy  cow».  .\djacvat  stattts  have  refused 
dairy  cowa  from  outside  sources,  unless  they  have  just  successfully  passed  through  the  tuberculin 
test.  TfaoR  the  sound  coft*s  have  Iwen  selected  out  of  the  herds  in  the  unprotected  region,  leaving 
the  diseased  ones  huddled  together  in  a  concentrated  infection.  Under  such  a  condition,  tuWrculosis 
makes  more  rapid  progreaa.  The  latter  Htnte,  on  it^  part,  may  have  reqnireil  no  tulwrculin  test,  so 
that  stock-owners  In  adjacent  KUites  could  ship  into  it  the  Ktill  healthy-lMiking  cows  timt  had  failed 
to  pais  the  tobercuUn  test,  theruby  making  tuWculoj^is  still  more  conct>ntratL>il.  Again,  shipments 
of  cowa  into  a  large  market,  were  there  tested,  and  the  healthy  sent  into  adjoining  states,  with  a 
oertiAcate  of  soundoeas,  while  the  tuberculous  were  left  to  be  sold.  As  an  lllustnition  of  the  extent 
to  which  toberculoslft  may  spreatl,  it  may  he  etatcl  that  in  fifteen  years  the  |)ercentage  of  cows  found 
to  be  toberculons  in  testing  dairy  herds  in  New  York,  roue  from  11.6  per  cent  in  1892  to  36  per 
cent  in  1904-7,  tn  the  herds  that  were  t«ated. 

Aside  from  infectious  diseases,  there  are  endless  varieties  of  animal  parasitism,  and  an  accurato 
kaovledge  of  the  habita  of  each  species  is  imperative.  Every  stock-owner  should  secure  this  kiowl- 
edge,  while  practicing  vetennarians  and  veterinary  tfanitary  uSicers,  who  have  failed  to  master  it. 
m  tbenselve*  injurious  parasites  on  the  body  politic. 


lOlTS  DISEASES  OP 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 

By  Vcraniia  A.  Mwrc 

The  term  "diwaBe"  is  employed  to  indicatt*  the 
existence  of  dUturhantx-s  of  the  phyniological 
activity  of  the  organs.  It  is  a  deviation  from  the 
healthy  or  normal  u;natuinit.'a1  and  chvmicat  rela- 
tions of  the  Ijody  constituents.  DistaiMS,  therefore, 
are  proce.*sct*  which  are  due  to  natnrnl  catises. 
The  causes  which  dii^turb  the  normal  conditiorui  of 
the  animal  body  are  numerous  but  they  may  be 
aummarixed  nnder  the  folIowinR  headings :  (1) 
Disturbances  of  nutrition,  depending  on  improper 
kinds  or  quantities  of  food.  (2,1  Lack  of  oxypen, 
resulting  from  poor  ventilation  or  obstruction  to 
respiration.  l3)  Fnnclional  disturbances,  due  to 
over-exercise  or  work,  or  to  a  Eaok  of  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  (tody  activity.  (-1)  Thermic  influ- 
ences, depending  on  too  high  or  too  low  temi^era- 
torea.  (5)  Electric  aft^ncies.  (t1)  Mechanical 
iajoriea.  (7)  Poisons.  (8>  Infection.  (J>l  Animal 
parasites.  The  diseased  conditions  produced  in  the 
animal  body  by  malnutrition,  over-work,  poor 
hygiene  and  the  injurious  effect'!  of  electricity  and 
thermal  di«turbanced  arc  known  as  genKfal  diji- 
ea^ed ;  thost;  due  to  (mraitttes  are  calLed  parn;<itLsms, 
and  those  caused  by  microi'T^anii^mit  are  known  as 
inrecLioua  difteaaes.  The  diHeuf^tnl  (.-omliticmK  due  to 
infection  are  known  undt-r  two  headin/;tt,  namely, 
wound  infection  and  specific  infectious  diseases. 

laferHtm. 

The  term  infection  has  come  to  be  understocxl  to 
mctan  the  entnince  into  the  animal  body,  from 
wilhuut,  of  living  microiirgiinisms,  capable  of 
multiplyLng  within  the  living  tisnue;)  and  of  pro- 
ducing, in  eonawjuence  thereof,  a  loc^l  or  a  general 
diseased  condilion;  anil,  posi^ibly,  tht-  dL-jitb  of  tliu 
individual.  Thi3  invading  micrtKtrgani.'ims  may  be- 
long to  any  one  of  the  thrne  great  groupn  of  micro- 
flcnpic  life,  namely,  bactoria,  higher  fungi,  or 
protcraoa. 

A  diHeafted  condition  proiluced  by  KubtttanceH  not 
capablu  of  repriiducinE  themselvea.  a.s  forexampln, 
organic  or  inorganic  chomitrul  compoumls,  is  an 
intoxjcative  process,  or  piiisoning.  In  an  infection, 
the  immediate  cause  of  the  symptoms  and  morbid 
changes  in  the  tissues  is  an  intoxication  due  to  the 
action  of  the  metabolic  pru<)ucts  (toxins)  of  the 
invading  microi>rganisms. 

If  the  inva^ling  rirgani»raft  remain  at  the  point 
of  entrance  and  produce  local  tissue  changes,  such 
as  inflammation  orabscesML'S,  the  eunditiun  inaiiukcn 
of  as  a  woond  infL-^ction.  If  Lhu  invading  bacteria 
Itecome  widely  distributed  in  the  circulation  and 
tisBiieR.  giving  rifle  to  a  high  temperature  and  other 
hody  diaturhanees,  the  condition  is  known  as  septi- 
cemia  ur  bat'tenlemia.  If  the  infecting  bacteria 
remain  at  tho  point  of  entrance  and  multiply  there, 
elaborating  a  toxin  whinh  is  ai)^orbe<l,  and  which 
causes  symptom.-*  and  poasibly  dimth.  the  conditi^m 
is  a  toxemia.  If  there  is  a  febrile  condition,  result- 
ing from  the  absorption  of  the  pro<lucts  of  putre- 
faction caused  by  saprophjtic  bacttTia,  the  condition 
\9  called  sapremia.    If  the  invading  organism  is  one 


ptwaessed  of  definite  pathogenic  propertlcB,  auch  as 
the  bacterium  of  anthrax,  giving  rise  to  a  de6nitc 
series  of  symptoms  and  lesions,  the  affection  is 
designated  a  specific  infectious  diw^ase. 

Through  the  agency  of  metastasis,  invading 
microMrgfinism.!*  may  be  carried  from  the  point  of 
introduction  to  other  parts  of  the  bixiy,  where  they 
may  become  localiiteii.  multiply,  and  give  ri!*e  to 
any  one  of  many  forms  of  diwea-se.  It  may  happen 
that  the  point  of  entrance  is  so  ob-vure  that  the 
resulting  morbid  changes  are  not  easily  traced  to 
an  external  infection.  There  are  many  illustrations 
of  this*,  such,  for  example,  as  localized  inflamma- 
tions or  abscesses.  As  already  tstated.  for  conve- 
nience in  discussion  infections  may  be  divided  into 
two  clinical  groups,  namely,  wound  infections  and 
specific  infectiooit  diseases,  although  in  certain 
instances  they  can  not  be  separated. 

In  the  study  of  the  various  forma  of  infection  in 
the  lower  animals,  many  lesions  seem  to  be  pro- 
duct^ by  bacteria  which  are  harbored  normally  on 
the  skin.  When  these  organisms  are  introduced  by 
accidtrnt  into  the  living  tissue.^  they  multiply  and 
acquire  (if  they  did  not  already  p(«yie5ifl  it)  the 
power  to  produce  tinsue  chang\is.  Hecent  investi- 
gations point  to  the  conclufdon  that  domeuticated 
animaU  frequently  fiuffer  as  a  result  of  the  inva- 
8ion  (if  liiideria  at  present  not  listed  among  the 
pathogimic  organisms,  and  what  is  true  in  this 
TL-gard  for  bacteria  may  be  hypothetically  applied 
to  fungi  and  to  the  protozoa. 

Chanvrh  qftTiffxiitm. 

There  are  a  numlier  of  ways  by  which  micro- 
organixmf  may  Ite  introduced  into  the  living  tiivDes 
of  the  animal  btHly.  The  more  common  of  thtsre  are 
KA  fidlows.  namely : 

(1)  Tbrtftiijh  the  diffentim  /rac/. —Bacteria  gain 
entrance  into  the  tissues  from  tho  digestive  tract 
where  they  have  been  brought  with  the  food  or 
water.  It  is  not  clear  in  all  casej;  how  the  invading 
organisms  get  into  the  tiHsuen  fnim  the  inte-Ktine. 
It  has  lH>en  demo[];«t rated  that  tubt>rule  bacteria 
will  paw  through  the  mucoHa  with  fat  globules  in 
the  prot:i?«a  uf  digi-stion  and  absorption- 

(2)  Thntii^tt  Ihr  rvjipiratorjf  tract. — Bacteria  are 
taken  into  the  lungs,  where  they  are  brought  with 
the  inhaled  atmosphere.  Pulmonary  tubercular 
alfocti<m  is  nft^-n  bmught  about  in  thift  way. 

(S)  7!irttu<ih  ahnijiinrif  of  the  xkin.  or  integiinal 
maflMW.— Tbu  wida  distribution  nf  bacteria  in 
naturt!  rendera  it  highly  probable  that  in  all 
wounds  of  the  integument  micnwirganisms  will 
reach  the  fresh  tissues.  They  may  come  from  the 
cutting  or  tearing  implement,  the  particles  of  dirt 
which  may  fall  into  or  on  the  cut  surface,  or  from 
the  ducts  of  the  glands  of  the  skin  itaelf,  It  may 
happen  that  the  fresh  tissiieH  thus  exported  are 
infecU^  with  one  or  with  se^'eral  species  of  liactc^ 
nil.  It  may  Iw  that  one  or  more  of  these  spe- 
cies may  lie  destroyed  by  the  living  juices  of  the 
body,  or  by  the  leui:(x:yteK.  or  again  it  is  possible 
that>  from  their  fiajirophytic  nature,  they  may  not 
be  able  to  multiply  in  this  new  environment;  in 
either  case,  tho  infection  is  of  no  significance,  and 


i 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  A^^IMALS 


126 


'^clinically  woulil  not  be  reco^iz^tl.  It  may  hnppeit 
thitt  odIv  itav  epoi'iiM  nf  the  inft-ctin];;  Uit^teria  miil- 
tiplii-*  and  produces  the  morbid  chaiint^a.  Thia 
wuuld  Im  a  8i&Klt)  infection.  If,  huwuviT,  two  or 
iiHire  speciee  coopcratu  in  the  production  of  the 
letiioiM,  it  m  called  a  mixed  infection.  This  turm 
is  stao  nacd  tu  designate  the  condition  whon  one 
Bpecii.-*  may  W  rpsjmnBibie  fur  the  ti-isue  change-s. 
althdUKh  iither  liacTlenn,  tire  ]irpKent  hut  »Diy  in  an 
aticidnntal  ur  jtasHivu  way. 

(-1)  Tftniufih  the  ffeiteraliiv  tirsjartx. — Infwtion  of 
Ihu  a-productivc  orKand  tak«!  |ilacf  in  certain 
inntances  when  thfy  arc  the  seat  of  the  disea^*. 
Thi)«  iH  e-specinlly  true  in  case  of  dourinu. 

(."»)  Tkmugb  Ihe  affracj/  of  iiMfr/jt.— Some  insects 
carry  the  virus  of  curtain  iliae-ases  from  the  iiifecteii 
and  introduce  it  into  the  HiiHceptibli^  individiialg. 
Thus,  the  nuequito  (^wriut  the  {ilaHmiidium  of 
huinuQ  malaria,  the  cuttle  lick  thu  [liroplasmu  of 
Texas  cattle  fever,  and  flies  are  often  the  inlro- 
dacers  of  patho};enic  bacteria,  such  as  those  of 
anthrax.  In  certain  inDtances,  tu^  with  niuluriu,  a 
part  of  the  life  cycle  of  the  mieroiirKanism  take^ 
place  in  the  body  of  Uie  carrying  insect. 

(6)  Tranamisfiaa  of  ffu:  inrua  from  the  parrnt  to 
thefrtut. — Occawionally  the  youn>{  are  born  infected 
wiUi  ihe  diiieaHe  with  which  onu  or  both   of  its 

KreaU  were  satferine.  In  theso  cases  the  specific 
eteria  were  transmitted  either  from  the  sire  at 
the  time  of  coition,  or  later  to  the  fetus  in  the 
uterus  from  the  dam.  tt  is  important  not  to  con- 
fuse these  rare  cases  with  those  in  which  the  off- 
spriag  are  bom  uninfected,  hut  subsequently  con- 
tract the  dittease.  Many  of  the  so-called  hereditary 
diseases  are  the  result  of  poet-natal  iafectioQ. 

Wound  infedunu. 

Ifanjr  diseased  condition.^  of  animals  result  from 
the  local  effects  of  bacteria  or  funf;i  getting  into 
tlM  tiaeuee  throui,'h  cut^t  or  abrasions  of  the  skin. 
TbeM  BBtially  appear  as  acute  or  chronic  inliam- 
matioiu.  with  or  without  suppurations.  In  wound 
infection,  the  invadintr  organism  is  not  always  of 
tbe  same  species,  tt  is  because  of  the  fact  that 
Tiraiid  infection  lesiona  may  1>e  caustrd  by  a  number 
of  different  bacteria  that  they  cannot  be  classed 
anoae  the  speci^c  infectioun  difx^ases.  It  is  ob- 
aerred  farther,  that  in  many  of  these  lesions  two  or 
more  species  have  been  responsible  for  the  results. 
There  is  ao  aymptom  or  manifestation  of  tissue 
chaageeby  which  one  can  determine  the  speciftciCy 
of  the  excitinjr  cause.  If  this  is  d'>ne  it  requires  a 
bact«rioIopcal  examination.  A  large  number  of 
apeetee  of  bacteria  and  a  few  fungi  are  includtKl 
■moag  the  organisms  which  are  known  to  produce 
wound  infections  in  animals.  Fnngi  ami  protozoa 
are  rarely  fuund  in  acut*?  wound  infK'tiun.  Many  of 
the  specific  pathogenic  bactt^ria  may  be  introiiuced 
through  wounds.  In  addition  to  the  usnal  disfirders 
followiBg  wound  infection,  there  are  many  lesions 
that  develop  in  the  animal  l>o<ly,  which  are  the 
direct  rwolt  of  bacterial  invasion.  Theseareknown 
by  variooH  namee, 

(1)  Botryomyamt. — This  name  ha*  bwn  given  to 
a  rariety  of  luioos  found  more  commonly  on  the 


horse  but  occurring  also  in  cattle,  swine  and  other 
anitnalK.  The  thickened  spermatic  cord  (scirrhoua 
cord)  which  Kometimeis  follows  castration  i.'^  the 
most  common  form  of  this  disease.  Practitioners 
often  designate  as  l)otry*>mycoBiB  certain  clo6*ed 
alii^'essus  occurring  in  the  subcutaneous  or  inter- 
muscular tissue.  Ab*ce8ses  and  nodulew  found  in 
tbe  internal  organs  have  also  been  included  under 
this  caption.  Several  species  of  pus-producing  bac- 
teria have  lieen  isolated  from  these  lesions.  In- 
vestigations which  have  been  made  into  the  bac- 
terial flora  of  the  «kin  of  the  horse  show  that 
pyogenic  bacteria  are  freiiwently  pre-tent  in  the 
dee|)er  layers  of  the  epidermi-i,  in  ducts  of  glands 
and  about  the  hair  shafts.  With  the  posBibilily  of 
infection  frum  the  integument  in  addition  to  nil  tho 
other  chances  of  having  bacteria  introduced  into 
the  body,  there  secma  to  be  abundant  opportunity 
for  infection.  The  source  of  infection  in  the  cord 
is  to  he  found  in  the  anaterilized  or  non-disinfected 
skin,  improperly  Bt^'rilired  in.>ttniment^,  dressings, 
or  the  hands  of  the  i.i;H;rator.  The  fact  Is  worthy 
of  note  in  this  connection  that  septicemia,  peri- 
tonitis, and  othe^r  more  distantly  localized  lesions 
occasionally  follow  such  infections. 

(2)  Jafedinus  tuippurat in-  reJhlitif. — Cattle  and 
sheep  often  suffer  from  inflammatory  conditions  of 
the  subcutaneous  tis-sues,  especially  of  the  lower 
extremities.  Freijuently  the  morbid  pnvcess extends 
beneath  the  hoof,  causing  it  to  slough  or  to 
undergo  resulting  disintegration  changes.  When 
this  condition  exiiits,  the  affection  is  usually  called 
"  foot  rot."  If  the  inflammatory  process  attacks 
the  skin  also,  the  condition  is  often  designated  as 
erysipelas.  If  it  becomes  circumscribed,  resulting 
in  a  local  suppuration,  an  abscess  or  an  ulcer  is  the 
result.  The  investigations  which  have  been  made 
concerning  the  cause  of  these  lesions  point  to  tho 
conclusion  that  they  result  from  an  infection, 
usually  with  streptococci,  through  some  slight 
abrasion  of  the  skin.  H  frequently  happens  that  a 
number  of  animals  subjected  to  the  same  conditions 
are  attacked  at  the  same  time,  giving  rise  to  a 
condition  resembling  an  epiKoiitic. 

(3)  FiMulouf  witkiTt  and  ;»((-< nV.— These  con- 
ditions, which  consist  of  inflammation  leading  to 
suppuration  of  the  withers  and  poll,  are  due  to  in- 
fection. The  mechanical  injuries  commonly  attrib- 
uted as  the  primary  cause  consist  usually  of  little 
more  thanskin  irritation  from  ill-fitting  harnesses, 
or  saddles,  or  from  blows.  While  theise  are  mechanic- 
ally not  extensive,  they  are  sufficient  to  liberate 
into  the  juices  of  the  subjacent  tissues  the  bacteria 
deeply  seated  in  the  integument.  The  inflammatory 
process  leading  to  suppuration,  the  formation  of 
fistula>,  the  new  formation  of  fibrous  tissue  in  the 
affected  parts,  and  even  the  bone  necrosis  occasion- 
ally seen,  are  all  possible  and  rational  results  of 
the  activities  of  the  pyogenic  bacteria  found  in  the 
lesions. 

(1)  Infecdout  nmgtltit.  (Fig.  109.)— Cattle  stif- 
fer  frwiiiently  from  an  acute  inflammation  of  the 
udder  as  the  result  of  bacterial  invasion.  It  seems 
likely  that  many  cases  are  brought  about  primarily 
by  mechanical  injunas,  which  render  possible  the 


las 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


entrana?  Into  the  fresh  tUsuea  of  the  bactoria  of 
th*;  skin  or  of  the  milk  ducts.  Other  cases  may  b.> 
due  to  infection  thniiiBh  the  teat  by  hactoria  capa- 
blt!  of  pntducing  the  inflammiilfiry  condition  with- 
out ailistinct  injury  ty  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
former  i-ifW  that  there  was  a»phinct<!r  rauacle  near 
tile  base  of  the  teat,  which  cIoM  th*-  duct  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  the  entrance  of  bacteria  to  the 

m 

0  0 


0 


CO 


fll.  IK.  StnpUCDOcI  trom  tbc  nddvt  oC  a  caw  luHctluG  f'V'ni 
laloctious  cnutliis,  aboirLaK  «lw  piu  coiT'Usdoe  and  Ut 
clobulM. 

secreting  parts  of  the  gland,  was  not  well  founded 
on  anatomical  fact.t.  The  acote  and  more  chronic 
inflammatory  affectionA  of  the  udder  fall  very 
naturally  into  two  groups,  namely,  (1)  Ihoge  in 
which  the  parenchyma  is  most  affected  and  (2) 
those  in  which  the  struma  or  tibroiu  ti^^ue  is  invol- 
ved. The  form  more  frequently  encountered  as  an 
infectious  (tranomisaihle)  dineise  is  characterized 
by  very  marked  chani^s  in  the  milk,  accompanied 
by  the  uauaJ  symptoms  of  parenchymatous  inflam- 
mation of  the  gland  itwlf. 

(5)  Xavel-Ui  er  omphaiophlebitU. — This  disease 
consists  of  suppurative  legions  in  young  animals, 
cau-sed  by  bacteria.  In  the  horae  they  are  most 
often  I'Ocalized  in  the  joints  of  the  limbs  (polyar- 
thritis). In  certain  other  species  the  lesions  are  as 
likely  to  be  situated  elsewhere  in  the  body.  The 
infection  takes  place  in  the  umbilicus.  As  the  cord 
is  severed  in  the  field  or  stable,  bacteria  may  gain 
access  to  the  end  of  the  exposed  and  f  rvshly  sevured 
cord.  In  the  co!t,  streptococci  seem  to  be  the  most 
common  siwciea  of  b.icteria  capable  of  prodacing 
the  joint  abiicesses.  In  Iambs  the  colon  bacillus  is 
more  fre<^aently  associated  with  the  subcutAneous 
cellalitis.  The  prevention  in  thetu  ciist'S  consists 
in  the  proper  disinfection  and  dressing  of  the 
umbilicus  at  the  time  the  cord  is  severed.  It  is  the 
only  preventive  measnre  known. 

(6)  IfSiVe  Kourt  or  diarrhm  in  talnn. — This  is 
a  disease  affecting  calvet*  from  a  few  hour.'<  to  as 
many  daj'S  oH,  with  a  mortality  ran-jing  from  50 
to  90  per  cent.  The  invealigattonft  which  have 
been  made  in  this  ponntry  have  r('vealwl  the  pres- 
enoo  of  colon  bacilli.  Ni>carii  rt[)orle«l  finding  other 
species  of  bacteria.  Hu  found  that  th«  ca!ve« 
usually  die  during  the  lirst  vnwk.  In  more  chronic 
cases,  lung  legions  were  found.  His  inquiri<>s  tend 
to  show  that  this  in  primarily  due  to  a  wound 
infection.    He  states  in  his  report  concerning  the 


nature  of  this  diseaw  that  it  asoally  lut«  3  to  6 
days  and  is  characterized  by  an  intense  intestinal 
discharge.  The  discharges  are  always  of  the  natan^ 
of  a  diarrhea  white  and  frothy.  The  calves  k 
fle»h  rapidly,  their  Ilank.-t  are  hollow,  abdomoa 
retracted,  back  arched,  eyes  sunken,  and  hair  dull. 
The  lesionH  found  at  the  autopsy  vary.  Usually 
the  umbilicus  is  large  and  the  umbilical  blood  ves- 
sels have  indurated  walls  and  contain  blood  clots 
which  may  I*  wft  and  purulent.  Bloody  extrava- 1 
sationa  are  oliser\'cd,  eometimes  very  extensive, 
along  the  umbilicd  vessel  nnd  the  urachus,  extend- 
ing sometimea  to  the  posterior  third  of  the  bladder, 
White  scours  is  ordinarily  the  result  of  umbilical 
infection  which  takes  place  at  the  time  of  birth  hvi 
way  of  the  wound  made  by  the  rupture  of  the  cord.  1 
Nocard  found  that  this  trouble  could  be  prevented 
if  the  penwn  in  charge  of  the  animals  at  the  time 
of  their  delivery  takes  precautions  to  prevent 
infection. 

C7)  Miiwltancoia  tn/tcfiorii.— Attention  should  be 
called  to  the  many  morbid  conditions  resulting  from 
infecti«>n  that  are  encountered  in  different  species, 
of  animals  and  are  liable  to  be  attributed  to  other] 
agencies.  Among  the.'fie  may  be  mentioned  pericar> 
ditis,  pleoritis,  peritonitis,  and  abscess  formation 
in  different  parte  of  the  bcidy. 

[day,  A  Bacteriological  Study  of  Fistulous  With- 
ers, ilotryomycosis  and  Infected  Wounds  in  the 
Horse,  American  Veterinary  Kevjen-,  Vol.  XXIV, 
p.  877  (llJOl);  .Nocard.  A  New  Paateurelltwe : 
White  Scours  and  Lung  Diseases  of  Calves  in  Ire- 
lard,  American  Veterinary  Review.  Vol.  .\XV, 
p.  :i2e  ( 1901) :  Ward,  The  Invasion  of  the  Udder  by 
Uiicteria,  Bulletin  No.  178,  Cornell  University 
Agricultural  Kxperinient  Station  (1900).] 

Spfe\fie  infeetiijut  disraffs. 

A  specific  infectious  disease  is  the  result  of  the 
multiplication  within  the  animal  body  of  a  single 
species  of  a  disea.<e-producing  microorganism.  The 
lesions  may  be  local  or  general,  but  ttw  cattse  pro- 
ducing them  is  always  the  same.  Thus,  Barfmiim 
anthmcis  will  produce  a  disease  which  is  called 
anthrax :  no  other  cause  will  produce  it,  and  no 
matter  how  much  the  le&ionj<  may  vary  in  dilferenti 
individuals,  if  they  are  produced  by  this  species  of 
bacteria  the  disea-se  is  anthrax.  It  is  clear,  there- 
fore, that  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  between  a 
simple  (single)  wound  infection  and  a  recognii^<d 
infectious  or  epizoT'tic  disease,  excent  in  the  nature 
of  the  invading  organism.  As  a  class  the  specifio 
infectious  diseases  are  differential*^  from  tha 
lifsions  known  clinically  as  wound  infections  ia  a , 
number  of  ways,  and  there  ia  usually  a  differenc* 
in  the  mode  of  infection.  The  virus  of  the  epizo- 
otic disea.-wi  is  ordinarily  introduced  through  the 
digestive  or  respiratory  tract  or  by  means  of  in- 
s(%tM,  while  in  wound  infection  the  virus  is  intro- 
duced, as  the  term  implies,  through  the  injured 
skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

It  is  very  important  not  to  mistake  for  an  infec- 
tious disease  some  form  of  body  dLiturhance  due  to 
a  local  cause  or  condition.  AnimaU  often  suffer 
from  improper  food  and  the  conditions  of  life  under 


INPBCnOCS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMAU 


127 


which  tbey  are  compelled  to  live.  It  frequently 
happens  that  aa  all  of  the  animals  in  a  given  herd 
are  aabj«cted  to  like  conditionm,  a  number  of  them, 
perbap*  all,  will  manifest  very  aitnilar  xyin]itotnii 
and  more  or  less  of  thvm  die.  Such  an  occurrence 
often  gives  ri»e  to  the  auppoeitioa  that  the  cause 
of  death  is  some  form  of  infection.  [>cath8  from 
■oehcaaseB  or  under  such  conditions  shoalil  be  care- 
fully distin^ished  from  an  episoiitic.  In  dtlTeren- 
tiating  a  non-infectious  disorder  from  a  Fpecilic 
disease,  it  is  inportunt,  and  nHiialty  sufBcient.  to 
take  into  account  the  appendc'd  character i;it lea  of 
an  infecUooB  disea«!. 

(1)  Giiwc.— Aa  infections  diaease  ia  caused  by  a 
Bpecific  affent  This  necessitates  an  expcanre  to 
and  an  infection  wiLh  the  specilic  organism. 

<2)  I'triod  of  incufxition. — The  infw.'tion  must  be 
followed  by  a  certain  period  of  incubation  before 
the  development  of  symptoms.  This  is  the  time 
necessary  for  the  invading  micnWirpanism  to  become 
Htablisbed  in  the  body,  and  to  brint;  about  the  timt 
fljnnptonu  of  the  diaeaM.  The  incubation  periodi 
varies  in  different  diseases,  and  to  a  certain  degree 
in  the  MOW  disease,  according  to  the  m<:>de  of  infec- 
tion and  the  rejii-stance  of  the  individual.  Usually 
the  incubation  period  of  a  given  diseiu^e  is  practic- 
ally  the  saraefor  alt  individuals  of  tho  same  species 
when  subjected  to  the  same  mode  of  infection. 
Exceptions,  however,  are  not  rare. 

(;J>  LmonM  or  litme  cJiansftn. —  The  morbid 
anatomy  of  an  iofeclioua  disease  ia  usually  nearly 
the  same  in  animals  sQlfering  in  the  same  outbreak, 
especially  when  they  were  Infectt^d  at  or  about  the 
•ane  time.  It  is  more  common  for  only  a  few  indi- 
viduals in  a  herd  to  be  inft>cted  in  the  beg^innint; 
and  from  these  first  cases  for  other  animals  to  con- 
tract the  dlstsase.  In  many  epiiouticji,  the  disease 
appears  in  an  acute  form  in  the  first  animals  at- 
tacked, while  th'j60  Infected  later  in  the  course  of 
the  OQtbreak  suffer  from  a  chronic  form  of  the 
affection  ;  in  other  outbreaks,  the  (ir.st  canes  are 
chronic  in  nature,  and  the  later  one^  acute. 

Ml  Duratwn. — In  animalt^,  <ut  in  man,  mottl  of  the 
infectious  dieeases  are  self-limiUM),  but  as  a  rule 
the  percentage  of  fatal  casM  is  much  lart^er  anions; 
animab  than  in  the  human  species.  Tho  period  of 
coaraleacertce  is  not  so  well  marked  in  tho  lower 
apeciea  aa  in  man.  It  frequently  happenK  that  the 
eoarwof  the  disease  is  so  ch.inged  tliat  an  acute 
ease,  which  apiwan  to  recover,  or  at  leaj^t  to  paRH 
Into  the  stage  of  convaleACttnce,  becomi-j^  t;hronic 
or  subchronic  in  nature  and  uventuatly  t«rminHU'8 
in  death.  The  Iaten«:ss  In  the  develiipmunt  of  tite 
modified  lesions  often  causes  the  nature  of  tho 
terminal  dtseaw  to  go  unrecognized. 

(5)  TratumiMian  by  imKuIation.- F'lnaWy.  it  is 
necessary  in  making  a  poeitive  diagnoni-s  to  find  the 
ipecifie  orKaoism,  or  to  prove  the  tniTiHmisKihility 
of  tho  malady  from  the  sick  or  dead  to  heiilthy 
animals.  The  extent  of  the  )«prt>ad  of  tha  vims  of 
the  disease  through  the  available  channels  fur  its 
dlasKmi nation  will  also  aid  in  determining  the 
infectious  nr  mm-infections  nature  of  the  malady 
in  an  outbreak  among  .-inimals. 

In  diagnosing  au  epiu^jtic  di«eaiie,  investigations 


have  shown  that  too  much  reliance  can  not  be 
placed  on  the  period  uf  incubation,  or  the  mor- 
bid  anatomy.  Thore  are  many  possibilities,  there- 
fort,  that  an  erroneous  diagnosis  may  be  made 
when  the  clinical  and  post  mortem  evidences  of  the 
disease  are  alone  considered.  It  has  also  been 
determined  that  certain  non -infectious  disorders 
often  assimilate,  in  their  more  gfinenil  mnnifiutta- 
tions,  the  characters  of  infectious  maladii>».  This 
fact  necessitates  much  care  in  the  diirvrtntiation 
of  outbreaks  of  animal  diseases,  The  dietary  and 
other  non-infectious  disorders  do  not  exhibit  defi- 
nite, uniform  differential  characters  excepting 
perhaps  in  ca'ies  of  those  caused  by  a  few  mineral 
poisons,  or  by  eating  certain  planl^.  As  examples 
of  these,  lead-poisoning  and  the  I'ictou  or  Winton 
disease  of  horses  and  cattle  caused  by  eating  a  rag- 
wort (Senccio  Jacoka)  may  bi;  mentioned. 

The  essential  problem  for  tho  animal-owner  in 
the  presence  of  infectious  diseases  is  to  restrict  the 
number  of  cases  to  the  individuals  alreatiy  infected. 
In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  of  much  importance  that 
modified  or  chronic  canes  nf  any  infectious  disease 
should  not  escape  detection  if  there  is  daiig(;r  of 
their  spreading  the  virus  or  exposing  susceptible 
animals. 

i/fiina  b}f  irhieh  inffetiout  diseases  ere  spread. — 
It  ia  important  to  consider  the  general  ways  and 
means  by  which  the  ditferent  vital  causes  of  infec- 
tionsdiseases  are  spread  from  an  infected  individual 
to  a  non-infected  one  in  the  same  herd  and  from 
one  herd  to  another.  ,A,b  wc  understand  them  at 
the  present  time,  each  virus  is  dependent  for  its 
perpetuation  on  its  escape  from  one  host  (sick  or 
dead)  to  another.  As  these  microorganisms  are 
without  power  of  their  own  for  such  migration, 
they  are  dependent  on  other  forces  and  carriers  to 
take  them.  In  finding  the  means  by  which  they 
spread,  we  must  consider  firet  how  they  escape 
from  the  infected  individual  and  secondly  how  they 
are  tarried  to  another. 

(1)  Ktmpe.  of  vims  from  infected  iadiridualt. — 
The  infecting  organiemx  eaca(H,'  from  the  living 
l)(»dy  either  with  (a)  the  excrt;ta,  (&)  the  external 
discharge  of  ulcers  and  abscesses  or  both,  and  (c) 
th©  blood  by  sucking  and  paisildy  biting  insects. 
After  the  duath  of  the  host  tbey  can  escape  only 
by  the  di.i integration  of  the  dead  body  or  by  ita 
being  consumed  by  other  animals  or  birds.  The 
bacteria  of  several  diseases  can  pass  through  the 
digeHtivt!  tract  of  such  animals  uninjured. 

(2)  Dixfeminatioii  of  infretiitff  orffdnisms,  —  PAtho- 
gi^iiic  bacteria  are  spruatl  after  they  escape  from 
the  body  in  many  ways,  the  following  being  the 
most  common  :  ia)  By  direct  contact ;  tW  they  are 
carried  on  the  hands,  shoes  or  clothing  of  attend- 
ants and  on  farm  implements,  such  afi  ahorels  and 
hoes  ;  (i")  tbey  are  carried  in  strwuiis  n^aiiving  the 
excreta  or  disintegrating  bodius  of  the  infected ; 
(rf)  they  are  scattered  with  the  excreta  of  birds 
that  feed  on  the  dead  carcasses ;  other  animals, 
such  as  dogs  and  foxoa.  are  al.*o  charged  with  the 
scattering  of  the  virus  by  the  same  method;  (r)  tho 
virus  is  often  carrieil  from  one  himi  to  another  by 
introducing  chronic  cases  or  those  already  infected' 


128 


INTECnOUS  DISEASES 


iAlS 


bnt  li^ fore  the  symptoms  have  appeared;  {/)  nni- 
maEs  are  often  infe<;te«l  hy  Hhipping  them  in  cars 
or  (TuLes  that  hiivu  previi>iiH]y  conLaineil  diwiiweci 
animals  and  thul  havu  nut  iii^en  thunjui;hLy  iliMin- 
fectod;  0?)  tha  pathoKi'iiic  [irotuzua  arH  tmnnfurrud 
frim  infL'cted  to  nnn-infiiicttHl  itLdividimli!  by  moans 
of  insects ;  they  are  carried  from  place  to  place  in 
inftfted  animala. 

CUiKsificniinrt  or  ijnmpiafj  nfihr  infrfHouxfiitMnes. 
— It  will  he  ftniiul  in  the  atmly  of  the  murhid  anatomy 
of  tile  variuiiH  Hp(X'iti>c;  niahidies  that  the  lenionii  in 
»  Riven  di-'WaMti  vary  io  differant  ajHiciea  and  in  in- 
dividuals of  the  samu  spveii^  to  a  marked  duKroe. 
This  ia  deiwndcnt  on  Hevera!  factors,  especially  the 
virulence  of  the  vims  and  the  resistance  of  the 
animal  due  to  more  or  less  niittiral  or  arquired 
immunity.  This  fact  precludes  the  possibility  of 
cla.-wifyinR  or  arranging  them  after  their  morh id 
antitomy,  if  tha  id(!a  of  a  Hpuciflc  etiology  l4  to  be 
adhered  to.  If  the  infectious  disuast-s  are  to  be 
considorod  as  parasitiBms,  as  they  appiear  to  be, 
the  only  lofincAl  method  of  classifying  them  is  the 
ODii  supgested  by  their  etiology,  namely,  that  they 
ahall  be  placed  in  groupH  corresponding  to  their 
causes.  Thus,  a  single  le-sion  foumi  in  the  glandH  of 
the  head,  in  th^  longs,  in  the  liver,  in  the  mesen- 
teric glands,  in  the  joints,  or  in  tlie  gt-nerative 
organs,  would  be  called  tubercular  if  the  bacteria 
of  tnberculosis  could  be  demonstrated  to  be  tta 
cauae.  The  aome  concluaion  would  l>e  maintained 
regardless  of  the  lesion,  These  facts  are  enough 
to  suggest  that  the  moat  direct  method  uf  arrang- 
ing these  di-seasea  for  purposes  of  study  i&  in  groups 
composed  of  likei  generic  etiological  factors.  Most 
of  the  known  specific  causes  of  the  infectious  dis- 
easea  of  animala  are  bacteria.  It  is  neceasary, 
therefore,  in  carrying  out  this  plan  to  choose  from 
among  tKe  numerous  classifications  of  bacteria  one 
to  be  followed  in  grouping  the  diseases  according 
to  the  genera  producinij  them.  Of  the  various  sys- 
tems, the  one  by  Migula  (F"ig.  1  lOt  seems  to  be  the 
simplest  and  mo^t  natursl,  and  consen^uently  it  is 
•elected.  In  following  this,  the  diseases  caused  by 
the  bacteria  in  the  different  families  and  geni?ra 
are  clasaed  together.  Thoiiu  due  to  fungi,  ana  those 
resulting  from  protozoa  are  similarly  grouped. 

Djjimau  mUKfd  btf  ttreptorocei. 

Streptococci  are  tho  cause  of  many  wound  infec- 
tiona,  as  already  st:iti-'d,  and  certain  specie.^  of  them 
are  the  cause  of  stranglos  and  infectinus  pneumonia 
in  boraea,  and  a  Hpecilic  septicemia  in  fowls. 

Sftnttiijfltt.— Strangles  is  an  infectious  disease  of 
horaeAr  asses  nnd  their  hyhrtdA,  oct'.urring  sporadi- 
cally and  in  eiiizootics.  It  u  characterixe^I  princi- 
pally hy  a  fever,  followed  by  an  acute  catarrh  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  upper  air-passages, 
e-tpectally  uf  the  nares.  and  a  suppurative  inflam- 
mation of  the  submaxillary  and  pharyngeal  regions. 
The  lesions,  however,  are  not  n'stricted  to  these 
parts.  It  is  a  disease  of  young  animals.  It  appears 
to  stand  in  equine  patholi>gy  very  much  as  measles 
do  in  human  medicine, — a  disease  of  early  life,  and 
consequently  more  j)n;val«nt  where  there  are  more 
yoang.   It  aeenis  to  exist  in  all  countries  where  the 


horse  kind  are  raised,  and  to  be  more  prevalent  in 
breeding  dtatricts  than  elsewhere.  It  is  caused  by 
StrrpUKacai*  c/jui.  first  rlescribed  by  Schiitz,  in  1888. 
With  pure  cultures  of  this  organism  Scfautz  was 
ablet*)  produce  the  diBeaHe  in  healthy  horses.  Its 
period  of  in<:ubation  varies  from  four  to  eight  days. 
The  first  symptom  ia  a  rise  of  temperature;  there 
is  loss  of  appetite,  depression,  anrl  often  great 
woaknesH.  The  general  symptoms  may  continue  for 
a  few  days  before  the  lofalizatien  of  the  lesions  is 
apparent.  The  lirst  local  manilestati'im  is  usually  a 
ciilarrh  of  the  naaal  mucosa,  or  a  swolling  of  the 
submaxillary  and  pharyngual    lymphatic  glands. 

MIGLA.A'S  CLASSinCATiaN 

COCCACCAC 
StreptococQus 
Mtcrococcus 
Sarcina.  £ 

Plaiioccceus 
PTanosar-cma 

Bacterium 
BactClus 

SPIttlLLACCAC 

SpLf'oaoitKi 
MLcpoGfKm, 

Spirillum 
Spirtxhaeta  ^^ 

Fit.  no.    JUkuU'i  olaMiflr.illaa  q1  tbe  lomrcr  bacteria. 

The  lesions  in  most  cases  are  characterized  by  an 
acute  inflammatory  process  followed  hy  suppu- 
ration, the  pus  di.^churging  either  externally  or  into 
the  oral  cavity.  Small  abscesses  may  occur  under 
the  pharyngeal  mucosa.  The  inflammation  may 
extend  to  the  sufferficial  lymph  vt«i>«U  of  the  skin, 
especially  uf  the  head,  reKultinc  in  the  formation 
of  a  large  number  of  small  abscesses.  Strangles 
may  become  chronic,  especially  when  the  nasal 
catarrh  extendfi  into  the  sinufies  of  the  head,  the 
guttural  pouches,  or  pharyngeal  cavity. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  varies  according  to 
its  severity  and  the  localization  of  th«  lesioas.  In 
mild  cases  convaK'gcence  begins  in  a  few  days,  but 
in  other  cases  restoration  may  require  weeks  and 
even  months.  The  mortality,  according  to  available 
statistics,  does  not  exceed  3  pt^^r  cent. 

Equine  eentagiouf  pieurv-fintumoma. — This  dis- 
ease is  characterized  by  a  high  temperature,  rapid 
pnlw,  but  ocoasionalty  without  definite  Inng 
disturbances.  Like  strangles,  the  symptoms  and 
tha  lesions  vary  Ui  Mich  a  degree  that  it  Is  dilTtcull 
to  single  out  duignostic  features.  It  is  widoly  dis- 
trilmttid.   It  appears  in  epizootic  form,  although  in 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


certain  plaoea  it  ia  reported  to  be  almost  I'lidftnic. 
It  prevAJU  most  eztonaivuly  where  large  numbeirs 
of  nor»es  are  coo^^'gated.  It  ia  common  in  tlie 
East  among  horsefl  shipi)ed  from  the  Went,  when 
it  is  designated  as  "western"  nr  "stable"  fever. 
The  streptococoDfl  of  SchiJtz  Ke(>mi;  to  hv  Ibe  catiKe. 
However,  there  are  opiniuna  to  the  eutilrary  l)a.«e<l 
on  ohservationa.  The  gymptoma  vary  lo  a  marked 
degree.  When  piiL-umouia  developu  early  in  Its 
CKnine,  the  disea;^  niiiy  appear  suddenly;  and  in 
addition  to  the  elevation  of  temperatrire,  there-  m  a 
cough, difficult  breathing,  and  thepult^  \fi  increased. 
There  is  general  deprntuiion,  UFiually  [»mi  of  appe- 
tite and  rauKnular  weakneiut ;  the  viKiltle  mucous 
■nembmniie  beeome  reddened. 

The  duration  of  tlw  diseaae  deiwnds  almost 
entirely  on  its  coarae ;  in  the  more  typical  casua 
the  fever  lastj^  live  to  eight  days.  Thu  period  of 
convalescence  is  two  to  three  weeks.  Many  symptoms 
may  be  exhibited,  correspcmding  to  the  variations 
in  the  morbid  prwrawe-s.  If  the  heart,  digu&live 
tract,  liver,  kiilneys  or  tirnin  tiecume  th«  localized 
seat  of  diaeatw!,  symptoms  referable  to  iiiipaired 
functions  of  these  orRaiis  are  in  evidenet^.  The 
Septicemic  form  has  boen  described  aa  being  fol- 
lowed by  localized  suppurative  leHiona.  The  mor- 
tality is  often  high,  in  some  epizoiitics  reaching  30 
percent.  It  frennently  leaven  animals  practically 
wurthlenB  IiecaoKe  of  pleural  ndhcHionf  and  other 
cumplicationi).  Isolation  and  di»infeetion  are  the 
important  factorw  in  checking  its  sprt?ail.  To  pre- 
vent the  introduction  of  this  mala<Iy,  all  horsea 
brought  from  adintance should  be  kept  ifwinteil  for 
at  least  a  week  before  allowing  them  to  cume  in 
contact  with  the  horn*-  animals. 

ApDfJreJifnrm  arpliermia  in  rhickms. — This  Is  a 
rapidly  fatal  nepticeinia  in  chickens  cau^'d  by  a 
Btreptowiccna.  The  on^tet  of  the  d[i<ea.>«e  i.-*  very 
sudden  and  it  usually  terminateM  in  death.  It  ha.s 
been  observed  in  but  two  or  throy  localities.  The 
pTwention  consists  in  the  aeparfltion  of  thf  well 
from  tbe  dtneaHed  fnwla  and  placing  them  in  unin- 
fecied  hoDRea  or  yanls. 

Strff>fi>ojtrus  in«Wi7t>.  — This  term  has  been  given 
to  an  infectious  diHe;iiie  of  the  udder  of  cows 
caiise«l  by  a  streptoc<»ccua.  It  i»  characterized  by 
hari]  infiltrated  areas  in  thu  gland.  The  diagno^tH 
b  made  by  finding  the  rtreptrwwcus  in  pure  cul- 
iare.  It  \s  to  be  differentiatod  from  the  sporadic 
eases  of  mastitia  caused  primarily  by  some  injury, 
Aod  the  infectious  ma-xtitis  cauawl  by  othur  bac- 
teria, largely  mrcntcocci.  It.<i  spread  can  t>e  st»pped 
bjr  disinfecting  iwashing  in  s  diitinfectant]  the 
uwdR  of  the  milker  after  each  animal.  The 
affected  animal  sboold  be  itolat^  from  the  othe^rs. 
It  is  one  of  the  eaaieAt  infections  to  control. 

DiMa$a  Mtimi  bg  miVrwoeci. 

Tln'  micrococci  or  .ipherical  bacteria  cause  many 
voand  inf'.'ctlons.  althoagh  there  is  but  one  8(>ecitic 
diaea**  of  animafatcaosed  by  thia  getiut)  of  bacteria. 
7>ii"m.-Tuko8i«,  meaning  to  waste,  ia  a  de- 
stmctiTe,  infectious  disease  of  j\ngora  goats.  It  is 
cbarvrt<-rited  by  great  emaciation  aiiil  w«ak- 
DeAs.  with  symptoms  of  diarrhea  and  pneumonia. 

'9 


TakosviH  has  lieen  reported  from  a  number  of  locali- 
ties in  this  Country,  more  eRnecialty  in  the  nortb- 
orii  8tate«.  According  to  Mohler  ami  Waslilmrn  it 
ia  caused  by  .U.  caprinua.  It  h  pathogenic  for 
goats,  chickens,  rabhita,  guinea  pigs  and  wbite 
mice,  but  not  foraheep.  dogs  or  rata. 

The  first  observable  sj-mptoni  is  a  listless  appear- 
ance ;  freipiently  there  is  drnoping  nf  the  ears  and 
a  drowsy  appearanci;  of  the  eyBS,  with  a  slight 
elevation  of  tempuralure  in  the  beginning;  but 
Eater  in  the  course  of  the  diaease  it  becromea  sub 
normal.  Rumination  ia  seldom  impaired,  the  appe- 
tite is  usually  good  but  capricious.  Tbe  exposed 
mucous  membranes  are  pale.  The  young  are 
reportjJil  to  be  more  susceptible  to  tbe  disease  than 
the  older  animals.  Ths  leaionit  vary,  but  emaciation 
anil  anumia  are  the  must  striking.  The  most  de- 
structive  outbreaks  have  occurred  among  goatrf  that 
had  recently  been  shipped  from  a  southern  locality 
to  a  northern  latitnde.  8udden  climatic  changes 
should  be  avoided.  Hnliaon  slates  that  the  natives 
of  Asia  Minor  assert  that  the  goat  cannot  be 
transpnrteii  from  one  villnge  to  another  of  higher 
ultitude  without  suffering  some  deterioration. 
Angora  goats  should  be  provided  with  stables  that 
ore  perfectly  dry.  These  should  be  nccessihlo  at 
all  times,  as  raina  are  very  injurious.  When  the 
disease  appears,  all  well  animals  should  be  removed 
from  the  sick  ones. 

[Hoijson,  Angora  Goat  Farming,  Agricultural 
.loiirnal,  Cape  Colony.  Vol.  VIII,  [i.  81  0B&4); 
Mohler  and  Waahburn,  Takosis,  A  Contagious  Dis- 
ease of  Goats,  liulletin  No.  45,  Fureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  United  Statc-H  Departmentof  .^gricultnre, 
Washington,  1).  C.  [VMi).] 

Dieeaset  caused  b}/  bacteria  belonging  to  Mr  gcnut 
Bacterium. 

The  genus  Bacterium  includes  tbe  non-motile 
rod-shaped  bacteria. 

Anthrax.  (Figa.  HI.  111!.)  — Anthrat  is  an  infec- 
tious disease  occurring  sporadically  and  in  epi- 
jLoiitica  in  herbivora  and  omnivora,  and  cnmmuni- 
■calite  to  nearly  all  warm-bliHHled  animals  and  to 
man.  It  is  eharacterixefl  by  the  presence  in  the 
diseai^ed  tissues  and  liiiuids  of  large  numbera  of 
liarkrium  antkrttei/i.  an  enlarged  spleen,  blood 
extravasatinns  and  local  gangrene.  It  is  a  widely 
diiUteminated  disea^fe.  The  continent  of  Burojie, 
perhaps,  haa  suffered  most  from  its  ravages.  In 
the  United  States  it  has  been  reported  from  at 
least  fifteen  .states  and  territorien.  The  bacterium 
of  anthrax  itself  is  not  an  especially  hardy  organ- 
ism, but  its  ajvores  are  among  the  most  rt-siatant 
of  bacterial  life  to  chemical  and  thermal  agents. 
They  resist  drying  for  months  or  years  ;  and  boil- 
ing for  a  half  hour  does  not  always  destroy  them. 
For  this  rcfison  it  is  rery  difficnlt  to  eliminate  the 
virus  from  infecte<]  pasture  lands,  especially  if 
they  are  wet  or  marshy.  As  the  spores  may 
remain  iu  the  aoil  for  many  years,  the  disease  may 
not  appear  until  long  after  the  introduction  of  the 
virus.  Anthrax  has  been  known  to  break  out 
among  cattle  graring  on  a  fielil  in  which  the  car- 
casses of  affected  animals  were    buried  several 


130 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


years  befnre.  Th@  pt-riod  of  incabatiuD  is  vttry 
short ;  in  inocalatuit  aoimals  it  rangos  from  one  to 
five  days. 

Nearly  all  8pecien  of  animals  saffer  from  anthrax. 
The  herbjvora  and    roilenU  are  mosi  suscBptible. 


O 


G 


O 


o 


\ 


O 


0 


o 


o 


o 


K' 


o 


a 


^ 


Hfl-  111-    A  diEwinx  jA  anthrax  butctia  tbowioB  notM 
Bad  KtaDulca. 

Horses  and  males  are  freqtipntly  attacked.  The 
chaiinelg  of  infeclinn  are  Ihrouj^h  tlip  di^i^fitivio 
tract,  wiiuntlH  in  the  Hkin  and  tiy  the  Iting.  hi 
cattle  the  infecljun  seems  to  be  larRc-ly  through 
th«  alimentary  canal ;  in  horses  and  sheep  by  the 
akin  or  diKestive  tract;  in  men  tbrouph  wounds  of 
the  skin  and  the  re»piratriry  tract.  Allhough  thesw 
are  the  iiHiial  methixlH  tbere  are  many  exrt.'[jti()riH. 

Anthnix  ha^  lieen  iirlaittiiriBd  acuordin;;  \a  its 
course  ufi  [jfracute,  acute  and  subacute.  The  pc-ra- 
cute  or  apoploctic  anthrax  Rives  ris*.'  t<>  Bymptoms 
of  cerebral  apoplexy.  The  animal  becomessyddenly 
ill,  stajiK*-'™  about  fnr  a  brief  period  and  falls. 
There  may  be  a  blo<»«ly  discharge  frnm  the  mntith, 
noRtril  and  antw.  Death  usually  ensutiH  in  &  few 
minutes  to  an  hmir.  In  th»  acute  form,  the  disease 
runs  a  dcimewhat  «lower  course,  lastins  usually  not 
to  excttMl  twenty-four  hours.  The  temperature 
risea  rapidly  to  105="  to  108°  Fahr.  With  this  there 
are  siRns  either  of  conReRtion  of  the  brain  or  of 
tho  lungR.  If  the  brain  is  attected  the  animal 
becomes  restlesH,  excitt^d,  stam^M  the  (ground,  rears 
in  the  air,  Mlown.  runs  to  and  fru,  and  finally  k<*b 
into  convulsions  followed  by  stupor  and  death.  The 
subacute  form  is  known  as  anthrax  fever  or  int«r< 
mittetit  anthrax.  The  disease  lasts  one  to  several 
days,  the  averagi?  being  about  forly-eight  hours. 
Anthrax  resulting  from  infection  of  the  skin  and 
mucooa  membranes  usually  gives  rise  to  Uwal 
lesions  which  are  spoken  of  as  mrbunclfs.  In  man 
it  is  known  aa  malignant,  pustule.  Tht-  nature  and 
extent  of  the  tiasue  changes  depend  on  the  course 
of  the  disease. 

It  is  important  not  to  confuse  anthrax  with  a 
number  of  nonspecific  dtsordent  and  accidental 
cau!*es  of  death.  The  snddennesa  of  the  attack, 
and,  in  very  vinilent  case.s,  the  short  duration  of 
th«  diseaie,  may  tend  to  tJie  mistaking  of  it  fur 
poisoning,  cerebral  apoplexy,  pulmonary  eonges- 
tioD,  deaUi  from  lightning,  or  acute  gastro-iDtes- 


tinal  iriflarnmation.  The  affection  known  as  "corn- 
stalk" disoase  ij<  not  infrei|UL'ntly  taken  for  anthrax; 
and  vice  versa. 

Pasteur's  method  of  protective  inoculation  con- 
sists in  inocutiting  the  animal  with  a  small  quan- 
lity  of  culture  which  has  lieen  grown  at  a 
hij;h  lein[ienilDre — -l^'  to  4."1*  C. — for  several 
days.  This  dt-privpH  the  bacteria  of  their 
virulence.  To  strengthen  the  resistance,  the 
O  animals  are  again  inoculatt^d  with  a  stronger 
vims.  After  the  two  inoculations,  they  are 
said  to  lie  protected  against  the  moet  virulent 
atithriis  vini.'^ ;  but  the  immunity  is  of  snort 
duration.  The  injection  of  anthrax  antitoxin 
or  surum  together  wtlh  a  email  ijuantity  of 
virulent  anthrax  bacteria  ha»  pruved  to  be 
Very  satisfactory.  It  has  the  advantage  of 
being  administered  at  one  time.  This  method 
of  prciteclion  again.-'t  anthrax  wa-^  first  pro- 
poned by  Robemheim  in  l$t99.  It  is  known  as 
the  simultaneous  method. 

Tu  prevent  the  spread  of  anthrax  the  well 
animals  should  be  removed  from  the  barns  or 
yards  containing  the  sick  ones  ab'd  from  pas- 
ture lands  on  which  the  sick  became  infected. 
All  infected  stables  and  yards  sho'ild  be  thoroughly 
disinfected.    Ry  careful  isolation  and  safe  disposi- 
tion of  the  dead  animals  the  ttpread  of  the  diM-aee 
can  be  checked.    Animals,  as  a  rule,  do  not  spread 
the  virus  when  the  first  symptom  (rise  of  t«mpera- 
ture)  appears.   The  disposition  of  animals  dead  of 
anthrax   is  a  matter  of  much   importance.    They 
should  he  burned  if  possible;  if  not,  they  should  be 
buried  dtwply  and  covered  with  quicklime  Iwfore 
the  dirt  is  replaced.  The  ground  over  them  fihould 
be  fenced  to  prevent  other  animals  grazing  over 


pletBR  of  afithru  lurtcru  Imni 
mtAt  train  a  leUtiiw  elate. 


pifpacatioB 


it,  and  the  surface  should  be  borned  aonually  for 
simie    years    to    destroy   sporea  elioiild    they   be 
brought  to  the  surface. 
[Chester,  Antbrax,  Bacteriological  Work,  Report 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES  OP  ANIMALS 


131 


plawaiv  AjETicultaral  Experiment  Station,  p. 
64  (1895);  Ch^sttr.  I'rolective  Inoculation  Against 
Anthrax.  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  th«  I'ro- 
motioD  of  Agricnltural  Science,  p.  52  (18%); 
Dalrjnnple.  Anthrax  and  Protective  Inoculation  in 
LoaWiaoa,  ProceediR},'s  of  the  American  Veterinary 
Mwiical  Association,  p.  147  \VM)l);  U'Fadyeari, 
Extraneous  Soarces  of  Infection  in  Outbreaks  of 
Anthnix,  Journal  of  Comparative  I'atholo^  and 
Therapeotica,  Vol.  XVI.  p.  346  (1D05};  Moore. 
Report  of  an  Outbreak  of  Anthrax,  Annuiil  Report, 
Commissioner  of  Adriculture  of  the  State  of  New 
York  U*59^(;  Russell,  Outbreak  of  Anthrax  Fever 
Traceable  to  Tannery  Kefuse,  The  Scventeonth 
Annual  Report  of  Ibti  Wisconsin  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  ( 188U>.] 

Aatkenia  in  foirh  and  pigfons,—Thi8  is  a  di!*ease 
eipecially  of  chickens  and  pigeong.  in  which  there 
is  marked  emaciation  and  a  failure  to  take  on  Hesh 
even  when  fed  on  the  most  nourishiniB:  food. 
BA-aii«c  of  this,  the  (lt>eGa5e  ha^t  received  the  popu- 
lar name  of  "Rotn^  liyhU"  Dawson  gives  a  brief 
accMint  of  the  i«ymptoms.  morbid  anatomy,  etiol- 
ogy, uid  a  somewhat  extended  description  of  the 
specific  organinn  {BacffHum  asthenia)  which  he 
i«oUt«<I  from  the  diseased  chickens.  The  writer 
did  not  BDcceed  in  finding  this  organism  in  pigeons. 
The  most  conspicuous  lesion  is  extreme  emaciation. 
n>aw!Min,  Asthenia  (going  light)  in  Fowls,  Annual 
Report  uf  the  Barman  of  Animal  Industry.  United 
SUtaa  DepartmeDt  of  Agriculture,  p.  329  "{1898).] 

Fowt  iM<itera.~ThiB  is  an  infectious  disease  of 
fowls,  transDiMiblc  by  cohabitation  and  inocala- 
lion.  It  is  determined  by  a  high  fever,  great  weak- 
neaa  and  prostration,  and  uaoally  terminates  in  the 
defltli  of  the  tnfwted  bird.  It  is  reported  that  it 
altackit  all  varieties  of  domesticates]  poultry  (chick- 
ens, duclts.  geese,  pigwmi.  turkeys)  and  caged 
birds,  such  as  pairots  and  canaries.  It  also  attacks 
aomc  npecies  of  wild  binls.  It  ta  communicable  by 
iaocolation  to  rabbits  and  mice:  guinea  pigs  are 
ieut  ausceptible.  Salmon  investigated  it  in  South 
Carolina  in  IK79-.S0.  fliggins  in  18»S  reported  it 
from  Canada,  and  in  UKM  Ward  found  it  is  Call* 
fornia. 

Fowl  cholera  is  cansed  by  a  itpecific  bacterium 
which  ia  clneely  related  to  that  of  swine  plague 
and  septicemia  hemorrhagica.  The  period  of  incu- 
hatioa  is  placed  by  European  writers  at  18  to  43 
boon.  Id  the  ease  of  -10  rowlt  inoculated  by  Sal- 
moo,  it  varied  from  4  to  20  days,  the  average 
period  being  8  days.  Ward  fed  visicera  of  dead 
fuwls  tu  lO  healthy  ones  ;  they  tlied  in  24  hours  to 
Bdajrt.  The  symptoms  vary.  U»oaIly  the  appetite 
is  Ilw lined,  but  occasionally  they  continue  to  eat 
atmost  to  the  time  of  de^ith.  The  earliest  indicition 
of  the  disease  is  a  yelbiw  coloration  of  the  uratf-.-*. 
Tlio  feathers  are  roughened,  the  wings  droop,  the 
head  is  drawn  down  towards  the  body  and  the  pen- 
«ral  aatlin<>  nf  the  bird  becomes  spherical  or  bnll' 
ahned.  The  liver  is  usually  enlarged,  softened. 
aait  the  blind-TeMBub  engorged.  The  gatl-bladder  ia 
distoiided  with  thick,  dark  bile.  Its  duration  varies 
from  a  few  hours  to  several  days.  The  prognosis 
b  Bofavofuble.    The  mortality  is  very  high,  often 


I(X)  percent.  This  disease  may  ran  rapidly  through 
a  Hock,  destroying  the  greater  part  of  the  birds  in 
a  week,  or  it  may  assume  a  more  chronic  form, 
spreading  slywty,  and  remain  un  the  premises  for 
Several  weeks  or  months.  X  positive  diagnoxis  is 
to  be  made  in  the  findings  of  a  bacteriological 
examination. 

I'reventioD  consists  in  good  sanitary  conditions, 
isolation  of  the  well  from  the  sick  fowls  and 
thorough  disinfection.  It  [.t  important  not  to  intro- 
duce the  disease  with  newly  purchased  fowls  or  to 
expose  healthy  ones  tu  the  disea>te.  either  at,  or  in 
transportation  to,  various  poultry  exhibits, 

[Salmon,  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States 
Commissioiner  of  Agriculture  (1880-82);  Ward, 
Fowl  Cholera,  Bulletin  No.  lo6,  California  Agri* 
cultural  Experiment  Station,  Berkeley,  California 
(i9W).l 

Fowl  fypAwJ.— This  disease  was  described  by 
Moore  as  an  infectious  leukemia.  It  is  caused  by 
li'ieterium  itanguiaanum.  Little  can  be  positively 
stated  concerning  the  early  symptoms.  There  is  a 
pronounced  anemia  of  the  muca<t3  of  the  head. 
There  is  aUo  a  marked  diminution  in  the  number 
of  red  corpuscles  and  an  increase  in  the  numlwr  of 
white  ones.  There  is  an  elevation  of  one  to  four 
degrees  in  temperature.  The  only  constant  lesions 
are  in  the  ]iv4:>r  and  blood.  The  liver  is  somewhat 
enlarged  and  dark-colnred;  a  close  innpection  shows 
it  to  be  sprinkled  with  minute  grayish  necrotic 
areas. 

Intestittal  disturbances,  esi)ecially  diarrhea  and 
fowl  cholera,  are  the  diseases  to  be  mi«taken  for 
fowl  typhoid.  Prompt  isolation  of  the  well  from 
the  sick  fowls  and  thorough  disinfection  of  the 
houses  and  yanls  is  the  only  preventive  measure 
known. 

[Curtice.  Fowl  Typhoid.  Bulletin  No.  87.  Rhode 
Island  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (1902); 
Moore,  Infectious  Leukemia  in  Fowls,  A  Bacterial 
Disease  Frequently  Mistaken  for  Fowl  Cholera,  An- 
nual Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
18D5-9«i.] 

G/arrfer/.— Glanders  is  one  oi  the  most  impor- 
tant diseases  of  horses,  asses  and  mules,  and  when 
tranitmitted  to  man,  one  of  the  mot^t  fatal  diseases. 
It  runs  an  acute  or  chronic  course,  attacking  the 
lymphatic  system  more  es^tecially  in  the  upper  air- 
paasages,  lungs  or  skin.  It  is  characterized  by  a 
strong  tendency  to  the  formation  of  small  nodules, 
which  are  Hkely  to  degenerate  into  ulcers,  from 
which  exudes  a  peculiar  sticky  discharge.  In  the 
very  acate  cases  a  considerable  rise  of  temperature 
and  general  debility  may  accompany  the  formation 
of  the  lesions,  (tlanders  of  the  skin  is  known  as 
farcy.  Cattle,  white  mice,  rats  and  domestic  fowls 
sei;m  to  be  immune. 

Glanders  exists  in  the  greater  part  of  the  civil- 
ixed  world.  It  is  more  common  in  the  temperate 
looes,  probably  because  traffic  in  horses  is  more 
active.  In  the  United  States  it  was  largely  confined 
to  the  North  before  18H1.  but  it  spread  oTer  the 
South  in  connection  with  the  Civil  war. 

Its  specific  cause  is  Daeierium  mallei  (Fig.  113.) 
It  is  found  in  recent  nodules,  in  discharge  from  the 


132 


INFECnOCS  DISEASES  OP  ANIMALS 


'\m^iK 


o 


^^ 


f^.- 


Tig.  113.  Tbe  InictaiU  «[ 
sUadcre  Ivbis  between 
miMM  ol  ecu*. 


nasirilx,  in  pus  fnim  tlu  0{Wific  ulc^eni,  and  ocfjt- 
eionuiiy  in  tltt-  lilooil  oF  asimalB  atTuc-letl  with  ^1'^"- 
dera.  Thu  pL-rioJ  of  incubation  is  not  known;  it  evi- 
dently Taricfl  from  a  few  to  many  days.  The  acute 
form  is  common  in  the  ase  and  mule  ;  in  the  horse 
the  chronic  fiirm  is  more  usiiiil.  It  may  begin  with 
a  chill,  liul  usually  the  oni^et  is  vt>ry  inntdious.  In 
chronic  glanders,  the  most  frei|uent  iix^atii^na  of  lh« 
^..  nlcera  and  nudultsB  are  on 

the  ruspiratory  mucona 
mombraiiu,  I'spyeialty  on 
the  nasal  Beptitm,  in  the 
lungA,  lymph  glands  and 
skin.  Of-raH  inn  filly  glan- 
ders roanift'^tft  iU'<elf  aH  a 
d  i  Ifuse  ca  tji  rrli  t)  f  t  he 
mucous  mL-mliraiw  of  the 
DEuta!  and  nt-'ii^hhurinj; 
cavities,  with  su|K-rficiu1 
olceratinn,  thromhoitis  of 
the  veins,  and  inHsimma- 
tory  intiltrfili<in  of  the 
KU  b  -  m  uc  iisa.  I  luth  the 
nodular  and  infiltrated  forms  are  foumi  in  the 
InngB.  In  glanders  of  the  skin  (farcy*,  tho  nod- 
ules are  ftninil  in  the  papillary  layer,  in  the  cutis, 
and  in  the  su  lieu  tan  phhs  and  superficial  inter- 
muw-ular  timiue.  The  cutaneous  ntxiuleB  vary  in 
Hize  from  a  ht'inp  stjed  up  hi  that  of  n  ppa.  Tht^y 
Buppurato  rapidly  and  fumi  Hmall  ahocewieu  which 
discharge. 

Glanders  maybe  positively  diagnosed  by  inocu- 
lating guinea  pigs  with  the  discharge  from  the 
ulcer,  hy  the  application  of  mallein,  nr  by  the  effect 
of  the  bliHid  iwnjin  of  tin'  suHppcttM]  horse  on  the 
bactc^ria  of  glandt'rs  in  a  pri))it>rly  prepared  test 
fluid.  This  Itutt  is  known  as  the  agglutination 
method  of  diagnosi-s.  The  prevention  consists  in 
isolation  of  the  healthy  animals  from  the  infected 
ones  and  thorough  disinfection  of  tho  stables.  It  is 
also  desirable  not  to  bring  strange  horses  in  cl'ise 
contact  with  home  animala  until  their  fniednm  from 
this  disea.se  is  determint^d.  If  it  develoiM  in  one 
animal  in  a  ittalilc,  it  is  important  that  all  horses 
which  have  been  exposed,  should  ho  carefully 
watcbi-d  and  tested  in  order  to  lie  able  to  eliminate 
all  infected  animals  before  they  are  able  tci  spread 
the  disejise. 

[M'Fadvean,  Glanders,  Journal  romparntive  Path- 
ology and  Therapeutics,  Vol.  .Wil.  p.  2il.=i  {1!K)4); 
Nocanl.  The  Valne  of  Mallein  as  n  Means  of  Piiigiio- 
sis  in  [lonbtfnl  Cases  of  'jianders.  Journal  Com- 
parative I'athningv  and  Therapontics,  Vol.  Vlll, 
p.  227  (IRft.'t):  Jichiiti!.  A  C«ntrihution  to  the  Sub- 
ject of  Glanderw,  Journal  Comparative  Pathology 
and  Tharaiieuties,  Vol.  XI,  p.  1  (I83R);  Williams. 
Glanders.  HuHetin  No.  4,  Montana  Agriculturnl 
E.TjHTiment  Station  (I89I).) 

G'ofwf  grfttieemia.— This  is  an  acute  septicemia  of 
geese.  It  is  caused  by  a  bacterinm  lielonging  to  the 
aepticemia  hemorrhagica  gronp.  It  is  not  a  common 
disease.  The  jirevention  consists  in  the  Isolation  of 
the  well  from  the  sick,  repeating  the  separations 
as  often  as  new  cases  appear.  The  tnfectad  pens 
Bhonid  bo  thoroughly  disinfected  before  b«mg  re- 


iwcupieil,  [Ourtice,  OucHte  Septicemia,  Rulletin  No. 
H6,  Kliode  Island  Agriculiural  ICxperiment  Station 
(19U2).l 

Hftnorrhagifa  gepfif^mia. — This  disease  consists 
largely  of  hemorrhagic  areas  more  or  le«a  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  body  and  due  to  tho 
pH'-sence  of  8  specific  microiirgjinism.  It  usually 
runs  a  rapid  course,  tt^rminating  fatally.  It  is 
thought  to  be  iilentical  with  the  diwiLse  de-scrit»ed 
by  Bollinger  under  the  name  of  WUdund  Jiindtr- 
aetuhe,  an  epiaoiitic  disease  which  killed  a  large 
number  of  wild  hours  and  deer  in  the  royal  game 
preserves  of  Munich.  He  reports  it  to  be  sudden 
in  ita  onset  and  rapidly  fatal  in  its  course,  with  a 
mortality  of  3(>  percent.  IJerith  trccurre*!  in  twel%'e 
hours  to  a  few  days  after  the  first  appearance  of 
sympttmis.  In  this  country  it  sitms  to  affect  cat- 
tle more  than  other  species.  It  is  a  wide-»pri;ad 
malady.  It  appears  to  be  rather  prevalent  in  the 
Western  and  northern  parts  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley. The  pertfid  of  incubation  is  supposed  to  l>e 
very  short.  The  methwl  of  infection  is  not  known 
and  its  duratifm  is  very  shorL  The  prttgnosis  is 
unfavorable.  The  mortality  ts  80  to  lOO  ^wr  cent 
of  all  the  animals  affected.  The  characteristic 
lesions,  especially  in  cattle,  are  widely  distributed 
areas  of  hemorrhage,  varying  in  size  from  a  pin 
point  to  Severn!  centimeters  in  diameter;  and  they 
vjtrji'  in  color  from  light  red  to  alnuxtt  black.  The 
other  morbid  changes  found  in  cattle  are  numenma. 

Septicemia  hemorrhagica  in  cattle  must  be  dif- 
fer*,'nti  a  ttsl  from  anthrax,  symptomatic  anthrax, 
and  the  aifoction  known  as  "com-.stnlk  disi-a-se." 
Deaths  from  this  di.^ieip'e  must  also  lie  distinguished 
from  those  due  to  certain  accidental  causea,  [M)i- 
soning,  or  the  effect  uf  over-eating  of  grain  or 
gn-en  fixlder.  The  suddenness  with  which  the  ani- 
mals nmy  die  renders  the  symptoms  of  little  value 
in  milking  a  diagnosis.  For  this  purpose  it  is 
nece.-iKiiry  that  a  careful  post  mortem  and  bacterio- 
logical esaminati'm  should  Ite  made. 

Tlie  carcas-ses  uf  animals  that  die  should  be 
burned  or  burieij  deeply  with  a  good  covering  of  a 
diflinfectant,  Should  death  occur  in  a  stable,  all 
contaminat«:'d  litter  shoald  be  bamtrl  and  the 
floors,  mangers  and  walls  thomnghly  disinfected. 

[Keynoldrt,  Hiemorrhagicn  Seplic.I'mia,  Hnlletin 
No.  82,  Minnesota  AgrieuituRil  Espieriment  Sta- 
tion (ISWH);  WiUon  and  Hrimhall,  Sixty  Ciwes  of 
Hemorrhagica  Septicemia  in  Cuttle  Due  to  Bacillus 
Bovisepticus,  Report  of  State  Board  of  Health  of 
Minnesota  (lUOI).  Latter  contains  very  full 
bibliography,] 

Or^ne  eaamtit  lympk-adenUin  Ipseuttn-fnhrrtvtogig 
in  »Arf;^).— Caseous  lymph-adenitis  is  a  disease  of 
adult  sheep  which  until  recently  was  designated 
afl  pMeudo-tubercubMis.  It  is  characterized  by  an 
enlargement  of  one  or  more  lymphatic  gland*. 
which  contain  foci  of  a  grvenish  yellow,  caseous 
or  purulent  substance.  It  is  rarely  fonnd  in  young 
animals.  The  mortality  is  very  low.  It  does  not 
occur  in  epinwitic  form  although  it  is  more  preva- 
lent in  certain  localities  than  in  others.  It  is 
caused  by  a  specific  microorganism  known  aa  the 
bacteriuin  o!  Preist.    [Norgaard  and  Hohler,  The 


J 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES   OF  ANIMAI^ 


133 


Nature,  Cxuse  and  Economic  [importance  of  Ovine 
Cascotu*  L^'mph-Arieniti»,  Sixteenth  Annual  Report, 
Bnr«aQ  of  AQimal  Industry,  p.  638  (189<J).  (Foil 
biblioeraphy).] 

Steine  er^iprlan.— This  is  an  infectious  disease 
pecoliar  to  swinv.  It  \^  di'tcmiinLHl  by  a  rise  in 
temperature,  cerebral  didturbance^i  and  jjronounced 
reddeninsof  areasof  the.ikin.  It  i!iadt:4ea»eof  adult 
life.  )t  is  stated  that  pigs  arc  ran-ly  attacked  under 
three  months  or  over  three  years  of  age.  Lydtin 
and  Schotteiius  found  some  differences  in  the  decree 
of  Busceptibility  of  certain  breeds  of  swine;  the 
oonuQon  country  pig  was  least  susceptible.  It 
occara  enxootically  and  in  epiznitics  in  ni'>»t  of  the 
countries  of  p'orope.  It  is  caused  by  a  very  blender 
bacterium.  The  period  of  incubation  is  stated  to 
be  at  least  three  days,  althoURh  it  is  apparently 
longer  than  that  in  many  cases.  Jensen  describes 
five  distinct  forms  of  this  m^ilady.  namely,  true 
eryiipeliLs,  swine  urticaria,  erysipelas  without  red- 
uss  of  the  skin,  diifuse  necrotic  erysipelas  of  the 
skin,  and  endocarditis  of  erysipeias.  Its  duration 
varies  from  one  to  ten  days;  In  types  of  moderate 
severity  it  rons  three  to  four  weeks.  The  prugnosia 
is  unfavorable.  There  is  20  to  80  per  cent  mortality. 
Stsine  ptague.  —  Swim  plaptie  is  an  infc-ctiooa 
disease  of  swine  occurring  sporadically  an'f  in  epi- 
zootics. It  appears  usually  as  a  septicemia  or  a 
pneumonia  in  which  there  is  marked  consolidation 
of  the  ventral  and  cephalic  lobe.t  and  the  cephalic 
part  of  the  principal  lobe  of  one  or  both  lungs. 
There  may  or  may  not  be  pleuritia.  There  may  be 
marktHj  changes  in  the  mte.stine.  consiating  of 
superficial  necrosis  of  the  mucosa,  especially  in  the 
ileum  and  ctBcum.  For  this  rea.-<on  it  has  been  con- 
sjdered  by  some  writers  as  an  infections  pneumo- 
enteritia.  It  is  a  wide-spread  disease  in  this  coun- 
try, occurring  more  or  lesa  freijuently  in  every 
note. 

Swine  plague  is  caused  by  a  non-motile,  oval 
bacterium,  described  by  Smith  in  18Sti  (Fig.  114». 
It  is  Identical  with  the  bacilljs  of  Sfhininftcuche 
described  by  Lw^ffler  in  1H85. 
Thin  urgani-sm  is  very  closely 
related  to  a  largo  number  of 
fti>-calleii  flpecii-rt  i>riMiiicing 
Certain  disi^nfies  in  cattle, 
fowls  and  rabliits,  also  to 
one  frequetitly  found  in  thi' 
upper  ai r-passagett  of  hi'althy 
swine,  cattle,  hor^ies.  caU*  and 
dogs.  It  is  often  diJticult  iw 
recognise  symptomn  distinct- 
ive of  swine  plague,  .^me 
aaimab  die  ijutckty  of  septicemin,  others  9ive  a  few 
rfays  to  a  week  or  longer.  Swine  atTwled  with  thi- 
more  chronic  form  eat  very  little  or  rvfuw  fond 
altogether ;  they  cough  considerably.  er>iH-cially 
when  forced  to  run;  the  back  is  usually  arched 
and  the  groins  winken  :  the  whitoj^  of  the  eyes  are 
reddcOEd  ;  the  ekin  oirer  the  ventral  fiurface  of  the 
body,  DOde  ami  earn  in  frer|iifntly  lluxhi'il  or  nf  a 
reddlab  color.  The  cough  i»  the  moHt  rdiaide  indi- 
CfttioD.  Then  are  many  known  vuriatiuits  in  thu 
tffMnam  of  the  iatomal  organs.  The  character- 


• 


''^^ 


P)K.    114. 
Tsc  hactetU  tH  twlu 
ylACwe  or  Stptiftmi* 


iatic  leaionp  are  to  be  foand  in  the  lungs.  Fre- 
quently thu  attdominal  viscera  appear  to  be  normal, 
although  a  careful  examination  will  usually  reveal 
slight  chimge-s.  In  brief,  the  lesions  of  swino 
plague,  as*  they  Rp[iear  in  various  outbreaks,  may 
be  suramiirizeJ  in  four  classes,  namely:  (1)  The 
acute  septicemic  form  in  which  th«  leiiicns  are 
characterized  by  a  general  hyperemic  condition  of 
the  serous  membrane  and  organs.  Not  infrequently 
hemorrhages,  especially  the  punctiform  variety, 
occur.  (2)  Cases  of  pneumonia  with  or  withont 
pleuritis.  The  other  organn  remain  normal  in  ap- 
pearance. This  is  the  more  usual  form.  VS)  Casea 
when  either  in  addition  to.  or  in  the  absence  of 
the  Uing  lesions  there  are  marked  changes  in  the 
mucosa  of  the  digestive  tract  and  (K-rhaps  in  the 
lymphatic  glands.  (4)  Cases  of  mixed  infection, 
especially  with  hog  chok^ra.  when  in  addition  to 
the  swine  plague  lesions  there  are  those,  especially 
of  the  digestive  tract,  characteristic  of  the  accom- 
panying disease. 

The  duration  of  the  diwase  varies  in  acute  cases 
from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks.  In  chronic  or 
complicated  caries  it  is  indefinite.  The  prognosis  is 
very  unfavorable.  Moat  of  the  affected  animals  die, 
and  those  that  recover  are  usually  not  thrifty.  In 
sporadic  cases  swine  plague  is  to  l>o  differentiated 
from  broncho-pneumonia,  due  to  other  causes  than 
the  swine-plague  bacterium.  Pneumonia  of  a  non- 
specitic  nalun?  is  often  associated  with  deaths  due 
to  dietary  or  other  cauj^es.  In  epirootics  it  is  to  be 
diotinguished  from  hog  cholera  when  there  is 
accompanying  catarrhal  pneumonia.  To  make  a 
poditive  diagnosia  it  is  usually  neces."*ary  to  depend 
on  the  rusutts  of  a  bacteriological  examination.  If 
the  disease  appears,  the  well  animals  should  be 
promptly  separated  from  the  sick  and  placed  in 
suitable  pen!:>  or  yar>ltt,  protected  against  subite- 
(jiient  infwtion  and  given  an  abundanct;  of  whole- 
fliime  food  and  water.  The  thorough  disinfL-ction 
of  the  infect*?*!  ]>e!i8  should  be  inaisted  on  before 
they  are  again  occupied. 

[Moore,  Pathogenic  and  Toxigenic  Bacteria  in 
the  U]iper  Ait  rassages  of  DomeRticated  .A.nim3l», 
Bulletin  No.  3,  Bureau  of  ."Vnimal  Industry,  United 
States  Iiepartment  of  Agriculture  (1893);  Smith, 
Special  lU^porl  on  Swine  Plague,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Indut^trv,  United  State«  Department  of  Agriculture 
(IR!>l).t 

Tuhtrculofh  (Figs-U'i-l  19). —Tuberculosis  is  an 
infuctiouu  disease  from  which  the  human  species, 
cattle  and  swine  sulfur  \'ery  extensiviely,  and  which, 
under  favorable  conditions,  attacks  ne-irly  if  not 
all  species  of  animals,  including  lish.  It  is  a  din- 
ease  of  slow  development,  involving  eilhiT  prima- 
rily, or  in  asHiHTiation  with  other  organs,  the  lym- 
phatic HVKt^'m.  It  }!f  characterized  by  the  forma- 
tion 'of  nodules,  or  tubercles,  in  consequence  of  the 
activities  of  Utiefrrium  tuiicreuioti*.  It  deatoys  life 
by  a  chronic  and  tong-continned  syati^mic  poison- 
ing and  by  the  morbid  chnngea  brnnght  atmul 
through  the  Wntixatiim  of  these  lesion»  in  organs 
necessary  to  life.  It  ie  known  as  consumption, 
pearl  difii^asi'.  phthisis,  scrofula,  tabos,  and  in  man 
a*  "the  great   white  plague."    Tuberculosis   was 


134 


IKFECTIOLS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMA1£ 


known  to  the  Jewish  people  durinj;  their  Egyptian 
captivity,  and  the  eoclesi fistic al  laws  for  many  cen- 
turJeH  contained  numBrutiH  (aiiactmenU  aKiiintit  the 
consumption  «f  fl*?ah  from  tulwreuloiia  uriiniiils.  In 
1783,  the  Berlin  Board  of  Health  declared  the 
flesh,  of  alfected  animals  to  be  fit  for  food.  In 
1865,  Viilemin  showed  that  tuliereiitosiB  waa  due 
to  a  specific  infection.  He  prwiuced  the  disease  in 
rabbits  by  inuculalinK  them  with  tnbereulous 
material  from  human  subjects ;  he  nhn  produced 
the  diitea.'^e  by  ft^in^;  experimental  anim»lH  and 
by  CHUoing  them  to  inhub  tube rt-u Ion ii  material. 
In  1882,  Koch  diijcoven.'d  the  spocifiu  bacterium  of 
the  disease.  The  bacterium  of  tuborcniosia  (Fig. 
115)  ia  readily  cultivated  on  artifieial  media  such 
as  blood  semm  or  giycerinated  a^r  after  it  has 
been  adapted  to  such  artiliciul  cunJitiona.  How* 
ever,  it  is  not  eaiy  to  cultivate  it  directly  from 
ordinary  tuberculous  tissues. 

Althouirh  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  the 
tubercle  bacteria  from  man  and  from  animals  were 
thought  to  be  identieul,  they  have  W-n  found  to 
poaseaa  alij^htly  different  characters  and  properties. 
Those  from  cattle  are  shorter  and  thicker  than 
those  from  man,  their  gmwth  is  slightly  different 
on  blood  serum,  and  they  are  mure  virulent  for 
cattle  and  other  animali^.  We  must  look  on  the 
tubercle  bacteria  coming  from  different  species  of 
animah  aa  races  or  variettea  which,  perhaps,  arc 
the  result  of  their  dilferent  conditiona  of  life. 
The  tubercle  bacteria  from  fowls  exhibit  greater 
differences  morpholngirally  and  have  very  Httle  if 
any  virulence  for  other  animals.  Those  from  fish 
are  more  widely  separated. 

As  tuberculosis  ia  a  di-tcase  reauUing  largely  from 
the  destruction  of  ttaaue,  the  symptoms  and  duration 


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Fix.  ilS.    A  drawini!  of  tabercle  bacCU. 

of  it*  course  vary  largely  according  to  the  loca- 
tion of  the  leaiona.  When  they  are  situated  deeply 
and  are  not  of  great  extent,  they  may  not  exhibit 
visible  evidence  of  their  presence.  In  such  cases, 
the  infected  animal  may  present  the  pictun?  of 
perfect  health  an<l  show  no  rfutturbance  of  func- 
tion. Some  animals  are  slaughtered  for  beef  with- 
out a  HUtfpicion  of  the  presence  of  tuborcalosis 


>-■ 


Flit.  lie.    TubemiLu  Dodatca  on  tlie  p'leura  ot  tto  cbMt 
w«U  ol  a  cow. 

until  they  are  examined  post-mortem.  Tbere  are 
no  dlatinctivo  aymptoma  but  a  cough,  rough  coat, 
tight,  harsh  skin,  loud  respiratory  sounds;  and 
enlargement  of  the  glands  in  the  neck,  in  the 
groin  or  above  the  uddpr  are  very  suspicious. 

The  symptoms  of  acute  miliary  tubtTculosis, 
"galloping  consumption,"  are  rapid  low?  of  flesh, 
depression,  poor  appetite,  cough,  weaiineaa,  rapid 
breathing,  harsh  respiratory  sotinda.  some  eleva- 
tion in  temperature,  increased  pulse  rate  and. 
sometimes,  enlarged  l)-mphatic  glands.  The  course 
of  this  form  of  tulterculewis  iti  always  rapid  and 
terminates  in  death.  It  occurs  when  large  num- 
bers of  tubercle  bacteria  are  discharged  into  the 
blood  or  lymph  currents.  They  are  then  carricit  to 
other  parts  of  the  body,  filtered  out  in  the  capil- 
laries of  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys  and  else- 
where, ■cau.'»ing  tuberonlar  lesionn  in  each  uf  these 
localitiea  (Fig.  116t.  The  lesion  from  which  the 
infectious  material  entered  the  circulation  may 
have  beea  a  comparatively  small  nodule.  This 
form  of  the  disease  ia  more  likely  to  appear  in 
young  animals  than  in  adnlt^t,  and  is  more  com- 
mrni  among  swine  than  in  cattlo- 

The  usual  direct  anatomical  chnngeA  following 
the  invasion  of  tubercle  bacteria  are  the  formation 
of  nodulev  or  tuliercle^.  \  tubercle  ia  "a  small 
nonvascular  nodule  composed  of  cells,  varying  in 
form  and  size,  with  some  basement  suWance 
between  them,  and  with  an  inherent  tendency  to 
undergo  central  necrosis."  In  a  large  numlwr  of 
cases,  the  individual  tulxircles  are  diatinct  and  eas- 
ily recognizable,  while  in  others  they  are  coalesced, 
forming  a  mass  of  nwrotic  tissue.  The  lesions 
vary,  therefore,  from  well -isolated  minute  or  larger 
nodules  to  masses  or  cavities  containing  a  puru- 
lent, caseous,  or  calcified  sultstance.  The  jirimary 
legions  are  largely  locate*!  in  one  of  the  live  follow- 
ing organs:  (I)  in  the  lungs  or  the  lymphatic  glands 
draining  them  (Figu.  117, 118),  (2)  in  the  lymphatic 
glands  about  the  head.  (3)  in  the  inteatfnee  and 
mesenteric  gtands.  (4)  in  the  portal  glands  or  liver 
it«>telf,  and  (.'))  in  the  generative  organs  and  udder. 
Id  fatal  cases  of  tuberculosis  one  may  find  with 
varii-ing  mo<lificntions  one  or  more  of  the  following 


TNFKrTlOrTS   DISEAf5ES  OF  ANIMALS 


1» 


'^- 


■f^.-fc-< 


r.  ^:i' 


Wit,  HI,  S«tloa  of  tubetcul-ooA  Iudi  qI  a  caw.  Tbe  IikIii  colortMj 
p«)iil»  Bra  araai  of  cnl'-iQ'^nt  k>u ;  tlia  noiaiiHleT  !■  tha  cti««««-]ik« 
totenmloaa  nuteriftl. 

coDditioofl :  <1)  Th«  prim^rj  lesions  may  be  foarcE 
in  any  one  of  the  orgaiu;  or  membranes.  Itacom- 
parative  ace  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the 
ABatoraical  chanu^s.  It  may  be  entirtly  eacvsttd, 
caseous  or  calcareous  sn<t  dea^I.  In  atidition  to  the 
primary  focos,  there  may  be  a  anccession  of  tobor- 
cles  of  various  agvs  distributud  in  one  or  more 
oi^ang,  (2>  The  lesions  may  be  restricted  to  one 
orgaa,  as  the  liver,  in  which  the  primary  focus  has 
apread  by  continuity,  due  to  its  infiltratine  nature, 
nnlU  the  destruction  of  the  ti.'^ue.t  of  the  organ  has 
become  so  extensive  that  death  results.  Suui  cases 
an  not  common.  (^)  The  primary  lesion  may  be 
well  marked  and  accompanied  by  miliary  tubercles 
sprinkled  extensively  throuphrmt  the  organs  and 
tissues  of  the  entire  body.  (-11  The  lesions  through- 
out the  body  may  reaemble  each  other  very  closely, 
so  that  difficulty  may  be  experivDced  in  determiniag 
the  primary  focus.  When  the  primary  infection  is 
ndtrict«d  to  a  sinRlo  focnii,  the  disease  is  said  to 
be  localized.  When  the  ^pecilic  bacteria  are  spread 
from  the  primary  lestion  through  the  agency  of  the 
lymph  and  blood  Btreams.  infecting  nther  organs 
with  the  tubercle  bacteria,  each  of  which  becomes 
the  starting  point  for  a  new  tubercle,  the  disea.'ie 
has  become  generaliwd. 

TtthtmUoiit  in  tu-ine. — Tuberculosis  in  swine  is 
often  generalized.  Swine  are  usually  infected 
ihroQgh  the  food.  If  pigs  are  fed  on  the  refu.-w  from 
dairies  and  cheese  manufactories  in  districts  whera 
there  ta  much  tuberculosis  in  c^ittle,  or  on  tuber- 
culoBS  Tiscera.  they  readily  become  infected.  In 
m<ctcaaea.  tuberculosis  of  the  pig  is  tirst  recognized 
at  tb» abattoir ;  sometime*^,  however,  it  causes  local 
and  geDeral  troubles,  which  vary  according  to  the 
ornj]  attacked.  The  so-called  scrofnla  of  swine  is 
tuberculosis  of  the  glandf  of  the  head  and  neck.  The 
manifestations  of  tubfrcutcsis  in  swine  areexceed- 
lo^y  interesting.  Nocard  found  the  lesions  to  con- 
■isL  of  miliary  grannlations,  which  rapidly  l>ecome 
ciasooa,  aa  in  cattle,  but  which  more  rarely  contain 
caleanotis  said.  Generalization  is  common,  in 
which  vase  the  viscera  are  thickly  sprinkled  with 


fr't^^M  gray  granulations,  which  arc  translucent 
throughout,  or  opjiquo  in  their  centers,  qoita 
analogous  to  thiise  found  in  tuberculw 
lesions  in  othur  animals. 

-4f'ifjfl  Uiixrruhxi».  In  America,  tubercD- 
bisis  in  fowls  has  lieen  cle,scriljed  by  several 
worker*.  It  wiw  rff«gnized  by  the  ownera 
\\A  "(Spotted  liver,"  gnitig  light,  and  rheuma- 
lirfni.  The  geni^ral  symptoms  are  emaciation 
and  anemia.  The  comb,  the  skin,  and  the 
vi-sible  mucosa  about  the  head  are  usually 
pale.  i\n  the  course  of  the  di.'^ease  advances, 
tht*  feathers  become  ruffled  and  the  fowls  are 
weak,  dumpish,  and  move  about  very  little ; 
the  appetite  is  usually  good ;  the  tempera- 
ture is  in  most  cases  within  the  normal 
limits,  but  rarely  it  is  subnormal ;  the  blood 
is  pale.  Tubercular  fowls  are  often  lame; 
this  is  due  to  joint  lesions  in  some  ca.ses  ;  in 
others  it  appears  to  be  due  t»  extensive 
lesions  in  the  viscera.  The  liver  is  m<ist  fre- 
(jueutly  involved.  The  spleen,  intestines, 
mesenterj',  kidneys,  lungs  and  skin  art;  alfected  in 
the  order  mentioned.  The  structure  of  the  tubercle 
is  the  same  as  in  other  animals. 

Tuberculosis  in  cattle  and  swine  is  to  be  differ- 
entiated from  actinomycosis,  and  various  parasit- 
isms resulting  in  nodules  largely  in  the  walls  of 
the  inte.'tine.  due  to  ilCtiopkagnntoma,  In  sheep  the 
nodules  are  caused  by  (E.  Colunfmnum,  Curtice.  In 
chickens  a  nodular  ta'^niasis  of  the  intestine  is  not 
infrequently  mistaken  for  tuberculosis.    Abscesses 


» 


vV. 


M 


^~a 


PIZ.  IIS.  TncbMi,  tmracltl  &ad  Kland>ot  lh«  btMrlw  liiaf.  A, 

H,  n  arr  rliinila  froqiKimly  inaulvad   In  IuImituIoilU.     O  W 

ih«  |l»na  of  ihp  ■np«niain*'ritTr  liranrbw.    Il  U  otUB 


i 


^H             136                                        INPECnOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANQIALS                    ^^B^^^^^H 

^^B              and  necrotic  foci  due  to  variau«  agencies  most  aiao     herds.    If  they  are  admitted  and  later  the  fact  is    ^^1 
^^m              bedistin^irthed  from  tulwrculur  le^ii^ns.    The  post-     dtflcorer«K],  it  is  necessar;  to  remove  tht-m  and    ^^M 
^^m              live  liiagQosisof  tabttrculMia  rests  in  :  (1)  Finding;     to  thoroaghly  disinfect  the  stable.    In  eliminating;    ^^M 
^^m              the  tnbercle  bacteria  in  a  micro^icopic  examination      the  disease  from  a  herd  by  means  of  the  tut>LTcalin          1 
^^H              of  the  legions.    (2)  The  production  of  tuberculosix      teat,  it  in  iiM;essary  to  ri;tetft  the  non-reactin);  ani-          I 
^^B              in  experlmi'ntal  animaU  oy  iooculating  them  with      malsafter  six  months  or  a  yt-ar  have  passed  in  order          1 
^^M              the  saspect^'d  tuberculous  material.  (3)  Secorinf^  a      to  find  any  case  that  mifrht  hav«  been  Infected,  hut           1 
^^H               t)!)'!^^]  reaction  after  the  injection  of  tuberculin.        in  which  the  legions  had  not  K'^un  to  dwulop  at            1 
^^H                  Tuberculin  ((*(.  -  The  tuberculin  test,  in  a  large      the  time  of  the  first  tifst.    Of  the  methods  for  the            * 
^^M             majority  of  tuberculous  caM-s  among  animals  and      control  of  tuberculosis  in  cattle,  the  one  introduced 
^^H              in  man,  is  the  only  means  of  detecting  pa-iitively      by  I'rof.  Bang,  of  Co|ietihagen.  Denmark,  and  gen- 
^^H              the  disease  in  the  living  individaal.  Tuberculin      erally  known  as  the  "Bang  method,"  has  prov^  to 
^^1              is  the  concentrated  liquid,  usually  glyccrinated      be  the  mottt  succeMtfuL  It  cnnKJAts  in  the  slaughter 
^^1              bouillon,  on  which  tubercle  bacteria  have  grown      of  the  advanced  cohca  and  the  isolation  of  the 
^^M              until  the  products  resulting  from  their  mukipH-     reacting  atiimala  whit-h  show  no  uvidence  of  dis- 
^^M              cation  have  become   imparted  to  the  medium  In      ease,  and  keeping  them  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
^^B              eufficient  quantity  to  inhibit  their  further  devel-     calves  are  se^parated  from  thicir  dams  imme-diately 
^^M              opment    In  its  preparation  the  liquid  is  heated  on      after  birtli  and  fed  on  the  milk  of  healthy  cows  or 
^^H                                                                                                                          the  sterilised  milk  of  the  reacting 
^1                          ^4?,.^  ^^'^'^^  ^^^oosno,yry?/nn?oo,-rooj'M     onea.    The  vaccination   of  cattle 

s 

agaimtl    turlK>rculi«iK    has    been 
proposed  as  a  prophylactic  meas- 
ure.  Von  Behring  has  produced  a 
vaccine,  known   as    bovovaccine, 
for  immunising  young  cattle.  The 
method  is  still  iii  the  exjierimental 
stage,  and  itM  elfectivenesft  can 

not  be    iredicted  at  this  time. 

[Koch,  The  Combating  of  Tuber- 
culosis in  the  Light  of  the  Experi- 
ence That  Has  Been  Gained  in  tho 
Successful  Combating  of  Other  In- 
fectious Tiist-asen,  American  Veter- 
inary Revipw.  Vul.  XXV,    p,  441 
(1901);  Moore,  A  Report  i>n  Bovine      ^i 
Tuberculosis,  New  '^  ork  State  He-    ^^| 
partment  of  .Agriculture  (19(1^1:    ^^^k 
Moore,  The  Morbid  Anatomy  and           1 

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H  IS 

n..  119.    Tenw.tt.re  curv«6.    Til.  .....,.d  l.r..  A  r*t.r.-M.„r,  ,1..  ..,„Mr«T.r^  a(       ^'■'«"'Y  /''    'jy"*"     1  a^'ICUlosi-;. 

*mtwrartiveiii)-t<»ir  MiiiraUruro  llii*  inJuOon  «{  iiil.Fr.'ulin    Tln-«<>ll>l  Hue        JOUnial  OX   MedlCAl    nesearCn,  \  01. 
f*vr«iH»Di*  ihn  WmBrrmiirr  for  iw*tity-fmiT  houm  nfi+r  tin-  lnk«-H')ii  of  tutwr-        \[     jj    ",1"?   (niblioin'apbv)   (19041  * 

rear«on.  Tlie  Repreaeion  of  Tuber- 
ma  oecaiiona  to  a  t«mpi>raturo  ami  for  a  length  of     culoeia  in  Cattle  by  Sanitation,  Bulletin  Ko.  74, 
Jme  far  in  excess  of  that  reciuired  to  destroy  the      Pennsylvania  IX'Eiarlnient  of  Agriculture  (1901): 
^rganismSf  besides  Wing  pa.'wed  through  a  filter      Ravenel,  The  Di.-*.'»emination  of  Tubercle  BaciUi  by 
Mfiiible  of  r&moving  all  bacteria.    Tuberculin  in      Cows  in  Coughing  a  rowible  .'Source  of  Contagion, 
,he  dost;  nftceflsary  to  bring  out  its  diagnostic  effect     University  of  PenuHylvania  Medical  Magazine,  No- 
iB  harmlefia  for  ht-althy  animals.  In  the  tuberculous      vemhi^r  0900);  Smith,  Investigations  Concerning 
inimal  it  produces  a  rise  of  temperature  which,      Bovine  TubtTculiosis  with  S]*cial  Reference  to  Di- 
within   certain  limits,   follows  a  definita  course,      agnosia  and  Prevention  I'Pathological  part),  Bulletin 
usually   terminating    in    eighteen  to   twenly-foor      No.  7,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  United  States 
lours  after  the  injection,  (Fig.  119.)    Occa.-'ionally      I>epartmenl   of   AgrtcnUure   (1894);    Smith.   The 
,he  temperature  remains  above  the  normal  for  a     Thermal  fHiath  Point  of  Tuhen-le  Bacilli  in  Milk  and 
onger  time.    The  temperature  usually  beglmt  to      ."Mtme  Other  Fluids,  .Tnnmal  Experimental  Mt^dicine. 
rii*e  in  about  eight  hours,  giving  a  sU^ady  but  rapid      Vol.  IV,  p.  217  (lft99l;  Pemijt,  Investigations  of 
elevation  for  one  to  three  hours,  a  continuous  high      niaeases  of  Poultry,  Bulletin  No.  64,  On-gon  Agri- 
ftlevation  for  two  to  six  hours,  |K«fiibly  longt^r,  and      cultural  Rxperimunt  Station  (1900);  Sibley.  Tuber- 
s  gradual  decline.    This  it;  practically  [^on-stant,  be      culosis  in  Birds,  Journal  Comparative  Medicine  and 
;he  rise  moderate  or  extreme.    In  addition  to  the      Veterinary  Archives,  Vol.  XI.  p.  317  (ISJX));  Ward, 
elevation    in    tcmperaturo   there   is   sometimes  a      Tuberculosis  in  Fowls,  Bulletin  No.  161, California 
marked    nervous    chill.    It    does    not    injure    the      Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (I&Ol).] 
iiBeaiwd  animal.                                                            _                 j .    .    ,    ■               «    -,, 

JV6mntfo«»prct:m/.«r..-TuhereuU>Hiscanl)epre-      OxmimtauKd  by  tsictena,  gintu  BactUut. 
vented.    To  acc^impiish  thin  it  is  nect!BHary  to  keep          The  geiiiia    BacilluH   in    Migula's  classification 
tuberculous  animals   from  entering    the  healthy      includes  all  rod^shaped  motile   bacteria.    In   the 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OP  ANIMALS 


137 


older  cla£8ificaliun  it  mcludcK  EiuLli  non-motile  and 
motile  forms.  Thu  fixin;;  on  mutiLity  va  an  eaaen- 
tial  generic  character,  and  thns  restricting  the 
genus  IlaciUutt  to  motile  formci.  in  the  occasion  of 
some  confu»ioD  t^tween  th«  genera  Bactt>rimn  and 
Bacillus  an  applieil  to  a  number  of  important 
discoa^-prodQcinf;  bacteria.  It  i^  customary  to 
epeak  of  the  bacilluit  of  anthrax,  of  tuburculu«is 
and  of  glanders,  rather  than  of  the  bacterium  of 
these  affections. 

Dhek  leg  or  hlacJc  quarter, — Black  quarter  is  an 
acute  inftfCtioufl  diaease  of  cattle  char;tct<irized  by 
the  development  of  an  emphyRemntn^it;  :<iwel1ing  of 
tbe  ^ubcutaneoux  ti.sHUt.'A  and  muKcW  Tha  WioiiiR 
are  tunally  located  on  and  ordinarily  extend  over 
the  greater  part  of  a  hind  quartt^r  of  a  shoulder. 
The  disease  doea  not  spread  from  animal  to  ani- 
mal by  Btmple  contact  but  the  infection  takes 
place  apparently  fntm  a  common  Hource,— the  soil. 
The  virus  seems  to  exint  in  the  soil  in  cert-ain 
localities  only.  Like  t^'tanuK,  it  im  a  ditteaxe  foliow- 
ing  a  wound  infection.  "Black  quarter"  is  a 
disease  of  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  although  tha 
tTO  latter  specie.4  are  rarely  attacked.  Guinea 
pigs  are  very  stutceptible  to  inoculation  but  other 
uimals  nan  to  b«  immane.  In  cattle,  it  rarely 
occurs  under  tbe'age  of  six  months,  and  in  adiilut 
after  the  foarth  year.  Black  quarter  eximtw  to 
some  extent  in  nearly  every  country  in  the  world. 
The  states  and  territorieft  which  suffer  most  from 
it  are  Texas,  Oklahoma.  KanRaj«,  Nebraska.  Colo- 
rado, Xorth  and  South  Dakota  and  Indi:in  Terri- 
tory ;  but  a  number  of  the  other  western  ntates 
are  b«dly  infected. 

Black  quarter  is  caused  by  Bacillus  ckauntd,  an 
lobabitant  of  the  soil  in  certain  lucatitiei*.  Tht; 
period  of  incobation  is  short.  A  general  ayriplom 
IS  elevation  of  temperature,  reaching  in  some  caftes 
lOTFahr.  It  usually  falls  to  the  normal  or  even 
sabaormal  before  doath.  The  local  symptome  may 
appear  on  dilTerent  partji  of  the  body  except  below 
iSe  knee  or  hock  joints  and  on  the  tail.  They  qhh- 
ally  appear  on  the  thighs,  neck,  shoulders  and 
lower  regions  of  the  chest,  .\fter  death  the  sub- 
cataneoos  dislennion  with  gas  is  especially  marked 
ia  tbe  region  of  the  nwellinigs ;  the  skin  covering 
it  is  often  gangrenous.  The  sabcutaneoufl  connect- 
ive tissue  is  yellow,  gtdatinous,  inliltrat^-d  with 
blood  and  bubbles  of  gas  which  escapt-  if  the  skin 
is  incised.  The  muscles  underneath  the  tumors  are 
of  a  dirty  brown  or  of  a  blackish  color.  Its  dura- 
tion is  one  to  three  days,  occasionally  longer.  The 
yrognosis  is  grave. 

In  checking  the  spread  of  the  black  quarter  it  is 
rtry  important  to  remove  th«  well  animals  frtim 
the  infected  field  and  to  restriict  the  sic-k  ones  to  a 
■nail  area.  Tbe  swellings  should  not  be  opened 
aad  the  discharge  acattervd  over  the  field.  The 
dead  animals  sbould  be  bamed,  if  possible,  other- 
wise buried  deeply  and  covered  well  with  lime  as 
■OOD  as  possible  after  death.  The  most  effective 
preventive  measure  is  vaccination. 

[Norgaard.  Blackleg  in  the  Unitod  States  and 
tbe  Pistrtbution  of  Vaccine  by  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal ladoatr}',  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of 


Animal  Industry,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  <189S|;  Salmon.  Black  Quarter,  .\nnual 
Report  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  I'nited 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1893-1). j 

Foot-rot  in  *^ff;).— Foot-rot  in  sheep  is  an  infec- 
tious disease  characterized  byasi'ecinc  inflamma- 
tion of  the  tissues  just  above  the  homy  part  of 
the  cleft  of  the  foot,  which  extends  downward, 
undermining  the  horny  part.  It  appears  in  epi- 
zootic and  enzootic  forms.  Tbe  cause,  according  to 
Mohler  and  Washburn,  is  an  anaerobic  organism, 
BaeilliLi  necrophorui.  The  period  of  incubation  is 
short.  It!*  duration  varies  from  a  few  weeks  to 
several  months.  Usually  it  does  not  terminate 
fatally. 

Hoi}  f/io/erc.^The  distinguishing  features  of  this 
disease  are  a  continuous  fever,  ulceration  of  the 
intestines,  and  more  or  less  discoloration  of  the 
skin,  especially  over  the  ventral  surface.  It  is 
widely  disseminated  thr-tughout  the  central  part  of 
the  t'niti'd  States.  It  exiiita.  bowevi-r,  to  a  certain 
degree  in  every  state  in  the  union  and  in  Canada. 
In  Great  Britain  it  is  known  as  swine  fever.  It 
prevails  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  It  ia  caused  by  Bacilhit  dmlerx 
fui's.  The  perioil  of  incubation  varies  from  seven 
to  fourteen  days,  and  pcirhapa  longer.  The  sjiiip- 
toms  are  not  constant.  ThL-y  are  the  acute  and  the 
chronic  or  mild  forms.  In  the  acute  disease,  the 
animals  die  very  suddenly  after  a  few  hours,  or  at 
most  a  few  days  of  sicknw.<t ;  in  the  other  form  the 
disease  runH  a  longer  course.  The  animals  act  dump- 
ish and  i4piritles.4.  and  lie  quietly  in  a  comer  or  hud- 
dle t<>gi'ther ;  they  refuse  to  move  when  disturbed, 
ami  are  more  or  leas  oblivious  to  their  suffering. 
The  apfjetite  varies  ;  there  may  or  may  not  be 
diarrhea  ;  frequently  the  bowels  are  costive;  there 
is  rarely  any  cough.  Usually  there  is  considerable 
reddening  of  the  skin  on  the  now,  ears,  abdomen, 
and  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  pubic  region, 
anil  (icrasionally  this  nnldi-ning  is  very  marked. 
Hu^p^suffe^ing  from  various  intestinal  troubles  fre- 
([ui-ntly  exhibit  symptoms  which  closely  resemble 
those  of  this  disease.  The  lesions  in  the  acute  form 
are  hemorrhagic  or  septicemic  in  nature.  In  the 
chronic  form,  which  is  more  common,  the  lesions 
may  l»e  limited  to  thv  largo  intestines.  althou,gh 
the  spleen  is  uituatly  enlarg4"(t  and  dark  colored,  and 
the  liviT.  kidnt-ys.  and  lymphatic  glands  are  more 
or  leas  affected.  The  duration  of  the  disease  varies, 
from  a  few  hours  in  the  acute  septicemia  type  to 
one  or  more  weeks  in  the  chronic  form.  Tbe  prog- 
nosis is  not  gOfxl. 

Hog  chulera  is  to  be  differentialefl  from  a  great 
variety  v(  dietary  disorders  and  poisoning  fn)m 
alkalies  and  poiwibly  from  other  chemicalii,  which 
may  get  into  their  fr>od.  Powdered  soap  has  been 
found  to  pr'xluce  a  series  of  symptoms  very  similar 
to  those  of  hog  cholera.  Hog  cholera  mopt  aiwo  l» 
differentiated  from  a  new  diaeaae  recently  described 
by  de  Schweinitz.  which  resembles acQte  hogcholura 
symptomalically.  but  which  is  caosed  by  an  unknown 
organism  that  passes  tbrouf^h  aChamberland  filter. 
The  differentiation  of  hogcholera  fromswine  plagu-j 
depends  on  the  specilic  t^teria. 


_l 


138 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIHAI^ 


[Salmon  and  Smith,  Anaa&l  Reports  of  th«  Bar«au 
of  Animal  Indugtry  ( 1885-1895) :  Smith.  Hog 
Cholera  Gruup  of  liac'teria,  Butktin  No.  6,  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry.  United  States  Department  of 
A(friculture.  p.  9  (189-1'! ;  Smith  and  Moore.  Expcri- 
ment-t  on  the  Production  of  Immunity  in  Kaobita 
and  ^Juinea  I'iga  With  Keferenco  to  Hog  Cholera 
and  Swine  PlaRoe  liact^ria.  ll/iti.,  p,  -11 ;  Welch, 
Report  of  Investigations  Concerning  the  Causation 
of  Hog  Cholera,  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin 
Ko.  I  (1889.!.] 

TetanTif. — Tetanus,  or  lockjaw,  is  an  infectious 
disease  (toxemia)  in  which  the  specific  organism 
remains  at  the  place  of  inoculation.  It  is  charac- 
terired  by  apasmodic  contraction  of  the  muMJes, 
referable  to  the  nervou*  system,  and  by  the  ahiwnce 
of  obvious  tissu«  chao^ea.  It  in  thts  result  of  the 
ahaorption  of  the  toxin  produced  by  the  tt-tanus 
bscillns.  All  mammalia,  including  man,  are  sus- 
ceptibla.  It  occurs  most  fre<jaently  in  hor^.t.  asRes 
and  mules ;  next  lo  them,  in  the  smaller  ruminants, 
«uch  as  the  sheep  and  goat ;  it  api>earfl  least  often 
in  the  dog.  It  is  reported  to  occur  rarely  in  birds, 
and  fowls  are  ouppf^cid  to  be  immune.  Thu  human 
8]HK;i«i  in  very  Husi^eptiblc.  Tetanus  ia  reported  to 
be  more  pruvalont  in  hot  climates  than  in  temper- 
ate ones,  white  in  the  very  cold 
latitudes  it  is  rarely  if  evt>r  en- 
countered. It  is  more  freijuentiy 
met  urith  in  mmut  diritrictH  than 

in  uthen.  It  ia,  howtjver,  a  wide- 

^'**  .  1  spread  diseaaw.  The  tetanus  ha- 
O  y^V  cillus  forms  spores  which  are  at 
\\  /'  •  the  end  of  thu  organism.  (Fig. 
I'2i:i.l  It  is  found  in  the  soil. 
\lctUI  rich  in  hnrse-mannre  Feems 
to  be  the  moKt  favorable  abode 
fur  it.  The  Iptanur;  hacillun  is 
very  resistant,  esiwcially  in  its  spore  form,  to 
dijstructive  agents,  «u(;h  asdryinfiand  the  ordinary 
disinfectants.  Kitasato  found  that  a  5  per  cent 
solution  of  carbolic  acid  applied  for  ten  hours 
failed  to  kill  the  spores.  The  periorl  of  incohation 
in  horses  is  usually  four  to  twenty  days ;  after 
inocnlation  with  pure  cultures  it  in  four  tii  five 
days,  and  in  shwp  two  tu  four  days. 

The  moKt  common  modes  uf  infactiitn  are  punc- 
tures, scratches,  and  pricks  niiuiv  by  splinters,  naits 
or  infecte<)  instruments  (traumatic  tetanus).  It 
may  follow  slight  abrasions  of  the  ekin  where 
infected  earth  comes  in  contact  with  the  lacerated 
epidermis.  Infection  often  occuts  in  young  foals 
and  lambs  thrt^igh  the  freshly  broken  umbilical 
con!  ( THrtJtiui  Tiponaturum  I,  The  HymptunL>!  are  often 
obHcure  ami  may  be  overluoked  for  several  days  ur 
Ihey  may  be  ushered  in  suddenly  with  violent  and 
extensive  tonic  spasms.  The  tetanic  spasms  usually 
begin  in  the  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck,  extend- 
ing from  these  to  those  of  the  throat,  trunk  and 
extrt'mities.  The  mitsries  at  the  site  nf  inoculation 
are  freijuently  the  fimt  to  show  npasms  and,  if  the 
disease  is  of  a  mild  type,  they  may  be  the  only  ones 
to  exhibit  change.  Besides  the  spasms  the  animal 
abowa  an  increased  rellex  irritability  and  height- 
«iied  sensibility.    In  fatal  cases  the  temperature  ia 


V^/i 


Fli  no.  TbelMdIll 
ol  teUniii.  Bome 
iri  tb  BpotBB. 
otber>  without. 


Qsaally  constantly  high  toward  the  last.  The  pri- 
mary tissue  changes  are  in  the  motor  ganglia  cella 
of  the  anterior  horns  of  the  spinal  cord  due  to  a 
specilic  affinity  between  tho^u-  celU  and  the  tetanus 
toxin.  A  considerable  number  of  lesions  may  be 
found  elsewhere  in  the  body,  which  are  secondary 
to  the  tonic  contractions. 

The  duration  of  the  disease  varies  indifferent 
species  and  in  different  individuals  of  the  fame 
species.  Ia  the  horse  it  may  la«t  for  two  or  three 
days  only,  or  it  may  continue  for  several  weeks. 
In  cattle  the  course  is  less  rapid,  but  it  rarely  runs 
longer  than  two  weeks.  In  sheep  it  may  terminate 
fatally  within  a  week  and  often  in  two  or  throe 
days.  Tetanufi  may  be  mistaken  for  cerebro-Apinal 
meningitis,  rabies  and  poirioning  with  dtryohnine. 

Owing  to  the  wide  distribution  «f  tetanus  bacilli, 
precautions  consist  only  in  careful  and  thorough 
disinfection  of  all  wounds.  With  animals  at  pas- 
ture, it  is  often  impossible  to  know  of  the  wounds 
until  it  is  too  late  to  apply  this  measure.  In  stables 
where  the  disease  hecnmeH  prevalent,  the  floors  ;ind 
siding  should  be  thoroughly  diitinfected  and  special 
watch folnewn  exen:i»«d  lo  find  at  the  earliest 
moment  any  injury  by  which  infection  could  occur. 
Tetanus  antitoxin  ia  of  value  as  a  prophylactic. 

[Moschcowitz,  Tetanus,  a  study  of  the  nature, 
excitant,  lesions,  symptomatology ,  and  treatment 
of  the  disease,  with  a  critiortl  summary  of  the 
resuIU  of  seritm  therapy,  Stiidii?*  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  ?atbul(>«y  of  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  Columbia  Fnivereity,  Vol.  VII  (1899- 
19O0)  (iA.  gives  pathology  and  antitoxin  treatment, 
summary  of  cases  and  full  bibliography.);  McFar- 
Und,  Tetanus  and  Vaccination.  Journal  of  Medical 
Research,  Vol.  Vll,  p.  474  (1902).] 

Dineaaeg  emtiwd  bj/ftuiffi. 

Art inomyeuiiif.— Aci\nomycos'\a,  also  known  as 
"lumpy  jaw."  "wooden  tongue"  and  "big  head," 
is  a  chronic  disease  determined  by  the  pre.sence  of 
a  specific  cause,  — 
the  ray  fungus, 
t  'Jndoth  rix  od  t'no- 
mycfs  iFig.  121) — 
which  by  irritation 
alimulatefl  the  for- 
mation of  new 
growths  consisting 
of  round  cells, 
epithelioid  cells, 
giant  cells  and 
Hbruus  tissue.  The 
new  growths  ay>- 
fjear  as  tumors  hav- 
ing either  a  ten- 
dency to  develop 
into  large  and  hanl  masses  or  to  suppurate.  Cat- 
tle (gpnuB  Eos)  arti  most  often  attacked.  Horses, 
dogs,  pigH,  sheep  and  elephant*  are  slightly  bbsc«i^' 
tible.    It  is  rarely  found  in  man. 

Actinomycosis  in  cattle  is  widely  distributwi 
throughout  North  and  South  America  and  Burope. 
It  is  nianifeste<l  by  a  firm  awelling  or  tumor,  usu- 
ally 8ituut<<(l  in  the  region  of  the  head  or  throat. 


FIC  [31.  A  ny  fuDCM.  staowjoc  a 
rotette.  bmncblac  aBd  Um  tav«- 
•laa  of  Mlla. 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


139 


(Fig.  122.)  The  enIariKnn!nt  KfadoaMy  increasea  in 
size.  It  is  ordinarily  sharplj' (lelliic-iJ  fnnti  the  aur- 
roundini:  tiasuw*.  Upon  manipulatiou  the  tumor 
fevln  hanl  an<l  dense.  In  the  ret^ion  of  the  thrnat 
it  may  be  fluctuatinR.  After  a  variiiMe  length  of 
time,  the  tiim»r-!ike  n:iii.-«»  may  ,s(ifl*^n  in  orn-  ()r 
more  plact^i*,  nititure  und  JiMihnrKu  a  rather  lhi«k, 
yeUawLih  and  mort;  or  Inaa  sticky,  piirulunt  aub- 


V- 


:S- 


nc  121.    Bead  of  A  luer  i&owidc  ActiBoaiTtMla  «( tte  law. 

stance.  The  diftchargK  nuiy  cuntinui;  or,  an  otlca 
happens,  the  opening  hcalij  tumpunirily  only  to 
rupture  again.  Animals  rxnAy  die  from  its  immt>- 
dtate  effecta.  Uuyo  reports  cases  in  which  the 
dlMua  ns  watched  for  sei-eral  years.  In  cattle, 
it  wnully  appears  in  one  or  more  of  the  following 
locations :  the  maxillary  Itonw,  the  tonjjne,  the 
pharynx,  the  akin  and  subcatanoouit  tiiotue,  the 
lymph  Klands  and  the  Iuhk^.  It  seldura  altaclu 
other  organs.  Rari--ly  JL  becomes  K^'n^raliBed. 
lDv««ti|ratiorui  hart-  proved  the  si>i>ci!ie.  ciirativo 
effect  of  th«  administration  of  iodid  of  pota.si<ium. 

(Salmon,  Treatment  of  Lumpy  jaw  or  Actinomy- 
copis  in  Cattle.  Hulletin  No.  2.  Rureaii  of  Animal 
InduBtry,  United  Stated  Departmi-'nt  of  Agriculture 
(18»3l;'Wrijfht,  The  Biology  of  thw  MicroiirKaniem 
of.  .^ctinomyroMis.  Journal  of  MiMJical  Resitarch, 
Vol  XIII.  p.  ft49  (190.-,).] 

Epiiofitie  /ym/»Aan.vt7ijr.— Epizootic  lymphangitis 
■>dMcrib«d  as  avimlent  infectious  diseaw  charnc- 
teriml  by  soppuration  of  the  aoperficiul  lymphntic 
sla,  doe  t"  the  presence  of  a  specific  ori^iinium. 
It  ill  adiseaseof  the  solipedK,  altlioi]|;h  Tokishit^ 
nportA  finditiK  >^  >n  cuttle  in  Ja[ian.  It  in  i-autit'd 
by  an  oreaitifun  describiHl  hy  Rivolta  m  Satrhanr- 
tnj/emu  Jartimiiumiu,  Acconling  to  Pallin.  it  in 
fmmd  In  large  namhers  in  the  disoafled  ti&snet^, 
partly  free  and  partly  enclowid  in  pos  corpn»clps, 
whirh  often  contain  ten  ti»  thirty  or  more  nt  them. 
Tbi!  [leriod  of  incnbation  is  placed  at  three  we«ks 


to  thrc^e  months.  Thi;  teaionfl  conaint  of  swelling 
and  suppuration  of  thi.-  lymph  veMi>ets  and  glands. 
Thu*  alFfction  may  be  mistaken  for  ulandera. 
[I'allin,  A  Treatittc  on  lOpizootic  Lymphangititi, 
London  (ItKM).] 

[.nrkes.  -"I<eeche8"  or  "  leeching"  is  an  infec- 
tious diwiLte  prevalent  among  the  horse  kind,  with 
lesion-1  localiz«<l  on  the  skin  or  the  mncowi  nf  the 
head.  It  \s  xnoTv  prevalent  in  the  warm  latiludeu 
but  it  occurs  further  north.  It«  apecific  cautie  is 
not  positively  known  but  it  is  supposed  t«  be  a 
funjjus. 

Mfimlie  ttirniotitis  in  caW/p.  —  Cattle  sometimes 
suffer  from  stomatitis  caoiwd  by  fungi.  The  exact 
i^peciea  that  are  involved  in  this  form  of  infection 
are  not  clearly  determined.  The  symptomB  are 
inability  to  eat,  suspension  of  rumination,  frequent 
movements  of  the  Hps,  and,  in  dome  ca8«».  dribbling 
of  aaliva.  The  ulcers  in  the  mouth  are  hemorrhagic 
at  the  borders,  while  the  central  necrotic  parts 
9oon  slough.  The  prognosis  is  good. 

Diseata  miuwii  hy  protozoa. 

Protozoa  are  the  smallest  O'f  known  animal  life. 
There  are  great  numbers  of  them  in  nature  but  a 
verv  few  species  have  become  parasitic  to  the 
higher  animals.  A  few  species  cause  disease. 

Canine  ma/aria.— This  ia  known  as  piroplasma 
of  dot:?,  "malignant  malarial  jaundice"  and  "ma- 
lignant jaundice."  It  is  chanict«rized  by  a  high 
temperature,  rapid  course,  jaundice  and  anemia. 
Theje  are  due  to  the  invajiion  of  the  blood  with 
Pirof^tuma  cani-i.  It  has  l>een  found  in  several 
places  in  .Africa,  in  Italy  and  in  France.  [Ilutcheon, 
Malignant  Malarial  Fe?er  of  the  Dog.  The  Veter- 
inary Journal,  Vo]._  XLIX.  p.  398  iI899>.] 

ZJoitrfne.— This  is  a  contagious  affection  of  aoli- 
peds,  tranamilted  by  copulation  and  attended  by 
specific  lesions  of  the  generative  organs  and  nerv- 
ous system,  such  a.*  local  swellings,  dementia  and 
paralysis.  The  disease  is  essentially  au  e<|uine  one. 
While  the  horw  shows  the  greatest  auscfptihility. 
the  ass  is  comparatively  resij<tant  to  the  infection. 
It  is  caused  by  a  trypanosome.  (Fig.  1215.)  In  the 
active  stages,  the  parasite  is  usually  found  abun- 
dantly in  the  blood,  semen,  milk,  vaginal  secretions 
and  the  erosions  uf  the 
vaginal  m  ii  c  n  s  a  and 
[>enifl.  During  intermiB- 
sionH,  however,  and  in 
the  absence  of  local  le- 
sions, the  parasites  are 
not  found  in  the  blood  on 
micnwcopic  examination, 
yet  the  inoculation  of 
thi^  blood  into  a  dog  wilt 
usually  produce  the  dis- 
ett«e,  The  p&rasile  dis- 
appears from  the  blood 
and  tissues  very  rapidly 
after  death,  so  that,  to 
prove  successful,  inoculations  should  be  made  from 
an  infected  individual  before  or  immediately  after 
death. 

The  first  symptoms  are  local  changed  in  the  gen- 


m 


Sf^i 


:^Ki:t>j 


Pic.  in.    AdiawlnB  at  Trv 

cauM  of  doorlne.  In  the 
blool  ol  m  lit  aisbt  4ay«  *f- 
tei  hDDCuUtioii.    '  rintlnln  I 


140 


INFECTIOUS  DISBASES  OP  ANIMALS 


ital  organs,  which  appear  aft^r  a  period  of  incoba- 
tion  of  eight  days  t(j  two  months.  General  aymp- 
toma  davelyp  only  after  weeks  or  even  monthu ; 
their  appearance  is  often  de-layed  until  the  local 
symptoms  have  disappeared.  The  animals  are 
depressed  aud  weak,  knuckle  on  their  fetlock  joints 
and  lose  control  over  the  moremvnt^  of  their  hind 
legs  while  walking.  The  temperature  is  not  so 
hiffh  as  in  other  forma  of  trypaQOBoma  infection. 
Later  in  its  course,  a  progressive  paraiyaia  of  the 
hind  quarters  combines  with  excessive  emaciation. 
its  duration  is  from  three  months  to  as  many  years. 
Thfi  propiosis  li  unfavorable.  Dourine  is  to  be 
differtntialied  from  ■'BeniKn  venereal  disease." 

£^i£int' ma/arfa.— This  (iisfsase  is  characterized 
by  a  hiffh  temperature,  and  a  yL-Uowish  tint  of  the 
mucous  meml)rant!3.  It  is  caused  by  J'irojdofrita 
equi,  which  ia  closely  rebted  to  P.  bigem'uium. 

Iclcro-hrmaturia  in  tkeep. — This  is  an  enzootic 
disease  determined  by  a  rise  of  tenipeniture  with 
a  chill  and  lat«r  icterus  and  marked  chancres  in 
the  blood.  It  is  due  to  Pirrtplimftia  ovif,  which 
invades  the  red  blood  corpuiscleti^.  It  has  beon 
di«cribed  in  Europe*  and  in  Muntana. 

Iiifertwus  e!itero-hef>atili»  in  turkeys. — This  is 
popularly  called  blackhead.  It  ia  characteriztjd  by 
thickening  of  areas  or  of  the  entire  walls  of  the 
ceca  and  areas  of  tissue  degentTation  and  necrosis 
In  the  liver.  The  New  Enghind  slates,  particularly 
Rhml^  l.siand,  and  C'^rtain  diritricts  in  the  middle 
and  wflatiirn  states,  are  alFectefl.  It  is  cau-wd  by 
a  protozoan,  Amtiia  melauirit/ix,  djscoverutl  by  T. 
Smith  in  lS9ri.  M  the  disL-aso  prof^rL'sst-s  the  tur- 
keys become  less  active,  lag  behind  their  (lock  or 
do  not  go  out  with  it.  Later  the  comb,  wattles 
and  even  the  skin  of  the  head  become  dark  colored. 
Turkeys  are  attacked  young. 

The  primary  spat  of  the  dise.'isH  is  the  ceca. 
Prom  these  thw  liver  is  secondarily  invaded.  (Fig. 
124.)  The  aurfacH  of  the  liver  shons  areas  of  a 
grayish,  brownish  or  a.  mom  brilliant  greenish 
yellow  color.  The  present 
knowledge  of  this  disease 
shows  that  the  parasite  is 
transmitted  din'ctly  from 
dirt<';isi'<i  to  healthy  turkeys. 
This  suggests  that  thy  first 
precaution  is  to  avoid  the 
entranca  of  diseasej  or 
sevmingly  healthy  turkeys 
fmm  a  diseased  flock  into 
a  healthy  one.  If  the  dis- 
ease exists,  the  best  al- 
though most  radical  raethtxi 
i*  the  total  (iestnii'tino  of 
the  affect*^!  fiouk,  thorough 
disinfection  of  the  roosts  and  droppings  under  the 
same,  and  the  introduction  of  healthy  turkf'vs. 

[Cushman.  Nature  of  lilackhead  in  Turkeys,  R«>- 
port  Rhode  tslancl  Agricultural  Bxperimont  Station, 
p.  19D  (1894);  Moore.  The  Direct  Transmission  of 
Infectious  Entero-bepatitis  in  Turkeys,  Circular 
No.  5,  Bureau  of  .Animal  Endnatry,  Unitwl  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (18%);  Smith,  Infec- 
Uotu  Eotcro-b«patitifl  in  Turkeys,  Bulletin  No.  H, 


Fit.  in.  U-ni  Dt  luikBT 
■nIfeilDe  fiom  lafec- 
tlog*  eaurfr-DopiitKit. 
■bow  I  us  tbo  siavlKb 
uaas.  eiiatactenitic  ot 
tail  dU«aM. 


Bur«aa  of  Animal  Industry,  Unit«d  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (18*Jii).] 

Mat  de  ca!icraf.—ila,\  de  caderas  (disease  of  the 
rump)  is  characterized  by  an  intermittent  fever,  a 
progressive  paralysis  of  the  posterior  parts,  rapid 
emaciation  and  death.  It  is  a  "wet  weather"  dis- 
ease. Horses,  mulea  and  asses  are  said  to  suffer 
from  it.  It  is  a  dtsesM  of  tropical  South  .America 
caased  by  Trjfpanoioma  tquinum.  The  parasitaa 
are  most  numerous  in  the  circulating  blood  during 
the  rise  of  temperature.  It  has  been  proved  that 
the  virus  is  disseminated  and  animals  are  Infected 
with  it  by  means  of  certain  insects.  The  first 
symptom  is  an  elevation  of  tem[>erature,  which 
rises  slowly,  but  suddenlr  falls  to  norma].  Emacia- 
tion is  rapid.  The  urine  is  dark  colored  and  usually 
contains  albumin  and  perhaps  blood.  The  most 
obvious  BjTnptom  is  a  symmetrical  or  asymmetrical 
parc-iis  of  the  hind  legs.  The  duration  of  the  dis- 
ease varies  frum  a  month  to  a  year,  or  longer. 

A'iaifa/i/j.— Nagana  is  a  disease  characlwrized  by 
anemia  and  rapid  emaciation,  caused  by  a  tr>7iano- 
some.  It  attacks  horses,  mules,  zebras,  cattle  and 
sheep.  A  number  of  the  smaller  animals  are  sus- 
ceptible. It  is  known  to  all  dialects  as  the  Isetae- 
fly  disea.4e.  It  is  found  in  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  Africa.  There  seems  to  be  some  doubt 
about  its  identity  with  the  disease  of  a  similar 
nature  in  the  Transvaal.  Livingston  discovered  it 
in  Centra!  .■Africa.  The  trypanosoraa  are  transmit- 
ted from  the  diseased  to  the  healthy  animals  by 
mtfana  of  the  tsetse-fly  [(ih»sina  morsitanf,  which 
exists  in  certain  parts  of  Africa.  It  api^ears  that 
this  is  the  only  spe(.^ias  of  insect  responsible  for  its 
transmission.  The  atfeclion  is  extended  into  unin- 
fecte<)  areas  by  the  introduction  of  disea.4ed  ani- 
mals. In  cattle  the  symptoms  are  not  usually  so 
acute  as  in  the  horse.  Its  duration  is  said  to  vary 
from  a  week  to  six  months  or  more.  The  appetitA 
remains  good  until  the  end.  IPlimmer  and  Bradford, 
A  Truliminary  Note  on  the  Morphology  and  Distri- 
bution of  the  Organism  Found  in  the  Tsetse-fiy 
Diseiise.  The  Veterinarian.  Volume  LXXII,  p.  648 
{1899I.J 

Surra. — Surra  is  an  infectious  disease  of  solf- 
[leds  and  cjimeis  caused  by  a  flagullate  protozoa, 
Trypanogftrna  fCranxi.  It  is  determined  by  a  con- 
tinuous fever  with  alternate  paroxysms  and  inter- 
missiona,  with  a  generalized  or  bx'al  eruption  of 
the  skin.  petechiBP  of  the  mucous  membranes  and 
more  or  le-ss  subcutaneous  edema.  There  is  rapid 
emaciation  and  great  weakness.  It  is  usually 
fatal.  It  attac'ki^  horses,  Hii!4(i»,  mules,  goats,  dogs, 
and  ratfl.  It  can  Ik>  inoculated  into  other  animals 
such  as  rabbits  and  guinea  pigs.  From  an  eco- 
nomic point  of  view  it  is  essentially  a  disease  of 
horsi-s.  It  occurs  in  Asia  and  .'^f^ica.  It  does  not 
exist  in  the  United  i^tatos.  but  because  of  iU 
prevalence  and  long  standing  in  the  Philippines  it 
is  liable  to  he  introduned  into  this  country.  Thu 
specific  trypanosome  is  invariably  found  during 
the  pBn)xysras  in  the  blfti*d  of  the  infectwi  ani- 
mals. .\lthough  the  blood  during  an  intermission 
may  appear  under  the  microscope  to  be  absolutely 
trvi  from  the  parasites,  its  inocnlalion  into  8U»- 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OP  AXIMALS 


141 


oeptiblc  animals.  &b  a  rale,  will  produce  the  dis- 
ease. The  period  of  inculHitifin  m^y  he  put  at  six  to 
etKht  days  after  imvculation  or  In^t-HtiDn  of  blood 
taken  from  an  animal  sutForini;  from  i^iirra. 

The  moat  common  di-nKitu'tratt-'d  uatuml  mt-thmi 
of  transferring  the  virus  frvm  infucU-d  to  iwn- 
infectMl  animals  is  by  mean^  of  insects,  espuiciiilly 
the  biting  dies.  The  disease  ia  spread  from  one 
locality  to  aniithor  by  the  intrwluctiun  of  atiimaLs 
carrying  the  parMit«. 

The  chief  symptmnK  art*  thu  Decisional  appear- 
ance of  an  urtii:arial  eruption,  [:liMt<ly  folluwing 
tbe  first  rise  of  Ic-mperaturu,  but  wlikh  may  maka 
ita  appearance  at  any  time  during  thu  course  of 
the  disL'a.'W.  There  is  extreme  pallor  of  the  vt^iltle 
mucous  membranes.  Prom  first  to  last  there  is 
progreeBJve  anemia ;  the  bUxxl  at  fintt  presents  a 
normal  character,  but  afU-r  a  varying  [H^riml  of 
time  it  undergoes  markwi  fliaiige*!.  The  white 
corpuBcltM  are  increastti  in  uuihIht  and  the  red 
corpoiicle.')  UHually  ctaae  to  form  normal  ruult-iiux. 
lose  their  individuality  and  run  togcthc-r,  furming 
irregular  maasea.  Its  dnration.  according  to  Giiiin, 
ia  aboat  tifty-two  days.  In  the  Philippine  islamj^i 
the  duration  in  hnrwa  is  fourteen  days  Ut  three 
monthit.  Thi>  progmwid  ih  always  unfavorable,  the 
Dortaiity  in  must  S|)ecies  of  animals  buing  100 
per  cent. 

Sorra  t«  to  be  diff(.^n?ntiatei)  from  anthrax  and 
the  other  (rypanottoma  di»0'as).-3.    It  may  be  com- 

Jlicated  with  bronchi^pneumnnia,  rinderpo.-«t  and 
oot-ond-mouth  disease.  One  attack  does  nut  pni- 
t«l  a  horae  from  a  subsequent  one.  The  imfKirta- 
tion  of  animaN  fn>m  infeutwd  countries  .should  he 
prohibited.  If  the  dittea^ti  guin<t  entrance,  the 
iafccte'l  animals  Bhould  be  doatroyed. 

[Unsgrave  ami  Clegg.  Try(Kimwoma  and  Try- 
panosomiaKis,  with  Special  (t-ference  to  Surra  in 
tKe  Pfaitippine  Islands,  Bulletin  No.  5,  Bureau  of 
Go»"crnment  I.aboratorie«,  Munila  (19031;  Salmon 
and  .Stilwi,  Km^rgency  RejHirt  on  Surra,  Bulletin 
No.  il.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United  Statea 
Deparlmeni  of  AgricultartJ  (1^92).] 

Ti'Tit  ffrrr.—'TvKai  fever  is  an  infections  blood 
dixase  of  cattle,  characterized  by  a  rise  of  t^*m- 
porature.  bemoglobinuria.  destruction  of  the  red 
blood  corpuscles  and  the  presence  in  the  bloixl  of  a 
proloriKvn  parasite  which  is  trunsmitted  from 
animal  to  animal  by  means  of  the  cattle  tick.  11 
is  thought  to  be  identic;il  with  the  bemuglobinurJa 
in  Kminunia,  tick  fever  in  Au-^traiia.  and  "La 
TriBtoca"  in  South  .-Vmerica.  It  hx^  been  nanK.'d 
UaltrUt  bovine  by  Ltgnt^retf.  Althougli  it  diiTere 
in  many  ways  from  human  malaria,  the  analogy  \s 
BO  cicve  runpecting  the  specific  cause,  wide  diatri- 
tratioo  and  means  of  traTismiKiion,  that  bovine 
malaria  seems  to  be  a  very  Duitabtc  name  for  this 
sITeettOD.  Tbe  peculiar  and  interesting  feature  of 
this  atfoction  h  the  fact  that  cattle  raUed  in  the 
iofect^d  district  become  immunizetl  so  that  they 
do  not  saffer  from  the  dis^oee,  bat  they  carry  it^ 
specific  organism  in  their  blood.  When  imported 
iflto  non-infecteil  districts,  they  transmit  the  virus 
by  neana  of  the  cattle  tick  to  suncepliMe  animaU. 
Mt  themselvea  remain    perfectly   well.    In    the 


)0 


Ptc  IZS.   Adufrine  fiarn  a  anut 
iwvpaiatioa  thowins  i\r"i-i'i""a 

hiiitniiivm  la  ttLD  iftl  corpuBClei. 
from  tDc  lEMfiey  ot  an  snimat 
tiiOntiat  trota  TcKd»  tertt. 


L'nit4Mi  Statea  the  diatribution  of  Texas  fever  cor- 
responds with  that  of  the  cattle  tick  {Houphilun 
anntrliiluji). 

Texas  fever  is  caused  by  Piropiasma  bigemtnum 
(Fig.  12.'i),  which  is  found  in  the  blood  of  affected 
cattln".  Tbti  life  historj-  of  this  parasite  is  not 
determined.  In  the  blood  of  the  diseased  animal 
the  orgaiiiams  appear 
in  the  unstained, fresh 
prepara t ion  us  m (• 
niiU'  nr  larger  bright 
litNlies.  One  end  of 
euch  is  broad  ami 
R^undeii,  the  other 
tapering  and  [wiinted. 
L'aually  there  are  two 
of  these  bodies,  both 
of  the  same  sir^.  in  a 
corpuscle.  More 
rarely  there  is  but 
one,  althinigh  four 
are  (Mwuaionally  olwerved.  In  the  capillaries  of  the 
congeiited  organs,  the  bluod  corpuscles  contain 
many  more  parasites.  Although  practical  stock- 
men had  long  looked  on  the  tick  as  the  source  of 
infection,  it  remained  for  .*^mith  and  Kilborne 
ex])erimen tally  to  demonstrate  that  so  far  as  known 
the  cattle  tick  is  tho  sole  carrier  of  the  parasite. 

The  life  cycle  of  the  tick  will  explain  the  varia- 
tion in  the  time  elaiMing  between  the  exposure  of 
northern  to  southern  cattle  and  the  appeiiranre  of 
the  disease.  Starting  with  tick-infestwl  animals 
placed  with  native  cattle  in  a  northern  paj^lure, 
this  adult  female  tick  ilrnps  to  the  ground  almost 
daily,  so  that  the  following  life  cycle  may  be 
:isaumed  to  begin  at  onc«  :  .'\dult  ticks  drop  to  the 
ground  in  one  to  three  days  after  the  infested 
cattle  are  placed  in  the  field  ;  adult  ticks  lay  their 
egg3  in  aoout  seven  days  after  dropping  to  the 
ground  ;  egg?  are  hatched  in  about  twenty  days 
after  they  are  laid  ;  young  ticks  crawl  on  cattle  in 
one  tu  several  days  after  they  are  hatched ;  in 
about  ten  days  from  the  time  the  young  ticks 
crawl  on  the  susceptible  cattle  the  rise  of  tempera- 
ture npiH;ars.  Small  ijuantities  of  the  blood  from 
immunized  cattle  in  the  tick-infected  district, 
when  injected  into  susceptible  uuini&ls  either 
intravenously  or  lieneath  the  skin,  will  produce 
the  diwiwc.  Usually  the  spleen  is  much  enlarged. 
Tbe  liver  is  extensively  nlfecti'd.  enlarged,  con- 
gested. e<lgcs  roundeil,  the  bile  ducts  more  or  leas 
distended  and  the  cells  usually  in  a  state  of  fatty 
degeneration, 

The  preventive  measures  consist  in  the  elimi- 
nation of  the  tick.  It  has  lieen  shown  that  immun- 
ity against  a  fatal  attack  of  Texas  fever  can  be 
conferred  on  susceptible  cattle  by  inoculation  with 
the  blood  of  a  native  Southern  animal  nr  one 
which  has  recently  been  rendered  immune,  l-ouisi- 
ana  offers  to  immunize  (free  t>f  chargi-)  northern 
cattle,  if  they  are  shipped  to  the  state  for  its  stock- 
raisers. 

(Dalrymple,  Morgan  and  Dod8on,TeKasor  South- 
ern Cattle  Fever,  Bulletin  No.  .SI.  Louisiana  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  (1898);  Mohler,  Texas 


142 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  AXIMALS 


YarnT,  Balletin  No,  7S.  Bureau  nf  Animal  Industry 
(1905);  Norgaard,  Dipping  Cattk  for  the  Destruc- 
tion of  TickB,  Annual  Report.  Burwiu  of  Animal 
lEdnstry,  p.  109  [l89i>-6);  Smith  and  KiHiorne, 
Texas  Ferer.  Bnlletia  No.  1,  Bureau  ot  Aniinal 
Industry  (1893).J 

Infediouii  diaeaseK  firr  wkieh  the  upec^fif  mune  i> 
not  yd  diivrmiaeil. 

Contngiou/  plcisrit-pueumon'ta  in  ealUe.—Thh  is 
a  apeciric  upiwKitic  <li«?jii*B  which  affocte  htivino 
animals  and  from  whicb  otht-r  ispL-cies  are  exwtnpt. 
When  the  disease  rL-sult*!  from  (-xpaHurB  in  tJm 
Diiual  manner,  it  i»  diaractcriuHl  by  an  inHumina- 
tion  of  the  lun;^  and  pleurae.  Thediseose  hiLs  k-vn 
brought  to  the  United  States  neveral  different 
times.  Prohably  \t»  firfit  in  trod  net  inn  was  in  a 
diseasbJ  cow  sold  in  Brooklyn,  X.  Y.,  in  IS-IS.  In 
188(1.  it  was  discovtTLHl  in  some  of  Ihu  largn 
distillery  ittables  of  Chicago  and  among  cows  on 
neighboring  lots.    Its  enidicntlon  was  succ(u<sful. 

The  specific  cause  of  contagious  pleuro- pneu- 
monia has  not  l»t(en  demonstrated.  The  infection 
may  he  intnHJm'.ud  nithur  tiy  diseantnl  C4ittle  or. 
l«aa  commonly,  by  caltle-^iealHrK,  attendants,  ntcn- 
sils,  fodder,  dogs  and  other  meana.  The  Khfd«  in 
cattle  markets  are  very  dangerous  centers  for  the 
dis^mination  of  the  disease.  All  cattle  aro  nut 
equally  su.-iceptible. 

Anatomically,  contagious  pleuro- pneumonia  is 
a  pntgrt»wive  interstitia)  pneumonia  with  second- 
ary hupatizatiun  of  the  lungs  and  exudative  pleu- 
ritis.  The  anatomical  changtw  vary  accifrding  to 
its  duration.  It  haw  freijuently  neon  mistaken 
for  an  interlobular  pneumonia  of  cattle,  which  i» 
more  or  lew  common  in  this  country. 

[.Salmon.  Annual  Reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
InduHtry,  Ilnitful  Stattw  T>epartmpnt  of  Agriculture 
a!^-iS9*21;  Smith,  Anna.il  Ri-ptirt  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  n.  U'A  (IR%  i\).} 

Diphtheria  m /on''*.— Dtphthtria  of  birds,  almi 
known  as  "  roup,"  first  appears  on  thu  mucouB 
membnine  of  the  head  (nasal  passages,  the  eyiw, 
the  mouth,  the  pharjTix  and  larynx  or  sinuses). 
Avian  [iiphthnria  is  quite  distinct  from  human 
diphtheria.  The  lesions  may  extend  to  the  tra- 
chea, bronchi,  the  air-Hac8,  the  intwlines  and,  po»- 
sibly,  to  othor  abdominal  organs.  The  disease  is 
determined  by  a  grayinh  yellow,  lihrinuuii  exudalt? 
which  forms  on  the  mucous  surfac*;  of  ono  or  morv 
of  the  parts  mentioned,  The  exudate  may  Im>  so 
abundant  as  tu  obstruct  the  pa^sage^.  In  some  out- 
breaks, it  progrea-^es  with  great  rapidity  and  des- 
troys most  of  the  birds  altarkml.  Fowls  (genus 
OaHut)  and  pigeon*  (genus  CWwmAo)  are  most  com- 
monly attacked.  ThecaiMftiBnoiknowTi.  It  i^  usu- 
ally introduced  into  a  Rock  by  the  4?xpoaurt<  of  the 
fowls  to  sick  onw  at  shows  or  by  bringing  atTocted 
ones  on  the  premises.  The  cimtagion  may  he  car- 
ried by  birds  which  have  the  discise  in  so  mild  a 
form  that  they  show  no  nympt^^ms  of  it.  There  is 
&  general  belief  that  thy  diaease  may  be  developed 
by  exposure  to  draught*  of  air  or  by  keeping  the 
fowls  in  damp,  filthy  and  badly  ventilated  houses. 
The  first  Bymptoms  are  a  watery  secretion  from  the 


nostrils  and  from  the  eyes,  with  general  weakness 
and  prostration  greater  than  would  be  expect«d 
from  simple  cat.irrh.  Thi>re  in  a  riite  of  temperature. 

Three  stages  or  varieties  of  leaionit,  which  ntpre- 
aent  the  ty)tes  of  this  disease  as  encounterttd  in  this 
country^  are  as  fnllows:  (1)  An  exudate  of  a  acrons 
or  mDco-puruli;nt  character  in  the  conjunctiva  and 
nasal  cavitieii.  The  mucosa  in  thf.><i.-  cn-se^  is  appar- 
ently but  slightly  altered.  |2)  The  mucosa  over  a 
small  or  larger  area  is  covered  with  a  spreadingex- 
udate  of  a  grayish  or  yellowish  color.  It  is  firmly 
attached  to  tht-  mucous  membrane,  and  when 
removed  It-avos  a  raw,  bleeding  surface.  (3)  The 
mucosa  is  cuverud  with  a  thick  niara  of  uxudat^e, 
varying  in  color  from  a  milky  white  to  a  lemon- 
yellow  or  brown.  It  is  easily  remove*!,  leaving  a 
more  or  lewi  granular  and  healed  surface.  Thi.t 
sloughed  mass  is  frequently  drivd  at  itit  margins 
to  the  adjacent  tissue.  It  emits  a  strong  pulHd 
odor,  duo  to  decomposition.  Ttie  drying  of  the 
margins  prevents  the  fow!  expelling  the  exudate 
after  it  becomes  eeparatvil  from  the  underlying 
tissue. 

To  prevent  this  disease  the  following  rules,  in 
addition  to  general  sanitary  methods,  should  be 
uli«Brved :  (1)  Fowls  which  have  an  exudate  on  any 
of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head,  or  which 
have  come  from  flocks  in  which  fiuch  a  diseaM 
exi.sts,  or  has  recently  existe<l,  should  not  be  placed 
among  healthy  poultry.  (2)  If  the  disease  appears 
in  one  or  more  fowls  of  a  flock,  they  should  be  sepa- 
rated immediately  from  the  well  ones.  (3)  The 
common  practice  of  allowing  fowls  from  different 
floeks  tu  run  together  during  the  day  should  be  dis- 
couraged. (4)  C.'are  should  bo  taken  to  avoid  tho 
possibility  of  bringing  the  virus  of  the  disease  from 
affected  flocks  in  the  dirt  or  excrement,  which 
naturally  adherer  to  the  shm^s  in  walking  through 
an  infected  chicken-yanl.  The  name  ciire  is  necea- 
sarv  in  the  interchange  of  working  implements, 
sucn  as  shoveln,  htivs  and  the  like;.  Ward  has  found 
that  this  disease  can  be  prevented  by  keeping 
infected  fowls  away.  The  most  certain  of  the 
known  methods  of  treatment  is  the  local  application 
of  disinfectants.  The  dipping  of  the  heads  of  fowls 
in  a  solution  of  I  to  2  per  cent  of  permanganate  of 
potjish,  or  a  3  per  cent  solution  of  crcoHn.  is 
reported  to  Ik>  very  effiKvtive  in  eases  in  which  the 
lesions  are  external  and  in  the  early  stages. 

[Harrison  and  Streit,  Roup :  An  Experimental 
Studv.  Bulletin  No.  132.  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege and  Experimental  Farm  (190^);  Mack,  The 
Etiology  and  Morbid  .Anatomy  of  [Hphtheriu  in 
Chickens,  .■American  Veterinary  Review  (January 
1905) ;  Ward,  Poultry  Diseaaca  in  California, 
Procewlings  "f  the  American  Veterinary  Medical 
Aawiciation,  p.  1S4  (1904).] 

Ihif  «t ittemper. —Tliia  is  an  infections  dlwaae 
appearing  in  sporadic  cases  or  in  epiioiitics.  It  tft 
usually  determinptl  by  a  rise  of  temperature,  toss 
of  appetite  nnd  lassitude,  followed  by  a  catarrh  of 
the  conjunctiva,  rcdpiralory  passages  and  digestive 
tract.  Frequently  there  are  aerioua  disturbances  of 
the  nervous  system.  U  is  the  most  importantcaoine 
disease.   It   is  reported  that  cats,  wolves,  foxea, 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMATE 


143 


jackals,  hyenas  and  monkeys  suiter  from  it.  Its 
speciSc  cauae  has  not  been  demoiuitrateJ. 

BpHhelinma  nyrtlngiaaa. — P)pithi>lioma  contagiosa, 
or  chicken-pox,  aa  it  ia  niitrK  often  caDcd  in  thii^ 
foiintry,  ia  characterized  by  thu  (ievulopmisnt  uf 
n«lular-lik»?  Kruwtlis  on  thu  mucosa  and  skia  of  the 
bvad  and  neck.  It  i»  readily  transmitted  among 
fowls. 

I'oot-aitd-moJtih  digeoK. — Foot-and-mouth  disease 
isahighly  infections  disease  of  animals.  It  ifidtHer- 
mined  by  the  eruption  of  vtwiclt*  in  the  mouth, 
antiind  the  coronet  of  thu  foot,  on  the  udder  and 
lietween  the  toes.  It  ia  aaid  to  be  more  common 
amung  cattle,  but  nwine  are  snftwptibli! ;  shoep, 
Koata,  boraea,  and  doj^  aro  son]>ctimes  att^icked. 
People  maybe  infecte<i  by  drinking  the  unboiled 
milk  of  animals  nnffering  from  the  diwtnHe.  The 
mortality  ia  not  high.  ThiK  diaea^  ia  very  largely 
reBtricted  to  Europe,  a1thuuf;h  it  hna  \wva  intro- 
duced into  almi»8t  everv  caUle-raiNing  country.  In 
1S70,  tt  was  brou^jht  to  the  UnitttI  Stales  from 
Canada.  In  1S84,  and  again  in  1^2,  it  invaded 
this  conntry.  In  19t)2.  it  appeared  in  New  England. 
A  total  of  4,712  cattle  were  affected.  The  com- 
parative freedom  of  the  I'nit^d  States  fnim  thia 
di.si>aae  ia  attributed  to  the  enforcurai^nt  of  rigid 
quarantine  mj^aiiures. 

The  specific  causa  ia  not  known.  The  vima  is 
coataiood  in  the  eruptions,  causing  its  wide  distri- 
bution. Loeffler  and  Krowh  have  shown  that  the 
cause  paaaes  through  a  Berkefeld  filter.  The  fieriod 
of  ineahation  H  short.  Thetimt  evidence  nf  the  din- 
ease  is  s  rise  of  temperature,  which  in  callk  rarely 
exceeds  tW  Fahr.  The  mucous  menibrant'  of  tho 
mooth  becomes  reddened,  tho  appetite  isdiministic-d, 
Bod  raroination  ceoses.  The  mouth  is  usimliy  kept 
closed  and  tho  quantity  of  saliva  ia  increHK<^.  In 
addition  to  the  changes  in  the  month,  one  or  more 
feet  may  b«ome  diseased,  The  udder,  more  jiar- 
Ucularly  the  teats,  may  be  the  .seat  uf  lesions. 

The  duration  of  the  dixeaae  in  uncomplicated 
eases  variea  from  ten  to  twenty  day».  The  mortality 
varies  with  the  severity  of  the  attacks,  the  age  and 
eOBdition  of  the  animaU  and  the  treatment.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  not  high,  excepting  in  very  young  ani- 
mals. It  must  be  differentiated  from  varitiuH  forms 
of  stomatitis  caused  by  injurte.'^  and  by  different 
fungi,  from  actinomycoais  of  the  tongue,  and  from 
variola. 

[Peters.  Foot  and  Mouth  Disease,  Second  Semi- 
■uraal  Report  of  the  Chief  of  the  Cattle  Bureau, 
Haancbosetta  State  Hoard  of  Agriculture,  p.  821 
(1903):  Salmon.  Fool  and  Mouth  IHsease.  Yearbook, 
Unit^  State-t  i>epanment  of  Agrirulture,  p.  B43 
(1902);  Piiii.,  Annual  Iteport  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  lndu.-ttry.  p.  391  (1W2).J 

Fowl  pet^,—^hv^  is  a  very  acute  and  rapidly 
fata]  disease  of  fowls  caosed  by  an  uUra-mlcro- 
•onptc  organisni  that  passes  through  the  Berkefeld 
aaCbamberland  filters.  Pigeons  succumb  toinocu- 
IstioQ.   Guinea  pigs  and  mice  are  not  KUMceptible. 

h^tetmu  aboWun.— The  disease  or  condition 
knowD  as  infectious  abortion  consiat«i  in  the  expul- 
•ion  of  the  imraatunt  fetuA.  usually  before  it  has 
nfllcienUy  developed  to  live  after  birth,  by  a  large 


proportion  of  pregnant  animals  that  arc  kept 
together.  U.'^ually  the  abortion  occurs  in  cattle 
l)etween  the  fifth  and  eighth  months  of  gestation. 
Tile  diHeafie  as  described  by  EunijK^an  wriU'ra  ia 
clianicterizwl  by  certain  morbid  changes  in  the 
utorino  mucosa  and  futal  nxembranes.  American 
observers  havo  not  described  these  changes.  In 
cattle  it  usually  atfec.tJH  the  ynung  cows.  After 
two  or  three  consecutive  abortions,  as  a  rule,  cows 
lunMime  immune  to  it.  Cows  sutler  miM*t  from  this 
Condition,  although  mares,  ewes,  and  other  species 
ara  OL^cawiorially  rt^porli"*!  lo  be  affwltid. 

Dairyniet)  have  found  that  if  they  keep  animals 
that  abort  away  from  their  sound  cuttlo  the  trou- 
ble does  not  appear.  An  it  affects  young  cows,  it 
is  the  practice  in  some  plnce.-i  to  keep  the  yonng 
animiils  separateil  from  the  others  until  they  have 
iHHtome  free  from  the  di^etLse  or  at  least  until  they 
havepiwsed  the  period  when  it  ia  likely  to  occur, 
after  which  thoy  are  admitted  to  the  herd  of  older 
cows  with  impunity.  When  the  trouble  has  entered 
a  herd,  the  best  prophylactic  is  thorough  disinfec- 
tion of  the  Btalde  and  fiwiiient  Wiishing  with  a  di.s- 
infeirtant  of  the  vagina  and  external  genetalia  of 
the  cows  that  havo  Luen  exiiused.  All  new  cows 
that  are  purchased  should  be  isolated  from  the 
herd  until  afler  parturition  has  occurred  at  full 
term.  The  disinfectants  that  have  been  used  with 
success  for  external  application  are  5  per  cent  car- 
bolic acid,  4  per  cent  creolin,  1  to  1,000  corrosive 
sublimate,  and  a  solution  of  copper  sulfate  con- 
taining forty  grama  i>or  liter  of  water.  The  liwt 
two  may  be  used  fur  vaginal  douches. 

[Bang,  The  Etiology  of  Epizootic  Abortion,  Jour- 
nal of  Comparative  Pathology  and  Therapeutics, 
Vol.  X,  p.  125  (1R97);  Dslrym'pie,  Bulletin  No.  10, 
2d  Seriejt,  Louisiana  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion (1891)  ;  Law,  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cows, 
Report  of  the  New  Y'ork  State  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture  (1897).] 

Jt^feethus  certtrro-fpinai  meninnitijt  in  hornea. — 
This  is  a  disease  that  seems  to  he  infections  in  its 
nature,  exhibiting  symptoms  referable  to  a  dis- 
turhimce  iu  the  central  nervous  system.  It  is 
calleil  epiKfi<itic  cerebro-sptnal  meningitis  because 
it  often  altaek-H  a  number  of  animub>  in  the  same 
locality.  Although  the  literature  contains  numer- 
ous accounts  of  its  seemingly  contagious  nature, 
an  analysis  of  the  facta  fails  to  bring  forth  conclu- 
sive evidence  that  it  is  ever  transmitted  directly 
from  one  horse  to  anolher.  In  nearly  all  outbreaks, 
the  animals  affected  have  lieen  subjeirted  to  like 
conditions  of  life.  This  disease,  at  the  present 
time,  LH  peculiar  in  that  its  cause  is  not  known, 
that  obvious  tissue  changes  are  usually  absent,  and 
that  it  has  a  very  high  mortality.  The  mildest 
attacks  are  manifested  by  loss  of  control  of  the 
limbH,  loss  nf  power  over  the  L'lil,  impairment  of 
appetite  and  some  difhcully  in  swallowing.  In  the 
more  favorable  cases,  improvement  may  begin  on 
the  third  or  fourth  day.  [Martin,  Corubro-spinal 
Meningitis,  American  Veterinary  Review,  Vol.  XXI, 
p.  289.] 

/a/H^nfa.  —  InHuenxH  is  an  airute  infections  dis- 
ease characterized  by  a  rise  uf  temperature  and  a 


tSES  OP  AN 


catarrhal  condition  of  one  or  mure  of  ttie  mucou» 
mcmlvranca,  more  tapeciaJlyof  the  huiid.  it  usually 
appears  in  epizootic  form.  It  is  adiseoac  of  horses, 
aithna^h  sssi^  and  mulea  are  siisceptibte.  It  ia 
known  as  "epizorltic  catarrhal  fever,"  "horse  di."*- 
t«niper,"  "pink  eyo,"  "mountain  fever"  and  "jihii>- 
piriK  fever,"  Intliientii  la  a  generic  term  employed 
to  desii^nato  a  large  variety  of  symptoms.  It  seenjiS 
to  be  producfd  by  some  »pe<;ific  infection.  It 
spreads  rapidly  among  horses.  The  virus  appears 
to  lose  its  virulence  quickly  outside  of  the  animal 
body,  but  within  the  body  it  seems  to  be  prc'Served 
for  a  long  time.  In  many  cases  on©  attack  confers 
immunity,  but  a  second  infection  or  a  relapt^e  fre- 
ijuently  occurs.  The  period  of  incubation  and  its 
daration  vary  from  six  to  ten  days.  The  mortality 
Taries  from  5  to  7  per  cent.   Without  a  definite, 


.■!•'-'  '-: 


■/T-^S" 


^?/* 


/i  ■■;, .' 


^>;-_ 


M^ 


^ 


'rkH 


n;. 


ric.  u». 


ntrvs  cells  )li9Wtii|[  N4til  iKtfM.  «.  NvmcclU;  4,  nndd,- 
e,  KeKrl  IjuJImi, 


recofiTiizable  etiological  factor  or  other  exact  tests, 
a  positive  diagnosis  in  doubtful  cases  can  not  be 
made. 

[M'Fadyean,  Influenia  of  the  Horse— l^Tiat  Is  It? 
Journal  of  Comparative  I'atholoiiy  and  Thera- 
peutics. Vol.  II,  p.  105  (1889):  Marsden.  InfluenEa. 
The  Veterinary  Journal,  New  Series,  Vol.  II.  p.  315 
(1900)  (M.  describes  three  forms:  (I)  catarrhal 
fever,  (2)  bilious  fever,  (8)  epiwotic  cellulitis); 
Nelflon,  InfliienEa.  State  .\^icultijral  Kxpertment 
Station,  Pullman.  Washington  (ISya).J 

/;a&(«.— Rabiej,  or  hydrojthobia,  is  an  acute 
infectious  dineane,  trani<mitted  from  animal  to  ani- 
mal or  from  animal  to  m:in  by  the  bite  of  the  rabid 
individual  or  by  din-ct  inoculation.  It  is  not  known 
to  be  contracted  or  transmitted  in  any  other  man- 
ner. It  is  characterized  by  a  long  and  variable 
period  of  incnbatioL,  followed  by  nymptonie  refer- 
able to  the  nervous  (sj-vtem,  lajntingone  to  ten  days 
and  ending  in  paralvttiA  and  dealn.  Th^re  are  no 
recognitable  gross  twwne  changes.  The  dog  >»  the 
animal  most  commonly  affected,  althou^b  all  \>i  the 
canine  and  feline  races  sutfer  from  it  more  than 
other  species,  and  cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  horses 
are  ofteo  attacked.  An  explanation  for  its  greater 


frequency  among  dogs  is  found  in  their  tendency 
to  bite  each  other. 

Rabies  was  first  described  by  fVristotlc.  It  is 
known  to  exist  in  almost  every  country  on  the 
globe.  Austrnlin  is  the  largest  area  which  is  said 
to  he  absolutely  free  from  it.  This  exemption  is 
the  gratifying  result  of  a  rigid  (juiirantine  enforced 
against  dogs  im^rled  on  that  Ltland.  It  is  known 
that  its  cnnse  exists  in  the  brain,  s]>inal  cord  and 
saliva  of  the  affected  animal.  It  lUOlt,  Negri,  of 
the  University  of  Pavia.  described  small  bodies  or 
ceil  inclusions,  since  called  Negri  bodies  (Fig.  12(j), 
which  he  found  in  the  Purkingie  cells  of  the  cere- 
bellum and  in  the  large  ganglion  cells  of  the 
Ammons?  horn.  Negri  held  these  bodies  to  be  the 
catwe.  They  are  of  great  valno  In  diagnosis. 
The  period  of  incubation  is  variable,  depending 
on  the  site  of  the  wound,  which  is  almost 
^  .  always  a  bite,  the  amount  of  vinos  intro- 
'-;.-  '■'  duced  and  its  virulence.  In  general,  it  may 
\  be  said  for  all  animals  that  the  period  of 

incubation  seldom  exceeds  sixty  days,  al- 
though thirre  are  cables  in  which  it  haA  been 
much  longer.  The  average  period  as  given 
by  Ravtjnel,  is  as  follows:  in  man,  40;  dogs, 
;  21  to  40;  horses,  28  to  56  ;  cats.  14  to  58; 

pigs,  14  to  21;  goats  and  sheep,  21  to  28; 
and  in  birds.  14  to  40  days.  In  rabbits 
inoculati-d  .suMurally  with  the  brain  from 
rabid  animalt^,  the  writer  ha.i  found  the 
period  of  incubation  to  vary  from  twelve 
to  sixty-two  days  and  ths  duration  of  the 
dJ.<4case  to  range  from  a  few  hoora  to  three 
daj's. 

The  somewhat  popular  opinion  that  most 
of  the  cases  of  rabiea  occur  in  the  sum- 
mer, especially  in  "dog  dajTt."  is  not  founded 
on  facts.  Rabid  dogs  are  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  as  numerous  la  winter  and  early 
spring  as  in  summer. 
Rabies  is  generally  divided  into  two  forms,  furi- 
ous and  dumb.  In  the  first  the  animal  is  irritable 
and  aggressive  and  bites  nearly  every  object  which 
comes  in  its  way ;  in  the  second  the  muscles  of  its 
jaw  ari  paralyzed  almost  from  the  beginning,  and. 
being  unable  to  bite,  the  animal  remains  more 
quiet  and  tranquil.  The  duration  of  the  disease 
varies  from  two  to  ten  days. 

The  prevention  of  rabies  resolves  itself  into  two 
procedures:  (1)  The  destruction  of  all  ownerlens 
and  vagrant  dogs  and  (2)  the  muzzling  of  all  d(^ 
that  appear  on  thu  streets  or  in  public  places.  In 
thus  preventing  the  pnipag.ition  of  the  virus,  as 
shown  by  the  results  obtained  in  Germany  and 
Great  Britain,  the  disease  will  be  practically  exter- 
minated. There  is  no  treatment.  The  preventive 
inoculation  knonT)  as  the  Pasteur  treatment  is 
efective  when  applied  immediately  after  beioc 
bitten.  Rabies  causes  heavy  loeses  in  the  Uniteo 
Stat«i. 

[Moore  and  Fish,  A  Re|M>rt  on  Rabiee  in  Wnsh- 
ington,  D.  C.  Annual  Report,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  (]^9r>-0);  f^almon,  Rabies:  Its  Caiue, 
Froquencv  and  Treatment,  Yearbook.  Department 
of  Atprtculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  (1900);  Wajr» 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS 


145 


The  Negri  Bodies  and  the  Diagnosis  of  Rabies, 
Americiin  Veterinary  Review,  Vol.  XXIX,  p.  937 
(1905).! 

RinderpeH. — Rin<{erpest  Lt  the  most  fdtal  dis- 
ease affecting  cattle.  It  in  a  specific  eruptive  fevt- r, 
occurrintf  both  sporadically  and  in  t'[H2or>tic8.  It 
U  characterizai  by  a  moro  or  \e^  typtioid  concti- 
tion,  with  lesiond  iar^ily  located  in  the  mucotta  of 
the  diKe»tive  tract  and  skin,  and  by  the  infectioaa 
nature  of  ati  the  tissues,  secretii  and  excreta.  It 
is  a  dinease  peculiar  to  cattle,  atthnngtt  other 
ramioanttt  are  nuiweptible  to  it.  Rinderpest  '\»  a 
well-known  pI^^tK!  in  RuH.tia  and  the  steppeit  of 
central  Axia.  It  ha*  extended  frura  timts  to  time 
from  its  homo  in  Rufisia  and  Asia  to  nearly  evory 
coontry  in  Continental  Europe  and  Aaia.  More 
recently  it  has  occurrei!  in  southern  .\frica.  It  has 
been  introduced  into  the  Philippine^i.  It  has  not 
beeo  introduced  into  the  United  States  or  other 
American  coontriea. 

[JohlinjT.  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Sernra 
Laboratory.  Fourth  Annual  Hepurt  of  the  Phili])- 
pine  [atun'ds  (1003r,  also  Ihid.,  Bulli-tm  No.  4,  Bu' 
reao  of  Government  laboratories  Manila  (1903); 
Koch,  Report,  The  Veterinary  .Journal,  Vol.  XLV, 
p.  204  (1897);  also  CentralW.  f.  Bakter..  Bd. 
XXI,  S.  o'^  (1897).] 

VarvAa  in  animaU.—The  dtMeasie  in  animaU 
knovn  u  variola  13  characterized  by  a  ruie  of  tem- 
peratnre  followed  by  a  skin  eruption  consiatinp  first 
of  papales,  then  of  vesicles  and  Anally  nf  pustules. 
It  is  commun  to  homes,  cattle  iind  man.  Sheep  suf- 
fer from  a  like  or  similar  di.sea.He.  Other  species 
are  aaid  to  be  attacked  occasionally.  The  symp- 
toms vary  somewhat  in  the  diiTerent  species,  bot 
the  ewratial  once  are  a  rise  of  temperatnre  and 
the  ippeannce  of  a  delinite  eruption  on  the  akin 
or  mnc»)us  membranes.  It  is  rarely  a  danfferous 
affection  in  animals  and  often  it  is  very  mild.  In 
sheep  and  goatd  it  is  known  as  claveI6e. 

Inmunit^  and  pn/teflirf  inoeuhtion. 

Immunilg.—ln  a  broad  sense,  immunity  is 
"rwistance  to  disease."  The  term,  however,  is 
usually  restricted  to  the  infectioiia  maladien  and 
signitSes  a  condition  of  the  individoal  which  enables 
it  soccMsfully  to  defend  itself  againi^t  the  invasion 
of  ita  ttaroes  and  organs  with  the  infectint^  micro- 
organisms or  to  resist  the  toxic  effects  of  the 
invading  organisms  should  they  gain  entrance  and 
maltipty  within  the  body.  While  it  usually  applies 
to  the  action  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  the  proloxoa 
ire  not  excluded.  It  will  he  aeen  that  immunity  is 
only  relative  ;  it  is  neither  perraani'iil  nur  con- 
•t*nt,  but  varies  with  natural  and  artificial  condi- 
tions. According  to  the  process  hy  which  it  is 
Mtablisbed  in  the  individual,  immunity  is  recoR- 
ntsed  as  natural  or  artificial. 

Natural  iminanity  has  been  &p|died  to  that  con- 
dition or  ability  possessed  by  gomt-  raci>R  or  speciefl 
of  animals  that  enables  them  to  rt'sist  the  natural 
iavaiioa  of  infecting  organii>ms  which  attack 
other  cpeciea  or  varieties  of  animnls.  In  eo  far  as 
we  know,  it  is  a  condition  inherent  in  the  very 
lUXnn  of  the  individual,  born  with  it  and  trans- 

C  to 


mitted  to  its  offspring.  Thtis.  the  Algerian  race  of 
sheep  are  immune  to  natural  infection  of  anthrax, 
whereas  other  sheep  are  very  susceptible  to  it. 
Natural  immunity  ti-'fnally  persists  under  ordinary 
conditions  thmiighimt  life  and  in  that  respect  it  is 
much  more  permanent  than  artificial  immunity. 

Artificial  immunity  is  brought  about  in  the  indi- 
vidual after  birth.  The  most  common  fomi  is 
found  in  individuals  who  have  survived  an  attack 
of  an  infectioiis  disease,  such  as  smallpox  and  yel- 
low fever  in  man  and  Texas  fever  in  cattle.  In 
some  infectious  diwjwf's,  as  tuberculosis,  there 
seems  to  be  very  little  if  any  increased  power  of 
resistance  imparted  to  a  patient  who  has  recovered 
from  the  first  attack.  There  is  great  variation  in 
the  period  of  ita  duration.  Artificial  immunity  is 
produced:  (II  By  inoculating  the  individual  with 
a  non-k'thal  dose  of  a  strong  virus.  This  is  prac- 
ticed in  immuniEinff  cattle  against  Texas  fever, 
sheep-pox  and  contagiunt;  pleuro-pneumonia.  (2) 
By  inoculating  the  individual  with  attenuated 
virtis.  This  is  practiced  in  anthrax,  black  leg, 
chicken  cholera,  rouget,  and  rabies  and  bubonic 
plague  in  man.  (3)  By  inoculating  the  individual 
with  a  vaccine  consisting  of  the  virus  of  the  dis- 
ease modified  by  continual  passage  through  another 
species  of  animal,  as  vaccine  for  smallpox.  (4) 
Hy  the  injection  of  toxins.  This  is  used  for  immo- 
nizing  animals,  such  an  horses,  against  the  virus 
of  the  diseases  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  anti- 
toxin from  their  blood,  as  in  diphtheria  and  tetanus. 
(5)  By  the  injection  of  antitoxins.  These  are 
ns^  to  immunize  animals  against  toxinit.  and  chil- 
dren against  natural  infection,  as  in  diphthuria. 
This  iit  called  passive  immunity.  Active  immunity 
is  produced  by  the  Injection  of  a  living  virus  or 
its  toxin. 

DificuStiei  and  dangtrt  tc  bf  cvmidervd  in  vaeei- 
nating  or  immuniziiig  animah.— The  results  of  the 
efforts  that  have  been  put  forth  during  tho  last 
twenty  years  to  secure  control  ovt-r  the  inft'ftious 
diseases  of  animals  show  that  for  a  few  diseases 
there  is  a  well-«.«tablished  natnral  basis  for  vacci- 
nation, but  with  others  KUch  a  foundation  does  not 
appear  to  exist.  The  reasons  for  occasional  failuree 
in  vaccination  are  not  difficult  to  find,  Theanalysia 
of  the  principles  underlying  vaccination  shows  that 
it  mL-ana  the  establishing  of  immunity  by  the  intro- 
duction into  the  body  of  non-k-thal  doses  of  viru- 
lent virus  or  the  use  of  a  virus  that  has  been  atten- 
uated. It  is  not  always  easy  or  even  possible  to 
know  the  exact  degree  of  virulence  jxnwc^ed  by 
the  vaccine,  and  again  the  resisting  force  of  ani- 
mals varied  evtin  in  differpnt  individuaU  of  the 
ajtecieA.  If  the  virulence  ia  too  great,  or  the  resist- 
ance Mow  the  supposed  normal,  the  vat^cim*  may 
produce  disease  in  excess  of  the  amount  n^^iuir^] 
to  establish  imniuRity,  and  porhajis  it  may  kill  the 
animals  it  was  intended  to  protect.  This  is  a  result 
that  has  been  experienced.  .As  vaccination  rests  on 
the  profluctinn  nf  artificial  immunity,  the  extent  to 
which  it  can  be  applieildefwnds  on  the  eRiciencyof 
methixls  III  pnKluci!  immunity  in  different  diM'asvs. 

In  deciding  on  the  action  to  be  taken  in  the  pres- 
ence of  an  infectious  disease,  the  selection  of  a 


14fi 


SOME  liBTAII^  OF  STOCK  MANAGEMENT 


Taccine  should  b«  {^uided  by  the  fullest  knowkdfr^ 
possible  of  the  nature  of  the  diseiise  itself  and  the 
extent  to  which  natural  anii  acquired  immunity 
■gainst  it  exists  or  \»  made  po5sil>1e.  The  dangers 
in  Taccination  a»  applied  especially  to  animaLn  at 
large  may  be  Hummarized  2^  follows :  (1)  The  vnc- 
cine  may  be  too  much  attenuated,  resulting  in  ibe 
failure  to  establish  immunity.  (2)  The  vaccine 
may  be  too  strong  (virulent)  bo  that  it  will  pro- 
duce more  diitease  than  is  desired.  pi>8sib]y  causing 
fatal  results.  (3)  Tlie  attenuated  vims  of  whicH 
the  vaccine  consists  may  regain  its  virulence.  Tbe 
distribution  of  living  pathogenic  microorganisms 
among  animals  is  of  itself  not  to  be  recommended. 
They  may  be  the  starting  point  of  subsequent  ont- 
breakR.  (1)  In  using  non-lethal  Aomr  of  virulent 
vitiis,  the  dan|{er  of  producing  fatal  rt»(iitt>4  K'cauae 
of  the  susot-'ptibility  of  the  individual  treated  is 
always  present.  Prevention,  or  the  keeiiinp;  of 
thfso  diwasee  away  from  healthy  animals,  is  oy 
far  the  most  efl'ective  method  of  protecting  oar 
herds. 

Diiiinfeefion. 

Hy  disinfection  is  meant  the  destruction  of  dis- 
ejiiw-pruducinf;  microiirKanisniB.  For  this  purpose, 
nature  has  pruvidctl  VL-ry  important  aficnts,  such  as 
Bunli^ht  and  drying,  but  these  are  not  available  or 
mifficient  to  destroy  all  infecting  bjicteria  in  all  in- 
fected places  within  the  necessary  time  limits.  To 
supplement  these  natural  forces,  a  large  number  of 
chemical  sulistaiiceshave  been  bnnight  into  service. 
In  tlw  flffort  to  destroy  the  microilrganiftma  in  such 
p1iici!s  as  yardis  stables,  cattle  cars  and  the  like,  it 
is  neC'essary  to  consider  before  appEyin^  a  disin- 
fectant, the  following  conditions  :  U)  The  resistance 
of  the  particular  organism  to  be  destroyed.  (2) 
The  medium  or  material  in  which  it  exists.  (3)  The 
nature  of  the  place  containing  the  nrganisms  to  be 
destroyed,  (4)  The  chemical  a<;ticiTt  nt  thu  material 
Burrouniling  the  microiirganisms  un  the  disinfectant 
itself.  For  the  disinfection  of  puns,  stables,  floors 
and  the  like,  the  following  solutions  have  been 
recommended,  and  with  careful  and  intelligent  une 
will  be  effective  :  (1)  Corrosive  sablimate  (mercuric 
chloriii),  one  ounc*  in  eight  gollnns  of  water  (one- 
tenth  *>f  1  |wr  cent).  The  water  should  be  put  into 
wiKiden  tubs  or  barrels,  and  the  powdered  sublimute 
added  to  it.  The  whtjie  must  be  allowed  to  stand 
for  twenty-four  hours,  so  m  to  give  the  sublimate 
an  opportunity  to  become  entirely  dissolved.  Since 
this  solution  is  poisonous,  it  should  he  kept  covered 
and  Well  guarded.  It  may  be  applied  with  n  brnnm 
or  mop,  and  should  he  used  freely  on  all  woodwork. 
Since  it  liKieit  ils  virtue  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  dirt  preaent,  all  manure  and  other  dirt  should  Iw 
removed  before  applying  it.  Tlie  manure  should  by 
covered  with  lime  or  burned.  Its  very  poisonous 
nature  formanand  animals  renders  it  less  desirable 
for  general  use  than  some  other  snlntioniii.  (2)  Car- 
bolic  acid.  A  5  per  cent  solution  of  carliotic  acid  is 
one  of  the  best  disinfectants  for  mangers,  feed 
boxes  and  fixed  watering  basins.  It  should  l>e  ap- 
[died  in  qoantity  suHicienl  thoroughly  t«  wet  all 
porta,  and  soak  deep  into  the  cracks  and  creviow, 


if  there  are  any.  (3)  Chlorinat«d  lime.  Fin  ounces 
of  chlorid  of  time  to  a  gallon  of  water  (4  percent). 
This  should  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as  the  cor- 
rosive sublimate.  (4)  Formalin.  Formalin  is  UMng 
recommended  highly  as  a  disinfectant  when  u»<ed  in 
a  5  per  cent  solution.  The  floors  and  walls  shuuld 
be  thoroughly  wet  with  It.  (5i)  Ordina.ry  slakt-d 
lime.  Although  it  doeH  not  poesem  the  disinfecting 
power  of  the  substances  given  above,  slaked  lime 
IS  neverthidess  very  useful.  It  is  well  adapted  fur ' 
disinfecting  the  surface  of  yards  and  pens.  It  is 
very  useful  to  af»ply  to  the  ceilings  and  walls  of 
stables.  There  are  a  numlx?r  of  other  suhstaocoB 
that  may  be  used.  Indisinfoctingstables  and  pens, 
all  litter  which  has  accumulated  should  be  removed 
before  applying  the  disinfectimt.  As  the  Iitt«r 
itself  is  infected,  it  should  be  burned. 


SOMK   DETAIU^  OF  STOCK   MAN- 
AGKMKNT 

By  A*.  5.  Mayo  and  H.  W.  Murnford 

Success  or  failure  in  breeding  or  handling  fann 
stock  depends  very  largely  on  the  care  and  atten- 
tion that  is  given  to  the*  animals  to  keep  them  in 
a  healthy  condition.  Farm  animals  are  kept  under 
conditions  more  or  less  artificial,  and  these  condi-| 
tions  are  largely  under  the  control  of  man.  Whco-j 
ever  large  numbent  af  animaU  are  gathered 
gether,  tho  danger  of  loss  from  disease  is  increased 
and  extra  hygienic  precautions  must  be  taken  for 
their  protfction.  The  laws  of  hygiene  for  domestic 
animals  fulbiw  ctos<-ly  those  of  the  human  race, 
and  in  case  of  doubt,  it  is  always  well  to  "put 
yourself  m  the  animal's  place." 

Increased  trnfTic  in  farm  stock  also  tends  to 
increase  the  dangpr  of  l«ss  from  disease,  not  onljj 
because  of  the  greater  liabilitv  to  infection  from 
contagious  disease,  but  the  change  in  f«>od  and 
surroundings,  ttigether  with  the  increased  physical 
strain  un  animals  incident  to  shipping,  is  likely  to 
predispose  them  to  disease. 

When  animals  are  exhausted  from  severe  work 
or  shipping  they  shiKitd  always  lie  albiwed  to  reat 
tiefore    receiving  the   nsual    amount  of   food   otj 
water.   The  best  practice  is  tu  give  a  little  freaW 
water  and  a  small  quantity  of  easily  digested  food.] 
HorsL's  should  be  rubbed  down,  and  all  animalf 
should  be  allowed  to  rest  for  a  few  hours,  if  pos- 
sible, and    then    fed    sparingly.    Refore  shipping 
animals  or  subjecting  them  to  severe  work  they 
shntild  also  be  fetl  sparingly.    It  is  mistaken  kind- 
ness to  feed  animals  heavily  just  before  or  during 
temporary  severe  work. 

(^arantine. 

All  stock-farms  should  be  provided  with  snitable 
<jHarantine  ijuarters  where  recently  arrived  stock 
may  be  can:«l  for  until  the  danger  of  introducing 
contagions  diseastw  )>y  this  means  ts  passed.  This 
is  particularly  important  with  swine  and  on  stock- 
farms  from  which  animals  are  exhibited  at  public 
fairs  or  shows,  tjnarantine  quarters  should  he  at 
a  safe  diatance   from  other  animals  and  so  con* 


SOME  DETAILS  OF  STOCK   MANAGEMENT 


147 


BtnKted    that  thej  can  easily  be   cleaned   :Lnil 
dLiJnfect«(J. 

Tkf  aaMe. 

Barns  or  sUbles  are  usually  needed  to  protect 
animals  ft^in«t  rigors  of  climate.  They  shoald  be 
on  welMrain+Hl  floi!,  never  over  manure  pity,  of 
pimple  cttnutruction,  that  they  may  be  easily  kept 
clean,  well  liKfated  and  well  ventilated.  Animals  thut 
are  confined  in  stables  should  have  plenty  of  room, 
Avoid  placing  a  1ar|;e  number  of  aoiniala  together, 
as  they  do  not  do  so  vfell  as  when  aeparnted  in 
snalter  numbers.  ThiR  \a  particitarly  true  of  swine 
and  chickenn.  For  thi-me  animals  it  is  better  to  use 
■mall  portable  houxex  that  can  be  moved  to  new 
locations,  and  to  keup  only  a  small  number  in  each. 

Cement  is  now  used  extensively  in  stable  con- 
struction. For  horjip-stable  fioors  it  is  too  slippery 
and  too  hard  for  th**  horses  to  stand  on  when  thoy 
are  kept  much  of  the  time  in  Ktabloa.  Animals 
should  alwayx  have  clean,  dry  Hoors. 

Stablex  should  be  cIvaiKtl  carefully  daily,  and 
disinfected  thtiroufihly  at  least  twice  durinR  the 
winter  season,  and  alway.s  after  a  cu»e  of  di^iea^e 
among  the  animals  in  the  Ktable.  For  diiiinfectin);, 
•  5  per  cent  solotion  of  carbolic  acid  (poisonous) 
in  water  is  good  (one  tiart  of  acid  mixed  with 
twenty  parts  of  water). 

AMi/iHjr.-- Animals  confined  in  stables  at  nit^ht 
should  have  sufficient  bedding  to  make  them  com- 
fortable and  to  keep  them  clean  and  dry.  ElonteS 
that  are  not  well  bedded  are  likely  to  devulup 
"shoe-boils"  from  lying  on  their  front  feet,  ivhicn 
they  double  under  themselves  tu  protect  LbL'ir 
bodiua  from  the  floor.  Clean  straw,  coarite  hay, 
shavings,  peat-moss,  and  tan-bark  make  good  lied- 
diog.  The  bedding  should  be  free  from  chemical 
sabftaaces  that  will  injure  the  skin  or  fevt.  The 
bedding  should  be  removed  from  the  stalls  every 
morning  and  exposed  lo  the  sunlight  and  air  during 
the  day. 

The  bedding  should  l>e  evenly  distributed  in  the 
stall  the  last  thing  at  night.  Sufficient  btnidirg 
ahould  be  twcd  to  make  the  animal  comfortabk'.  but 
BO  exceas  is  to  be  avoided  as  the  animal  is  liable  to 
get  in  a  bonch  of  it  and  become  "cast,"  or  una- 
ble to  rise  wtthont  assistance.  When  animals  are 
required  to  stand  on  hard  llour^  of  brick  or  cement, 
tbeir  feet  can  be  protected  by  using  bedding  in 
the  stall  during  the  day. 

LigKfini/  Mable*. — Stables  should  be  well  lighted 
and  ao  arranged  that  the  light  will  not  strike  the 
aainals  directly  in  the  eye^i.  Light  is  Wst  admit- 
tad  from  above  and  behind  the  animal.  An  excel- 
I«Dt  method  of  admitting  light  is  by  means  of  the 
Ehcrrtngbam  window  shown  in  Fig.  127.  This  win- 
dow ill  hinged  at  the  bottom  and  opens  inward  at  - 
the  top.  and  sen'e*  for  ventilation  as  well  as  light. 
Aboadance  of  light  for  stables  is  important  hygi- 
eoieally.  as  direct  sunlight  defttroys  many  gt~-rms.  \? 
a  ctrongdrying  agent,  and  addsacheerfuliu^iis  that 
is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

1  ViJi/o/iofi. — Veotflation  of  stables  is  important. 
It  conaistj  in  lapplying  fresh  air  to  the  animals, 
and  at  tb«  sane  time  removing  air  that  has  been 


breathed,  and  other  gases  and  waste  material  that 
may  be  thrown  off  by  the  animal  body  or  arise 
from  thestirruundings.  Stable.^  for  horses  and  cat- 
tle should  be  so  constructed  that  each  animal  may 
have  1000  cubic  feet  of  air  space  if  possible.  Fresh 
air  should  bo  supplied  and  the  impure  air  removed 
at  the  rate  of  5000  cubic  feet  per  hour.  The  more 
air  space  and  fresh  air  that  can  be  supplied  the 
better,  provided  the  animal  docs  not  soffer  from 
draughts  or  cold. 

There  are  two  general  methods  of  ventilation ; 
(1)  artificial,  in  which  mechanical  blowers  or  arti- 
ficial heat  is  applii^,  and  |2)  natural,  in  which  cnly 
tubes  or  openings  are  provided  to  supply  the  pure 
and  carry  away  the  impure  air.  (Pig.  l^S.)  What- 
ever method  w  employed,  no  draughts  should  be 
allowed  to  strike  the  animals. 

There  are  several  methods  of  natural  ventilation 
desirable  for  stables.  In  general,  the  fresh  air  is 
admitted  through  tubes  between  the  studding, 
beneath  the  floor,  or  by  means  of  the  Sherringham 
window  before  described.  The  impure  air  i.s  con- 
dncted  through  shafts  to  cupolas  or  cowls  on  the 
roof.  Air  whafts  should  l>e  of  good  size,  as  straight 
as  possible,  and  without  right  angles,  and  arranged 
so  that  they  can  be  partially  closed  in  severe 
weather.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  cobwebs 


\.' 


^ 


^ 


\ 


t\t-  127-    SberrlDc&dm  wtnoow  ^om  oaUlde. 

and  other  impediments.  [Sec  discussion  in  Chapter 
VII.  Vol.  1.) 

Iti  the  winter  i^eaflon,  during  the  warm  part  of 
iho  day,  it  is  good  practice  tn  remove  the  animals 
fri^ni  the  stable  while  it  is  being  cleane*!,  opening 
all  the  doors,  windows  and  ventilators  that  the 
dust  and  impurities  may  bo  removed  and  the 
stables  Well  aired. 

Wattrfvr  flwima^;".— Individual  drinking  basins 
in  ftallfi  are  likely  to  become  filled  with  food  and 
water.  The  water  soon  becomes  stale  and  unat- 
tractive. It  is  generally  more  satiafaclory  to  have 
the  watering  tank  outKidf!  the  individual  stalls. 
The  water  should  be  pure  and  fresh  and  the  tank 


148 


SOME   DETAII^  OF  STOCK   MANAGEMENT 


cleane<I  frequently.  Ailing  animals  should  l>e  iso 
lated  and  WAUired  from  individual  paiLs.  Public 
drinking;  foantaina  sboald  1>d  avoid<^d  as  far  ati  pns- 
ftible,  as  some  diseageA,  such  as  glandum  and  din- 


-  MKti  - 


-^ 


/ 


f 


f£y 


n 


^ 


Ab^ 


^ 


^ 


->4 


Pit.  in.     Syitem  Ot  lUblt  vrotiUtlon.     AHrr  Kidr. 

t«m|Hjr  uf   hurflcii  and  luiiercutosis  of  cattle,  are 
tranetnitti^d  by  this  nuidium. 

Excrcist. 

Bxercifle  iu  esacntial  to  the  healthy  devolopmont 
and  maintenance  of  animals.  It  stimulates  and 
atrengthons  the  different  or^ana  and  this  tends  to 
keep  the  aniniais  in  vigorous  condition,  and  to  pre- 
vent diseast-.  Staliies  should  l>e  providiinl  with  yardH. 
EroU'cteil  from  the  euld  windrt  of  winter  and  thw 
ot  sun  of  Humm^r,  when?  aninialH  can  Ixj  exereiawl. 
Anlmals  that  are  Ixiing  fattened  for  market  should 
have  only  sufficient  exercise  to  keep  the  bodily 
functions  regular. 

Blanket  tag. 

If  a  horse  is  allowed  to  atand  on  the  street  in 
cold  or  windy  weather,  he  should  be  covered  with 
a  heavy  blanket  immediately  on  stopping,  although 
he  may  be  sweating.  If  he  is  brought  to  the  stable 
in  a  sweaty  condition,  he  should  not  he  blanketed 
until  he  has  ceased  to  steam,  provided  he  is  pro- 
tect&fl.  otherwise  the  blanket  and  hair  will  remain 
damp.  The  substitution  of  a  dry  blanket  two  hoars 
later  will  partly  obviate  this  difficulty.  Steaming 
should  ceB.se  in  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 

The  stable  blanket  should  be  lighter  and  smaller 
than  the  street  blanket.  In  hot  weather,  stabEe 
blanket^  are  not  needed  except  as  a  protection  fnim 
flied.  The  early  fall  oaeof  stable  blankets  may  obv  iate 


the  need  of  clipping  tht-  horse.  After  clipping,  for 
a  time  both  i^table  and  street  blankets  should  be 
Wfirrnvr  an'l  heaviL-r.  Blankets  should  be  securely 
fa-sterit^  about  the  animal. 

Handtinii.   (H.  W.  Mumford.) 

The  iguiRtneMM  of  manner  of  the  attendant  is  an 
important  consideration  In  the  handling  of  ani- 
mala.  The  even-leniperisd  atlundunt  who  is  qniet 
in  mannvT  and  niovement  invariably  provea  more 
satisfactory  than  the  erratic,  bustling,  noisy  one. 
Domestii;  animals  soon  learn  to  have  conridence  in 
the  former  and  wtdcomc  his  coming  among  them, 
while  tht'y  are  always  suspicious  of  the  latter, 
never  feeling  quite  at  eiu*e  while  he  is  in  night. 
Thin  is  especially  no'ticeablc  in  fattening  cattle. 
Under  thi*  management  of  the  former,  the  cattlo 
tmconie  tame  and.  «:|uiet,  even  thuujrh  moru  or  less 
wild  at  the  outset;  while  under  the  latter,  wild 
cattle  become  wilder  and  tame  cattle  become  timid. 

The  writer  has  obnerved  a  wide  difference  in 
practice  among  feoders  aa  to  their  manner  of 
appriMiching  fattening  Rteen<.  Some  are  hrusiiuv  in 
manner,  rushing  up  tii  the  strers  and  searing  them 
up  quickly,  while  others  (and  thf  niuri'  mitrceKsful 
feedltirsl  approach  the  cattle  with  the  greatejil  care 
and  consideration,  getting  the  cattle  up,  if  at  all. 
as  quietly  as  [K)ssibte.  I^astures  for  cattle  in  quiet, 
seclude")  pliicea  are  more  vuluahle  for  fattening 
animals  than  are  those  adjacent  to  public  ruH'ts 
or  adjoining  ]>a.stures  where  homes  or  brewling 
cattle  run. 

Grooming, 

Horses  and  cattle  that  are  stabled  should  be 
groomed  fre<|nently,  as  gnieming  removes  the  dirt, 
increases  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  sJiin  and 
favors  the  removal  of  waste  matter  from  the  iKidy, 
improves  the  coat,  and  promotes  tiie  general  beulth 
of  the  animal.  Grooming  is  best  accomplished  by 
using  a  comb  lightly  to  remove  the  attached  dirt 
and  afterwards  Imishing  vigorously  with  a  stiff 
bristle  brush,  then  wiping  the  loose  duet  with  a 
cloth.  There  is  no  one  thing  that  adds  niorv  Ui  the 
appearance  of  horses  and  cattle  than  thorough 
grooming. 

OippJnff  horxtt. 

If  horses  are  protected  by  light  stable  blankets 
while  in  the  stable  and  by  street  blankets  when 
out  in  severe  weather,  clipping  is  desirable.  It 
improves  the  appearance  nf  the  howe  and  his  coat 
ta  more  easily  kept  clean.  Horses  with  Eong  thick 
coats  should  be  clipped,  as  the  heavy  coal»  hold  the 
sweat  and  the  animal  may  take  cold  when  stand- 
ing. It  should  l>e  done  soon  after  the  full  cost  is 
grown,  80  that  the  hair  may  grow  a  little  before 
severe  weather  comes  on ;  and  a  second  clipping 
should  tw  given  in  the  spring  when  the  weather 
begina  to  get  warm  and  the  coat  begins  to  be  ahed. 
When  horses  cannot  be  protecte*!  from  the  cold, 
either  in  the  stable  or  outside,  they  should  not  be 
clipped  in  the  fall :  but  the  long  hair  on  the  legs, 
as  far  as  the  knee  and  hock,  may  be  removed, 
thi»  will  prevent  those  diseases  of  irritation 


SOME  DETAILS  OF  STOCK   MANAGEMENT 


149 


horws  that  work  in  muddy  places,  due  to  iiritatHin 
from  mud  and  dirt. 

Care  offeetj  and  fkoeing  hones. 

The  feet  of  horee^  ahoM  be  examined  every 
day,  anil  all  dirt  ivtuoveij  and  tht;  «ole  of  the  foot 
carefully  ciamine'l  for  nails  or  other  foreign 
bodiea  that  may  lodge  there.  In  cases  of  sadden 
lamenefis,  atn-ays  examine  the  font  thorott^rhly  far 
such  objecOn.  The  hoofs  of  animals  slionld  t»e  kept 
level  by  using  a  rasp.  When  horses  are  ahod.  this 
is  done  by  the  blacki^tnith.  If  the  hoofs  are  becom- 
ing hard  and  brittle  they  should  be  aoften&d  by 
applicatiomi  of  oil  or  hoof  ointment.  If  they  arc 
ragged  or  tend  to  split,  they  should  be  rasped  on 
theedgtf  and  trimmed  smooth.  The  hoofs  of  anim^ils 
Btan;iing  mach  in  the  stall  frequently  become  of 
an  exce-sflire  length  and  must  be  carefally  trimmed. 
Attention  must  he  given  to  the  hoofs  of  young 
animals  to  ?e«  that  they  develop  dymmetrii-ally. 

Shoes  arB  applied  to  the  feet  of  animals  to  pre- 
vent too  rapid  wearing  away  of  the  hoof  and  injury 
to  the  aenaitive  tissues  beneath.  They  are  also 
applied  to  afford  a  grip  on  slippery  streets,  to 
impart  action  to  roadsters,  to  change  the  gait,  or  to 
remedy  diseased  conditions.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
ahoe  borsea  doing  farm  work  on  Moft  ground.  When- 
ever horses  abow  tundemesd  when  driven  on  hari) 
roada  they  ahonld  be  shod. 

Hones  that  are  kept  shod  most  of  the  year 
should  have  the  !>hr>es  removed  for  a  month  or  six 
weeks,  if  possible,  and  be  placeii  on  moderately  soft 
ground  in  order  to  allow  the  hoof  to  expand  and 
usame  its  natural  condition. 

Porordinary  wear,  a  plain  "plate "shoe  without 
calks  and  ju*t  heavy  enough  to  carry  the  animal'a 
weight  is  sufficient.  For  slippery  work  or  icy 
weather,  calke  are  a  necessity.  Shoes  should  be  re- 
Mt  every  four  to  six  weeks.  In  shoeing  horses,  the 
•ole  or  frog  i^hotild  not  t)e  pared  away,  only  the  looHe 
pieces  of  horn  being  removed. 

Otutomarjr  turgiejil   prruHet*. 

Ow'rafioR.— (lastralion  consists  in  the  destruc- 
tion or  removal  of  the  testicles,  the  esi^ential 
organs  of  generation  in  males.  When  male  birds 
are  castrated  the  operation  Is  called  caponizing, 
and  the  castrated  bird  U  called  a  capon.  When  male 
domestic  animals  are  castrated  at  an  early  age.  as 
is  costomary,  the  following  names  are  commonly 
applied  to  them.  Castrated  horses  are  geldings : 
oUle,  8te«n:  sh«>ep.  wethers; 
swine,  harrows.  When  a  ma- 
tnre  noimal  is  castrated  he  is 
wmetines  called  a  "stag." 
becaose  the  mascntine  charac- 
teristica  are  oft«n  pronounced. 
A  "ridgling"  is  a  colt  or 
horse  in  which  only  one  tes- 
ticle has  descended  into  the  scrotum,  the  other 
Iwing  retained  in  the  abdominal  cavity  or  inguinal 
ring.  An  expert  vet*>rinary  surgeon  should  be  em- 
ployed t<>  castrate  ridglings.  and  also  for  colts  or 
pigs  that  are  stilfering  from  inguinal  henii»,  as  a 
special  operation  is  required. 


Animals  aro  castrated  to  prevent  their  breeding, 
to  make  them  ([uieU^r  and  easier  to  handle.  Cas- 
trated animals  as  a  rule  fatten  easier,  and  the 
moat  is  of  better  quality.  Uomestic  animals,  gen- 
erally, should  be  castrated  while  young,  as  young 
animals  do  not  sutFer  so  severely  from  the  operation. 
As  a  rule,  catvew.  lambs  and  pigs  should  !h*  cHstrated 
when  alHiiit  three  months  old.  Oilts  are  gener- 
ally castrated  either  as  yearlingn  or  two-yt?ar-oMs. 
If  a  colt  is  not  well  developed  it  is  b>i:.st  tu  wait 
until  the  spring  it  is  two  years  old.  There  is  moro 
risk  in  castrating  colts  than  other  animals  because 
of  the  greater  susceptibility  of  colts  to  wound  in- 
fection. Animals  that  are  eaifering  from  any 
debilitating  disease  shimid  not  be  CJistrated  until 
they  have  recovensf  their  normal  condition.  Avoid 
castrating  animals  during  severe  weatliLT,  eith^'r 
hot  cir  cold,  or  when  flies  are  annoying.  An  excel- 
lent time  is  in  spring,  when  grass  is  good.  Before 
attempting  to  castrate  an  animal  it  should  be  care- 
fully examined  to  be  sure  that  it  is  in  normal  con- 
dition, Stdect  a  clean  place  for  the  openiii™,  as 
free  as  possible  from  dirt  and  dusL 

Colta  and  bulls  may  Iw  ca-itraLed  in  a  standing 
position  by  an  exiwrt,  but  under  ordinary  conditions 
the  animal  Hhould  bo  cast  and  securely  tied,  or,  in 
case  of  small  animals. securely  held  by  an  assistant. 
In  all  cases,  the  hind  feet  are  drawn  forward,  and 
as  high  up  on  the  shoulders  iis  possible.  In  ca-ttrat- 
ing  colts,  the  hands,  instniminnbi  and  parLs  near 
the  operation  should  bu  cleaned  and  disinfected. 
The  Kcrotum  should  be  washed  with  soap  and  water 
and  afterward  disinfected  with  a  6  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid.  The  operator  grasps  the 
scrotum  firmly  below  the  testicles,  pressing  them 
again.st  the  skin.  If  one  is  .smaller  than  the  other, 
remove  it  first.  The  incision  should  be  made  about 
one-half  inch  from,  and  parallel  to  the  median 
line  (raphe)  that  divides  the  scrotum,  and  welt  for- 
ward. The  incision  should  be  made  of  good  siw  to 
admit  of  free  drainage.  Do  not  try  to  squeerc  the 
testicles  out  through  a  wmall  opening.  There  are 
three  layers  to  Iw  cut  through— the  skin,  some 
white  fibrous  tissue,  and  the  inner  thin  transparent 


FiC.  119.    Bduuculator  tot  cutniUas. 


sack  that  covurs  the  testicle.  When  the  latter  is 
cut  through,  a  little  watury  fluid  usually  (■.';f:HpeH. 
Avoid  catting  the  te.stick-  if  pofisiblH.  The  tt'sticle 
is  drawn  out  and  removed,  and  the  "cord  "  sevurwl 
at  least  five  inches  from  the  testicle  by  an  inatm- 
menc  called  an  emancnlator.   (Fig.  129.) 


160 


SOME   DETAILS  OP  STOCK  MANAGEMENT 


Thift  is  th«i  hwit  ant)  (luiclcL'st  nmthoil  for  nnlinary 
cuatratiou.  The  iinnnjJiata  daHgar  in  ftevering  th« 
"cord"  is  Bfveru  bk-vdiriK  from  Uk-  lar^e  artery 
it  contains,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  ciL-Lviisary  to 
use  some  methoii  to  prevent  it.  The  instriimuiit 
mentioned  crushen  the  artery  su  that  it  docs  not 
bleed.    Another  gixid    instrument    i»   an 

OHcraiwur  (Fif;.  IIKJJ.  Or  the  tronl  can  be 
twistwl  olF,  w-'ariMl  with  a  hot  ir<>n,  nr 
Rcrapuii  in  two  with  a  dull  knife.  The  M 
method  of  M&ini*  chimps  on  thti  cord  is 
not  to  be  n>commendbd  except  in  special 
cases. 

In  castrating  calves  and    lambs,   in- 
fttetid  nf  m;iking  two  separate  incisions 
Ihw  whole    ttnd  ut  th«  Bcmtiim   miiy  be 
cut    off,  and    the    tuHiicleH  drawn    well 
down  and  cut  off,  aa  there  in  little  daii- 
Ror  of  ble^idliiK  in  small  animals.   After 
ihcopomtion  the  animal  should  re^t  for 
a  time  and  then  have  some  exercise,  as 
this  asHists  in  rftmoving  lilnod-clots  that 
may  collect  in  the  scrotam. 
Ifpfiwnr        '^he   important  jHtints  to  be  mit«d  In 
•■^       caatrattnK  arc  elearilitie**»,  a  free  inciaion 
IS^'     close  to  the  median   line  and  well  for- 
ward, removing  the  testiclvs  well  up.  and 
keeping  the    wound  clsan  and  free    frnm  lilootl- 
clots.    After  the  npemtiim  all  animals  shonld  be 
watched    carefully    lf»    avoid    the    colltMHioa    of 
blood  or  pus  ia  tiie  scrotum  and  the  allw^ks  of 
screw  flieji  or  common  "blow"  fliaa.    Should  pus 
collect  in  the  scrotum,  itshoald  be  carefully  washed 
out  with  boiled  warm  water,  and  aftt-rwards  disin- 
fected with  a  3  per  cent  aiilution  of  carbolic  acid 
in  waU-r,  using  a  syringe  for  the  purpnpe. 

In  colts  there  ia  often  considerable  swelling  of 
the  sheath  and  ailjacent  parts.  The  antm-il  should 
have  exercise,  and  once  daily  for  two  or  thrw;  days 
sboold  be  eiven  »  lu-aping  t^aupwnful  of  ealtpvter 
diasolvt^d  in  wat«r  and  applied  as  a  drench. 

Sometime*  in  colts  and  pijcs.  wht-n  the  "oord"  is 
left  too  long,  it  becomL-s  attachc-d  to  the  tissues  of 
the  scrotum  and  a  tumor  forms,  commonly  called 
"^hrirrons'cord."  This  must  be  removwl  surgically 
in  the  aame  way  as  castration.  It  is  beat  In  employ 
an  expert  veterinar>'  surgeon  for  this  work.  Teta- 
nus or  "  lockjaw."  peritonitis  and  "  blood  poison- 
ing" sometimt'S  follow  castration. 

Gaponizing.— Capons,  as  a  rule,  weigh  about  ono- 
third  more  than  cwkerels.  fatten  more  readily,  and 
the  flesh  is  nf  better  qnality.  The  best  .igo  to 
capooize  is  when  the  bird  is  six  to  eight  weeks  old. 
[See  Capon*  awl  Qiponhin^g,  under  Poultry.] 

Spayinff.~The  castration  of  females  consists  in 
the  removal  of  the  ovaries.  The  operation  is  calked 
^;>ayiDgatid  the  animal  after  the  operation  h  said  to 
be  Apeyed.  In  spaying  animals  it  ia  necessary  to 
make  an  opening  into  the  abdominal  cavity  and 
remove  the  ovaries.  In  cows  and  mares  that  have 
bwDe  yoting  the  operation  can  be  performed  through 
tba  vagina,  bat  in  heifers,  sows  and  bitches  an  in- 
clffion  has  to  be  made  thn)t]gh  the  abdominal  walla 
in  the  regi'On  nf  the  flank  or  ubdomen.  An  expert 
veterinary  sTirgeon  should  be  employed. 


Dopkljirt  /orii^M.— The  taib*  are  usually  cut  off 
when  faniliH  are  about  two  weeks  old.  The  sooner 
lambs  are  docked  after  birth  the  better.  They 
Mhoulid  not  be  docked,  however,  before  they  are 
strong,  or  until  they  are  at  least  two  weeks  of  age. 
A  strong  knife  should  be  used.  The  skin  of  the  tail 
should  be  drawn  towards  the  body  and  the  tail 
severed  at  a  joint,  if  possible,  about  one  inch  from 
the  bfKly.  It  is  well  to  have  a  hot  iron  convenient 
and  touch  the  end  of  the  artery  when  there  ia  much 
bleeding,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  not  aeoesaary.  A 
small  amount  of  pine  tnr  may  be  daubed  on  the 
stump.  The  Itimbs  sliould  lie  examined  frequently 
to  see  thut  larva?  of  (lie-*  do  not  get  into  the  wound. 
Should  this  occur,  some  chloroform  should  lie 
appliwl,  which  kills  the  lar\ie  at  once,  and  the 
wound  should  be  treated!  with  antiseptics. 

I)r>ckin<i  horxcs. — Docking  horses  by  cutting  off 
the  tail,  except  for  disease  or  to  overcome  a  vice, 
is  n  useless  and  cruel  practice,  and  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  It  is  a  fashion  that  at  best  is  but 
temporary. 

/JcWviinv. —Cattle  are  dehorned  to  prevent 
their  injuring  persons  or  other  animals  :  they  .iro 
then  more  trjiclable  and  feed  Ijotter.  There  are 
two  generul  niuthoils  of  dehorning:  (1»  By  de- 
stroying the  budding  horn  in  calves.  This  is 
usually  done  by  applying  caustic  to  the  "bntlfln" 
as  soon  as  it  can  he  felt  beneath  the  skin  of  tho 
head.  f'li|i  the  hair  away  over  the  budding  horn 
and  moi.slen  ati  area  as  large  as  a  cent.  With  a 
slick  of  cauttlic  pota-sh  wrapjied  in  pajier  to  protect 
the  lingere.  rub  tho  moistened  oren  thoroughly  over 
the  whole  button.  Care  should  In;  exercised  that 
the  part  is  not  too  wet  so  that  the  caustic  will  run 
over  the  .skin.  In  a  week  a  thick  sc.ib  will  drop  off. 
If  the  operation  was  done  pniperly  the  horns  will 
rot  grow.  It  is  not  practicable  to  nmiove  with 
causlio  budding  horn.4  that  have  pushed  through 
the  skin.  The  budding  horns  of  calvea  may  also  be 
removed  by  using  a  gouge,  a  special  instrument 
being  made  for  this  purpose. 

(2)  Range  cattle  are  usually  riehomed  when  they 
are  put  in  the  fetnl-yanls  to  fatten.  It  is  Iwist  not  to 
dehorn  them  when  tfiey  are  first  brought  to  the 
feed-yards,  as  it  makes  them  very  timid,  but  to  wait 
until  they  are  started  on  feed  and  accustomed  to 
their  surroundings.  The  adnlt  animal  is  confinwl 
in  a  chute  made  for  the  purpose,  although  a  stnmg 
stanchion  can  Imj  used.  /\  halter  is  put  on  and  the 
animal's  hea*!  Ls  drawn  far  toward  the  side.  The 
hnm3  are  removed  either  with  a  dehorning  saw  or 
with  clipfters  miide  for  the  purpose.  \  good  ring  of 
hair  should  Iw  taken  off  with  the  base  of  the  horn 
as  the  wound  heals  betU-T.  there  is  less  blediing 
and  no  stnb  horn  grows  out  again.  A  dehorning 
saw  doeii  better  work  surgically,  but  it  is  Blower 
and  more  painful  to  the  animal. 

.\fter  removing  the  horn  some  pine  tar  may  bo 
daubed  over  the  wound  and  a  small  piece  of  alitwrb- 
eut  cotton  stuck  on  to  ket-p  nut  the  dirt.  Itehorned 
cattle  should  not  l>e  allowed  about  stacks  until  the 
wounda  have  healed,  aa  they  are  likely  to  get  chaff 
and  dirt  in  the  wounds. 

Cattle  suffer   little    from  dehorning,  and    it  is 


5ME  DETAILS  OF  STOCK   MANAGEMENT 


151 


•eiQom  tnat  &n  aniinal  missun  n  mejil  Mi)i!h 
eowit  fsit  utr  in  their  milk  flow  a  Utile  fi>r  &  day 
or  two. 

Branding  and  narking  ttoek  (W.  T.  McDonald). 

On  the  ranges,  thti  calces  and  cults  aro  brnndiid 
in  the  fall  of  the  year.  Each  owner  has  a  partic- 
ular brand 'ng-iron,  usually  repnwentinR  one  or 
more  letUrs.  This  branding-irKHi  in  generntly 
hi.'nU^l  in  .in  o]>en  WMid  Are.  "Thf.  HnimalH.^ri3  ru|)Hd 
or  held  in  a  frame,  and  thu  Ijrand  is  hurn>ed  un 
th«  aide.  Kacb  ownur  brand))  rn  a  purtit^ular 
place;  for  oxampK-,  on  the  rit^ht  or  left  shoulder, 
or  on  the  right  or  left  thigh.  Horses  are  sorrti':' 
timea  branded  on  the  cheek  by  a  small-sized  brand- 
ing-iron. 

When  stock-raiHrng  is  practic^nl  on  a  Bmaller 
scale,  cattle,  hogn  .ind  ^hv^\t  am  marked  by  metal 
ear-tags  or  by  notching  the  ear*.  In  Ihia  wuy  «ach 
animal  has  a  nuniK-r  of  its  own.  which  fa^'ilitat«^ 
the  kwping  of  individual  roL'ords.  Wht-n  the  t'aira 
are  notched  the  following  mothtKl.  or  a  muditicatior 
of  it.  givea  excellent  satisfaction :  Each  mttch  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  left  ear  cotinta  1;  each  notch 
in  the  npper  side  of  the  left  ear  cuiunlji  3;  one 
notch  in  the  tip  of  the  left  ear  counts  1(H);  one 
kotc  punched  near  the  tip  of  the  left  ear  coiiirts 
400;  one  hole  punched  near  the  lowt-r  siile  of  the 
left  earcoant«  l.(KX>;  each  nottih  in  the  tower  side 
of  tbe  right  ear  counts*  10 :  each  notch  in  the  upper 
side  of  the  right  ear  counts  30;  one  notch  in  the 
tip  of  the  right  ear  counts  200;  one  hole  punched 
near  the  tip  of  tha  right  ear  couut»  500.  By  thia 
DirthM,  each  animal  may  he  given  an  individuiil 
number.  The  greatest  objection  to  it  is  that  it 
disfigornfl  the  ear  nomewhat.  • 

S/imetimea  hor»e-s  are  numhered  individually  by 
branding  a  nomlKT  on  the  fmnt  of  ore  uf  the  fore 
hoofH.  Pur  thtH  purpone,  a  brand-holder  in  which 
tbe  desired  number  la  placed,  {«  used,  the  irnn 
fixura  being  one-half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
in  hei^t.  This  nutnlier  hna  to  be  renewed  as  tho 
hoof  E^owi  out. 

ShtKp  are  frequently  marked  the  Aeece  by 
paint  or  keel. 

Prtparing  catUefor  tkipnunt  (H.  W".  Mumford). 

There  arc  ahippcrw  who.  by  divers  pnictico», 
have  Kcnred  an  abnormal  "till"  at  the  market,  or. 
in  other  wonK  have  been  successful  in  making 
their  rattle  weigh  mure  than  they  flhnnld  l>y  induc- 
in,;  thi'm  to  drink  an  unueual  amount  of  water 
when  they  reach  the  market.  It  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  tberti  are  pai*t  maatern  of  the  "fill- 
ing'* pmcefts  at  alt  our  leading  markets,  ami  many 
of  thi'ffl  operate  outride  the  fat  cattle  division,  too. 
The  trained  eye  for  fat  cattle  is  always  on  the 
lookout  for  cattlft  that  have  "filled"  unusually 
woll,  and  when  he  m-Xs  the.  price  on  .such  he  U  sure 
to  diirrioiinate  agajnttt  them  in  value  per  hundred- 
weight, aa  he  knowti  Iherv  will  be  a  heavy  ehrtnkuge 
whvnalaiitffatend.  Any  practice  whieh  tends  tow.^rd 
•eearing  an  abnormal  "  nil"  on  cattle  at  the  yardi) 
]»  ncithi-r  a  legilimate  practice  nor  ij«  it  likely,  in 
the  long  run,  Ut  prove  a  paying  propoeitioD  for  the 


Hhipper.  On  the  other  hand,  it  i^  well  known  that 
unliHHH  some  pru'cautiona  are  taken  before  shipment, 
the  cattle  are  likely  Lo  scour  and  shrink  abnor- 
mally. The  ahipper  is  justified,  therefore,  in  using 
S<.'gitimute  methods  of  preventing  scours,  not  only 
to  avoid  an  abnormal  shrinkage,  but  ab^o  to  pre- 
vent the  ciUMe  arriving  at  the  market  in  a  lilthy 
condition,  which  would  not  add  to  their  nttract- 
ivenofls. 

It  may  have  been  inferred  from  what  haa  been 
said  that  the  principal  point  to  be  observed  in  ship- 
])ing  cattlt!  without  too  much  shrinkage  is  to  follow 
some  peculiar  method  of  feeding;  but  the  writer 
thinks  that  the  largest  factor  h  the  managementof 
the  cattle.  They  should  he  so  (jutetly  handled  that 
thf^y  do  not  liecome  excited  or  berit^il.  If  putiuihie, 
driving  Fhnuld  be  dune  in  the  ciKd  of  the  morning 
or  evening.  There  are  some  feeds,  which,  if  the 
cattle  have  access  to  them  prior  to  shipment,  will 
be  more  likely  to  cause  scours  than  others.  These 
are  shelled  corn,  com  meal,  oil  meal,  silage,  clover 
hay,  alfalfa,  cow^ea  hay  and  graaa.  Oatlle  that 
are  fattened  on  grass  and  grain  during  the  L>arly 
part  of  the  neiison  may  well  bt>  yardi'd  for  a  day  or 
two  before  shipment  and  fed  timothy  hay  and  a 
considerably  induced  grain  ration.  Pat  cattle 
shipped  from  the  dry  ht,  if  receiving  clover  or 
alfalfa  for  roughage,  should  be  chiinged  to  timothy 
hay  at  least  twenty-four  hours  before  shipmi-nt. 
N'o  full  grain  ration  should  W  given  after  twelve 
hoiir.4  before  shipment,  althungh  it  is  advisable  at 
tim^s,  and  especially  if  the  cattle  have  been  fat- 
tened on  shelled  com  or  meat,  to  add  a  libera] 
amount  of  onUs  or  bran  to  the  feed.  Water  should 
be  withheld  for  six  hours  before  shipment. 

If,  in  addition  to  the  above  precautions,  c^ire  is 
taken  to  IxhJ  the  car  well  and  not  overload,  the 
cattle  should  arrive  on  the  market  fresh  and  clean 
and  wilt  fill  nunnaliy,  which  should  bo  tho  object 
of  the  shipper.  Cattle  so  shipped  should  make 
hontfst  weights  for  the  producer  and  buyer  and 
healthy  meat  for  the  consumer. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  management  of  cattle 
before  shipment  will  nwesitarily  vary  consideralily 
not  only  liecause  of  differencea  in  their  condition, 
and  the  rations  on  which  tht-y  have  been  fed,  but 
also  the  distiincv  from  market  and  the  time  they 
will  be  on  the  road,  and  whether  it  \it  neeeswiry  to 
unload  and  feed  enroute.  .'iome  of  the  siiggciitiona 
offered  will  apply  only  to  the  preparation  of  cattle 
for  shipment  when  they  are  not  to  Im*  on  the  roud 
to  pxcet.'d  twelve  hours.  IFor  additional  notes,  nw 
MttHrting  Farm  Sfoek,  pp.  I'lK-UJi;.] 

lAlfraturr, 

l.iautard,  Animal  C'lwtration  ;  Hunting,  Art  of 
Hor*e  Shoeing;  Mayo.  Care  of  Animals;  Dollar. 
Hand  Book  of  Horse  Shoeing;  Fitzwygram,  Horses 
and  Stables ;  IVactical  SugK<«tioni*  for  Farm  Build- 
ings, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  126,  Unite>d  States 
Department  of  Agriculture;  >>table  Ventilation, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  190,  United  Staira  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  ;  Stable  Ventilation,  OntJirio 
Ex]*riment3l  Farms  Report,  1901 ;  Smitii.  Veter- 
inary Hygiene. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  EXHIBITING  OF  ANIMALS 

rlXHIBITtONS  HAVE  A  PO^VERFUL  INFLITENCE  on  the  domestic  animals 
'  of  any  re^i^jn.  They  set  standitnls,  and  persons  attempt  to  attain  to  th*;j»e 
standjinila.  The  nature  of  the  Btandards  estahlitthed  at  the  shwws,  therefore, 
bocomwi  a  fiiibject  nf  tht*  first  importance  to  any  Hgricultural  peoiiU*. 

Exhibition  tttanilanlH  are  i>f  tw<»  ktndi;,  —  LliCMe  biuied  on  "  Khow"  pointR, 
and  those  based  on  "utility"  points.  The  ahnw  points  consider  the  "IooIcb" 
of  the  animal.  They  are  likely  to  be  arbitrary  and  to  ha  subject  to  changea 
in  i&aie  and  fashion.  For  some  years,  for  example,  it  ha«  been  the  fnshion 
to  reiiiiire  that  prize-winning  Shropshire  sheep  shall  have  the  face  covered 
with  wiH>l.  The  wattlfB  and  comba  of  fowls  are  prominent  Rijbjecla  of 
"fancy"  points  in  judging.  Such  classfs  of  ideals  may  not  only  have  no 
significaniie,  but  they  may  even  he  in  opposition  to  the  real  value  of  thti 
animal :  y^;t,  they  determinft  the  line  of  breeding  of  the  penwni!  who  may 
^(^//l]Hl^iu^^'ll!^;■■^"'^^u!*  be  rcuarded  as  the  Jeadora  in  the  development  of  th&  breed.    Some  of  the 

arbitrary  points,  however,  are  dUtinctive  features  or  mark^  of  breeds,  as  color,  and  shape  of  indi< 
vidua!  jiartfl.  .The  utility  point-i  are  thnse  that  represent  efficiency— the  form  and  siie  of  the  '' tpg 
of  niuttOn"  in  a  shnpp,  the  milk-producing  power  in  s  cow,  the  egg-laying  ability  in  a  fowl,  the 
"constitution"  in  imy  animal.  f>omi4imei(  the  wliow  points  coincide  with  the  utility  point^s  or  they 
correlate  with  them,  Thus  the  gtmeral  form  or  loolw  of  a  Bheep  may  indicate  his  constitution  and 
bardihood.  In  the  paet,  the  exhibitions  have  no  doahl  often  over-emphasised  the  formal  and  unrelated 
point.H :  we  are  now  giving  more  attention  to  the  marks  and  conformation  that  indicate  what  the 
snimiil  can  do.  and  this  i.i  likely  to  have  considerable  infla^nce  in  the  future  development  of  breetla. 

.Another  fault  of  the  exhibitions,  particnlarly  in  America,  is  the  lark  i»f  a  real  educational  iroimlae. 
The  show  in  conducted  for  the  benefit  of  the  exhibitor  nitbe<r  than  for  the  lienefit  of  the  public  An 
exhibitor  usually  is  allowed  to  ket>p  his  cows  or  other  animals  all  together,  even  thoogh  they  are  of  very 
different  classes,  and  he  is  not  ohIigi>d  to  adopt  any  sys-tem  of  labeling  and  cataloguing  that  will  int*rc-8t 
and  instmct  the  spectator.  The  shows  of  Great  Britain  excel  in  the  educational  features,  and  they  are 
belter  nrganixed  and  conducted  than  oars.  They  are  more  careful  to  eliminate  mefiiocre  animals ;  they 
grmip  each  breed  or  class  by  itjself,  irrespective  of  exhibiUir,  thos  encouraging  comparison  and  study  ; 
entries  are  cari'fully  catalogued  and  numbered,  and  they  are  ailmittetl  fiu*  fnmigh  in  ailvance  t<)  iiDow 
this  to  be  done  with  care ;  visitors  are  excluded  from  thc^  ring  when  the  judging  is  in  progress;  the 
Btalls  are  nanally  better  arranged  to  allow  of  examining  the  animals,  being  commodious  and  well  lighted. 
and  strict  stable  rules  are  enforced. 

The  leading  American  shows  are  noted  for  their  bigness.  The  first-class  animals  are  probably  as 
f[ood  as  those  to  be  seen  anywhere  in  the  world  ;  hut  indifferent  or  even  inferior  animals  may  also  be 
shown,  thus  reducing  the  average  standard  of  excellence.  The  judges  are  likely  tn  l>«  animyed  by 
bystanders  and  interestwl  persons.  The  money  prizes  are  often  large  in  the  American  shows;  this 
feature  attracts  many  small  exhibitors,  who  have  meritorious  animals,  but  who  might  not  otherwiae 
be  able  to  show,  thus  encouraging  a  wide-spread  effort.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  marked  tend**ncy 
to  offer  such  classes  of  premiums,  in  many  of  the  fairs,  as  to  attract  traveling  profeiwional  exhibilora  to 
the  exclusion  of  individual  agricultural  growers.  There  is  a  certain  pn)fessionalism  in  American 
abows  that  should  be  eliminated.  This  is  produced  of  the  desire  to  win.  The  profetutional  exhibitor 
Bcours  the  country  for  a  string  of  winners.  When  the  small  breeder  finds  that  he  cannot  win  against 
a  man  who  buys  animals  for  the  sole  purpose  of  exhibiting  them,  he  loses  interest  in  exhibitions 
nni  leaves  his  stock  at  home.  This  can  be  remedied  by  not  catering  to  this  class  of  persons  in  the 
premium  lists,  and  by  re-ijuiring  that  all  exhibitors  shall  have  bre<i  their  animals  or  else  have  owned 
tbem  and  haii  them  in  pos-^wasion  for  six  months  or  more  preceding  the  exhibition. 

(162) 


FmiNG  AND  EXHIBITING  LIVE-STOCK 


1S3 


The  American  show  is  lilcely  to  contain  many  extranDona  arouaemL'nt  and  ent4^rlainment  fc-atursa, 
and  thorufoTO  to  lack  the  Borious  aim  and  nffyct  that  makes  for  a  rua!  admiration  of  vxwUL'ijce  in 
SQperior  animals.  Wo  must  ostablieh  Idoals.  It  is  one  thing  mtirely  to  mate  animals,  and  thti-n  food 
tbem  for  the  production  of  moat  or  milk  or  wool ;  it  is  another  thing  to  produce  animals  of  more 
perfect  fnnctlon,  otility,  form  or  symmetry  than  those  with  which  one  started. 

The  Amorican  Uvt-stock  shows  can  no  duubt  be  much  improved,  speaking:  brotwily.  by  some  or 
atl  of  the  following  rnean^:  (I)  By  suliunlinating  the  exhibitor  to  the  anitnals;  (2)  by  preventing 
the  exhibiting  of  all  inft-rior  animala;  (8)  by  provi'linu  Iwttur  stall  or  stable  facilities,  and  making 
and  enforcing  uniform  stabling  rL^{;u1ations ;  (-1)  by  placing  togutlier  atl  animals  of  similar  classes; 
(5)  by  nnmlHiring  the  stalls,  and  printing  a  catalogTie  with  corresponding  numbers,  and  with  infor- 
mation as  to  breed,  class,  age,  weight,  ownership,  sire  and  dam,  and  the  like ;  (,6)  by  excluding 
all  onlookers  and  interested  parties,  if  need  be.  Dnti3  the  jndging  is  completed ;  (7)  by  desiguating' 
every  prize-winning  animal,  and  arranging  th4>  animals  in  the  order  of  their  standing,  so  that  tho 
visitor  may  know  at  onco  the  rating  of  the  animals  on  exhibition ;  (8)  by  an  t^lFort  to  mako  the  animals 
the  chief  attraction  of  the  show.  All  this  means  that  the  purpose  of  the  show  should  be  broadly 
edacational;  and  this  is  really  the  primary  reason  for  making  any  exhibition  that  is  not  frankly  a 
market  emporium. 

A  recent  feature  of  American  stock-shows  is  the  judging  by  competing  gronps  of  students  from 
the  agricnltaral  colleges.  This  innovation  is  comniendable,  and  it  is  likely  to  give  definitenese  to  the 
educational  purpose  of  an  exhibition. 


FirnS'G  AND  KXHIBITIVG  LIV&STOCK 

By  C.  S.  Plumb 

Id  geoeral,  two  classeg  of  persons  make  a  practice 
of  euiibiting  livestock:  One  shows  pure -bred 
breediog>«tock ;  another,  butcher's  stock,  such  as 
ateers,  wethers  or  barrows,  or  grade  market  hurses. 
Host  growers  exhibit,  ap'preciating  the  opportunity 
V  a  %'alnable  advertising  me^Jium.  Other?  have  a 
keen  enjoyment  in  following  the  show  circuit  and 
participating  in  its  excitements  and  ininpirationa. 
In  the  show  ring  the  true  stockman  draws  many 
compartsonn  to  hb  own  advantage  and  loams  many 
lemns  from  others  to  help  him  to  still  greater 
acbievementa.  Numerous  conditions  play  essential 
part*  in  socoeMfntly  exhibiting  live-»tock.  Some 
of  the  more  important  of  thu-so  may  be  considered 
in  the  following  paragraphs. 

T%t  tyi»  of  ttaek  In  }ie  tkotrn. 

Each  person  engaged  in  the  exhibiting  of  animals 
tn  public  competition  must  posiiess  a  fair  knowledge 
of  animal  conformatirin.  With'^ut  that,  intelligent 
effort  is  impoNible.  With  this  knowle^lge  one  mumt 
tdan  to  exhibit  animals  of  uniform  type  and  excel- 
HDce.  It  is  rather  generally  recognized  today  that 
onr  domestic  animals.  Mmewhat  irrt-spective  of 
breed,  may  be  grouped  into  ty[»es  of  distinct  char- 
acter. Thus,  we  hare  the  heavy  harness  and  the 
draft  types  of  hone;  the  b«ef  and  dairy  types  of 
cattle :  the  matton  and  wool  types  of  sheep ;  and 
the  bacon  and  lard  types  of  swine.  There  are  aUo 
otber  types.  Even  within  the  breeds  one  will  recog- 
aba  types  deeceoding  from  certain  blood  lines 
HTguntm  or  created  by  noted  breeders.  To  exhibit 
stock  nKceesfully  one  must  select  his  show  animals 
to  conform  to  the  recognized  app^>ve^^  type 
demanded  in  minlern  bigh-claM  competition.  If 
one  exhibits  a  herd,  the  same  type  should  prevail 
■moag  all  the  animals.  This  giv^ts  great  strength 
in  eonpetitioD.  Not  only  type  as  applied  to  form, 


should  be  emphasized,  but  a  careful  conaiduratiim 
of  iiuality  and  color  will  be  very  deairablo. 

Fitting  animah  for  cxkihition.   (Figs.  131-134.1 

Each  great  group  of  animals  requires  special  con- 
sideration in  methcKis  of  fitting  and  preparing  for 
show.  There  are  certuiii  things,  however,  that  have 
a  general  application  to  all  kinds  of  stitck. 

Fecdittg. — A  variety  of  the  biat  of  fofid  is  essen- 
tial. The  standard  grains. — corn,  oats,  barley  and 
wheat, — and  various  by-prodocts,  such  as  bran, 
middlings,  short?,  oil  tneal  or  oil  cake,  and  ground 
flaxseed,  are  much  relished.  Bright  hay  (free  iif 
dust),  green  gra.'*.'?,  rwl-s  f  itage,  cabbage,  rape,  and 
the  like,  are  adapted  to  one  class  of  fltock  or  another. 
Hon*efl  require  the  least  variety,  but  the  food  must 
be  of  a  superior  quality.  \  limited  amount  of  oil 
meal  or  ground  tiaxaeod  is  suitod  to  all  classes  of 
stock  and  imparts  a  lini»h  to  the  coat  of  hnir  and 
skin.  Koots  and  green  stulT  may  be  fed  with  some 
liberality  to  cattle  and  sheep,  and  with  much  more 
discretion  to  horses  and  swine.  Kape  and  cabtmge 
are  especially  suited  to  sheep.  New  milk  is  invalu- 
able in  fitting  young  cattle  up  to  twelve  or  fifteen 
months  of  age,  while  pigs  at  any  ago  will  rapidly 
respond  in  gain  and  quality  on  a  partial  milk  diet. 
In  recent  years,  digester  tankage  and  blood  meal 
have  been  found  to  lie  valuiilile  aids  in  litting  show 
swine.  Salt  should  be  fpd  regularly  to  all  stock. 
Many  stockmen  mix  a  small  amount  of  salt  in  the 
feed.  Tonics  of  various  kinds,  as  eggs,  sugar, 
molasses,  and  the  like,  are  used  under  varying  con- 
ditions and  kinds  of  stotk.  These  may  or  may  not 
bo  used  profitably.  When  forcing  ia  desired,  thew 
unosual  fo<"Mls  are  supplied  in  small  amount  to  in- 
crease the  appetite  and  the  ft^jd  consumption. 

The  mechanical  condition  of  tho  food  is  impor- 
tant. Chuffed  hay  mixed  with  grain  and  dampened 
is  verv  palatable.  Sliced  tooU  or  silage  mixed  with 
this  chaffed  material  ia  very  appetizing  for  cattle 
and  sh«ep. 


154 


FITTING  AND  EXHIBITING  LIVE-STOCK 


Regularity  of  foedtne  ia  tnportant.  Fattening 
anim&U  may  be  finished  oil  more  rapidly  if  the 
feeding  period  is  mure  frequent  than  u^uaL,  aa  for 
example,  four  times  daily  instead  of  twice.  Feed- 
bt)Ke8  and  mangers  should  be  kept  sweet  and  clean, 
and  acfllded  out  at  frequent  intervals.  Ali  food  left 
in  the  roani^^r  should  be  cast  ajside  at  the  next 
feeding  and  only  fre^h  food  pven,  Aniraala  in 
proptr  digestion  should  clean  up  the  manEor  in  good 
ahajw  some  timt)  prcviotia  to  the  next  feeding. 
Watering;  should  be  regular  and  only  clean,  pure 
water  provided. 

Skin  and  AaiV  (rfo/men*.— A  mellow  skin  and  a 
silky,  fine  coat  of  hair  is  very  du^jiruble.  Occasional 
maasafre  of  a  thick  and  tif^ht  hide  of  nn  animal  will 
cause  it  to  become  more  elastic.  Sweet-oil  rubbed 
into  the  akin  will  hell).  l'la.>aeed  meal  in  the  feitd 
will  improve  both  skin  and  hair.  Black  hags  at 
show  time  are  often  cnlnred  with  a  mixture  of 
lampblack  and  oil.  It  is  objoctionnble,  however,  to 
make  this  application  excepting  in  a  very  moder- 
ate way.  Too  deep  a  bla/'k  on  a  Rerkfihire  gives  it 
an  unnatural  coloring.  Grooming  of  horaeg  and 
cattle  should  always  btt  done  with  brush  and  clotft. 
The  skin  should   not  he  scratched.   For  awlne,  a 


»:;<. 


"^■iii;'i'r'['''''i!'""'''"'' 


n 


E5Cs3»u-' 


pic  131.     Dairy  Mfr  In  Bhvw  pou.     KnTe  SprAy  4(h. 
Firsl  priw  ill  el»»s  ■!  Ohio  Sui*  Fiilr.    lloUlein. 

reed  or  rash  brufih  la  moet  excellent.  In  the  later 
stages  of  titling,  horjtes.  cattle  and  swine  may  be 
occasionally  waalied  with  w.itur  of  ordinary  tempera- 
ture, and  the  skin  cleaned  of  dirt  and  dandruff.  It 
is  undesirable,  however,  to  remove  the  natural 
oily  secretion  of  the  skin. 

Cattle  are  shown  in  some  in^tance^  with  a  smooth 
coat  of  hair  (Fig.  l-'!ll.  while  with  other  case* 
it  u  rough  and  long,  as  with  the  Galloway.  An 
animal  with  a  long,  thick,  silky  coat  may  be  shown 
rough  to  great  adv.-int.ige.  In  reci-nt  years,  in  the 
fall  shows,  tht!  huir  of  (^:attle  in  mmv  brei^la  is 
soaped  to  make  it  stick  together,  after  which  a 
comb  is  used  to  give  thu  coat  a  wavy  or  flntod 
appearance  of  a  fancy  character  (Fig.  132). 

The  wool  of  nheep  is  giren  a  fin.-il  trimming  just 
nrior  to  showing.  (Fig.  133.)  The  wool  of  the 
Merino  \e  not  trimmed  with  the  ehearti.  but  that  of 
the  middle  wool  is  blocked  out,  trimming:  tu  ^t^eure 
level  true  lines  on  back  and  side;^  willi  graceful 


curves  about  the  head,  neck,  breast  and  hind  quar- 
ters. It  is  a  general  practice  to  trim  the  fleece  so 
that  it  will  accord   with  an  ideal   mutton   form 


4 


'i\ 


PU- 131'    a  woll-traiBiid  calf  Is  perfect  sbow  poM. 

beneath.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  Seece 
as  close  together  In  its  locks  as  possible,  eepeclatly 
over  the  hack :  and  care  i*  required  in  feeding 
roughage  and  scattering  bedding,  so  as  to  get 
no  foreign  matter  in  the  wool.  Some  men  use  a 
slight   amount  of  yellow  coloring  !a  the   wool, 
but  this  is  undesirable.   A  custom  which  once 
prevailed,  but  which  is  now  rarely  followed  in 
*         Am»«rica.  is  to  apply  a  light  dressing  of  reddish 
or  brownish  oclier  and  oil  to  the  exterior  of  the 
fleece.  This  was  done  to  give  onifomiity  of 
appearance  to  the  wool  of  the  flock  shown. 
Blanketing  of  show  stock  is  coming  into  leiM 
and  les.1  favor.   .\\\  classes  of  stock  intended  for 
show  may  be  blanketed  to  some  advantage  during 
fly  season.  In  general,  however,  most  exhibitors  now 
prefer  a  coat  of  hair  free  from  the  heating  effect 
of  thu  blanket.  Cattle  with  rough,  long  hair  have 
the  real  rugged,  artistic  show  of  coat  injured  by 
blanketing.    .\nimalH  exposed    to  drafts    in   the 
cooler  days  whilu  on  the  circuit,  may  be  blanketed 
as  a  protection  from  colds.  Sheep  are  often  blank- 
eted to  protect  the  fleece  from  foreign  mutter,  to 
compact  the  lotkj",  and  to  keep  pers-jns  from  stick- 
ing their  fingers   into  it.    Blankets  may  be  pur- 
chased ready  made,  or  may  be  made  of  white  duck, 


Ptjc    m.    A  Maatifuny  hlocked  out  fleeee.    HknipahlT*  r»tn. 

bed  ticking,  or  burlap.  The  points  of  tying,  by 
eewed-on  tape  or  t^tring.  are  below  the  neck  and 
about  the  belly  aa  a  surcinglu.    With  sheep  and 


niTING  AND  EXUIBITINO   UVE-STOCK 


155 


cattld,  tiee  are  made  aboat  the  tbighK.  Such  fa»t' 
enings  keep  the  hlankctM  in  pliu;^ 

Hanu  and  hmtfx  Hhould  l>u  shapetl  and  pnlbhad. 
A  half-nmiid  file,  mmleralvly  fuarsi-,  will  rwluce 
Uw  roufih  Burfa»;tf  hone,  while  em«ry  paper  and 
some  fonn  of  poltshinf;  paste  and  oil  will  i-esult  in 
a  fine  polieh.  Horns  not  tuking  on  good  form  may 
be  assisted  in  fihnplng  by  scniping  the  inner  »id(>-, 
making  the  flhell  thinner.  The  hotifA  of  all  cla^txita 
of  stock  muflt  Iw  watnhed  and  kept  trimmod  so 
that  tho  fei-t  will  Bland  lovfl  and  tniti.  Special 
trinmiing  and  »huutn^  uf  horsi^it'  hoofs  nro  required, 
depoodiog  on  action  and  show-ring  purpose.  HiXifa 
of  horses  are  rubljcd  with  sweet-oil  prior  to  show- 
ing, and  a  bit  of  lampblack  added  when  houfh  are 
treated.  Great  care  Khimlil  Im>  taken  tn  keep  ijividud 
hoofs  of  rattle,  sheep  aw]  Hwint?  from  growinp:  too 
long  or  out  [}f  balance  in  parLa.  Thu;  trimming  of 
hoof  reported  to  ahoald  he  very  earulul,  else  lame- 
nefs  will  resolt.  GrailBal  trimming  is  desirable, 
taking  oif  no  great  amonnt  of  hone  at 
a  time. 

i^ahtittif. — Prior  to  going  on  the  cir^ 
cuit,  a  variety  of  ciiHtomiii  prevail  in 
regard  to  tho  stabling.  Show  stock 
should  be  provided  with  box-stalls  in 
the  lat«.T  weeks  of  fitting  preceding 
the  show.  Here,  more  comfort  is  poK- 
sible  for  securing  the  lie«t  resutUi, 
Ample  Itwlding,  preferably  of  straw, 
should  be  given.  Auimuls  in  box-ftliLlls 
should  not  be  dieturlted  when  lyiriL' 
down  within  a  short  time  after  h-r^l- 
tag.  The  after-feeding  rest  is  vnhinble 
ID  securing  gains  with  mp.-it-pnHJncing 
stock.  HurseiK  do  not  comt-  in  this 
consideration.  In  nnmmer,  during  fly 
season,  cuttk*  do  batter  in  a  darkened 
box-atall  during  the  day.  and  in  ft«d- 
lot  or  pasture  at  night,  than  out  fight- 
\Mg  flies  in  the  ttunli^ht.  Hog»  and 
ahcep  should  be  kept  under  limited 
jtMAge  and  pasttiru.  c^Mivenient  to 
shdt^,  and  should  be  kept  up  during 
Uw  beat  of  the  day,  in  cluan,  btidded 
yard-)  or  pens. 

hUrreite  is  mmt  important  with  all  kinds  of  tihow 
stock.  This  may  l>e  secure^l  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Horrea  are  given  a  warmtng-Tip  exercise  for  per> 
bsiM  fifteen  minutes ;  cattle  are  exercised  by 
oainral  inclination,  in  yarls  or  in  xmatl  paxture^; 
while  most  expLTienet-d  exhibitors  of  Kheep  and 
Bvioe  drive  their  sbuw  stock  about  Ibe  yards  or 
drifes  for  a  shnrl  time  eat^h  day,  to  keep  thorn  well 
on  their  foet  and  po  that  they  may  move  gracefully 
and  easily.  Kxercise  also  avMists  in  creating  »  lirm 
tJMh,  which  is  must  eiwuntial  in  Hhi)w  sliH-k. 

Training  is  an  important  preliminary  trejitment 
of  animab  that  are  to  fthow  otf  to  advantage.  A 
well-tnined  animal  will  tttand  at  ^uiet  attention 
while  under  the  inKi*e<;tion  of  the  judge,  or  will 
move  up  in  free,  natural  notion  if  movement  la 
dMrirad.  Young  animals  easily  respond  to  hamiliRg 
ud  Craining.  By  meaiui  of  halter  or  bridle,  lejiding 
b  nadt  easy  and   changce  of   position  readily 


«ccured.  The  feet  should  stand  true,  so  as  to 
present  the  body  in  the  be^t  balanced  position ; 
one  foot  out  of  line  with  its  mate  may  place  the 
bttdy  in  very  poor  form.  By  means  of  a  slight 
touch  of  the  [Mint  of  an  ordinary  carriage  whip  or 
cane,  one  may  train  cattle  and  horifeg  to  move  the 
foot  to  a  desired  point.  Pulling  or  backing  gently 
will  alao  be  quickly  responded  to  by  the  trained 
animal.  Horses,  in  particular,  must  be  shown  in 
action,  even  if  of  the  draft  tjiw,  so  that  sjiecial 
attention   is  absolutely  necessary  in  training  to 


>    I. 


V...^ 


VJ 


t 


Fix.  IH.    Dr*fl  botM  well  ttuwu.    NuU'  rlnir  irupi>hii:i. 

produce  thi*  truest  and  be»t  gait  pocaible.  Coach 
horses  ore  aometimes  shown  under  a  long,  single 
lin«,  where  action  is  brought  out  in  it^  greatest 
beauty,  with  the  body  of  the  attendant  at  some 
distance  U-hind.  Horses,  cattle  and  .iheep,  when 
not  in  motion,  should  always  stand  at  nttention 
while  in  the  judging  ring.  I'nder  such  conditionH, 
the  attendant  should  never  obstruct  the  viow  of 
the  judge.  A  careful  exhibitor  will  never  Icee 
sight  of  this  point.  8winc  being  shown  loose  in 
the  ring,  should  respond  to  gentle  tape  of  cane  or 
«hort  whip,  without  manifesting  irritation,  liight, 
short  hurdle-s  convenient  for  one  jierson  to  handle 
easily  with  one  hand,  are  valuable  in  show  rings  to 
guide  pigs  from  other  groups,  and  prevent  friction. 

Making  entritt. 

All  fairs  and  Hvtvstnck  shows  publish  premium 
lists  in  which  will  be  found  books  of  entry.    Entry 


156 


FITTING  AND  EXHIBITING  LIVB-STOCK 


blaalcs  ara  fumlabed  by  the  SMretariea  on  ftT>pl>ca- 
cation.  Entries  nm»t  be  made  within  a  fixed  date 
at  all  large  ehowa.  In  moat  cases,  entry  fees 
are  required,  but  in  othen,  not.  For  example,  the 
International  Live-tStock  Expo:Hition  chiir^es  no 
entrance  fee,  but  charges  a  stall  fee,  which  is 
much  thd  name  thing.  Fee^  an^  gtinerally  required 
with  the  entry,  thongh  exceptions  are  made.  Entry 
fees  may  range  from  fifty  conta  per  head  on  sheep 
or  swinu,  up  to  two  or  three  dollars  on  horses  or 
cattle.  A  fair  example  of  rulea  of  entrj-  are  the 
following;,  as  applied  in  1907  at  the  Ohio  State 
Fair: 

"  All  entries  of  animals  mudt  apocify  the  owner's 
name  and  the  name,  age>.  :tex,  record  ni]mt)er  (if 
any)  and  description  of  eirery  animal  offered ;  affea 
of  horses  to  date,  fmm  the  first  of  January  of  the 
year  foalud  ;  ages  of  ether  animais  except  cattle 
to  be  coDsldcrud  in  months  and  days  at  date  of 
fair :  agctt  of  cattle  to  date  from  September  I. 
i.  e.,  an  animal  coming  two  years  old  &a  late  as 
SepteinltfT  1  is  entitled  to  show  as  a  yenrlin^.  A 
breeder  is  huld  to  be  the  owner  of  the  female  at 
the  time  of  servieu. 

"  Entriua  must  be  made  in  the  name  of  bona  fide 
owners.  Should  any  be  found  to  be  otherwise 
entered,  they  will  forfeit  to  the  State  Board  of 
Agricaltnre  any  premiums,  awarded  by  the  judges. 

"  .\a  animal  entenrt3  for  exhibition  in  one  cTasa 
canniil  ccim[M!te  fur  a  prttmiuro  in  any  other,  except 
in  aptt-d  claase?  and  under  rule  6 ;  provided,  how- 
ever, that  animals  entered  in  Books  Nos.  I  and  2 
can  bo  entered  in  BoO'k  No.  3. 

"  A  single  animal  may  be  exhibited  as  one  of  a 
pair  or  herd. 

"On  receijit  of  entries  nf  live-stock,  cards  will 
be  made  out  indicating  the  houk:;,  untry  numU:rs 
and  cla.'58e8,  and  will  bu  nsatly  for  delivery  by  the 
superintendents  of  thu  appropriate  departments 
when  exhibitors  arrivu  on  the  grounds,  or  will  be 
Bent  by  mail  when  specially  reciue^ted." 

Tranitporlatha  (Figs.  135-139). 

Animals  exhibit^  at  fihnwd  are  UHually  trnn.s- 
])(»rteil  by  freight  in  b*hx-cars  or  Kpecial  live-stock 
cars.  Kxrepti^m  is  frajuyntly  made  with  honMiS, 
which  aru  flhippi-d  in  li-tpruas  (!ur>!.  Persons  desir- 
ing  to  ship  should  order  cars  a  day  or  so  in 
advance  of  need.  The  interior  of  the  car  may  be 
arrange<l  by  the  shipper  with  improvised  bnx-stalls 
or  pens  to  Auit  bis  convenience.  A  goal  method  i» 
t<i  place  hontes  or  ctittle  in  nnmber,  side  by  side, 
and  fficing  the  Rid«  of  the  car,  with  !i  narrow  ft>wl 
alluy  in  front.  With  load*  uf  catllu  uf  minor  iigi.«, 
the  heavier  bulls  iind  eowa  should  he  at  thy  ends 
of  the  car.  Five  or  six  head,  however,  may  ha 
fastened  to  face  the  center  of  the  car,  with  straw 
beneath  barlnp  or  cloth  for  padding  on  cor  walls 
to  prevent  braising.  The  center  of  the  car  is 
reserve*!  for  »  sk-eping  place,  utensils  and  fwd.  In 
the  coolur  season  it  is  often  desirable  to  Idanket 
cattle  und  homes  in  shipment,  to  iimLect  them  from 
drafta  and  catching  cold.  Sheep  should  always  tx; 
blanketed  to  keep  the  wool  clean.  Baled  hay  and 
straw,  under  ordinary  occasion,  should  be  shipped. 


In  long  shipments,  a  barrel  for  holdlog  watarabouM 

be  taken  along. 

Special  freight  rates  for  animals  for  shows, 
with  free  transportation  for  one  attendant,  have 
been  customary  in  the  pa-it  years  in  the  United 
States.  A  common  freight  concession  has  been  a 
one-fare  frei^'ht  rale  for  the  round  trip  on  cattle, 
sheep  and  swine.  For  example,  if  one  ships  to  the 
state  fair  he  prepays  the  freight,  receivi*  a  bill  of 
lading  for  the  stock,  receiptud.  showing  the  [iuml>er 
and  class  of  animals  shipped,  with  name  uf  attend- 
ant carried  free,  with  certain  other  facts,  such  as 
name  of  shipper,  to  whom  consigned  and  de-stina- 
tion,  nnmber  of  car  and  freight  rate.  Exbibiturs 
may  ship  a  car  of  mixed  stock  or  otht^rwise-,  a^  they 
desire.  Representatives  of  railways  and  express 
cOQipanies,  as  a  rule,  are  found  at  important  shows, 
where  they  solicit  business  and  atti^nd  to  ship* 
ments.  Cars  containing  exhibits  are  in  many  cases 
especially  fixed  up  by  exhibitors  for  their  stock, 
and  are  side-tracked,  subject  to  the  further  use  of 
the  shipper.  In  thiii  way,  the  same  ear  may  be 
used  on  the  show  circuit,  covering  a  long  mileage 
of  several  weeks  duration,  Thu  ukh  of  such  a  car 
is  a  special  convenience  and  saving  of  cost,  ex- 
hibitors wishing  cars  reserved  should  arrange  at 
once,  after  unloading,  with  the  local  railway  agent 
for  reservation  for  their  further  use  after  the  show 
18  over. 

Stalls  and  pern. 

Stalls  and  pens  at  shows  of  importance  are  set 
aside  to  the  exhibitors  before  the  opening  of  the 
ahow;  each  stall  is  numbered  and  grouped.  If 
John  Brown  arrives  with  a  load  of  cattle,  he  is 
at  oncA  assign>iHl  certain  stalls,  by  number,  by  the 
department  superintendent.  In  some  shows  special 
stall  tickets  are  issued  the  exhibitor  for  each  entry. 
As  before  indicated,  prit-es  for  stalls  vary.  At  the 
Chicago  Horse  Show  in  1904,  stalls  were  ten  dollars 
each,  including  straw.  At  the  .'American  Koyal 
Live-Stock  Show  at  K.insa^  <_'ity,  in  1907,  the  fol- 
lowing stall  fees  prevailed:  "  Rule  9.  Stall  fees 
will  lie  thrra*  dullars  [ht  head  for  double  stalls 
accumm<w!ating  two  animals,  and  when  exhibitors 
desire  a  double  Btall  f(ir  one  animal  the  churKf  will 
be  five  dollars.  A  yanlage  chargu  of  twfnty-fivu 
cents  per  head  will  bo  made,  except  on  nurse  cows. 
In  the  swine  department  a  charge  of  two  dollars 
per  iM?rn  will  be  matle  regardless  of  the  nnmber  of 
animals  in  a  pen."  itox-stalls  Are  provided  at  some 
of  thtj  larger  xhowa,  at  about  double  open-Mtjill  rateA. 

Ff^linU  and  Mdtnff. 

Kxhibitions  vary  greatly  in  their  rules  as  tofcvd 
and  bedding.  Bedding  should  be  supplied  free  by 
the  management.  All  feed  must  be  Bupplie<l  hy  the 
owner  of  the  stock,  at  his  expense.  In  most  cases. 
at  large  shows,  feed  dealers  secure  concessions  to 
sell  on  the  grounds ;  usnally  one  porsnn  or  firm 
controls  this  situation.  The  exhibitor  may  bring 
his  feed  with  htm  ur  buy  wherever  he  desires.  In 
some  of  the  great  shows  of  the  country,  the  ex- 
hibitor, by  the  rules,  must  purchase  his  feed  at  the 
show.   This  is  to  prevent  storing  among  the  stalhi 


FnrtNG   AND  EXmSITlNG   LIVE-STOCK 


157 


A  variety  of  litUir  am]  parcels,  thus  obstructini; 
the  passaf^ways  and  views  uf  the  ittock.  (VrtuJn 
concentrated  feeds  are  allowtKl  to  t>u  l>rou(>:ht  in 
whet)  ii  change  woutJ  atlect  the  WL-lfari:  of  thu 
atock.  Rule  49  of  the  International  Live^Stoc^ 
Expoaition  for  1!>07  trwat*  of  this  a«  follows :  "The 
superintendent  of  fornj^e  wit)  haveft^nl  f^trall  live- 
stock at  reasonable  pri<.'t.-s.  To  prevftil  ait^bs  buinK 
obatructwl  with  feed  and  bwldinji,  to  prwservH  th« 
general  harmony,  and  that  stock  may  be  shown  to 
the  best  potuible  advantag>3,  exhibitors  will  nut  bo 
allowed  to  bring  hay,  bedding  or  whole  grain." 

Kthibitor't  cards. 

Each  person  showing  aniiral's  an  single,  double, 
fvn  or  other  entries,  must  secure  from  the  sucrv- 
tary  of  the  association  entry  cards  for  ea<!h  exhibit. 
TheM  cards  or  tags  will  givo  the  class  entry  num- 
ber of  the  exhibit,  a^  ba.sed  on  the  printed  classi- 
fication of  premium  Hint,  also  the  numlfer  of  the 
exhibitor  and  perliapit  other  facts.  The»e  cards 
ntut  be  in  the  liands  of  the  exhibitor  before  his 
stock  is  called  for  in  the  ring.  This  rule  generally 
applies  to  all  shoe's,  down  to  thu  well-managed 
county  fair.  If  a  person  has  two  cows  in  the  Bamo 
claa*.  he  miuit  have  two  proi)erly  tilled-out  entry 
cards  for  each  cow.  These,  th^n,  should  check  up 
with  the  clasg  entr>' on  the  buotui  of  the  clerk  of 
that  particular  exhibit. 

At  tome  of  the  best  show.4  in  the  country,  cata- 
logue! of  the  live-stock  are  printer!,  giving  the 
entry  number  in  pitiminont  typo  as  a  preUx  to  each 
exhibit.  Then  the  attendant  holding  the  stock  in 
ring  waan  on  his  amiH,  or  chest  and  back,  large 
cans  on  which  is  a  very  legible  number  corres- 
ponding to  the  number  of  the  entry  in  the  rata- 
iogne.  Visitors  with  catalogues  may  thus  rea4lily 
aacertdin  the  character  of  the  exhibit  by  the 
deflcription  publiahed.  Catalogues  of  thEt  entries  are 
iniblian«d  by  the  horse  shows  of  importance,  by  the 
iotemationji]  I.ive-.Stock  Exposition,  and  by  the 
Illinois  State  Fair.  The  catalngue  and  cnnl  sy»li.-m 
at  the  annual  shows  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  Kngland.  and  of  thu  Highliind  an*!  Agri- 
cultural Society  Show  of  Scotland,  are  tine  European 
examples  of  this  worthy  method.  With  large  num- 
ben  tacked  against  each  .ttall,  or  worn  by  the 
attendant,  the  owner  of  a  catalogue  is  able  to  riew 
the  sliow  to  material  iidv^ntage.  it  !.<  tu  lie  re- 
gretted that  this  castom  does  not  prevail  at  more 
«f  our  important  .\Dierican  shows. 

Skoit-rUff  ntUs  and  nuihnd*. 

In  showing  stock  in  the  ring,  one  should  present 
bis  animals  under  the  best  conditions  possible. 
Each  ring  is  twually  in  charge  of  a  superintendent 
and  clerk.  One  of  these  officials  sends  noticf;*  to 
ezbibiton  when  to  appear  with  stock  of  the  clasaes 
deaired.  The  usual  premium  list  gives  the  day  fur 
exhibition,  and  the  exhibitor  should  have  his  work 
veil  in  hand  and  Ire  ready  with  hia  stock  on  call. 
The  attendanta  should  be  neatly  dressed.  Some 
sbowR,  nch  «  the  International  Live-Rtock  Rxp^ 
aition.  endeavor  to  require  a  uniform.  Many  tirms 
«f  importance,  who  show  on  an  extensive  scale, 


provide  their  attendants  with  nuat  uniforms. 
Slouchy  attendants,  with  untidy,filthy  dross,  should 
not  Ite  permitte<l  in  the  ring.  Horses  and  cattle 
should  In:  bridled  or  haltere<l  with  first-cla-xs  fur- 
nishing.t  for  show  purposes.  .\ny  advertising 
schemes  about  the  ring  are  in  bad  form  and  should 
not  be  attemiited. 

Each  exhibitor  will  line  his  gtock  in  pO:sttion  as 
space  is  allowed  or  assigned  him.  It  then  becomes 
his  duty  to  place  his  animals  strictly  on  exhibition, 
that  thi:>  judge  may  inspect  at  the  very  best  advant- 
age. This  pha.se  of  the  subject  has  already  been 
somewhat  discussed  in  the  topic  on  training.  A 
correct  bearing  of  the  animni  and  an  attentive 
attendant  aild  greatly  to  success  in  showing. 

In  the  horse  show  certain  rules  prevail  that  are 
not  applied  to  other  stock.  This  may  bo  illustrated 
in  the  following  rule^,  applied  at  the  Chicago  Horse 
Show  in  1904  : 

"All  horsas  must  be  shown  in  the  shoes  in  which 
they  Clime  to  the  show,  and  no  horse's  shoes  may 
be  changed,  except  for  reasons  satisfactory  to  the 
executive  committee,  and  with  Iheir  assent.  The 
use  of  shoes  of  excessive  thickness  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  height  of  a  horso  will  nut  bo 
allowed,  and  a  horse  shod  in  this  manner  will  be 
disqualilied. 

"All  horses  doctored  in  any  way  artificially,  im- 
pn)3>erly,  or  unfairly  prejiared  or  tamjiered  with 
bufure  coming  into  the  show-ring  will  be  dis- 
(jualiliud. 

"No  animal  exhibited  shall  bo  decorated  about 
the  head  with  colors  until  after  the  awards  are 
made  in  respective  classes," 

Whea  cattle  are  shown  in  milk  in  the  ring,  the 
ju^tgea  may  onler  them  milked  out  at  their  discre- 
tion. For  years  the  custom  baa  beim  to  show  dairy 
cows  with  heavily  distended  udders,  from  which 
the  milk  has  not  been  removi?d  for  twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  hours.  The  custom  is  now  coming  into 
force  in  .\merica  to  require  exhibitors  to  milk  the 
cows  dry  the  night  previous  to  showing,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  show-yant  ins])ecting  to  see 
whether  the  rule  ia  obeyed.  This  Is  as  it  should  be. 

Kxhibiturs  of  pun^breJ  stock  will  be  wise  to 
carry  with  them  at  the  show  the  certiticatei)  of 
registry  of  the  animals  shown.  Whili>  demand  for 
such  [taper  is  rarely  made,  competitors  from  time 
to  time  are  respon-sible  for  ademand  for  them.  By 
the  niltw  of  snine  breeding  assnciationa,  pure-bred 
stcK'k  shown  must  lie  registered. 

Non-bretiling  pure-brwl  stock,  by  the  rules  of 
many  aasiociation.s,  is  barred  from  the  ring.  For 
example,  a  certificate  may  also  be  required  showing 
that  a  cow  or  horse  threti  years  old  or  over  had 
produoed  a  living  olfspring  since  Seplomtier  1  of 
the  year  previou.s  to  shnwing,  or  give  aatisfjictory 
evidence  »f  being  in  calf  or  foal.  Even  bulls  may 
tte  dtsi:|ualili(>i3,  fnr  the  Internatiimal  lave-Sttick 
Exposition  provides  a  rule  whereby  any  bull  over 
thirty-six  months  old,  entered  in  any  breeding 
class,  that  has  not  had  dropped  to  his  service  a 
living  calf  during  the  eight  months  preceding  the 
ex|H;sitinn,  shall  be  deemei)  barren  and  be  excluded 
from  competition.    Rulea  of   this  character  often 


158 


SIARKETING    FARM   STOCK 


apply  to  other  claaaes  of  ntock.  and  meet  with  the 
a[ipn>va[  of  stockmen  Kpnerally. 

Thf  cuatnni  of  parading  ami  oxhibitmfr  stock  in 
thii  nnK  is  not  |:^t.>Dural,  but  \b  Komutimus  employed, 
eajMicially  in  the  larger  Eurojiean  shows,  and  in 
those  of  the  Unitod  States  in  which  largo,  covered 

^   T 


'IvismS^ 


""i ,   _x: 


Pli.  13S.    ModriB  Mttle  tax. 

pavilions  make  the  management  independent  of 
the  weather.  The  IllinniK  State  Fair  h;«  a  rule 
to  this  effect:  "All  crtimpHlinij  animali;  shall  ha 
exhibited  and  paraded  in  thu  rin^  at  thu  discretion 
of  the  Huperiiiltindentjt,  and  any  exhibitor  failing 
to  comply  with  this  rule  ^hall  forfeit  any  premium 
awarded  his  stock." 

In  ordL'ir  of  showing,  animals  are  first  presenteid 
in  what  are  known  as  cliisse-H.  Tha  followiriij  are 
exampleH  nf  »tandanl  rlanaeit  : 

Cows  three  years  old  or  over. 
C-0W8  two  yeara  old  and  under  three. 
C-owH  one  year  old  and  under  two. 
Calves  undtT  one  year. 

There  may  he  other  claa-se-s,  an  for  example,  senior 
and  jnnior,  heifers  in  milk  and  not  in  milk,  and  the 
like.  In  additiiin  to  cdiuuius,  henl  prizex, 
yroHps  of  aex,  offsprinK  of  sire  and  dam, 
championship,  Rweepataltta,  and  the  like,  are 
otfcrod. 

Awards  are  usaally  made  by  the  one  judge 
system.  ITsuatly  only  the  prise  apimals  are 
placed,  but  occasionally  the  judge  is  re- 
quiivd  to  plai'e  in  retativp  onUT  of  merit 
each  animal  in  claaa.  Prizea  range  from  two 
to  five  or  oven  iiiori-. 

Awards  are  usually  indicated  by  colored 
ribbons  or  rosettes,  and  the  standard  rela- 
tionship of  color  to  awnrd  is  as  follows : 
Blue,  first  prixe;  red.  second;  white,  thiH;  yellow, 
fourth;  and  green,  fifth.  Royal  purple  applies  to 
championship  or  sweepsbikes.  The  ribliona  are 
handed  the  attendant  either  by  the  judge  or  bis 
clerk,  and  note  of  the  award  made  on  the  clerk'ti 
entry  hook.  Att^r  the  award*,  custom  permits  the 
withdrawal  of  the  animala  from  the  ring. 

Premiums  are  usually  in  cash,  although  medals, 
CDpB,ribhon8.certificit«j<.  and  the  like,  are  awanled. 
Premiums  at  many  shows  an*  paid  before  the 
exhibitor  ships  bis  stock  away.  Payment  ia  made 
by  bank  check,  payable  un  presentation  to  tJie 


office  of  the  treasurer  of  the  association.  Pre- 
minms  not  paid  during  the  show  will  be  paid  by 
chocks  sent  through  the  mail. 

Thia  subject  is  one  invidving  many  details  in 
the  way  of  experitincK  on  the  part  of  the  stockman, 
but  the  space  available  here  will  not  permit  a  more 
extended  considenition. 

Literaiure^ 

Clark.  W.  J.,  Fitting  Sheep  For  Show  Ring 
and  Market,  Chicago  (1900). 


MARKF.TING    FARM  STOCK 

By  a  S.  Plumb 

The  marketing  of  farm  stock  may  be  con- 
ducted in  tieveral  wa)'s,  but  it  is  t^uite  de- 
pendent on  the  clasa  of  animaln  to  be  dis- 
poned of.    The  olrl-faahioni'd  niHthod  wa>i  to 
drive  acrosa  country  to  markL-t.   The  drivw, 
in  some  cases,  covered  many  hundred  miles, 
as  the  famous  overland  ones  from  (Ihio  to 
Baltimore,  or  from  the  far  Southwest  to  St.  l^juia 
or  Chicago.   The  miKtern  methixl  is  tninsportation 
by  rail  or  liy  bont.    In  a  liniital  way,  animals  are 
given  short  hauls  to  market  in  wagons,  sent  in 
crates  by  express,   shifijiipd    in    express    cars,  or 
driven  overland  to  nearby  local  markets. 

Great  variation  exists  in  the  importance  of  the 
live-stock  markets,  ranging  from  the  small  local 
one  where  a  few  animals  are  handled,  to  that  nf 
Chicago,  the  largest  in  the  world.  The  nine  lead- 
ing marketa  in  the  Uniteil  Statee  are  those  of 
Cbieagi],  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  St.  Lou  is,  St.  Joseph, 
Sioux  City,  St.  Paul,  Indianapiolis  and  Fort  Worth, 
Texas.  In  190.5,  the  Chicago  stock-yards  received 
3,410,-IG9  cattle.  ;iS0.83o  calves,  8.3I9.7aO  hogs. 
4,738,558  sheep  and  127,2.50  horses.  Nearly  3a*l,000 
cars  hauled  live-atock  during  that  year  into  Chicago. 


Wit-  13C-    Modem  bone  ear. 

The  shipment  of  live-.stnck  to  market  involves 
providing  for  trunaportation.  for  foor],  water  and 
care  en  route,  and  for  di.<*p«wing  of  the  slock  when 
at  the  tenninus  of  the  journey. 

TrangpartatUm.   (Figa.  13.5-139.) 

A  very  large  percontflge  of  stock  sold  is  shipped 
by  freight,  Koracs  or  cattle  may  be  shipped  in  plain 
Imx-cars,  or  in  special  stock-cars  (Pigs.  I35-i:i7). 
The  box-car,  with  entrance  at  the  sides,  is  usually 
thirly-four  to  thirty-six  feet  long,  and  accommo- 
dates sixteen  to  thirty  head  of  roatored  animals 


MARKETING   FARM   STOCK 


159 


standing  clooely  together,  facing- tho  sid«  of  the  car. 
For  short  BhipmctiUi.  common  can  will  answi-r.  Far 
extenikd  BhipraenU.  either  reRuiation  stock-cara 
are  osed,  with  fL'ed-racks  and  wat*r-troiif;h»,  or 
eo-called  palace  etock-cars  are  employed  iFif;.  1SS>. 
Tbew  contain  specially  ftlti>d  kUIIk.  with  fi.HKl-racks 
and  other  convenienceit,  and  Hre  used  f^ir  hnrims 
mure  than  anytbinjc  else.  There  are  iilat  car»  and 
op«n  can*,  tb«  formvr  Iwing  umm)  for  cattle  more 
than  for  horses.  Sheep  and  swine  are  shi;i;)ed  in 
box-cars  or  slat  cars,  and  when  a  full  capacity 
shipment  b  made  the  car  has  a  second  floor 
placed  therein,  about  three  and  one-half  feet 
above  the  first  fliior.  Pnch  a  car  i.s  known  aa 
a  "double-decker."  An  ordinary  car  with  but 
one  floor  carries  70  to  90  hogs  and  125  shee^. 
while  a  doabte-dcrker  will  hold  l')0  to  loO 
boci  and  200  to  'J^U  ahcep  or  even  more. 
HoTMS  and  cattle  are  packed  in  cars  so  as  to 
stand  close  together  and  not  Rot  on  one  an- 
othpr.  Sheep  and  hogs  occnpy  the  car  with 
more  comfort  and  are  aide  to  lie  down. 

.\  shipment  by  freight  re(]uireit  making  a  pre- 
liminary request  for  a  car  of  the  ag^nt  of  the 
railroad  In  some  instances  this  may  bo  secured 
readily,  in  other  casett  it  may  have  to  be  brought 
from  some  other  town  on  the  raifway,  e-spccially  if 
Ibe  shipment  is  to  be  made  from  a  small  l<^al 
shipping  point.  In  a  large  city,  cars  are  uitaally  t'> 
be  bad  on  a  few  hours'  notice.  The  interior  of  the 
car  may  be  arranged  to  suit  the  convenience  of 
the  shipper,  and  temporary  stalle or  partitions  may 
be  erected  as  desired. 


lies  tho  .names  of  the  shipper  and  consignee,  the 
place  to  which  the  shipment  is  made,  tho  number 
and  description  of  stock,  the  weight,  and  the  coat 
of  tninBpiirtation.  If  hy  freight,  the  car  number 
and  initibiln  are  H(K»Mried.  Kxprestt  dhipmentA  are 
uHunlly  crated,  but  all  of  thu  uspress  compantea 
own  special  live-etoek-cars,  with  stall  accummo- 
dations.  These  are  used  almost  exclusively  for 
transporting  horses,  and  make  up  a  part  of  pas- 
serger  train  service.  When  stock  is  shipped  un- 
crated  in  the  car,  it  is  cDBUimary  to  aJlow  one 


'■^\ 


All  ehipments    hy  freight    or  exprew  must  be 

through  the  local  agent,  and  a  nigned  bill  of 

lading  or  contract,  tilled  out  between  the  shipper 

and  tmosportation  company.   This  contract  spt-ci- 


"iipl^ 


■fll» 


llWi 


^rff 


i  E|?l-' 


Pl(.  136.     A  PAlBCe  bOtW  CAT. 

attenda:nt  a  free  pa»sa;;e  along  with  the  animals. 
Even  more  than  ihis  i»  allowed  with  a  load  of 
horses  sent  by  express.  Tho  bill  of  lading  or  con- 
tract is  made  out  in  duplicate  or  triplicate,  one 
copy  of  which  is  given  the  shipper.  He  may  n«e 
this  B3  a  passport  along  with  the  stock,  and  it  may 
also  serve  aa  a  receipt  for  the  prepayment  of  freight. 
In  the  case  of  a  fihipment  by  rail  some  dlitance,  to 
a  buver  or  commission  firm,  the  shipper  may  send 
this  \)ill  of  lading  hy  mail  to  the  consignee  If  the 
stock  is  sent  in  care  of  the  railway.  Shipments  of 
slock  by  freight  or  express  may  be  prepaid  or  not, 
as  coniJitioni?  seem  to  make  desirable.  Persons  sell- 
ing stock  on  the  open  market  usually  prepay  freight, 
whik'  buyers  of  breeding  stock  meet  transportation 
chargcB. 

Care  en  routt. 

All  stock  mnst  be  properly  fed  and  watered  while 
en  route.  On  short-distance  hauls,  as,  for  example, 
fifty  miles,  this  will  not  be  necessarv'.  A  shipment 
of  a  carload  of  stock  from  Kansiw  to  Chicago  would 
require  feed  and  water.  (Jood.  sweet  hay  is  given 
horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  while  pigs  are  ueually  fed 
ear-corn.  Ordinary  stock-cars  contain  troughs 
which  hold  water,  and  at  a  certain  point  along  the 
way  water  is  supplied  in  a  moderate  quantity,  la 
ca»e  of  small  phipmenta  of  several  animals  in  a  car, 
a  harrei  for  water  mav  be  taken  along  which  will 
supply  the  needs  of  tlie  stock.  Water  and  grain 
should  be  given  only  in  limited  amounts.  A  carload 
of  steers  in  a  400-mile  nin  should  be  provided  with 
about  250  pouoda  of  hay  and  a  bushel  and  a  half  of 
cum  each.  Stock  that  is  shipped  by  crate  may  ba 
fed  grain  in  a  small  trough  buitt  in  the  end  of  the 
crati%  while  hay  may  be  placed  dir^^tly  in  front, 
within  the  crate,  on  the  floor.  Hay  and'  grain  for 
long  trip.^  may  be  tied  in  sacks  on  the  top  of  the 
crate,  and  expre-w  ajjetits  will  feed  it  as  required. 
Some  shippers  attach  feeding  directions  for  agents 
to  the  top  of  the  crate.  Feeding  instructions  may 
be  made  a  part  of  the  shipping  card,  being  placed 
beneath  the  shipper's  address. 


160 


MARKETING    FARM   STOCK 


The  itock-yardt. 

The  ittock -yards  to  which  moftt  of  the  farm  ani- 
mals of  the  coantry  ar<v  shippi^il  vary  greatly  in 
capacity,  bat  the  [jrinciple  of  arrati;;eriiL-nt  is  t^n- 
erally  the  Bame.  This  includss  a  long  platform  for 
loading  or  unloading  chutes  connecting  with  pena 
(Fig.  140),  and  alleyB  or  drives  between  groups  of 


FiK.  134.  FlIUsKS  ol  Ok^jui  uaaspoit  tot  ciirflnK  c«t[le  oi 
ttOTMfi.  <Ailiip(fi]  (roia  Bureau  of  Ajmnal  [[idu^try  Re- 
pott.  IMW  1 

pens  (Fijf.  141).  By  means  of  gates  at  various 
points  in  the  alloys,  and  at  their  intersection,  one 
may  contrail  conditions  and  drive  stock  in  any 
direction  desinti,  to  an  outlet.  All  pens  should  lie 
supplied  with  feeii-boxes  and  water-troughs,  and  in 
the  larger  j-ards  pena  are  covered  Ut  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  yards  of  Pittsburg  are  almoMt  entirely 
under  roof,  white  the  hog-  and  aheep-pens  of  the 
Chicago  yard."*  are  also  under  cover.  In  the  large 
yards,  each  ctasa  n(  i^toctc,  such  as  cattle  or  hogn. 
IS  kept  in  groups  nf  pens  by  itself. 

A  lire-Htnck  exchange  is  aninst  important  feature 
of  all  large  stock-yardn.  This  organization  has  for 
its  membership  the  comniifwion  men  of  the  market, 
or  the  buyers  and  sellers  in  the  yards.  The  pur- 
pose of  surh  an  exchange  is  to  promote  uniform 
and  fair  methods  of  trade,  provide  for  adjustment 
of  bustiness  disputes,  to  facilitate  the  receiving  and 
shipping  of  st')ck,  and  to  promote  inapection  and 
guard  against  the  selling  of  unstiund  or  unhealthy 
meats.  The  yards  are  u^tually  owned  by  an  entirely 
different  organisation  from  thone  making  up  the 
exchange,  usually  known  an  a  stoek-yartis 
company.  The  exchange  has  a  board  of 
officers  and  directom.  and  these  work  in  co- 
operation with  gnvcmment  inspectors  or 
agricultural  officials  in  promoting  the  inter- 
eetA  of  the  yarda. 

The  rules  of  the  stock-yards  in  different 
sections  of  the  country  vary  only  in  degree. 
Tht  Btock-yards  company  cares  for  the  stock 
from  its  arrival  in  the  yard.-*  until  it  is  aoH. 
Water  is  free,  but  all  feed  is  charged  for  on 
a  liberal  baj'is.  Hay  costs  $1  to  $1.50  per 
cwt.,  according  to  locality,  and  com  and  oats 
usually  ahnnt  $1  per  bu.^hel.  While  it  is  as- 
sumed that  no  charge  is  made  for  the  uiw  of 
the  yards,  there  i^  a  charge  for  weighing, 
which  is  termed  "yardage."  The  yardage 
charge  may  be  fifteen  to  twenty-five  cents 
each  for  cattle  and  five  to  ten  c«Dt8  each  for 


sraaMer  Bt(»ck,  according  to  the  pST"or  the  coun- 
try.  Western  charges  are  less  than  those  Eaat. 

Sellinff. 

Nearly  all  of  the  stock  in  the  yards  is  sold  on 
commiBsiun.  The  rates  of  commission  arc  formu- 
lated by  the  UvtvstiK^k  exchange,  and  all  buyers 
and  selleni  doing  buKine»t  in  the  yards  as  commis- 
sion men  are  bound  to  charge  aceonling  to  ex- 
change rules.  Some  of  the  charges  may  be  expressed 
ae  follows,  as  applied  to  leading  etock-yards :  For 
each  head  of  cattle  sold,  ."iO  cents  per  head  up  to 
$12  per  car]f>ad  ;  1^6  (ler  load  for  single-dock  care 
orSIO  tiiT  doiible-deckera.  Twenty-five  cents  per 
head  U  charged  for  calves,  and  15  centa  each  fur 
ho(;3  and  sheep,  in  mixed  loaila  or  for  less  Lhnn 
carload  lots. 

The  selling  of  stock,  as  before  noted,  is  mainly 
delegated  to  ciimmission  men.  The  shipper  may 
arrange  to  send  his  stock  directly  to  a  commission 
firm  and  leave  the  disposal  of  it  entirely  in  their 
handti.  This  is  u  wLw  method,  because  the  commis- 
sion men  are  well  p<i«ted  on  the  trade  conditions 
and  know  where  tu  find  buyers  better  than  the  man 
who  is  not  a  regular  deafer  on  thf  market.  Each 
rjay  buyers  and  sellers  go  about  among  the  pens 
and  Imy  and  sell,  All  transactions  are  for  cash. 
When  the  stwk  is  sold  it  is  usually  at  once  driver 
to  the  scales  and  weighed.  A  weighmiVter,  em- 
ployed by  the  yards,  weighs  the  .itock  and  mahea 
out  tickets  in  duplicate  for  buyen?  and  seHers,  ati 
well  as  an  entry  in  a  record  book,  which  in  the  actual 
weight  basis  for  all  sottlements.  If  the  sale  is 
made  by  an  agent,  he  may  send  the  purchaser  a 
bill  which  will  contain  the  wale  weights,  the  price 
per  pouad  and  the  total  sum.  The  buyer  may  en- 
dome  this  and  return  with  it  a  check,  or  may  write 
a  bank  order  on  the  back  of  the  bill,  covering  the 
amount.  In  settling  with  the  per»ion  who  consigns 
the  Ktihck,  the  ngent  furnishes  a  full  stut^-ment. 
and  may  include  a  copy  of  the  weighmaster's 
record-  This  statement  includes  the  total  proceeds 
of  the  sale  less  the  freight,  yardage,  commiasion, 
and  the  like.  Commission  men  s^  a  rule  are  honor- 
able, and  it  is  in  their  interests  to  make  good 
returns  to  persons  consigning  stock  to  them,  thus 


Pll- 140.    A  iMdlBjt  ftr  uDlMdlDc  ihnte  II  Btaek-jtatM. 


MARKETING  FARM  STOCK 


161 


promotinfT  future  biwinew.  Any  other  policy  would 
be  deetnctire  to  a  firm's  busincsa. 

Market  groitet. 

All  live-stock  sold  is  divi<led  into  different  classes 
ud  gnd^.  This  claiisilication  is  mi>8t  complete  in 
Chicago,  bat  it  mastoccar  to  acertain  extent  even 
in  theflmallercontitn*  ictcality.  Market  quotations 
are  now  sent  all  over  the  country  from  prominent 
maricet  centera,  and  prices  everywhero  arc*  rosrii- 
lated  by  these 

?Qotation».  Dif* 
nreat  claiisefl 
occur  with 
honHS,  cattle, 
alieep  and 
s  w  i  ne.  and 
within  thecliuut 
is  a  raapce  of 
gtaia.  With 
cattle  for  ex- 
ample,—in  Chi- 
cago there  are 
claftsea  of  (1) 
bwf  cattle,  (2) 
butcher  stock. 
(3)  cuttera  and 
canners,  (4) 
atockers  and 
feeders  and  (5) 
veal  calrea. 
There  are  al» 
•one  other  spe- 
cial claaieB.  aa 
Texas  and  west- 
ern raoge  cat- 
tle,    disttllerH, 


culture,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  and  tho  Chi>t;f  of  the  Bureau,  super- 
viaes  iiwpoction  work  all  over  the  country.  A  large 
number  of  trained  vetennarian?  inspect  stock  on 
the  hoof  and  in  the  slaughter  house,  as  a  protection 
to  home  consumers  of  meats,  and  as  a  guarantee 
of  the  health  of  the  meats  exported.  In  IWo, 
there  were  nearly  6(),000,(H)0  head  of  live  atiimak 
inspected  by  the  government,  with  over  40,000,000 
in><]vctiHl  after  slaaffhter.    According  to  Secretary 


J?Z^i""  J  -^ 


\^ 


-.i^ 


'f^. 


Stock-ranls.  Fun  Worth.  t»m,  stutwine  imBCfimuii  oi  pnu  and  aller^. 


baby  beef,  export,  tdiipping,  and  dre^st^l  beef  steent 
sad  stags.  Each  class  is  graded  ai;conting  to  its 
<|Qaiity  and  a  price  with  somu  variation  pluc^id  oa 
each  grade.  These  gra<Ji^  rank  as  prime,  chujice, 
good,  medium,  common  and  inferior.  A  prime  beef 
8t«*r  may  bring  seven  cents  a  pound,  and  an  infe- 
rior one  three  and  a  half  cent,i.  The  intelligent 
bnyer,  whether  a  butcher  or  shipper,  mu»tt  pay  for 
his  stock  on  lome  snch  basis  of  market  (Luot.itions. 
Sbeep  and  bogs  are  claa^ifieil  and  gr;vJi'ii,  tbuugh 
not  to  so  great  a  degree  as  cattle,  while  hurst-s  are 
classified  according  to  purpose  and  graded  largely 
on  size,  quality,  and  -•inundnes.s.  A»  a  general 
proposititm,  the  better  clas.-MJS  and  grades  return 
the  best  reitalta  to  the  protlncers.  HighH-.1aa<  »tock 
■«rvw  u  a  valuable  advurttitinif  medium  and  pT<f 
notes  a  deRiand  from  buyers.  Th«re  are  feuders  of 
iBWt  stock  in  the  coantry.  who  will  handt«  nothing 
bttt  a  choice  grade,  and  who  a1w.-iy3  have  n  demand 
for  their  stocK  at  outside  fignres  some  time  before 
it  is  finished  off  and  reJidy  for  shipment. 

/a«pre^n. 

The  inspection  of  lire-stock,  through  national, 
•late  or  mnnicipal  officials,  is  practiced  generally 
today  tn  the  United  States  in  the  larger  yards  and 
in  iater-etato  commerce.  The  Ilureau  of  Animal 
Indostry  of  the  United  States  r>epartinent  of  Agri- 

Cll 


of  AgrieultTire  Wilson,  "there  v-ere  tagged  with 
the  label  of  Inspection  in  the  year  1905,  nearly 
22.000.000  carirasses  of  beef,  nearly  8,000,000 
carcasses  of  mutton,  845.000  carcasses  of  veal, 
1,000,000  carcasses  and  800.000  sacks  of  pork. 
MeatinspeclinnstiimpH  Indicating  the  regular  post- 
mortem in.'fpec'tion  were  affixed  to  7,000,000  pack- 
ages of  Iwef  in  U»0."(,  and  to  more  than  15,000,000 
packages  of  pork." 

The  e.\port  or  import  trade  requires  inspection 
of  all  ve».-^f>ls  anil  animals  passing  between  the 
United  Status  and  a  foreign  country.  All  pure-bred 
meat  stock  brought  to  our  shores  must  be  placed  in 
government  quarantine  ;  cattle,  three  months,  and 
sheep  and  swine  two  weeks,  norsps  are  exempt 
fnim  ([Unrantine  if  pa^i^ing  a  veterinary  inxjiectiitil 
un  liuiding.  All  vessels  in  the  live-«tock-carrying 
trada  must  convey  stock  under  national  and  inter- 
national regulations,  including  construction  of 
stabling,  attendance,  care  and  sanitation. 

AH  pure-bred  breeding  stock  may  Iw  brought  to 
the  TTnited  States  duty  free,  hut  it  is  rH^aift^d  that 
importttra  fill  out  certain  forms  supplied  by  the 
government  regarding  the  proposed  importation. 
It  is  also  nL'ceasary  to  furnish  detailed  infunnatiun 
to  the  United  States  Consul  at  thu  point  of  emliarka> 
tiOQ,  and  to  submit  certificates  of  purity  of  breed- 
ing of  the  animals  to  be  imported ;  these  certificates 


162 


MARKETING  FARM  STOCK 


lieing  Becnred  from  the  gecrelary  of  the  rcK'^try 
association  engaged  in  promuting  the  breed  to  be 
importeci.  (Vrtificates  of  health  are  abio  requirwl, 
bearing  on  the  animals  in  iiueKlion  and  the  district 
from  which  they  have  been  secured. 

Quarantine. 

In  inter-atate  commerce,  qoarantine  rcgnlationa 
and  health  certiRcates  are  atso  important.  If  a 
contagious  disease  occurs  in  one  section,  other 
BtAles  may  qoarantine  againnt  the  ntate  or  states 
affected.  TDbercnbiHiH  tH  nuw  retj^anlu)  aa  a  ciinUi- 
gioua  disease,  and  caLlle  fur  stock  [>ur;iiaHes  curiiaot 
bo  shipped  into  Maaaachost^tts,  Funnaylvania,  Wia- 
oonsin  and  some  olhL-r  states,  tinW s  they  are  accom- 
panied by  a  veterinary  certificate  indicating  thcil 
they  are  free  frnm  toburciitiwiH,  biwed  on  the  tuber- 
culin te-it.  The  freedom  at  traile  lietwei^n  states  in 
breeding  t^tw^h  is  thus  mure  or  less  restricted,  and 
the  wL<«](>m  of  the  pulicy  ts  nnt  open  to  wiri^uH 
question.  Tlie  all-important  subjt-ct  of  thu  health 
uf  our  live-»tuL'k  is  receiving  &  constantly  Increas- 
inii  attention  from  the  seller,  the  buyer,  and  the 
consuming  public.  It  is  no  longer  posaible  to  ship 
horses  with  glanders,  cattle  with  tuWcnlostH, 
sh<:^ep  with  scHbtes,  <>r  hogs  with  cholera,  fn)m  one 
secttcm  of  the  cnirtry  tn  another,  without  serious 
elFiirt  bctinx  mode  U)  discover  and  prevent  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  contagion. 

Whrn  to  market. 

The  time  for  the  marketing  of  livo-stock  depends 
on  a  variety  of  cnnditions ;  the  class,  nge.  condi- 
tion and  demand  are  all  important  fiu'tors.  11  may 
be  given  us  a  sjife  propoditicin  to  null  when  u  wm- 
aonablo  martin  of  profit  is  (fuoranteed.  In  the  case 
of  meal  animals,  the  wise^tt  feeder  in  thi:'  long  run 
18  the  man  who  sell:!  when  his  stock  is  finished  and 
18  ready  for  the  biw-k.  It  is  not  a  safe  pidicy  to 
continue  feeding  in  anticipation  of  a  riHe  in  vnlues, 
when  the  stock  to  Imj  hoUI  is  alntaily  over-fwl  or  U 
too  heavy  in  weight.  Neither  is  it  a  commendable 
methfxl  to  hold  on  to  feeders  ready  for  the  block 
simply  because  they  were  bought  at  too  high  a 
figure.  The  pn'sent  day  market  demands  a  com- 
pact, early  finished,  nt)t  nver-fat  class  of  butcher's 
ttea^t.  A  l,2(K>-tn  1,400-ponnd  steer  is  preferred 
to  one  of  I,7(K)  pounds,  and  commands  a  better 
price.  In  1905.  the  average  weight  of  the  cattle 
received  in  Chicago  market  was  1,019  pounds,  of 
hogs  222  jvounds  and  of  sheep  KJ  pounds.  There  is 
more  waste  in  the  larger,  old-fashioned  sort;  and 
the  producer  must  meet  the  more  modern  ilemand 
if  he  desirci)  Ut  se<Mire  the  Itenelit  of  the  be,st 
values. 

A  correct  interpretation  of  values  can  be  secured 
only  by  careful  study  of  the  atock  in  the  markets, 
and  from  neqnaintaneo  with  the  classes  and  grades, 
and  market  <iuotations.  The  lessons  of  the  horse 
market.^  and  the  .sUK-k-yards  are  invalniible  to  one 
engage<l  in  pnvlucing  or  feeding  for  the  trade. 
The  firat  leaaons  may  be  c^jstly.  but  with  careful 
obfiervation  and  oxperience  one  iiecomea  familiar 
with  the  methods  which  must  be  grasped  and  under- 
stood, if  ho  is  to  buy  or  sell  intelligently.  This  is 


not  intended  to  apply  alone  to  the  Uirger  producing 
typo  of  stockmen,  but  also  to  the  man  who  fLH.-ds  a 
limited  number  of  animals.  The  difference  in  the 
value  of  two  horses  or  of  a  carload  of  cattle  or 
hogs  is  uft«n  far  greater  than  the  average  man 
realises.  A  carload  of  twenty  cattle  weighing 
20,000  pounds  at  &ve  centA  a  pound  amount.1  to 
$1,000.  A  BimJiur  load  at  four  cents  a  pound  brings 
lint  $800.  The  ditferu nee  here  may  be  due  toquality 
and  conformation,  or  it  may  be  due  to  other  factors. 
If  the  sf'ller  knows  his  stock  and  the  market«t,  he 
will  understand  clenrlv  the  reason  fur  this  variatiiHi 
of  $200  in  thi!  two  loads. 

A  knowledge  of  market  quotations  is  equally  im* 
portanl  with  the  dealer  in  live-atock.  Valued 
tluctoato  from  day  to  day  and  it  is  always  d««[rable 
to  buy  when  prices  range  downward,  and  sell  when 
figures  are  tending  strong.  The  daily  papers  of 
importance  give  ([UotaUons  on  the  important  mar- 
kets EilH  and  West,  the  agricultural  journals 
furnish  the  etcwntrals  from  week  to  week,  while  in 
a  few  markets,  daily  drovers'  joumala  give  a  large 
amount  of  the  details  of  the  sales,  showing  cIiitiHes, 
grades,  weights  and  sales.  In  some  yards  commis- 
sion houses  send  customers  once  a  week  a  printed 
market  sheet,  made  by  the  firm,  showing  range  in 
values  of  certain  claases  and  grades,  with  comments 
on  the  trade  of  the  week.  8uch  sheets  are  free,  and 
are  widely  distributed  in  shipping  territory*.  ()<xm- 
ional  visits  to  the  markets  and  familiarity  with 
quotations  should  promote  intelligent  buying  and 
selling. 

Persona  shipping  stock  to  the  great  markets, 
should  study  the  situation  and  ascertain  what  days 
furnish  the  best  murket  for  trade.  For  some  time 
the  dealers  in  the  Chicago  yards  have  tried  to 
perauado  shijipera  to  send  in  their  stock  for  four 
market  days  a  week,  rather  than  six.  Saturday 
is  a  bad  day  for  stock  to  come  in  as  the  business 
of  the  week  i»  being  cle.'ired  up  and  trade  is  .slack. 
Stock  landed  in  the  yanls  Saturday  may  be  held 
over  untii  Monday,  at  a  possiltle  loss  from  cure  and 
shrinkage.  If  one  will  study  the  receipts  for  each 
day  of  the  week  in  the  large  yards,  hv  will  find 
that  it  is  fur  better  to  ship  so  as  to  reach  the 
yards  on  a  day  not  marked  for  large  receipts  and, 
perha[is,  showing  a  glut.  If  shipment  is  made 
through  a  cninniiMHion  firm,  then  this  will  advise 
an  to  the  best  time  for  shipmont  and  delivery.  It 
is  a  wise  policy,  also,  to  ship  only  finished  stock, 
and  not  to  rush  Uy  the  markets  half-fed  stock  when 
there  seems  to  be  d  mania  for  shipping  to  the 
yanls.  .\  fall  in  prices  always  ounes  at  such  a 
time,  later  to  het  followed  by  a  stiffening  of  quota- 
tions. One  cannot  lie  too  well  advised  as  to  receipts 
and  quotatt'>ns.  if  shipments  to  the  larger  live- 
stock markela  are  contemplated. 

Literature. 

I  C.  S.  Plumb,  Marketing  Livfy.Sluck,  F-irmera' 
I  Bulletin  Ko.  184,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture;  Chicago  Deily  Drovenj*  Journal ; 
Breeders'  Gazette  ;  Annnal  Report  Bureau  of  .\ni- 
I  msl  tndoBtry,  United  8tate«  Department  of  Agri- 
enltupB. 


CHAPTER  VII 


WILD   LIFE   AM)    ITS    RKLATION   TO    FARMING 


% 


r 


/: 


f/ 


'; 


Ill-  {)^>'}ssum 


jK-rfect  uDi 


KE  FARM  IS  Ol'T  OF  DOORS.  It  has  rtlations  with  ewD-thiag  out  of 
doors, — with  the  wiM  animals  as  w«ll  ii»  tim  rest.  This  general  retation- 
i^hip  has  been  little  ajipreciated  in  a  conHciuUA  way,  and  the  renult  in  that 
tliK  farming  InKinaiH  has  nut  ^vX  iM-cn  t-loHuly  adapted  to  ita  environment. 
The  great  biolrtgicul  fact  -  as  une  luarna  when  he  studiua  plants  and  animals 
-  IB  that  {>rgani«m8  aru  a<la]>li!d  to  their  conditions,  else  they  do  not  thrive 
to  their  utiaoi^t,  or,  if  adaption  \a  whully  lacking,  they  die.  The  best 
farming  Is  not  that  n-hich  followa  an  ideal  schematic  system  ad  laid  duwn 
liy  tf^achcrs  and  b«u)lcH,  but  that  which  beHt  Tits  the  particular  environment, 
OS  a  [ilaot  »r  an  animal  fits  its  environment. 

If  all  this  is  true,  then  it  follows  that,  other  things  lieing  equal,  tho 
beat  naturalist  makes  the  beat  farmtir,— if,  by  naturalist,  wo  mean  ono  who 
has  knowk^dge  of  the  nature  about  him  and  is  in  sympathy  with  it.  There- 
fore, every  agency  or  influence  that  brings  the  farmer  ialu  closer  touch 
with  the  nature  of  which  he  is  a  part  is  a  distinct  gain  in  e^'tablinhing 
his  point  of  view  and  directing  hia  energies.  Tlie  wild  mammals  and  birds 
cotitributti  directly  to  hinder  or  help  hia  farming:  but  the  larger  signif- 
icance of  his  stody  of  them  ia  that  it  brings  him  one  point  nearer  to  the 
ling  and  accord  that  in  the  end  will  make  the  perfect  farmer. 


WILD    MAMMAI-S    IS    THKIR    RKIJ^TIONS 
WITH    AGRICULTL'RE 

By  Gartnee  M.  Wted 

The  mammals  form  a  very  distinctive  group  of 
warm-bloodfd  animaU,  the  wild  morabi'rs  of  which 
*re  of  much  irapttrtance  to  American  auriculture. 
No  eatisfactory  common  name  other  than  the  word 
"mammals"  ha^  been  found  for  them,  although 
many  persons  seem  to  think  that  the  word  "ani- 
nals  "  ia  a  Kynonym.  Tbey  are  also  often  spoken  of 
aa  qnadrape^ls. 

Pouched  autmmalt. 

The  maraapials  or  pouched  mammals,  th«  loweat 
oH'^r.  pThihit  only  one  ffiwries  north  of  Meirico, 
—  the  opoMum  of  the  middle  and  couthem  states. 
Technically  this  ia  Didflfthl*  Virginiana,  with  a 
Buwd  rariely  ia  Florida  and  another  in  Teitai;. 
Thii  famouB  omnivorous  creaturo  la  of  xll^'ht  impifr- 
taaoe  a^Iculttirally,  although  it  feeds  to  a  con- 
riderable  extent  on  in.sect<i  and  the  smaller  mammaU; 
maeh  of  its  food  '\»  deafi.  however,  before  the 
opawcm  finds  it.  Among  the  negrous  the  opossum 
iB  a  favorite  article  of  diet. 

/fw/of  mammal*. 

Abrire  the  marsnpiaTa  comus  the  gr«at  order  of 
hoofed  mammals  (IJngulata),  in  which  the  agrieul- 
toriat  flnda  many  species  of  interest.  The  collared 
pMCarj  of  tb«  far  Southweat  can  hardly  be  said 


to  b«  one  of  the^,  but  the  various  species  of  deer 
hold  the  fanner's  attention  for  several  reasons : 
they  furnish  food  and  sport,  and  they  often  damage 
crops  to  a  considerable  extent.  One  of  the  leading 
agricnltural  issues  in  NVw  England  legislatures 
during  recent  years  has  been  the  demand  of  the 
farniurs  for  the  ri^ht  to  protect  their  erops  frcra 
the  ravages  of  deer,  tho  laws  as  comoionly  adminis- 
tered having  denied  them  this  right.  In  somo 
states,  changes  in  the  law»  have  been  made,  which 
enable  the  farmer  to  kill  devir  while  they  are 
engaged  in  doing  such  damage,  the  shouting  Up  be 
done  with  shot-gun  rather  than  riflo,  and  the  facts 
to  be  reported  at  once  to  tlie  tieareitt  authorities. 
This  seemed  a  ju»<t  solution  of  a  vexatious  probletn, 
and  probably  points  the  way  for  future  legislation 
in  other  states. 

fiitdenls. 

The  great  order  of  rodents  or  gnawing  mammals 
(Rotluntia)  includes  a  large  number  of  sjwcies  of 
great  inportancji  to  agriculture,  chielly  because 
they  are  d»(tructive  to  many  crops  and  to  stored 
products.  These  animals  are  largely  vegetable- 
feeders  and  are  ft-^pecially  characterized  by  the 
peculiar  structure  of  the  incisor  teeth,  which  are 
roaUnl  with  enamel  only  on  the  front  surface,  and 
continue  to  gn>w  during  life.  Conswjuently,  tho 
owners  munt  be  continually  gnawing  on  substance* 
more  or  lenw  hard  to  keep  lliesi-  teeth  in  their  nor- 
mal condition.  There  are  no  cjnine  teeth,  and  tha 


nes] 


164 


WIU)   MAMMALS  IN  THEIR  RELATIONS 'WITH  AGRICULTl'RE 


jawa  arc  capable  of  moying  sidewise  as  well  &e 
vertically.  Many  groups  of  rodents  are  able  to 
maltiiily  very  rapidly  and  thus  to  become  serioualf 
destruclivti  in  a  short  period. 

The  Irfte  squirrels  are  the  typical  forma  of  the 
larjie  family  Sciuridae,  which  inclndcs  also  tho 
cliipinuiiks,  th&  s[H.'rmophilfa  or  yrouniJ-stiuirrels, 
tho  prairie  dofi,  the  woodchuck  and  the  llyinj;- 
tquirrcls.  Tho  true  aqnirrols,  th^  chipmunks,  and 
tho  flying -fifjuirrt'le  are  of  comparatively  little 
importance  aj^icatturally.  The  red  siiuirrel  and 
the  gray  aiuirrel  oci;aBionally  U»ke  a  little  corn 
and  are  destructive  t»  the  eg^  andynunf;  of  many 
birdn.  In  mmv  city  parks  they  are  thought  to  have 
drivi^n  nut  the  hinU  alniust  i-ntin-ly. 

Spermopkilei  or  ffrtniHti-ftiuirreh. — Oneofthomoet 
di-'Xtructivi;  grthupn  of  nxlenls  \s  that  of  the  t^nnind- 
squirrolg  or  spemiophilc,'*,  of  the  eliDub  Citellus— 
slender  crenturen  suggestive  in  form  and  haliits  of 
the  familiar  chipmunks  of  tht*  eafltem  states.  In 
many  ]oi-.Blitit!S  Itiey  uru  known  as  gophers,  although 
this  name  is  l>flt«r  rfstricted  to  the  trnti  ]NKrki>l 
gophers  of  aniilhtir  family  of  rotl^ntA  (CwimyitiiH.) 
The  spemiyphilea  are  strictly  ijruund- loving  ani- 
mala  that  feed  chiefly  on  scoiiB  and  grain,  for 
carrying  which  they  have  larp^  choek-pouchea. 
There  are  at  leiist  fifty  distinct  forms  recognized 
by  zoiilogists  as  inhabiting  North  America,  all 
occurring  in  the  western  staU^a,  ami  moA  of  them 
Wing  found  west  of  tlin  Rocky  muiintains. 

Tho  lifu-hahiU  of  the  ground-wiuirrel  are  sug- 
gestive of  those  of  prairie  doga.  They  live  in  bar- 


/ 


PlX'  i*i-    Otalu  Injured  by  XTcand  muliTeli. 

rows  ander  groatid  and,  generally,  in  colonics  of 
many  burrows  near  together.  The  hurrowg  of  the 
Oregon  ground  - 8*inirrel  (CitfUits  Orfgottfis).  as 
studied  by  Peter  Frandaen,  of  the  N'ev.ida  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station,  are  of  a  diameter  of 
about  thrcB  inches,  with  "one  to  five  oiwninga  to 
the  exterior,  depending  on  the  length  of  time  the 
burrow  has  been  occnpled.  The  openings  are  usually 
on  higher  ground  and  the  older  on«8  are  surrounded 


by  a  mound  of  wfll-pai^ketl  earth  a  few  inches  in 
height,  which  probably  xitvijs  to  keep  water  out  of 
the  hole.  From  the  ojn-Hing  tliu  burrow  desct-nds 
to  an  average  depth  of  eighUmn  inches  and  then 
runs  nearly  parallel  with  tlio  surface,  often  with 
many  turns,  for  a  distance  of  ten  to  fifty  feel. 
Frpc|iipntly  the  burrow  bninthes,  and  Bome  of  tho 
branches  may  end  Idinilly.  There  are  occasional 
widenings  or  chamWnt,  which  are  probably  for  the 
purpose  of  enahting  thu  uniinals  to  turn  around. 
There  is  usually  a  nest  which  forma  an  enlarged 
side  chambor  to  tho  main  burrow  and  is  sometioios 
raised  a  little  from  it.  It  is  lined  with  tho  bark  of 
snge-liriish,  gn^nsewood,  rabtiit-bnish,  blades  of 
grass,  or  with  any  other  material  th.it  may  be  con- 
venient." Early  in  spring  tho  young  are  bom,  gen- 
arally  in  April,  each  litter  numU-ring  about  six. 

Tho  injury  to  crops  is  iwpecially  marked  in 
spring  and  early  summer,  the  more  tender  and 
jaicy  parts  of  alfalfa  and  other  forage  crops  being 
especiiilly  sought,  although  to  get  thejw  parts  tho 
whiile  stalk  is  commonly  cut  off  near  the  surfiiie 
of  the  ground,  hi  the  c;u^oof  outs  and  other  grains, 
tliia  cottin;^  down  is  often  done  about  the  time  of 
hua<Iing-out,  large  fields  being  sometimes  destroyed 
by  the  pests.  Before  the  end  of  summer  the  Ore- 
gon ground-squirrels  go  into  hibernation  in  their 
burrows,  the  sleeping  period  lasting  six  or  eight 
months.  A  thick  layer  (if  f:il  is  developed  beneath 
the  skin  before  the  ln'ginniiig  of  the  winter  sleep. 
In  addition  to  tiiu  cuitiviiti<d  crops  acLoally 
defitroyt-d  by  ground-s«]uirrels,  their  presence  ia 
injurious  because  of  the  obst.^icles  that  their  bur- 
rows offer  to  tillage  and  irrigatinn,  and  through 
the  injury  they  cJiuse  diroctiy  and  imJiroctly  to 
native  range  plants. 

Under  nntural  cunditiona,  tho  epermophiles  are 
preyed  un  by  a  variety  of  birds  and  mammals ;  of 
the  former,  the  eagles,  hawk^  and  owU  are  the 
most  important ;  of  the  latter,  the  badgers,  skunks 
and  coyotes  are  the  most  destructive.  The  settle- 
ment of  the  country  by  white  men  has  led  to  the 
rcflucticm  tif  many  of  theMo  natural  enemies,  as 
well  as  to  an  increase  in  the  available  food  supply 
of  tho  gruand-si]uirrel8,  two  factors  which  have 
het-n  chiefly  responsible  for  their  rapid  mnltiplica- 
tion.  The  methods  of  restricting  this  undue  mnlti- 
plication  may  he  grouped  umler  the  two  headings 
of  encoar.iging  natural  enemies  and  direct  destruc- 
tion by  shouting,  trupping,  drowning,  fumigation 
or  poisoning.  The  t!topping  of  the  wanton  dejtnic- 
tion  of  all  raptorial  birds  would  help  greatly  in 
redueing  tho  numbers  of  the  spermophiles  and 
other  rodents,  and  it  is  generally  conceded  by  tbofio 
who  have  studied  the  subject  that  the  present 
feeling  that  such  binls  are  more  harmful  than 
beneficial  is  wrong.  The  destruction  of  coyote*  and 
liadgers.  however,  may  bo  jostifiable.  .ilthough  the 
Iatl*-r  have  economic  value.  (See  page  I6f*.)  Many 
of  the  Bi|uirrfta  are  also  killed  by  catH  and  dogs. 

A  great  many  methods  of  tising  pi'ison  on 
ground -squirrels  and  related  pnttii  have  been  tried, 
the  safest  and  rnowt  satisfactory  material  for  this 
use  being  strychnine.  A  formula  found  Bncceeaftil 
by  n.  Fj.   Lantz  and  recommended    In    Ilulletin 


WILD  MAMMALS  IN  THEIR  REUTIONS  WITH  AGRICULTURE 


166 


No.  129.  of  Ihe  Kaniuis  AgricnHural  Rxperiraent 
Et&tion,  is  as  fnlldws  :  "IHssotve  imf  am)  ime-half 
oancea  of  strychnia  auifatf-  Jn  a  quart  of  hot  water. 
Add  a  quart  of  8yru|).— mnlasses,  9«r;;huni  or  thick 
gag^T  and  wat«r, — and  a  toanpoonfiil  of  oil  nf  anisi-. 
Thoroughly  heat  and  mix  the  liquid.  \\'hl\*j  hot 
poor  it  over  a  bushel  of  cit'an  whe;it  and  mix  com- 
pletely. Then  stir  in  two  tir  more  poutid-s  nf  fine 
com  meal.  Tha  qnanlity  of  corn  raeul  will  depi-nd 
on  the  quantity  of  extra  moisture  present.  Theru 
should  be  enough  to  wet  uvery  ;;rain  of  tho  wheat 
and  no  more,  l-et  the  poisoned  (jrain  stand  o%'tr 
nl^ht  and  distrlhnte  it  in  the  early  morning  of  a 
bright  day."  A  taMespoonfnt  is  pladod  near  the 
mouth  of  the  burrow,  scatlered  in  twoor  three  little 
piles.  The  best  time  to  use  this  or  othnr  pniBons  in 
in  early  epring,  when  the  ^'nuind-wjuirruls  are 
hungry  from  their  winU-r  faxt,  and  when  the 
destmction  of  the  old  omis  before  the  young  ore 
liorn  will  greatly  lessen  the  mimbera  of  the  pests. 
Frairir  dag.— The  famous  prairie  dng  (Cynnmift 
LKdoririanvsi),  of  the  western  Rtateit,  is  clnseJy 
related  to  the  H|)ermophileM.  ItH  burrows  are  much 
deeper,  howe%'er,  often  reaching  a  dv|ith  uf  mutv 
than  twelve  feet,  with  a  hollow  cavity  at  or  near 
the  end  in  which  the  ri.-at  of  grass  is  placed.    Tho 

f'oong  an)  bom  in  early  spring,  generally  four  in  a 
itter,  and  develop  rapiilly.  becoming  large  enough 
by  midsummer  to  dig  burrows  for  themselves.  The 
food  cooBtsto  chiefly  of  gru8t*L^s,  gruins,  and  their 
■eeds,  as  well  as  the  butU  of  wild  onlonx  and 
variooa  other  plant*.  In  winter,  severaMiv*^  together 
in  the  same  burrow  in  a  state  of  partial  hibLTn.-Uion, 
from  whirh  thoy  are  frequently  arousod  in  milder 
weather.  The  injuries  due  to  prairie  dogs  are 
chiefly  apparent  in  pasture  lanrla. 

The  prairie  dogs  are  preyed  on  by  much  the 
same  birds  and  mammals  as  prey  on  the  spermo- 
phitea.  They  are  also  open  to  destruction  by  man 
by  the  same  means  as  are  the  latter,  ['oisoning  by 
grains  Boaked  in  stryt-hnine  solution  has  proves!  tho 
most  sncce-soful  way.  In  Knn.4ns,  where  the  piests 
fornerty  caused  an  annual  lusf  titlimuted  at  $200,- 
000.  through  the  use  of  poii^m  under  the  riirectinn 
of  tbv  State  .Agricultural  Exfierimunt  Station,  aidtd 
by  small  legislative  appropriationsi.  the  prairie  dogs 
were  reduced  to  companitivo  unimportance  in  a 
Very  few  years. 

Waodekadc.  —  Throughout  New  Kngland  and 
many  of  the  eastern  slate?,  the  wottdchuck  or 
ground-hog  (/Irrffinr.vnwrOTa/)  is  ill t"  moft  vexatious 
of  Ibe  destructive  rodents.  It  is  found  us  far  south 
as  Gwrcia  and  as  far  west  a^i  Nebraska,  but  ia 
noiit  abundant  in  eastern  and  northern  regions,  lis 
burrows  arc  large,  and  generally  have  two  or  more 
oneotngii ;  they  are  especially  likely  to  be  mniic  in 
the  shelter  of  rocks  or  boulders,  or  beneuth  »  fence 
or  bnish-pibv  The  woodchacks  hibernate  in  their 
hurrows,  giving  birth  to  the  young  in  sjiring.  and 
feeding  through  the  spring  and  summer  months  on 
a  great  variety  of  crops,  t'ntps  of  young  Ivans 
aoa  poas  are  expecially  nttmctivc  to  them,  but 
•Imwt  any  succulent  plant  div.^  not  c-ome  amm. 
PortDnatcly  these  mammabi  are  easily  trapped  at 
the  mouths  of  their  burrows,  and  are  also  easily 


killed  by  the  vapor  of  biaulfid  of  carbon,  the  liquid 
being  poured  on  a  handful  of  moss  or  other  absor- 
bent material  and  pushi-ii  down  the  burrow,  all 
openings  ln-ing  at  onee  rlfwed.  The  vapor  is  heavier 
than  air  and  will  s*.*ttk'  t(»  the  bottom,  where  it  will 
kill  any  wiHMlchnrk  prnsont. 

Tfce  k'unr,  of  the  family  Caatiiridro,  can  scarcely 

be  said  tii  by  uf  agricultural  importance  atpreaenL 

Thv  nih,  -miee.  and  rd/cjt,  of  the  family  Murida.', 

compose  a  great  group  of  species  which  are  very 

destructive  to  farm  crops  of  many  kinds. 

Raiit.  —  At  the  head  of  the  li.'it  stands  the  pestifer- 
ous brown  ra-t  (.Vhjt  Xnnrfiiruji),  doubtless  the  most 
universally  cU'sLnH'tive  of  all  the  rodenLs,  Tlii» 
s[)eciea  has  driven  out  the  black  rat  1.1/.  raitvf) 
which  preceded  it,  and  ia  now  the  rat  with  which 
everyone  is  familiar.  It  causes  the  destruction  of 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  every  year  in 
tho  United  State-',  feeding  ravenously  on  such  a 
variety  of  prodiicta  that  few  things  are  safe  from 
attack  when  fmx]  is  .scarce.  It  is  al.so  known  to  1*6 
a  common  cause  for  the  spreading  of  disease  germs. 
Rata  are  prL-yiwl  on  by  the  larger  raptorial  bjnla, 
as  well  aa  by  skunks,  weasels,  and  other  preda- 
ceouB  mammals.  But  the  enemies  are  so  scarce  and 
the  rats  so  .''heltered  that  the  etfeetof  such  natural 
enemies  is  generally  of  little  importance.  The 
fecundity  of  the  rats^wbich  enahlei*  three  or  four 
littt^rs  of  young  to  be  brought  forth  each  year, 
each  litter  consisting  of  »ix  to  a  dozen  young  that 
mature  in  six  montha — is  a  chief  resiion  for  their 
al-nndanco  and  the  difficulty  in  checking  their 
injurie.^.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  poison,  how- 
ever, the  best  substance  to  use  being  barytes  or 
barium  carbonate  mixed  with  oatmeal,  one  part 
iiKiison  to  eight  of  oatmeal,  the  combined  materials 
being  made  into  a  stitT  dough  by  the  use  of  water. 
This  has  the  ailvantage  of  acting  m  slowly  that  the 
victims  generally  leave  the  premises  in 
search  of  water.  The  pests  may  also  bo 
reduc«d  in  numbers  by  the  persistent  use 
of  traps,  the  be^t  general  forms  being 


Pls<  l<3.    GulUotiae  tmp  loi  lau,    lAftsr  BIoIojiIruI  Surrej.) 

the  ryct'nlly  introduce'I  "  guillotine  traps,"  which 
have  a  strong  coiled  sjiring  that  brings  down  a 
crosHpieeu  that  kilbt  the  rat  (Fig.  14S). 

Much  of  tho  damage  that  rats  canee  may  he  pre- 
vented bythe  use  of  cement  in  constnicting  cellars, 
basements  and  foundations  generally.  A  gn<xt  cat 
or  dog  will  often  claar  the  premises  of  rata  in  a 
.short  time. 

The  hou.tB  mouse  (.U.  muteulw)  seems  in  many 
respects  a  miniature  of  the  rat.  It  is  commonly 
found  in  barns  and  granaries  as  well  as  in  houses, 
and    unle^  checked    is  very  destructive.    It  ra 


166 


WILD  MAMMALS  IN  THRIR  RELATIONS  WITH  AGRICULTURE 


closely  related  in  structure  and  habits  to  the  brown 
rat. 

Various  native  rati*  are  aim  of  interest  agrical- 
turally.  The  cotton  rut  {Si<imaiion  hivpi-f-u.')  of  the 
southern  slates  K  one  of  tl;ie  moet  dvstrut:live  of 
these.  It  is  only  about  half  the  siiie  of  the  brnwn 
rat,  from  which  it  dilfera  con-'Wonihly  in  appear- 
atico.  It  attacks  corn  and  other  crops,  fspecially 
when  shocked  in  the  field,  llany  species  of  wood- 
ral3,  of  the  genun  Neotoma,  h^ve  been  deacrilw! 
from  North  America.  They  are  foiind  chielly  in  the 
western  regions,  where  their  presence  in  the  wo<td3 
is  made  known  by  the  curioun  piles  of  brash  and 
rubbish  which  they  gather  ttif^Hher  over  the 
entrances  to  their  barrows.  These  piles  may  rvach 


.% 


/ 


rif.  tM.    Comnion  vote  or  meaOaw  mouae  tXitirotua  /Vntuylfanlau). 
lAtlpr  DMnctral  Surv*y  ) 

a  height  of  five  feet  in  case  of  burrows  which  have 
been  occupied  for  a  long  time.  Port;inately,  these 
rats  Hv«  80  generally  in  the  woods  away  from  cul- 
tivated fields  that  they  are  atklom  injurioiiB  to 
crops.  They  feed  on  tlie  green  bark  of  trees  and 
other  vegetation,  as  well  as  the  aevds  of  variouji 
Iilantfl,  often  collecting  considerable  storeaof  these 
for  the  winter  supply  of  fo'xi.  The  injury  most 
commoQly  complained  of  i.s  that  done  to  the  bark 
of  oaage  orange  h&dges. 

iViw. — A  groat  number  of  j^pecies  of  native  mice 
are  found  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
rice-field  mice,  of  the  genus  Orrzomys.  have  a 
comparatively  limited  range  in  the  South,  whore 
they  live  in  swamps  and  rice-tields.  Some  fifty 
fornuof  the  miniature  harvest-mice,  of  the  genus 
ftoithrodontomys,  have  been  recognized  by  zoolo- 
gists. Theiw  are  field  creatarea  living  chiefly  on 
8eed.4  and  grains,  and  are  comparatively  little 
kncwn  even  to  profe-^sional  naturalists.  A  similar 
statement  may  be  made  of  the  interesting  gra«s- 
hoppBr-mJce.  of  the  Hentts  Onychomys.  which  are 
also  called  scorpion -mice.  These  two  common 
names  indicate  a  part  of  the  food,  these  mice  being 
at  least  partially  iniii>ctivDrouit,  and  feeding  on 
grasshoppers,  scorpions  and  related  creatures. 

7%t.  deer  miet  or  whitf-fixitM  miet  of  the  genua 
Paromyscns  are  aroimg  the  mo«it  attractive  of  lh» 


smaller  rodents.  They  aro  known  by  their  short 
front  lega  anil  long  hind  ones,  and  by  the  contrast 
of  the  white  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  with  the 
dark  gray  of  the  upper  port.  They  are  normally 
inhabitants  of  fiekls  and  woods,  where  they  Ii\"e  in 
a  grpMt  variety  of  situations  and  feed  on  a  great 
varii?ty  of  food ;  but  they  invade  buildings,  especi- 
ally when  near  woods,  where  they  rear  tlwtr  young 
in  nests  in  any  sort  of  a  shelter  between  the  walls. 
Thoy  feed  on  seeds  and  fruits  of  many  sorts  of  wild 
and  cultivated  planto,  oa  well  a^  on  insects  and 
roots  of  various  sorts.  They  remain  active  thrnagh 
much  of  the  winter,  in  preparation  for  which  they 
lay  up  stores  of  seeds  and  nut.-!,  and  their  feotprinta 
on  tbti  snow  may  commonly  be  seen  almost  any 
winter's  day. 

The  rofM,  or  meadoip  mice, 
of  the  genoa  Microtns  (Fig. 
144),  form  one  of  the  most 
deatructive  groups  of  mam- 
mals. Though  small  in  size, 
they  are  often  present  in  vast 
numbers,  and  cause  an  enor- 
mous injury  to  agricultural 
interests.    They  have  many 
common  names,  among  which 
are  bearmice,  mole  mice,  field 
mice  and  ground  mice.  They 
live  just  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  making  ninwaya 
in  summLT  beneath  tangled 
mainses  of  weeds  and  grass, 
and  in  winter  penetrating  the 
dnow  freely  in  all  directions. 
They  feed  on  almost  any  sort 
of  vegetation,  as  well  as  on 
such  animal  flech  as  they  may 
be  able  to  lind.    They  are  especially  fond,  however. 
of  the  tender  bark  of  trees  and  shrubs  and  the  snc- 
cnlent  groen  st«ms  of  graiwca  and  grains.  To  this 
fact  isoue  their  greateat  injury,  which  is  that  done 
in  gnawing  the  bnrk  from  the  trunk  and  branches 
of  fruit  trees,  an  operation  that  occurs  beneath  the 
snow  thnjugh  the  winter  and  is  revealed  only  when 
it  disappears  in  spring.    Some  seveuty  .American 
forms  were  descriU'd  in  IIKH)  by  Vernon  Bailey  in 
hia  revision  of  the  genus  Microlus. 

These  meadow  mice  form  a  chief  element  in  the 
food  of  many  hawks  and  owLi,  and  aA?  constantly 
preyed  on  by  weasels,  foxf^*,  skunks,  minks  and 
other  prcdaceous  mammals.  The  detttruction  of 
these  x'arious  enemies  has  undoubtedly  been  the 
chief  cau«e  ff>r  the  increase  in  the  numlwr  of  vole.'i 
in  many  regions,  and  persona  generally  need  greater 
enlightenment  in  the  common  attitude  toward 
raptorial  birds  and  the  smaller  prcdaceous  mam- 
mals. Fruit  trees  may  be  protected  by  wrapping 
the  trunk-s  with  wire  netting.  l>.  E.  Lanti  has 
re!M>rtcd  a  successful  experiment  in  poisoning  the 
mice  with  wheat  soaked  in  strychnine  solution. 

Tkt  eommon  mu«traf  iFiUr  zH>efkini»)  is  the 
only  other  member  of  the  rat  family  that  need  be 
roentionc-<i  here.  It  Is  widely  distributed  and  mme- 
timea  locally  abundant,  but  of  comparatively  little 
agricultural  importance.  Though  capable  of  injur- 


r^^'^ 


WILD  MAMMALS  IN  THEIR  RELATIONS  WITH   AGRICULTURK 


167 


tog  vnrioos  cropn,  it  is  so  peraistontty  hnnlL'd  that 
it  aelilom  in  really  destructive. 

Tfif  fxiekfi  gopktn,  of  the  family  Geomyidje,  form 
OM  of  the  most  characteristic,  a»  well  an  must 
destructive  groups  of  rodenta.    (Figa.   145-147.) 


\ 


-f 


Fli.  I«. 

Pnce  of  pwket 

lOptict.  'A'liT  Ulo- 


;wr- 


Fig.  HS.    Pocket  KOptwt  (flfoniw  innariut). 

Suine  one  of  the  dozen  American  s|w>cias  ocean  in 
ufft  of  the  stat«8  vest  of  the  Missi^ipui  river  and 
well  to  a  limited  extent  {>aat  of  it.  The  snimal^ 
notable  for  their  curious  cheek  poaches  that 
extaroally  and  are  u^  for  carryint;  food,  and 
for  their  niidergronrd  habits,  to  which  their  struc- 
ture i«  especially  adaptt^l.  They  burrow  through  the 
earth  in  all  directions,  raakin;;.  at  abort  intervalA, 
tie  mounds  from  the  materials  thrown  out  of 
thf  barrowa.  These  mounds  aeri- 
ously  interfere  with  the  harvest- 
in;(ofcrop8,  compelling  the  mow- 
^•machine  to  be  .sot  ao  high  that 
uch  forage  iii  loet.  Astbeymake 
)tbe  tunaek,  they  feed  on  succu- 
it  roots  and  tubers  of  many 
ndft,  often  de«tritying  trees 
pletely  by  thus  eating  the 
ts.  Some  years  ago  the  annual 

in  KanMW  to  a  sinyie  crop  —alfalfa  — 
flicted  by  the  prairie  pocket  gugther  was  estimated 

at$9oaooo. 

The  chief  natural  enemies  of  the  pocket  gopher 
seem  to  be  the  veascl^i  and  the  ball  snakes,  both 
of  which  follov  througb  the  burrows  in  search  of 
ricttmA.  Fortanately,  the  peats  are  readily  de- 
stroyed br  polioned  grain,  com  being  especially 
recommended  for  the  purpose,  although  various 
other  materials  may  be  employed.  A  dihble,  made 
by  adding  a  metal  point  to  a  spade  handle,  is  csed 
to  mike  holes,  in 

the  runways,  into  .         <L-^ft '^       V 

which  the  pois- 
oned bait  Ir 
dropped.  "Askil- 
fol  operator." 
writes  D.E.Lantz. 
"cnn  go  over 
t^--'jty  to  forty 
■era  of  badly  in- 
iMled  land  in  a 

ly,  and.  if  the 

ork  is  done  care- 
folly.  at  a  time  when  the  pocket  gophers  are  active. 
■II  the  animabk  ahoold  be  destroyed  by  the  first  ap- 
plication of  poiiion.'  The  pestsmay  also  be  destroyed 
by  trapping  and  by  famigation  with  carbon  bisulfid. 


Thii  ham  and  rabHts.  of  the  family  Leporidae, 
include  a  number  of  species  that  are  often  deatruc- 
live  to  fruit  and  other  trees,  the  bark  of  which 
they  gnaw,  as  well  aJi  to  a  great  variety  of 
field  and  garden  crops  which  they  devour.  The 
larger  forms  abundant  in  the  western  states  are 
called  jack  rabbits  ;  about  seven  species  are  recog- 
nizwl.  The  largest  form  in  the  eastern  regif<a  is 
the  northern  hare,  which  tuma  white  in  winter. 
The  smaller  forms  are  commonly  called  cottontails, 
from  the  color  of  the  tumed-up  tail,  so  conspicuous 
as  the  animaU  move  about.  All  these  rabbits  mul- 
tiply rapi^ily.  and  under  conditions  favorable  to 
tlii^ir  development  they  mav  become  serious  pests 
in  a  verj*  short  time.  This  is  eapocially  true  of  the 
jack  raubits.  which  are  often  destroyed  in  vast 
numbers  by  great  "drives"  organized  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  some  of  the  western  states.  {Fig.  148.) 
This  is  one  of  the  most  effective  mfet!io<ls  of  holding 
them  in  check. 

Porcupinen. — Two  porcupines  (Krethir-ontidjc)  are 
recognirx-d  in  North  America.  These  animals  are 
commonly  miscalled  liediiiduig!',  although  they  are 
very  different  from  the  ht-dgL-hogaof  the  Old  World, 
The  pon:upines  are  injurious  to  trees  through  their 
habit  of  feeding  on  the  green  bark,  and  even  in 
extensive  forests  they  often  cause  considerable  loiss. 

Kan'jaroo  ratt  and  pocKvt  hiw.— Several  species 
of  kangaroo  rats  and  pocket  mico  (family  Hetero- 
niyidic)  are  also  known;  the  former  sometimes 
(."luse  considerable  damage  to  corn  and  other  crops 
in  certain  regions. 

Thf  jumpiiuj  mi«.— The  jumping  mice  (family 
7.ap<Hlid;e)  ar«»selilom,  if  ever,  sufficiently  abundant 
to  tu  of  agricultural  importance. 

Cornimraitt  mammals. 

The  great  ordtir  of  flesh-eaters,  Carnivora,  in- 
cludes many  mammals  of  economic  interest  to  tlie 
farmer.  Comparatively  few  of  these  are  harmful 
onder  existing  conditiomt,  while  very  many  are 
beneficial  because  they  prey  on  denlructive  rodents. 

Catftimilif. — In  the  cat  family  (PulidiL-l  are  found 
the  puma  or  mountain  lion,  and  the  lynxes  or  wild 
cats.  These  are  comparatively  rare  and  inhabit 
sn{.'h  wild  country  that  they  are  of  little  economic 
importance. 

The  doij  familtt  (Canid.-p)  inclndes  the  wolves, 


He.  147.    RuDwar  d  pocket  KopIi6l.    <■.  U»iit>il»  of  ■«!>;  t.   : 

mum;.    (Aft«r  Bleto(t<>ftI  Sur>r>.i 


T"  ramiailt;  t,  iMln 


coyotes  and  foxes.  The  wolres  and  coyotes  are 
Very  barmful  tu  stock  and  pualtry  in  the  western 
states,  although  they  do  some  good  in  the  duatruc- 
tion  of  hares,  prairie  dags  and  other  rodenta.  They 


168 


WILD  MAMMALS  IX  THEIR  RELATIONS  WITH   AGRICULTURE 


are  most  easily  destroyed  by  honting  out  the 
br«edinp:-plac«s  m  early  Bpring  and  kitlini;  the 
littera  of  pupa  (I-'ig.  14'JI.  They  may  also  be  poi- 
soned and  trapped.  The  foxes  are  generally  con- 
sidered as  enemies  of  the  poultry  yard,  but  it  is 
probable  that,  in  general,  they  do  moro  good  in 


vsv. 


t  r 


.H 


Fib.  148.    A  iack-iabbit  dun. 

destroying  meadow  mict;  and  other  pesta  than  they 
do  harm  in  takins  [Hiultry. 

ITie  frearx  (Ursidasl  are  even  yet  troublngorae  in 
many  of  the  sparAuly  inhabited  rcffionB  of  the 
country.  In  northern  New  Enfi^lnnd  aheep  cannot 
be  kept  in  certain  pastures  withont  danger  of 
nttark  frnm  the  black  luear. 

TTic  raeeotm,  which  has  been  called  the  "little 
brother  to  the  bear,"  in  familiar  to  many  [wraons 
over  a  wide  territory.  It  feeds  on  a  ureal  varit-ty 
of  animaH  and  vegetable  food  and  is  aonaetimes 
de-Htructive  to  green  corn  in  the  field. 

Jtaiigrr*,  vKosdt,  atia-t,  minks  ani!  skunks. —  To 
the  family  Mustelidie  litslong  the  hiidgera,  w«?aBelK. 
otters,  minks  and  »kunkt<.  Many  of  theae  animals 
furnish  very  valuablt  fur  fur  which  tht-y  are 
eagerly  hunted.  Many  of  them,  also,  are  of  great 
value  to  agriculture  becanj^e  they  feed  bo  largely 
on  injurioUH  insects  and  destructive  rodents.  The 
badger  of  the  Weal  is  a  notable  example  of  this, 
feeding  chinlly  on  grfiunfl-wiHirrclfi  anil  prairie 
dogs,  which  it  can  i^:isily  g«t  btM'.aun«  of  itn  wonder- 
ful ability  to  burrow  rapidly  through  tlw  ground. 
Even  thu  !«knnki<,  which  arc  univfrajilly  coniiL-niru'd 
as  enemies  of  poultry,  douhtleBs  do  vastly  more 
good  than  harm,  hunting  persistently  for  white 
grubs,  mips  and  other  pests. 

TTie  hlnek-^mlcd  frrrvt  of  the  great  plainn  region 
(Pig.  150)  ia  one  wf  the  most  Hfffclive  extermi- 
nators of  the  inhabitants  of  prairiuMlug  towmi.  and 
in  infost«d  regions  should  nut  be  kilted  on  sight. 

Itigetiivorous   ma  m  m  ait. 

The  »hrnrf  and  mn}n  are  the  important  represen- 
tatives of  the  nnler  of  inspct^aters— In.'^ectivora. 
The  former  are  very  sehlfim  seen,  being  nocturnal 
in  their  habita.  They  feed  on  insecta  and  i)nd)ably 
on  such  amall  rodents  as  they  can  catch.  The  gar- 
den mole  is  the  moat  familiar  member  of  the  oider; 


its  runways  at  least  are  known  to  most  persons  in 
the  country.  It  is  commonly  said  to  be  benelicial 
from  its  habit  of  feeding  on  while  gnibs  and  other 
insects,  but  this  fact  will  hardly  compensate  for 
the  damage  it  does.  Moles  aru  rather  easily  poisoned 
by  inserting  in  the  runways  com  in  the  milk  stage, 
fre.shly  cut  from  the  ear,  and 
poUoned  with  strychnine  so- 
lution. They  may  also  be 
caught  in  m>jle  traps,  and  in 
various  other  ways. 

Ptt/it.— The  curious  winged 
bats  make  up  the  order  Cheir- 
optera. Theyflyonlyatnight 
and  feed  exclusively  on  In- 
sects flying  at  the  same  time. 
For  this  reason  they  may 
fairly  be  said  to  be  among 
the  most  beneficial  of  the 
mammals,  and  their  wanton 
destruction  should  never  be 
permitted. 

Tlie  cojiirol  ofdEgtnictitv  tptld 
mammali. 

It  has  been  a  common 
practice  in  many  states,  to  attempt  to  reduce  the 
damage  done  by  destructive  mammals  by  the  offer- 
ing of  bounties.  Vast  snms  of  money  have  been 
expended  in  this  way  with  very  little  pmctical 
result.  .\s  long  as  the  animals  are  mi  abundant 
that  it  is  pn)lital)le  to  hunt  them  for  the  Ituunty, 
they  are  killed,  hut,  as  soon  as  they  l«*come  scarce, 
the  killing  stojis,  and  the  animals  begin  to  increase 
again.  The  IhmI  informed  authorities  agree  that 
the  bounty  system  is  pernicious  in  the  case  of 
moat  mammaEs.  The  saner  way  is  to  attempt  to 
help  nature  hold  the  balance  of  life  true  by  en- 
couraging the  naturnl  enemies  of  injurious  |>e8t« 
and  hy  the  cooperative  use  of  poisons,  traps  and 


-  '  *?>: 


A^T^t^* 


'v. 


..■•I'     jii''  * - 


-^4- 


'.^  fS  C-;  <.^-  ^i^ 


Fit.  149.    W«l[  den.    (A(Ur  BiuioRiMa  t*arv«j.) 


other  methods  of  destruction,  which  experience  haa 
shown  to  be  of  value. 

Literature. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  eccnoroie  relations  of 
American  mammals  is  very  largely  duo  to  the  inval- 
uable work  of  tbe  Biological  Survey  of  the  United 


BlltUS  LN   THEIR    RELATIONS    WITH    AGRICL'LTLIRE 


169 


Statee  Departinetitof  Agricalture.  For  man;  yeara 
this  corps  of  invt^atieatcfrs  hB»  l>een  jjHtiently 
stndyinK  the*  problomii  invutvexJ,  and  has  [iuti]iHht*d 
a  long  seriea  of  aeiontilic  and  practical  rc-porta  in 
which  will  be  foimd  a  discussion  of  nearly  every 
phase  of  the  reiatinn  of  these  animals  to  affricialtnre. 
The  following  are  .lome  nf  the  more  important  of 
tbt»e,  A  complete  littl  may  be  had  on  application 
to  the  Survey :  Vernon  Bailpy,  Rt^vision  of  Ameri- 
can Voles,  North  American  Fauna,  No.  17 ;  Same, 


ni.  IM.    Baitd  01  blKk-footed  tenet  iPriinrttu  nigf^f). 
lAftw  Hlalosii^al  SarvBjr.J 

The  Pocket  Gophera  of  the  Fnited  States.  Bulletin 
No.  5  ;  Same,  Deatrnction  of  Wolves  atxJ  Coyotfes. 
^ircalar  No.  55  ;  Same,  Wolvea  in  Relation  to  Stock, 
iSenrioe  Bulletin  No.  72 ;  David  E.  Lantz.  Coy- 
'flte*  in  their  Economic  Relations.  Bulletin  No.  a), 
and  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  22C;  Same,  Methods  of 
Destroying  Rat»,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  297  ;  Same, 
Dartroying  Pocket  Gophon'.  I'ircular  No.  52  :  Same, 
in  Economic  Study  of  Field  Mice,  Bulletin  No.  31; 
Hart  Uerriani.  Rerision  of  the  Pocket  Gophers, 
'North  American  Fauna,  No.  8  ;  Same,  Synopsis  of 
the  Weawls.  North  .\nierican  Fauna.  No.  11  ;  Same, 
Prairie  Dogs,  Yftarbook.  1901,  and  Circular  No.  32; 
T.  S.Fatmer,  The  Jack  RabhitP  of  the  United  Stat«fi, 
^fialletm  No.  80.  ValuaMc  articles  have  been  puh- 
""  lied   by  some  of    the   a;;ricultBraI    experiment 
itions,  notably  in  Bulletin  No.  120,  of  the  Kan- 
Station,  in  which   Darid  K.  I^nts  diaciiBsoa 
Eamas  mamroatii  in  relation  to  aftriculture,  and  in 
Jalletin  No.  58  of  the  Nevada  Station,  in  which 
Peter  Frandsen discusses  gronnd-Bquirrela  and  other 
rodent  pests. 


BIRl>S  IN  THEIR  RELATIONS  WITH 
AGRICt'LTURE 

By  E4imrd  Hoipe  Forbufk 

The  relations  of  certain  Mrds  to  anriculture  are 

'Complicated  that  they  are  not  yet  fully  cumpn^ 

rniei  even  by  the  economic  ornithologist,  and 

Iht-y  are  often    entirely    misunderstt>od    by    tho 

ler.  When  a  few  sipeciee  of  birda  deetroy  the 

I  t" i>  graia.  fruit  or  poultry,  the  injur)-  in  con- 

''i»ty  evident :  but  many  Bpecies  had  on  the 

emJM  of  grain,  fruit  and  pcjultry.  af  wull  a;!  on 

bo<e  of  trees  and  crops  of  all  kinds,  and  these 

Voeftctal  habits  of  the  many  unually  eacape  notice. 


while  the  harmful  habita  of  the  few  become  widely 
known. 

The  food  relations  existing  between  birds,  in- 
sects, other  animals  and  plants  are  bo  obftcnre,  and 
the  resulta  of  the  feeding  haliita  of  binds  are  s« 
far-reaching,  that  often  it  is  difficult  for  the 
inveiitigatnr  to  determine  whether  a  given  bird  ia 
a  friend  or  an  enemy  to  the  farmer.  When  the 
food  of  all  forms  of  animal  life  Bhall  have  been 
studied  carefully,  the  scientist  will  l>e  in  a  better 
position  to  determine  the  exact  value  to  man  of 
certain  species  of  birds.  Nevertheless,  ennugh  ha.t 
been  done  in  this  little-kno«*n  field  to  warmat  the 
general  statement  that  birda  greatly  benefit  the 
farmer. 

Species  vary  greatly  in  value,  however.  A  few 
are  inimical  at  times  to  the  interests  of  the 
hasbandman  :  others  seem  to  be  of  little  or  no 
economic  importance ;  the  position  of  othera  is 
doubtful,  as  their  beneficial  and  harmful  habits 
appear  to  balance  each  other :  bat  the  vaat  major- 
ity of  those  land-birds  that  live  in  or  migrate 
tlu"ongh  agricultural  regions  are  thought  to  be  far 
more  useful  than  injurioaa. 

BSrdii  are  such  active,  energetic  creatures, — their 
respiration  is  bo  rapid  and  their  temperature  so 
high,— that  they  need  an  amount  of  food  in  propor- 
tion to  their  size  far  in  excess  of  that  re'juired  by 
mammals.  An  adult  bird  has  been  known  to  con- 
sume more  than  its  own  weight  of  food  in  a  single 
day,  and  the  growing  young  of  most  small  land- 
birds  often  take  a  still  larger  quantity.  Endowed 
with  wings  of  the  highest  typo,  and  t«le*copic 
powers  of  viftion,  birds  can  concentrate  quickly 
wherever  focKl  is  abundant.  They  are  capable, 
therefore,  of  being 
very  injurioun'  or  very 
perviceable  to  the 
farmer,  acconling  to 
the  nature  of  the  food 
tbey  take  from  his 
gardens,  fields,  or- 
chards or  vineyards. 
^Vhen,  for  example, 
crows  flock  in  the 
meadows,  Ihey  may 
be  very  useful  in  de- 
stroyifig  gruha,  cutworms  and  grawhoppera ;  bnt 
crowti  in  the  com-lield  are  not  always  an  advantage 
to  the  farmer. 

KinU  form  a  standing  ai-rial  army  for  the  sup- 
pression uf  uprisings  in  nature.  The  scouts  are 
always  t<pying  out  the  land  and  the  swift  detach- 
ments and  flying  legions  gather  at  threatened 
points  and  attack  the  Hwarming  hcwt«  of  destruc- 
tive insecbt  or  other  animals,  i>r  the  too  numerous 
Ki^H  or  fruits  ttf  herUs  iir  trees,  and  i»o  ae^'isl  in 
maintaining  thu  biologinil  halance  and  lordering 
the  gL-niTuI  gutxl.  Numerous  instaneeit  on  record 
show  that  birds  liavu  saved  trees  and  crops  from 
destruction  by  insects  or  other  pesta,  and  ItK'-al 
extirpation  of  birds,  or  great  reduction  in  their 
Numtwrn,  hae  been  followejl  in  all  rtHrorded  c.a»v&  by 
an  increase  of  peata  and  contteciu^nt  injury  to 
vegetation. 


h' 


Fix.  isi.    American  roMi, 


170 


BIRDS  IN  THEIR   RELATIONS   WITH   AGRICULTURE 


Inveati^toTs  who  have  examined  the  contents  of 
birdit'  tilom:irh»  hav(t  founil  Ur^  quiintilies  of 
injurious  iiutccte  and  veed  se^eds.  In  the  stomach 
of  a  yoUow-billed  cuckoo  wea-  217  fall  webworm*; 
in  another,  were  250  tent-caturiiillara.  Two  flick- 
ers* Htoni.ich8  contained,  respectively,  StCKK)  and 


:£^^^ 


Pie.  15.'.    Mcbttuiwk 

ri,OfK)  ants.  A  nighthawk  had  eaten  500  moaqtii- 
t"fi;  amither,  60  gra&shoppera,  and  another  revealed 
tlin  remains  of  1,000  flyind  anta.  Twenty-eight 
cutworm*  were  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  red- 
wiiifjed  blackbird.  Sovl'b  cedar  birds  had  eaten  70 
to  lOtI  cankerwnrm«,  each.  Three  mourning  doves 
had  taken  eeeds  (mr«tly  thOi*e  of  weeds)  to  the 
mimber  of  7,500,  6,100  and  9,200  refliwctively. 
Stomachs  of  the  common  HnowbJnl  or  (snowrtake 
have  h(^en  fmiiid  In  contain  TilX)  Lo  LliOO  weed 
ueeda,  eaeb.  Nine  mice  were  eaten  in  snecession 
by  a  yoanp;  barn  owl,  about  two-thirds  grown,  and 
near  an  owls  nest  were  found  453  skullft.  mostly 
those  of  mice.  Theflo  statemont*  will  Bnflice  to 
show  the  CHjiacity  of  hlnltt'  i«tumachH;  and  di^eetion 
in  HO  rHj)ii3  that  tlie  stomach  must  be  filled  many 
times  each  day. 

ln»tet-eaHng  birdt. 

Tlie  irisect-eatinR  birds  arv  of  tbs  ^KBtest  valoe 
In  rej^latiiiK  the-  numbers  of  those  uueotfl  which 
feed  on  tree«  and  theme  which  subsist  on  gra-'wec. 
Therefore,  the  farmer  i«  larpily  indebted  to  hinis 
for  his  annual  product  of  wood  and  limbb'r  and  for 

the  jjraias  and  hay 

which      furnish 

subsistence     for 

cattle,  horsca  and 

sheep,     in    wood 

and  field,  nature  i.s 

allowed    to    take 

Fic  153.  her  coarse  fur  a 

^^   Blsck-UUed  ciu:inn.        certain  period  un- 

■■■""^  til    the    crop    is 

ready  to  cut,  and  little  can  be  done  by  the  farmer 

to  protect  either  woodlnnd  trees  or  field  graswes 

from  their  insect  enemiea. 

Rut  birds  find  con^nial  homes  tn  field  and  woihI- 
land,  and  nestinj;  there  comparativfly  undisturbMl 
by  man,  they  find  thfir  faoA  in  the  abundant  ene- 
mies of  grass  and  tree  and  do  their  part  in  saving; 
both  from  insect  injury.  Certain  hirda  are  fitted 
to  search  i>ut  the  insect  enemies  of  each  part  of 


the  tree.  Woodpeckers  attack  liorera  and  bark 
inwctji ;  creepers,  nuthatches  and  titmice  aearch 
out  those  tniiect6  pccnliar  to  trunk  and  limb«t ; 
warbli^rK  and  all  the  smaller  birdn  assail  insects 
injurious  to  foliage.  I'rnws,  robins,  spam»ws, 
woodcocks,  sandpipers,  mead ow larks  and  other 
ground- feeding  species  unt^arth  inaerts  in  the 
fiekU;  while  all  birds  of  the  o^ien  take  inBecle  fnim 
the  praiW.  Graiwhoppers  and  caterpillars,  the  most 
cons|>icuous  eimmies  of  prasses  and  trees,  n.'8|<ec- 
tively,  form  a  staple  food  for  nearly  all  land  birds. 

Birds  may  be  quite  as  serviceable  to  man  in 
orchard  and  shade  trees  a«  in  field  or  woo*!land.  if 
they  receive  protection  and  are  provideii  with  safe 
nenting-placpA  and  sufficient  shelt+.-r  at  ail  aeauons  ; 
but  they  are  nnt  ordinarily  so  ue**ful  in  Kardenti 
and  cultivated  fields,  fur  there  they  find  no  safe 
UL'Slinii-idacuii,  and  the  frwjuenl  operations  of  til- 
lage during  the  time  when  inwMitMaremtwtdpstnic- 
tive  tend  rather  to  drive  them  out.  A  few  }«[)eeies, 
however  (notably  the  robin,  houso  wren,  chipping 
sparrow.songsparrowandquairi,  are  very  destruc- 
tive to  garden  insect*:  while  pwallows.  nighthawks 
and  martins,  which  catch  insects  in  the  air,  are 
.<<erviceable  about  the  garden  ami  cultivated  field. 

The  hairy  woodpecker,  the  downy  wowlperker 
and  their  allies  are  among  the  mont  useful  birds  of 
Woodland  and  orchard.  These  birds  |»eck  into  the 
trees  and  abstract  wood-boring  anK  the  larva?  of 
wowl-boringlieetlesand  the 
hibernating  larva?  or  pup;e 
ctf  injurioua  moths.  The 
downy  wooiipecker  is  par- 
ticularly destructive  to  the 
white  pine  weevil,  the  cwl- 
ling-moth,  the  applft-tree 
borer,  the  woolly  aphis  and 
other  enemips  of  the  ur- 
chanl.  These  woodpeck«rs 
should  not  be  confoundL-d 
with  the  red-bellied  sap~ 
sucker,  which  is  sometimes 
injurious  to  tree's  in  the 
more  mtrthern  part«  of  Uie 
United  States. 

Warblers  are  insL'ctH_>aters  chietly  and  feed  mAtnly 
among  tho  leaves.  Small  cat<>r pillars,  tree  hoppers 
and  other  destrnctive  leaf-ejlting  insects  are  much 
sought  by  them ;  also  plant-lice^  motha  and  beetlea, 
many  of  which  are  taken  on  the  wing.  The  .Ameri- 
can redstart  ia  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
widely  distribitted  sfieeies.  It  is  a  bird  of  great 
activity,  with  striking  orange  and  black  plumage 
and  moves  through  the  woods  like  an  erratic  tropical 
Hanie.  Warblen*  destroy  great  quantities  of  injn- 
rioofl  insects  and  also  act  as  a  wnolescnne  check  on 
some  beneficial  species. 

Cuckotw  are  noted  ;is  the  greatest  enemies  of  thoae 
IH-rnicious  hairy  caU-Tnillars,  the  ravaging  larvs 
of  the  bombycid  motns,  but  warblers,  thrushes. 
catbirds,  blackbirds,  woodpeckers,  vireoti,  chicka- 
dees, crows,  jays  and  some  other  birds  eat  these 
caterpillars  at  some  stage  of  growth  with  more  or 
less  avidity.  Warblerv  t^ike  mainly  the  itmatler 
caterpillars  ;  virooa,  chickadees  and  oriol«e  dissect 


PiJt  iH.  Applt-tieebaik, 
ikowiDK  ciKocn  o(  cod- 
linx-iDoUi  pletfcd  bjr 
wtxidpeckei.    <AMer 


BIRDS  IN  THEIR  RELATIONS   WITH   AGRICULTURE 


171 


Fig.  iss. 
S«d>«r«d  vitto. 


out  the  inner  parts  of  tho  larger  ones,  and  bliiclc- 
bink,  robina.  crows  and  jays  swallow  tho  cut^r- 

Eillara  whole  in  all  staj??*.  Fully  fifty  8[x<<'iM3  of 
inls  ore  now  known  to  ft-ed  on  the  ditrurent 
stayea  uf  the  destruc- 
tive pipsy  niiith.  Kly- 
cutchors.fiwall'tws.iiifir- 
lins,  swifts,  and  nijiht- 
hawks  c^tch  mainly 
in!»ecls  in  flight.  The 
kinglnrd  and  jihdiLiti  are 
smony  the  nwst  eoti- 
fliicuaus  useful  (1y- 
catchi-rs  a  boot  the 
furm.  The  pbisbe  often  nests  about  baildin;^  or 
nnler  bridges.  U  fe>}da  on  a  variety  of  [^e-^tt, 
amiMif;  them  the  iinpurted  elm-Ieiif  U^etle,  Uie 
stripn")  cucumlwr  beetle,  cankenvormw,  L'Ut-worm», 
bruwn-tail  nioth«  and  fcip-^y  tnothH. 

ThekinKhinl  is  somftimt-jt  rvgardud  as  an  enemy 
by  bee-keepera,  but  stomach  examinations  show 
that  the  bees  e-.iU?n  are  mainly  drcmos,  and  the 
birdH  dutroy  roblwr  flies  and  other  inject  enemie>4 
of  be«e  as  well  as  injurious  May  beetles  ("Juno 
bogs"),  weevils,  clicic  Iwetlfi*.  gnts^li uppers, 
crickels,  honso-fiies,  cattle-flio^,  leaf  hoppi-rs  and 
injuriiius  buga  and  moths.  As  it  aho  drivea  hawks 
and  erifws  away  from  the  poultry-yard,  it  may  be 
oonsidi*roil  one  of  the  farmer'^  best  allien. 

Swallows  arv  valuable  everywhere.  The  com- 
mon bam  swallow  and  the  cliff  (or  eaves)  swal- 
low, which  find  nestinR-places  either  in  or  on 
buildinjfR,  nnddiihtedly  siave  the  farmer  many  dol- 
lani  by  destmying  in.'iects  that  would  utherwiso 
greatly  dtjcreaiie  his  jjrasa  cmp,  Tho  purjde  mar- 
tin taken  many  huiwe-Hieti,  horse-flies  and  injuri»H.-» 
garden  injects. 

The  thrushea  fe«d  much  on  the  j^uund-fre^iuent- 
in^  iridectH  in  spring  and  fall,  but  subsist  largely 
on  fruit  (particularly  wild  fruit)  during  the  mum- 
mer. The.'Kmenraii  ridiin  is  the  most  useful  of  all 
American  thrushes,  fur  it  hiw  bt'eome  half-domes- 
ticated about  the  farm  and  fe«!«in  mainly  in  culti- 
vated gruunilH,  taking  groinid-bectlwii,  cutworms 
and  white  grobs  in  numl)ers  that  possibly  no  other 


Fii.  Itt.    Kinxblid. 


bird  can  eqoal.  The  blut-bird  is  second  in  useful- 
B«n  to  the  robin,  hut  is  not  dwtrnctive,  like  the 
robin,  U»  cultivated  fruit. 

Sparrows  are  reganltd  ae  sewl-eatera  ;  but.  with 
the  exception  of  the  hoose  sparmw,  comnmnly 


known  as  the  "Rnglish  Hparniw,"  they  all  feed 
mainly  on  irise<'t.s  during  the  sprinj;  and  early  Bum- 
mer, and  they  favA  their  young  in  the  nest  almost 
entirely  on  insects.  The  insects  taken  Jire  chieHy 
either  injurious  or  neutral  in  character  and  very 
few  u.-ieful  specify  are  eaten.  Sjiarrows  arw  very 
fond  of  thit  seeds  of  wet-rhi,  and  tliey  feed  chiiuEly  on 
aeeda  in  the  fall.  winl«r  and  early  spring  m-inth.*. 
They  eat  ven,'  little  cuUivated  fruit,  and  not  much 
grain,  and  as  a  family,  are  of  great  benefit  ta  the 
fnrmer.  Tlio  introdnced  "Knglieh  sparrow"  is  the 
only  species  regarded  as  .1  pest. 

Ifirdi  (if  prep. 

The  binls  of  prey  are  in  many  cases  valuable 
aiibt  to  lh«  fanner.  The  owls  are  thought  to  he 
among  the  must  bL-nelirial  of  all  bird*.  Tliey 
destroy  many  injurious  ni^hl^flying  iasettK  and 
numbers  of  caterpillars  that  escajie  the  diurnal 
birds  ;  but  their  siipiual  function  is  to  hold  in  chock 
the  increase  of  the  smaller  noiitnmal  or  crepuscular 
mammals.  The 
hawk»  are  nearly 
as  a»efut  as  the 
owls  in  this  respect. 
In  c't-rtnin  regintis 
of  England  and 
Si!:otInn(l,  where  the 
hawks  and  owb; 
have  U'en  nearly 
driven  out,  field 
mice  or  voles  have 
increa.'ied  from  time 
to  time,  destroying 

crops  and  pa-siurt-.  In  auch  casea  their  progrt'^s 
has  been  stayeil  at  l.^.■*t  by  migrating  hawks  and 
owls  that  have  usAembUid  from  other  regions. 

Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher,  of  the  United  Slates  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  examined  the  stomach  contents 
of  about  y.7t)0  hawks  and  owls,  and  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam,  Chief  of  the  Division  of  Ornithology  and 
Mammab>gy.  siaya  of  the  results  of  this  investigation : 
"ilnly  sis  nf  the  seventy-three  species  and  .'fub- 
»i:>eci»)  of  huwks  and  owls  of  the  United  States  are 
injurious.  Omitting  the  six  species  that  feed 
largely  on  poultry  and  game,  2,212  stomachs  were 
examined,  of  which  56  per  ccntcontaini'>d  mice  and 
other  smt\]  mammals,  27  per  cent  insects  and  only 
lU  per  cent  [multry  and  game  birds." 

Bird  dfpmlationt. 

The  injury  dune  by  binis  is  confined  to  a  few 
species,  but  they  sometimes  causa  considerable  loss 
to  the  fanner  or  fruit-grower.  The  greatest  dam- 
age attribute'l  tobirdi^  in  any  section  of  the  United 
Station  h  that  inflicted  on  the  rice  crop  of  the 
southern  .-\tlantic  seaboard  by  Mndinks  and  black- 
birds, which,  under  the  name  of  riee  bird.^,  cause 
an  annual  deficit  of  nearly  lf2.()no,(NK)  in  the 
planter's  crops.  HIackbirds  often  commit  depreda- 
tions in  other  parts  nf  the  country,  either  by  pick- 
ing up  grain  from  newly  sown  fields,  or  by  attacking 
the  standing  grain.  The  dwlructiveneSB  of  crows 
in  the  C'^n-field  hiuj  liecome  proverbial.  Sometimes 
individual  fruit^gruwers  suffer  considurable  losii  by 


Pit.  157.    SUteiMloieJ  Juaco. 


172 


BIRDS   IN   THEIR   REUTIONS   WITH  AGRICULTURE 


the  depredatSoTi  of  crows,  robins,  catbirds,  cherry 
birds,  orioltig  and  a  few  other  species.  All  thcw? 
binla  are  more  or  lesa  useful  to  the  f;irmer.  and  the 
problom  that  the  fniit-jirowftr  fact's  is,  not  how  to 
destroy  the  birds,  but  how  to  protect  thu  croiw  and 
spare  the  birds. 

71c  prt^tvtwn  ofcmp*  anti.  potUtry  from  bird  dcfrrr- 
i/fifwnx. 

Thifl  problem  hiw  never  yet  been  fally  solved  nor 
ha»  its  solution  been  more  than  ca^^unlly  attonipt4.-d 
by  any  t!ion>iJnliIy  ci>m]»et«nt  inv[^*tiyat<)r.  Still 
BomethinK  has  beeo  douu  in  thi«  directiun  by  prac- 
tical farmers. 

Crows  are  prevented  from  pnllinir  up  young  corn 
by  either  tarrinp  the  st^ed,  planting  it  deeply,  acat- 
tflrinp  soak^  corn  over  the  field  to  attract  atten- 
tion from  the  yaang  plants,  hanging  streainers  of 


increaae  their  numtiers.  If,  with  little  trouble  and 
expense,  he  caa  make  hiij  fanrLsteail  attractive  to 
the  more  valuabte  spocies,  he  may  bu  able  to  lure 
to  it  nnd  maintain  on  it,  more  birds  than  it  would 
oriJinarily  support,  — particularly  if  he  is  willinn; 
to  proviiie  them  with  a  little  inexpensive  food  to 
tide  them  ovt-r  hard  plarwi.  In  tbia  way,  he  may 
aecuni  on  his  own  land  thit  full  tii^neHt  of  the  aer- 
vicos  of  birds  aa  insect-  and  weed-destroy  era. 

Food  is  the  magnet  which  will  attract  all  spe- 
cies. A  diversity  of  vepetation  will  provide  a 
variety  of  insect  and  vegetahlo  food.  It  is  impor- 
tant that  KTOvetf  and  thickets  should  be  left  about 
tliB  farm  fnr  binl  shidters  and  insect  refiiKRS.  The 
jfrowth  of  esiKtinR  fruit-hfaringlreeH,  shrulis  and 
vines  may  be  encourafiud,  or  others  may  hv  planted 
ert[>ecially  for  the  birds. 

Nearly  nil  wild  fruits,  except  a  few  of  the  most 


Pic.  iss. 
For  wrau  or  Um  sw^ows. 


MjE.  isa, 
EUb  bUd-tioaK. 


Viz.  iw. 
Bftrk  bin-tUHiae. 


fix.  IGl. 

Blrcb-barlc  box. 


PlC.  lU. 
Box  wjtb  illdins  tnmt. 


cloth  fn)m  twine  strung  about  the  field  on  poles,  or 
Dsint;  various  scare-crows  or  effijiies. 

I'eraons  who  plant  cherry  treea  may  asually 
secure  immnnity  for  the  fruit  by  planting  nearby, 
at  the  same  time,  trees  which  War  a  fruit  that  the 
birds  prefer  to  cherries.  The  Russian  mnlberry 
olTt-ra  the  beat  protection  for  early  fruit,  antS  will 
succmhI  in  miwl  parts  uf  the  t^m[mrate  zona.  Plant 
inys  of  mulK-rry,  buekthornT  elder  and  chokchurry 
may  serve  to  prott-et  raspberries  ami  blackberries. 
H.  A.  Surface,  ^tate  Zoologist  of  PennBylvania. 
says  that  strawberries  and  other  berrie-s  may  i>e 
protected  by  planting  swoet  early  fruiLt  which  ar« 
left  to  ripen  on  the  vines  fi>r  the  birds.  When 
no  «»ther  meLhiHt  is  availatdu,  small  IkmIs  of  stniw- 
U^rries  and  small  churry  trees  may  be  covered  with 
smali-mcahod  fish-net,  when  the  fruit  i«  about  to 
ripen. 

Young  chickens  may  he  insured  against  the 
attacks  of  hawks  by  covering  with  porbiMe  run- 
ways i)f  fine  wire  netting,  wbirh  may  beset  on  grass 
land  ami  niovw)  often.  ChickenH  are  romparativLdy 
safe  whurever  kingbirds  or  purpltj  martins  breed 
about  the  farm-yiurd,  as  these  birds  drive  hawks 
Bway.  Some  hawks  are  frightened  away  by  guinea 
hens.  A  pair  of  o^ipreys  or  fish-hawks  nesting  near 
a  farmhouse  will  keep  other  large  hawks  away. 

311*  eneonrftganent  of  u»eful  Inrdi  m  the  farm. 

11  ifl  important  to  the  farmer  to  be  able  to  pro- 
tect  the  useful   birds  about  the  farm  su  as  to 


[KiiFonouB,  are  eaten  by  birds,  and  many  that  are 
not  considered  edible  are  not  disdained  by  them. 
Fruit  which,  like  the  berries  of  the  barberry, 
juniper,  Bomnc  and  smila.K,  remains  on  the  plant  in 
fill  and  winter,  is  a  goilsend  to  the  birds  in  times 
iif  fitntw.  Many  of  the  winter  sparrows  may  be 
gathered  about  the  farm-yard  by  scittering  on  tha 
ground  a  supply  of  chatf  and  hayseed  from  the 
barn  floors.  This  feeding  should  be  begun  in  the 
fall  anil  continued  in  some  ojien  «hed  with  a  south- 
ern exposure  when  the  deep  snows  of  winter  cover 
the  ground.  A  sf^ratcliing-shed  for  poultrj"  is  an 
idi-at  j)laii(!  as  a  shelter  and  feeding-ground  for 
small  seed-eating  birds.  The  birds  thus  fed  will 
(^jteiid  most  of  Llieir  time  during  fall,  winter  and 
early  spring  in  searching  for  and  eating  the  seeds 
of  weeds  about  the  farm  and  garden.  The  insect- 
eating  winter  birds  may  be  tolled  to  the  orchard 
by  tying  on  the  tn^es,  in  shelterwl  placKS,  bits  of 
fluet,  and  bcmtv  with  shre«ls  of  moat  attached. 

!f  thiwe  prectautions  are  taken  in  the  fall  and 
rontinue*)  throughout  the  winter,  many  bird«  will 
Ihi  altra*':ted  by  them  and  will  remain  wherever  the 
eggs  and  other  hibernating  forms  uf  insects  are 
plentiful  on  the  trees.  Orchanls  may  sometimes  be 
nearly  freed  from  native  [lests  by  this  method 
alone ;  but  some  of  the  more  recently  introduced 
insects  seem  to  enjoy  a  greater  or  less  immunity 
from  the  attacks  of  native  birds. 

There  are  many  attractive  bird-faods  that  may 
be  used  in  winter ;  among  these  are  the  weds  of 


BIRDS  IN  THEIR  REMTIONS  TXTTH  AGRICULTURE 


173 


hemp,  snndover  and  Japanese  millet,  brc-iui  crumbs. 
dougbnuU  or  cruUere  and  natt*.  In  tlni  wintt-r, 
piM«8  of  suet  or  fat  meat  (iinsalted)  may  lie  tieii 
ID  trMA  to  feed  the  small  woudpeck^nt,  rhiok»4li-t!!fl 

and  nuthulchcH.    But 


:^:^J::i. 


\, 


Pic-  lu. 
Phwbe's  nnt  la  shed. 


a  variety  ol  food  ia 
not  80  necessary  as  is 
a  supply  of  coal-a-thea 
or  sand,  which  furn- 
ish the  mineral  mat- 
ter that  the  .iBed-eat- 
ing  birds  re<[uiro  to 
grind  thuir  fwHl. 

One  rciijton  for  a 
scarcity  of  certain 
birds  is  a  luck  of 
snitabit;  nostiag-places  in  th^?  hoUnw  trnnks  or 
limte  of  trees.  To  attract  these  birds,  some  of 
wUch  are  among  the  must  valuable  insect-t^atini; 
flpecies,  it  is  only  necewary  to  put  up  suitable  nest 
rewptacles.  Thfse  may  be  made  of  small  wuodcn 
boxes  or  tin  cami,  with  an  entrance  in  each  near  the 
upper  or  outer  end.  This  hole  should  he  one  and 
one-half  inchei  in  diametor  for  bluivbirds,  one  and 
ooe-foiirth  inebes  for  chickadeet^,  about  one  inch  for 
wrenauid  two  or  more  inchw  for  other  larger  birds. 
The  above  dimensions  are  mch  hs  will  barely 
allow  the  entrance  of  the  iipeciea  mvntionud  in  each 
CEK-.  and  will  keep  out  most  of  its  enemiea.  Those 
who  Would  cater  to  unusnal  visitors  may  hear  in 
mind  that  a  flicker  or  a  scrooch  owl  will  renitire 
an  entrance  about  lhre«  inches  in  diametiT.  while  a 
wood  duck  wilt  n»e  an  openin?  five  inches  in  width. 
The  sl»  of  the  box  U  not  material,  i)rovided  only 
that  it  is  larp:  enough,  but  thu  entrance  should  ho 
BO  high  above  the  bottom  of  tho  box  that  the  ciit 
cannot  reach  in  and  claw  nut  the  yonng  binls.  If 
the  box  be  not  so  constructed,  it  should  be  so 
placed  a.*  t«  be  inacoMslblu  to  this  arch  enemy  of 
the  btrdti.  To  be  most  UMfui,  a  neKtini;-hox  should 
hive  the  opening  turned  owiiy  from  prevailing 
storms,  and  should  be  protected  by  a  tight,  over- 
hanging roof.  Its  bottom  should"  not  be  tight 
enough  to  hold  any  water  that  might  chance  to 
drive  in.  The  box  should  be  »o  situated  as  tu  Im 
hv  sbaiJed  in  the  hotter  part  of  the  day,  and 
the  entrance  should  he  made  aoceesible  hy  means 
of  a  hingeil  or  removable  door,  slide  or  cover, 
8o  that  the  box  may  ha  readily  cleaned  and 
unde-sirable  tenants  may  bo  speedily  evicted.  All 
the  above  conditions  miiy  be  met  without  any 
expense  by  the  use  of  worn-out  utensils,  such  as 
milk  cans.  coffee-potA,  tea-kettles,  or  fruit  cans 
slightly  altered  for  the  purpone. 

Suitable  and  ornamental  boxes  mar  be  made  of 
the  bark  of  the  elm.  chestnut  and  birch,  all  of 
which  arc  desirable.  The  bark  may  be  easily 
remored  in  Jane  from  a  frej<hly  cut  sapling,  cross 
MCtioos  of  the  trunk  may  be  used  for  the  bottom 
ud  top  of  each  box,  and  the  roof  may  be  covered 
and  protected  by  tin.  Bine,  or  hark  (See  Fig».  l.'ii). 
160,  161).  The  elaborate  "architectural"  hounes 
thai  one  often  wes  are  not  appreciated  by  the 
birds,  nnr  are  tbey  always  in  good  taste ;  but  they 
arv  scnriceable  for  pnrple  martimi. 


Openinj^  through  which  swallowa  can  come  and 
go,  should  always  Ih;  left  in  all  barnti.  If  the  raft- 
ent  are  si»  smnoLh  us  l^i  offer  no  pointa  of  attach- 
ment fur  the  nests,  cleatd  should  be  nailud  up  hero 
and  thLTe.  Kaves  gwallows  wilt  not  neat  on  painted 
barti^  unless  a  ledge  or  ctuut  is  placed  on  the  onter 
wall  beneath  the  eavca.  Little  tmys  or  shelves 
may  be  put  up  in  sheds  to  accommodate  the  nests 
of  rohinM  and  phtpbes,  and  it  is  well  to  hang  tnil 
tow  cotton  or  string  fur  the  use  of  such  birds  as 
orioles,  vireiw  and  fly-catchers. 

Honeysuckle,  hvi  balm,  salvia  and  most  trumpet- 
shaped  flowers  invite  the  humming-birds,  which  are 
destructive  to  minute  insects  and  T,hey  assist  in  fer- 
tilizingiowers.  Gunners,purticularly  boy3,and  bird- 
shoj>ting  foreigners,  should  never  he  allowed  about 
the  home  grounds,  the  garden  or  orchanl.  t'ats, 
birl-hawks,  snakes,  crows  and  jays,  English  spar- 
rows or  si]uirrel«  Ihul  have  the  bird-nesting  or 
bird-killing  habit,  should  be  summarily  dealt  with, 
and  children  shonld  i»  taught  to  care  for  the  birds 
and  not  to  molest  them. 

Literature. 

Headers  who  desire  mure  detailed  information 
are  referred  to  the  report  on  "  Useful  Birds  and 
Their  Protection."  hy  the  prej^ent  writer,  issue*!  liy 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  .\griculture  in 
the  year  IWT  ;  Weed  and  Dearborn,  Birds  in  Their 
Relation  to  Man,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company  (1003). 


^^a^ 


^ 


^  "5^ 


■,.ft.-J!V     I  •   — ■•  ^:- 

Flf.  1A4.    Oedu  Uida  Htlni  cioittr-woiBt. 

Nomerous  bulletios  treat  of  this  subject,  nota1>le 
among  which  are  those  of  the  State  TVpartment  of 
Agriculture  at  Harrisbnrg,  Vennsylvania,  und  of 
the  Bureau  of  [liol^gical  Survey,  [fnited  States 
Department  of  ,\gricnltiire.  Among  the  latter  may 
be  mentioned  the  following  bulletins:  No.  1,  The 
English  Sparrow  in  North  America,  W.  B.  Harrows ; 
No.  3,  The  Hawks  and  Owls  of  the  I'nited  States  in 
Their  Relation  to  Agriculture,  A.  K.  Fisher;  No.  l.">. 
The  Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture.  Sylvester 
D.  Judd  ;  No,  17,  Birds  of  n  iMaryland  Farm,  a 
Local  Study  of  Economic  Ornithology.  Sylvester  D. 
Judd :  Farmers'  Bnlletin  No.  54.  Some  Ommon 
Birds ;  C.  F.  Hodge,  in  Nature  Study  and  Life. 
(Jinn  &  Co.,  devotes  three  interwsting  chapters  to 
economic  bird  study  and  bird  protection  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  teacher. 


PART   II 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 


ETerjr  imporUot  animal  affords  material  for  one  or  more  manufactured  product*.  These  produeU 
■re  of  several  ulaHseM  or  kimls,  a*; :  Diretit  fresh.  f«Ml  pn>f}iicts,  tlie  ]f.irta  being  unchiuiged  in  chiir- 
actor,  as  meat,  o^gs,  milk;  pri'sorvod  natural  food  products  of  many  kinds;  manipulated  or  munu- 
faetureil  food  pnniiicUt,  in  which  Ihe  orijjiiial  form  ia  riidically  rhiinj;«i,  iis  butter,  chiMwe,  lard; 
clothing  priMlucta,  as  leathior,  wool-fahrics,  !n«hiiir  ;  fertilizer  products,  as  hone  flour,  tankage ;  soap 
products  ;  many  inciduntal  or  secondary  materials  used  in  the  art,-i,  as  bone,  horn,  ylue,  leather,  ivory. 
It  woiild  ho  interesting  to  make  a  catalogue  of  all  tho  manafactared  or  manipulated  prtHiicts  of  the 
animals  described  in  this  book.  If  the  lidt  were  at  all  complete,  the  raider  would  le  astonished  to 
know  the  extent  to  which  we  depend  for  our  well  being  on  the  common  animals  of  the  fields.  W« 
depend  on  common  thingi;  for  thtr  n^Kceiwitiefl.    Exotica  are  mostly  luxurit^  or  amenities. 

The  manufacture  of  many  of  the  animal  products  ties  closer  to  the  farm  than  the  mannfacture 
of  cro]>  prcKlucts.  Thi«  m  particularly  true  "f  butter  and  cheeHe,  the  manufaiiture  of  which  ia  so 
very  cliwely  associated  with  agriculture  itself  that  the  subject  is  now  a  recognixed  part  of  tho 
curriculum  of  all  mwlern  colleges  nf  agriculture.  On  the  cri.»p  side,  there  are  ny  recogniwd  manu- 
facturing pha.«es  n<t\v  in  the  colleges,  although  some  of  them— particularfy  the  manufacture  of  fruit 
products— must  soon  find  a  place  in  thcinc  institutiont;.  There  Is  probably  no  manufacturing  business 
in  any  college  or  univ^en^ity  that  has  now  reached  a  higher  development  than  the  making  of  dairy 
producta;  and  this  manufiicture  is  extending  beyond  cheese  and  butcer  to  icecream  and  special 
lines  of  milk-beverages.  On  tht.-  farming  side,  the  skimming  stations,  creameries  and  cbeefe  factories 
have  become  au  uccepteil  part  of  the  agricultural  development  of  great  regions,  and  their  influence 
pxtends  far  into  the  social  phases  of  country  living.  There  is  no  other  agricultural  manufacture  that  w 
profoundly  moililjes  agricultural  pnictice  or  rural  naHociation.  In  a  vt-ry  important  way.  these  institutions 
proi'ide  local  centers  that  check  the  outlook  to  the  town  or  city.  'Dierit'  U  now  a  marked  tendency, 
however,  toward  the  consolidation  of  this  manuf&ctoring  into  the  larger  centers,  leaving  the  isolated 
establishments  to  he  only  scattered  collecting  stations,  with  a  less  vital  social  interest.  On  the  ottwr 
hand,  there  is  also  a  tendency  in  many  parts  for  g<iod  h*^mi-dairying  to  develop  a  new  effectivenaw, 
with  improve<l  machinery  and  appliances  and  new  ideals  of  sanitary  cleanlinoss :  and  in  certain  regions 
the  milk  is  coming  to  be  separated  at  home  and  only  the  cream  tiiken  to  the  factory  or  station,  thus 
decreasing  haulage  and  keeping  the  skimmed  milk  on  the  farm.  These  various  tendencias  will  have 
marked  effects  on  the  home. 

In  general,  the  manufacture  of  animal  products  is  nut  agricirlture,  anil  therefore  no  complete 
account  of  it  is  due  in  a  bonk  like  this  {'yclnpcdia.  In  fact,  the  factor>'  making  of  cheese  and  batter 
is  usually  delegated  to  men  who  are  specially  trained  and  who  are  not  farmers.  Many  of  the  dairy 
students  in  the  colleges  of  sgricoltare  are  not  farmers  hnt  fictorymen.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the 
making  of  cheese  and  butter  is  also  a  home  fanetion,  a  somewhat  particular  account  of  this  business 
may  rightly  be  expected  here. 

With   the  incroaae  of  competition  and   the  rise  of  constructive   intelligence,  the   utilization    in 
manufacture  of  waste  and  secondary  products  will  become  more  and  more  importanL    In  the  great, 
abattoirs,  the  otilizing  of  the  animal  carcus  has  arrived  at  great  perfection,  but  it  is  not  so 
smaller  establishments  nor  on  farms.    As  with  cropa  so  with  animals,  a  use  must  be  fonnd  for  ever 
thing,  else  it  will  not  be  profitable  to  grow  the  animal.   The  farm- management  plans  will  b«  modtfit 
"by  the  higher  development  of  manufacture  or  utilization  of  animal  products. 

In  the  old  days,  every  we II -developed  farm  e-stablishmeiil  dependeii  un  itself  for  its  animal  pnwl-j 
ucts^ — its  snltcd   and  smoked  moats,  masages  and  head -cheese,  tallow  and   lard,  soap,  the  tannin| 

(174) 


.V.v, 


DAIRY   PRODUCTS 


175 


of  hides  and  the  inakirg  of  Bhoes  hy  the  travt?!inu  or  the  village  shoeraalter,  anfl  the  spinning  of 
woo!  and  weaving  of  cloth.  Tbe  iLiy  of  homespun  has  passed,  and  n  m-w  economic  and  simmuI  order 
Im  come  in.  Manafacture  has  gone  farther  and  farther  from  the  place  of  pnxluction  of  the  raw 
materials.  It  is  probable  that  wv  Eihall  see  a  return  movetneiit  in  some  of  the  nwnuf actons  a^ide 
from  milk  products.  Wt-  may  hope,  at  all  events,  for  a  return  of  the  home- preparing  of  meaw,  with 
biiprovvmt>nt«  on  the  oH  practicen  in  the  way  of  lens  i:;ii)t  mttaL  and  of  greatiT  variety.  ThH  light 
powur  and  refrigeration,  whlirh  are  gradually  coming  on  the  farms,  will  aid  this  work. 

Unfortunately,  there  appear  tc»  have  IwiL-n  few  studitai  of  theae  BubjeiHB  of  mttnufaciture  and 
cooperation  in  thin  country  in  their  agricultural  relations.  The  literature  is  scattered  and  .ipi'cial, 
partly  of  the  recipe  order  and  partly  of  the  technical  commercial  manufacturing  order.  Thy  next 
ten  or  twenty  years  \a  likely  Co  Bee  much  change  to  this  condition. 


CHAPTER   VIII 


DAIRY  rUODUCTS 


P^Wi^HE  MILK  OF  THE  t'OW  IS  f>NT=:  OF  THE  FC.VDAMENTAL  NECESSITIFi!  of  our 

I  present  civiliRation.    With  greater  attention  being  given  both  to  iLs  proiiuction  and 

9m     I  to  it8  manipulation,  its  uae  i^  vastly  incroasing.    The  milk-pniiiiicing  imJui^try  haa 

■  1    ^L         elemenlfl  iif  Btability  that  many  other  rural  indaatriea  la(^k.    It  has  the  cumttancy 

and    regularity  of  all    bimineHR  that  rentn  on  fiimlamental   and  daily  demand.    It 

now  i«  comparable  with  the  bet-f  industry,    .\ninials,  in  recent  times,  have  been 

more  developed  in  milk  -  producing  pfiwer  than  in  flash- producing  power. 

The  advance  in  modern  dairyinjj,  however,  is  k-s^  marked  in  the  increaso 
in  production  than  in  the  careful  attention  that  is  beginning  to  l)e  given  to  cleanli- 
ne^.  The  mere  statement  of  this  fact  conveys  little  idea  of  its  great  significance, 
for  cleanlineas  in  trilk-producing  and  marketing  in  vastly  more  than  mere  tldinena 
in  the  wnrk.  U  ib  corteerned  with  the  letwening  uf  bacteria,  au  well  ad  of  dirt,  in  the 
milk,  and  it  therefore  rests  on  rational  pcienlific  proccdnre.  It  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that,  of  all  toenh  widely  u.«ed  for  human  conpumption,  milk  has  been  produced 
and  handled  in  the  most  uncleanly  way,  considering  the  fact  that  it  ia  amenable  to 
contamination  and  capable  of  propagating  germ  life.  Cows  and  stables  and  sur- 
HUlet'«  duTMr  rnunilinga  are  cnmmonly  unclean,  the  animals  are  unclean,  and  often  the  man  himself 

is  unclean.  The  milk  is  exposed  to  contaminatiivn  in  uncli>an  canit  and  to  dual  and 
germs  from  the  air.  It  ia  likely  to  be  carelcnwiy  handled  over  and  over  again  in  transit  and  in  market, 
in  unclean  carx,  unclean  booths  and  by  un^-lean  men.  Finally,  the  consumer  himself  has  not  been  in  the 
habit  of  exerciaing  any  special  care  to  protect  the  milk  from  contamination.  All  this  w  the  error  of 
nobody  in  piirticular,  for  we  have  been  in  ignorance  of  the  facts.  This  condition  is  certainly  not  the 
fault  of  the  farmer,  for  he  has  been  as  careful  as  dealers  and  consumers  ;  and  milk  has  always  been 
erroneously  regarded  by  purch^uwra  as  a  cht>a]i  product. 

Tbe  demand  for  clean  milk  i»  the  direct  rpjtult  of  the  study  of  dairy  buctoriology,  following  studica 
Id  Euope  within  the  past  twenty-five  years,  and  in  this  country  beginning,  pt-rhaps.  twenty  years  ago. 
A  "Report  on  the  Dairy  Industry  of  Denmark"  by  C.  L".  Georgeswn.  published  in  1803,  by  the  nationnl 
Department  of  Agriculture,  calteil  widn  attention  to  the  imprnving  dairy  practice  of  that  country.  In 
Ibe  name  year  (189.1)  a  cummitlee  of  phyuirians  nf  Essex  county.  New  Jeraey,  entered  into  an  extensive 
contract  with  Stephen  Francisco,  a  local  dairyman,  wheroby  it  agreed  to  certify  to  the  ijuality  of  bis 
milk,  that  was  to  be  produced  under  rigorous  control  and  Inspection.  The  term  "certified  milk"  (pagi- 
I8t3)  originated  with  Henry  L.  t'oit,  a  member  of  this  mt-dical  conunission.  and  it  was  copyrighted 
by  Mr.  Franciaco  to  protect  the  term  from  Iwdng  degraded  by  dairymen  not  in  contract  «'ith  a  similar 
oommiaaion  ;  but  it  was  distinctly  und<Ti<to(Hl  that  the  term  should  be  allowed  to  others  without  question 
when  it  shall  be  employed  by  medical  milk  cotnmissioitK  organiied  to  Inlluence  similar  milk-production. 
The  term  In  now  defined  by  statute  in  New  York  state.  Tho  Walker-Ooniitn  Laboratnry  Company,  of 
New  York  and  other  cities,  adopted  the  term  "guaranteed  milk"  for  their  product,  which  wm  produced 


1T5 


MILK  AS  A  MARKET  PRODUCT 


under  rigtil  con>JitIo»K  of  eontrul.  Thu  popular  result  of  all  the  offorU  for  buUi>r  milk  is  expressed  in 
the  term  "clean  milk,"  which  means,  in  a  (general  way,  a  product  in  which  the  new  ideas  of  clesQliDeeA 
and  control  are  put  in  operation.  A  paper  by  R.  A.  Pearson  on  "  Market  Milk :  A  Plan  for  lis 
Improvement."  pabliahed  in  U'OO  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  brought  the  new 
id«'jw  and  pra^^ticeti  prominently  and  nlTkially  Iwfore  the  public.  There  are  now  ab(njt  twenty-five 
medical  milk  eommisaiiaw  in  thu  llniU-'d  Status.  In  mtist  casL's,  these  exercise  BupGrvinioii  over  only 
one  dairy.  The  Kationiil  Association  of  Mcdbal  Milk  CommiBsions  waa  orfianiKc-d  in  1907.  In  the 
aamc  yuar,  first  steps  were  taken  to  or^i^nize  an  a.saociation  of  curtiRed-milk  produceri. 

While  [;reat  improvement  in  sanitar>'  conditions  of  dairies  ia  l>eint;  made  without  actually 
increasing  the  money  cost  of  milk  production,  yet  these  improvemenls  deserve  money  recognition 
and  will  command  it.  Wh^n  sanitary  improvemenU  ara  carried  to  the  point  re«iuirod  by  milk  com- 
missiona,  it  ia  expectt^l  that  the  producer  will  rweive  two  to  three  times  the  ordinary  price  for  hi.4 
milk.  We  ahall  be  forwd  to  reacljuat  our  scale  of  values.  Milk  has  not  aold  for  its  full  value  as  a 
fooil  product.  Tho  bacterial  content  is  the  best  meai^ure  of  the  condition  of  cleanliness  of  milk. 
The  New  York  commission  enforces  a  standard  of  not  more  than  30,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 
The  Philadelphia  commi^ftion  holds  the  stanilard  at  10,000,  but  allows  two  or  three  re-examinations 
whun  the  count  is  fouud  to  be  excetwive. 

It  is  probable  that  the  hacteriii)o;;icruI  stodi'OA  that  have  expressed  Lhem.^lves  in  the  new  idea.<<  of 
oteanlincss  are  destined  to  have  (greater  effect  on  agricultural  practice  than  any  other  single  Kerie»  of 
inve-ttigations.  They  have  already  developed  a  wholly  new  point  of  view  and  new  practices  in  modes  of 
liviag  in  both  town  and  country. 


MILK  AS  A   MARKirr  PHODUCT 

By  Rnymnu-d  A.  Pearmn 

Milk  is  the  natural  f<)(*d  of  the  young  of  mam- 
malia. It  ia  secreted  in  the  mammary  glands  of 
the  female  parent  during  a  more  or  less  extended 
period  after  parturition.  The  milk  of  cow«  ia  exten- 
sively used  in  commerce,  and  the  milk  of  some  other 
animals  is  thus  useil  to  a  limited  extent.  The  milk 
of  goat3,  ewes,  and  bulfakjes  iy  commonly  used  as 
food  in  some  southern  European  countries.  Mares* 
milk  is  uai'd  in  Russia,  aaees'  milk  in  southwestern 
Europe  and  in  Cuba  ;  the  reindeer's  milk  'm  u«e4  in 
the  Bub-arctic  regions,  and  it  i*  reported  that  in 
gome  parts  of  Spnin  .-sow.s'  milk  is  u.-*ed  a^  a  human 
food,  l^xcept  when  otherwise  stated,  thifl  article 
lias  special  reference  to  cows'  milk. 

According  to  the  Ijwt  cc-nsu^,  in  IS99.  there 
were  17,IH0.()T4  milch  cows  on  farnm  in  the  United 
St!Jt«!(,  and  they  produced  in  that  year  7,26S,;i92.- 
C74  gallons  of  milk.   It  is  estimated  that  about  58 

Eer  cent  of  this  was  used  in  making  butter,  on  the 
asis  of  ten  quarts  of  milk  for  one  pound  of  but- 
ter :  4  per  cent  was  used  for  making  cheese,  on  the 
ba^is  of  ten  pound;^  of  milk,  or  a  little  lei's  than 
five  quarts,  for  one  pound  of  cheese:  5  percent  was 
used  for  rearing  calve* ;  li  per  c&nt  waa  used  fur 


making  condensed  milk  at  the  rate  of  four  to  one ; 
IJ  per  cent  for  making  cream;  30  per  cent  waa 
used  as  market  milk,  on  the  basis  of  an  average 
daily  per  capita  consumption  of  .6  of  a  pint. 

The   a/mpiMition   of  milk. 

As  milk  ia  a  complete  food  for  the  young,  it  has 
all  the  food  constituents  necessary  for  the  nourish- 
ment of  the  young.  The  table  shows  the  composition : 


OanitltiMniB 


Fat.  .  . 
Ctupjn  . 
.Mbutneit 
Sugnr .  . 
Ash.  .  . 
Water     . 


Qunnlilrln 


40 
2.fi 
0.7 
B.0 
0.7 
87.0 


Eilt-ni  nf  varU 

tlou  In  normal 

>ntU 


2.6  8.0 

2.0  3.6 
0.6  0.9 
4.0-6.0 
0.6-0.8 
84.0-8S.0 


Flc-  1M>    RsUCt**  ptopatliMt  Ol  UI  ilvbolee  Id  Civun.  vrbole  mUk  and  aJdniEiMd  milk. 
•.eraint  ft.  wbi»l«  nlllii  c.  •lUmtusd  milk.  Ulglilr  maiialflrO 


fa(.— Fat  in  milk  is  in  the  form  of  minute  glob- 
ules, having  a  diameter  of  i^^rin  to  j^'an  of  an 
inch.  These  float  about  In  Ihu  milk,  forming  an 
emulsion.  When  highly  magnified,  Uk-sb  fat  glob- 
ules may  be  easily  peen.  In  any  milk,  many  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  globules  are  found,  but  it  is  notice- 
able that  the  average  size  of 
globules  in  Jersey  and  Gnem* 
sey  milk  \a  much  largor  than 
the  avurage  xize  of  globules 
in  the  milk  given  by  other 
breeds.  As  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  fat  is  .93  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  milk  is  about 
I.O-l.  the  fat  globules  always 
It'iid  to  rise.  They  are  more 
or  less  entangled  by  other 
constituents  of  the  milk,  and 


MILK    AS  A   MARKET   PRODUCT 


177 


great  numbers  of  the  amallefit  ttized  K^obalea  {ait 
to  rvach  the  top,  or  the  cream  layer.  (Fip;.  IBii.l 

The  mcmt  variabb  conjititucnt  in  milk  w  fat,  and 
tbe  following  aru  «ome  of  thw  chiof  reasons  why 
the  quantity  of  fat  dilTerA  in  ilitTerent  tnilk^  : 

(1)  Breed  of  tows.  The  analj'rti','*  of  large  nair.- 
ben  of  samples  of  milk  ipvvD  by  difTcrent  breeds 
hare  been  made  by  the  Xew  York  A(;ricu[tural 
Gxperimont  flotation,  and  tbe  averages  of  fat  for 
the  different  bruud«  art- : 

Holatein-Prpifiian S.i 

AyrsUre 3.(> 

Shortborn -I.-1 

Dotob 4.6 

dunwey 5.3 

Jpfsey £.6 

(2)  Individual  rows,  even  of  thn  namii  IitvikI, 
diffiT  widely  one  from  another.  For  examplL':  it 
frv<|uently  happens  that  Hi>laU.>in  cows  (>ivu  niilk 
tbat  t«8U  'I  per  cent  fat  or  better.  I'hiiti,  some 
itraiiu  or  familiefl  of  cow^  are  somctinies  developed 
within  a  breed. 

|S)  The  hjtnffth  of  period  preceiling  milking. 
Exptfrimentg  mhnw  th^t  the  milk  takfn  after  the 
shorter  period  between  milkinpf  is  sH^htiy  richer. 

14)  Morninff  oroveiiint;  milk.  Other  tl)inf;s  being 
equal,  the  milk  will  more  frequently  be  found  to  be 
richer  in  the  morning  than  in  the  evening. 

{5)  The  portion  gf  the  milk  lei^teH.  The  first 
milk  drawn  from  the  adder  testn  I<jw  in  fat,  while 
thjlaat  containaa  larjte  amount  of  fat.  The  differ- 
ence may  be  rm  great  aa  1  to  10  per  cent. 

(•j)  The  time  in  lactation  [leriod.  (lenurally  the 
rii'hne.v  i)f  milk  falla  off  ultghtly  a  few  weeks  after 
tbe  calf  ifl  hnra.  and  then  steadily  increasM  to  the 
fnd  of  the  lactation  periiid. 

17)  Age  of  the  cow.  Although  there  art?  mnny 
HcoptioDa,  it  is  customary  fur  the  milk  to  be 
slightly  lees  rich  after  tho  second  or  third  period 
of  lactation. 

(8)  The  health  or  nervous  condition  of  the  cow, 
cs'jfled  by  the  condition  of  the  weather,  nr  other- 
wise, ako  neemii  to  tiffect  the  amount  of  fat  in  the 
milk.  The  percentage  of  fa^  may  fluctuate  between 
wide  limit;^  in  case  of  Rickne«». 

Milk-fat  ifl  a  mixture  of  several  different  fats 
which  ar»  combinations  of  glycerine  and  fatty 
■ciiU.  Tile  principal  fnlii  and  their  proportion  in 
milk-fut  aru  as  follows : 

PerMmt 

PalmttlA 40 

01»lB 34 

Mymtin 10 

Botyrin 6 

A  fvw  others  rarj  fmm  1  to  S  per  cent  Meh. 

Batyrin  »  the  characteristic  batter-fat,  and  is 
absent  from  butter  sulmtituteH,  Kuch  a.>4  oleomar- 
garinet.  The  melting  tMiint  of  milk-fat  in  alnmt 
^Fahr. 

Xitrvgaunu  anutituentu  nf  milk.  -Casein  ciin- 
ItitatM  about  80  per  cent  in  this  Krou;i,  albumen 
about  18  per  cent,  and  other  con.stituentH  the 
remaining  2  percent,  (a)  In  normal  milk  ca-'^ein 
Bxista  as  very  small  gelatinous  particles  in  sus- 

C  12 


]>eDsion.  It  id  In  comb!natton  with  calcium  in 
some  form.  This  constituent  is  coagulated  by  the 
enzyme  rennet  or  by  mineral  acid.  Casein  is  used 
in  the  following  ways :  (1)  Ai  food,  in  milk  and 
bererages  made  therefrom.  (2)  In  cheese,  the  man- 
ufacture of  which  dei>erds  on  the  precence  of  casein. 
<.'!}  In  special  proprietary  food  preparations,  (-t) 
In  the  manufacture  of  paints  and  paper-tizing. 
(■'i)  In  making  mucilage  and  cement.  (6)  As  a 
substitute  for  horn  or  ccdluloid.  in  which  condition 
it  is  known  as  "galalith."  (7)  As  a  dressing  and 
color-fixing  milium  in  the  textile  industry. 

(b)  Aihumett  is  pro-ient  in  milk  in  small  quantity 
in  solution.  It  resembles  the  white  of  egg,  and 
U  coagulated  by  exposure  to  heat  from  l.'>7°  to 
170°  Fahr.  The  ajwcific  gravity  of  the  nitrogenoua 
constituents  ia  I.iUG. 

.Sujjar.— Sugar  is  in  solution  in  the  water  of 
milk.  It  i»  culled  Incttffie  or  milk-sugar.  It  is  the 
most  abundant  constituent.  Its  quantity  fluctuates 
less  thjin  that  of  other  constituents  above-men- 
lione^l.  Its  ftpecifi*:'  gravity  in  I.tHiO.  Milk-sugar  is 
e.'Etracted  from  whey  by  concentration,  by  means  of 
evaporation  in  tiicun,  and  crvKtallizatiuti.  It  is  un^ 
largely  fur  coating  pills  and  proprietary  foods.  It 
is  usixl  also  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  explo- 
sives. Hy  its  di^'onipoi<ition,  which  is  due  directly 
or  indirectly  to  bacteria,  milk-sagar  forma  lactic 
acid.   Thus  — 

C,  iH«0|  I  +  HiO  =  4C;.H^3  (lactic  aoid). 

There  is  very  littli-,  if  any,  lactic  at-id  in  iierfeclly 
fresh  milk,  but  soon  it  liegins  to  form,  and  "sweet 
milk,"  on  reaching  the  market  or  the  factory,  com- 
monly contains  .1  to  .2  [wr  cent.  When  milk  con- 
tains about  .3  jKT  cent  lactic  acid,  the  sour  taste 
be-gint*  to  Im  noticeable.  Under  condiliims  favor- 
able for  bacterial  growth  the  acid  increasex  to 
about  .A  per  cent,  when  tho  bacteria  ceaiito  to  act 
because  of  the  large  amount  of  acid  surrounding 
them.  If  some  uf  the  acid  is  neutralized  by  the 
addition  of  an  alkali,  the  bacteria  become  active, 
and  mf>reacid  is  formed  by  the  breaking  down  of 
more  niigar  until  the  limit  i»  again  renched.  Ljictic 
acid  it)  eKtti«ntial  for  certain  dairy  manufacturing 
processes. 

Ask. — This  is  mineral  matter  which,  in  normal 
milk,  is  pretMtnt  in  the  form  of  a  solution,  or  in  i^ua* 
pension.  Milk-nsh  conBists  of  chlorids  and  phoa- 
phatee  of  sodium,  potassium,  cilcium.  and  magne- 
sium. It  cunt^iins  also  tracer  uf  iron  oxtd.  Its 
spocific  gravity  is  <I.12.  Ash  is  a  most  important 
constituent  uf  milk  when  used  as  a  human  food. 

Wu/cr.— Milk  contains  87  per  cent  of  water. 
This  need  not,  be  considerL-d  an  excessively  large 
quantity;  it  is  not  oqual  to  the  amount  of  water 
in  certain  fruits  and  vegotnbleip,  and  it  is  hsvi  in 
(lu.intity  than  the  combiniil  water  and  waste  of 
some  of  our  favored  meat  UkxU, 

&>me  phusicfU  properties  <^  nilk. 

Other  than  those  mentiimed  in  connection  with 
the  composition  of  milk,  the  folluwing  physical 
properties  an.*  impnrtont : 

(1)  The  »pec{fic  grapitjf  of  average  milk,  or  the 


AS  A  MARKET  PRODUCT 


relation  between  its  weight  and  the  woiplit  of 
an  eqaal  quantity  of  water  at  39"  Falir.  ia  1.032. 
This  varies,  however,  frequently  between  1.030  and 
1.034,  and  occaflionallv  the  specific  gravity  of  nnr- 
ma!  milk  goea  slifihily  b*yond  thase  limits.  The 
nfwcilic  uravity  depends  on  the  quantity  and  rela- 
tive amounts  of  fat  and  solids  not  fat.  the  fif>ecific 
gravity  of  the  fat  being  .['3.  and  of  the  solids  not 
fat  1.6IG.  When  the  fat  has  been  retn'>ved  in  the 
form  of  cream,  the  specific  gravity  is  raised  to 
about  1.03^. 

(2)  'Thefrttzing  poini  of  milk  is  31"  Fahr.,  and 
its  boiling  point  ia  practicallv  the  same  afi  that  of 
water— 212^  Fahr. 

(3)  Milk  is  moft  eoncentrated  at  31"  Falir.,  ita 
volume  slightly  increasing  with  tlie  ri»e  of 
temperature.  HJchmond  gives  the  relative  volumes 
of  a  milk  (in  glass)  having  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.032  and  a  fat  test  of  3.8  per  cent  at  different 
tAniperatures  a^  follows : 

Tcmpnmlnr* 
Pnhtvnholt  TAlnmit 

31" 1.00000 

40" 1.00041 

50° 1.001i4 

W 1.00229 

70° l.O0«72 

eO= 1.O0&49 

Rich  milk  expandn  more  than  poor  milk. 

UWi  (ftir. 

Among  the  older  milk  testa,  deacriptions  of 
which  are  found  in  the  old  ttxt-books  on  dairying. 
is  the  cream  gauge.  This  is  a  plain  glfiiw  pylinder. 
intii  which  a  rnvnuturfd  iguantity  of  milk  ii^  placf^ 
and  allowt^l  U>  Klaml  ijuietly  until  the  cream  layer 
bocomes  distinct.  This  test  is  uHod  to  a  limited 
extent  loiliiy.  It  is  ci^nveniitnt  for  the  huusehold, 
but  it  iR  not  accurate,  and  for  commercial  piirpof<«-a 
has  little  value.  The  reason  for  ita  inaccuracy  lies 
chiefly  in  the  fact  that  the  cream  riwes  more  c<)m- 
plntely  on  iHime  milk  than  on  (tthf-rn,  and  in  Hume 
ciseB  the  cream  laywr  is  much  miirf  rich  or  hi-avy 
than  in  other  caset*.  h^nw  th«  (junntily  of  cream 
nhiiwingon  different  milks  cannot  bo  fairly  codh 
pared. 

Certain  optical  tesU*  have  heen  morp  or  less  used. 
^leee  tests  include  the  pinscnpe,  and  F(-ser'.s  lacto- 
HGope.  In  these  t*KitA  the  IranAparpncy  of  the  milk 
was  suppoHeil  in  indicate  its  quality.  Thi>  pitti^coiiH 
ron«i«ta  of  a  black  nihb«r  di»ic  with  a  flhallow  depnw- 
Hwn,  surrounded  liy  a  raiHwl  ring  about  the  situ?  of 
a  twt-nty-five  c«?nt  pk-ci',  in  the  center.  The  aurface 
of  the  robber  outride  uf  thi.'  circle  is  divided  into 
several  part?,  L-ach  coming  agninet  the  central  cir- 
cle, and  the  different  parts  showing  diffen-nt 
ehfulefl  c»f  white,  from  a  dark  gray  to  very  light. 
These  different  Hhades  are  marked  to  imlicat^ 
I*r('*nta;gk«or  fat.  A  few  droiw  of  milk  are  plat-cd 
in  tlm  center  and  covered  with  a  small  platw 
of  glass,  lit)  shade  is  compared  with  those  surround- 
ing it.  and  its  percentngt-'  of  fat  is  PUppof*ed  to  he 
the  same  as  the  percentage  marked  im  the  outside 
division  whoHe  nhade  mtmt  rl(Xt«ly  currmpondH. 
This  teat  ia  inacpunitf,  l><>caua>i  thu  richnetw  uf  milk 


does  not  vary  directly  with  it«  transparency.  For 
example :  a  email  amount  of  fat  in  the  form  of 
very  small  fat  globules  causes  more  ohKcurity  than 
a  large  amount  of  fat  in  the  form  of  large  globules. 


f. 


M\ 


'i»s^ 


PU.  166.  fisnd  sep«»uii  adjpted  to  fann  ufe. 

The  InctOBCope  depends  on  the  same  principl 
A  meajtnred  quantity  of  milk  iit  placed  in  a  gfii 
tube  haviiigau  inni^r  part  on  which  th«re  are  bl 
marks.    The  milk  covers  the  inner  [lart,  and  water* 
is  added  nntil  the  marks  can  be  seen  faintly.  The 
qnantity  of  wat«r  is  suppoei-d  \,y>  indicate  the  rich- 
ness f>rtheniitk.  This  instrument  also  io  inaccurate., 
but  it  ia  used  to  a  limitw)  extent  by  in.*ipeclon». 

About  twenty  y«arfi  ago,  when  the  pystem  of 
buying  milk  at  factories  was  lieing  rapidly  devel- 
o|iml,  it  V>McamL'  nwH-tsfviry  Ut  havi?  a  rjnirk  and 
accumtv  method  uf  tt^cing  milk  for  its  fat  content. 
Chi-niists  worked  diligt-ntly  on  this  problem,  and 
nnmeruus  ingenious  te*it«  were  devifted.  These 
include  the  lactobutyrometer,  Soxhlet's  method,  the 
De  l^aval  lactocrite.  Fjord's  cwnlrol  apparatus,  and 
the  methiMls  of  Failyer  and  Witlar^l,  Parsons,  ?*at- 
rick,  Cochran,  Beimling,  and  Habeock.  i^ome  of 
these  test*  were  quite  siilisfftt-tory,  but  iu  this 
country  the  ItalicotTk  lest  has  practically  replaced 
all  of  the  othL'rs  because  of  its  rapidity,  accuracy, 
inexpensive  apparatus,  and  simplicity.  It  has  been 
widely  adopted  also  in  some  other  countries.  This 
teet  WHS  brought  out  by  Doctor  Stephen  Monllon 
Rabcock,  a  native  of  New  York  slate,  formerly 
lustrnctur  in  Chemistry  at  Cornell  University,  tlhdv. 


MIT.K   AS  A   MARKET  PRODUCT 


179 


:;C4=;i:ri.'m 


Chemist  in  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  and  since  1SS8.  Professor  of  Ajjricultunil 
Cbemifltry  in  tlic  TJniversity  of  Wisconititi. 

The  Babcttck  nuttiod. — In  thij!  tiwt,  a  mt?EiKiirH(l 
sample  of  milk  \*  tnixt'd  with  strong  sulfuric  acid, 
which  dis£Dlvc£  all  oi  tim 
milk  cormdtufcnts  i>x(-vi?t  ihv 
fat.  The  mixturu  of  milk  and 
acid  is  then  nulijected  to 
centrifugal  force,  by  which 
the  fat  IK  M-parntMl  from  the 
huavy  liiiuid  and,  afttT  the 
addition  of  watftr,  thu  fat  i^ 
brought  into  a  part  of  lh« 
bottle  where  it  C4in  bo  quickly 
measured.  The  ontirt)  tost 
can  lie  mad«  in  6ft«cn  to 
twenty  minuteA.  It  )»  h  t^st 
which  should  ba  UiU'd  evnn 
more  widely  Ly  milk  buyers 
and  tho»e  who  have  author- 
ity in  connection  with  milk 
inspection,  a^  well  as  by  pro 
ducvrs  th4>mA>I%'t'(%. 

in  detail,  IIh^  Uvt  is  mfu\f 
u  follows :  The  milk  Ut  Ik 
iampM  is  thoroughly  nii.ted 
by  pooring  It  sL-vt-ral  limes 
from  one  vessel  t4i  anottier. 
By  means  of  a  milk  pipette, 
nr  measure,  gnuluiiU-d  U>  hold 
XiJo  c(!.,  thi«  quantity  of  milk  \f.  transferred  to  a 
special  form  of  bottle,  which  hiu^  a  capM^tv  of  a 
little  mort<  than  one  imiiue'anil  a  hmg  neck  with 
graduations  or  per  cent  marks  from  tl  lu  10.  The 
cnbic  capacity  of  the  nt-ck,  from  0  to  10.  is  exiu-tly 
2  cc.  This  iR  the  volume  of  1.8  grams  of  fat,  which 
is  the  Bohstance  to  be  measurpd  on  the  scale.  .-Is 
the  Imttle  ia  no  grailuaU^I  ih:it  l.>i  grnms  r^pro- 
HDta  10  per  cent,  it  if  m-treH.'uiry  to  iihr  a  sample 
weighing  ten  tim**  as  much,  or  IS  grams,  and  it  \a 
foiBnd  that  the  17.0  co.pipette  will  deliver  apftnixi- 
mately  this  weight  of  milk.  There  is  then  adde<] 
17i.5cc.of  concentrated  commercial  sulfxiric  acid. 


ns.  ie7.    Milk  JjT  for 


to  the  baiie  of  the  neck.  It  is  then  whirled  two 
minutes  and  more  hot  water  is  carefully  addud  until 
Che  fat  rises  in  the  neck  so  that  it  is  opposite  tho 
graduations.  The  sample  is  then  whirled  one  min- 
ute, to  injure  collecting  as  much  fat  as  posnible  in 
tho  neck.  Whilfl  the  fat  is  still  warm,  its  ^wreeatage 
is  a.scertainei!  by  re;iding  tbe  marks  at  its  upper 
and  lower  levels  and  taking  the  ditfercuce  bi-tweL'a 
them. 

Tha  cost  of  a  small  complete  outfit  for  testing 
milk  is  si.K  to  ten  dollars,  and  one  may  be  purcha^^ed 
from  almost  any  dairy  stiiiply  house.  An  outlit 
compK^tt!  is  ehown  in  Fig.  HIS, 

The  iieriier  mHh'tti  of  teatirig  milk  for  fat  is  iiseil 
extensively  in  Germany  and  IJcniiiark,  and  is  found 
occaainnally  in  this  country.  It  differs  but  little 
from  the  Beimling  method.  This  te^t  depends  on 
Lhf  same  iirinciples  as  the  llabeock  test.  A  -imaller 
(|uaritity  of  milk  is  Ubteil  for  the  sample,  and  amyl 
aleohol  is  addod  bt^idea  suifurie  acid.  Tlie  amyl 
alcohol  has  tlio  elfe^l  of  assisting  tu  u  clear  sujki- 
ration  of  the  fat. 

Text,  for  formaldfhyde. 

Formaldehyde  is  sometimes  used  as  a  preserva- 
tive of  milk,  although  this  is  unlawful  in  moat 
states.  The  general  objef^tions  tti  proservativwa 
ubt;iin  in  Ihia  case,  and  a  further  objection  to 
formaldehyde  is  Lbiit  it  ruudurs  the  easuin  in  milk 
inisolubie,  and,  therefore,  k-ss  digestible.  Hchner'a 
test  for  formaldehyde  is  exci-eilingly  delicate.  It  is 
sensitive  for  our  part  of  formaldehyde  to  two  hun- 
drwl  thous-ind  parts  of  milk.  This  test  is  as  folhfWH  : 
To  a  ft'W  cubic  et-ntimeUTK  of  llie  suHpertud  milk 
adil  a  fow  cubic  centimeters  of  concentrated  com- 
mercial ftulfuric  acid,  and  pour  this  in  carefully,  bo 
that  it  will  fallow  the  side  of  the  glass  coatainer 
to  the  bottom,  not  mixing  with  the  milk,  but  form- 
ing a  di.stint't  biyer  under  it.  If  a  violet  color  is 
noLiiuwi  where  the  two  lii|uid8  come  together,  for- 
mahlehyde  is  indicated;  otherwise,  there  will  lie 
no  ctdor,  or  a  dark-cubirud  layer,  Iwtween  the  milk 
and  acid.  In  this  tent  the  acid  should  contain  some 
iron-salt,  as  is  usually  the  caae  with  oommarcial 


pi(.  IV.  Bibcock  iMt  ouciit. 


having  s  «pecilic  grai-ity  of  1.82  to  1.51.1.  The  acid 
and  milk  are  mixej  by  a  rotary  motioa.  The  a*::ion 
of  th«  acid  on  the  wat«r  and  solids  of  the  milk 
lp.'neratescDnsiderablelleat.  The  sample  is  promptly 
placed  in  a  c«ntrifagal  mnchinf  and  whirled  for  live 
ninattti.   Hot  water  is  then  aflde<t  to  bring  the  fat 


acid.  To  make  sure  of  this,  however,  a  little  ferric 
chlorid  mar  Ik*  used. 

7W  far  borie  aeul  or  borax. 

These  substances  are  .sometimes  mad  Mjnnt' 
ratives.  Van  f!tyko  describes  a  simpla  tflet  88  f(d- 


180 


MILK  AS  A   MARKET  PROUUCT 


lows:  Add  lime-water  to  25  cc.  of  milk  until  the 
nixture  i»  Alkaline  :  evaporate  Co  Jryness  and  burn 
to  an  ash  in  a  amall  porcehiin  i>r  pljitinim  dieh. 
Add  a  fuw  iropA  of  tiilutf-  liydnM-hliiric  ackl  tu  the 
ash,  cart!  beinu  takim  nnt  tn  !!«•  Inn  much  acid, 
then  add  a  fL-w  drmiis  of  water,  and  [ilaee  a  strip 
of  tumtirit;  paper  in  thia  wate^r  Bolutiun.  Dry  thp 
pHI>er,  and  if  (-ither  borax  or  boric  acid  ia  [>rt«ent, 
a  cherry-re(l  coli>r  wi[]  appear.  Thiri  teat  ia  con- 


h  i 


.i:ii.;' 


Vtt.  169.    Msnn's  add  test  ontAt. 

firmed  by  moiatening  the  reddened  paper  with  a 
drop  of  an  alkali  solution,  when  the  paper  will  turn 
to  a  dark  olive  color,  if  borax  or  boric  acid  U 
present. 

Trst  frrr  aaal-tar  dye*. 

Van  Slyke  aUo  degcribea  a  test  for  this  form  of 
milk  adulteration.  Add  10  cc.  of  milk  to  10  cc.  of 
strong  hydrochloric  acid,  and  mix.  A  pink  color 
appears  if  coal-tar  dyee  have  been  used. 

Tat  far  boUed  milk. 

It  is  sometimufi  desirable  to  determine  whether 
milk  has  been  subjected  ti»  17G°  Fahr.  or  higher 
boat.  A  succojwful  test  haj«  been  devised  bySt«irch. 
To  5  cc.  of  the  »UM,puctiil  milk  add  a  few  dnips  of 
potassium  iodid  and  a  similar  quantity  of  starch 
solution,  also  a  few  dropf«  of  hydro)^<n  pi>r»xi(1. 
If  the  milk  has  not  heen  cwked,  an  enzyme  which  is 
present  will  decompost  the  hydrogen  peroxid,  set- 
ting free  oxygen.  This  combines  with  the  p<'itas8ium 
salt  and  thus  iodine  \a  in  turn  set  fnw  and  with  the 


starch  it  forma  a  purple  color.  If  the  milk  has  been 
heated  so  that  the  enzyme  is  kilted,  no  color  will 
result. 

Another  test  for  cooked  milk  is  given  by  Arnold, 
a»  followH:  Tincture  of  guaiac  in  added,  dn>p  by 
dnip,  U)  a  little  milk  in  a  teHt-tube.  If  the  milk 
lias  nut  liwn  heated  to  ITfi"  Pahr.,  a  blue  zone  ia 
furmed  betwuen  the  two  fluidM.  If  it  ha«  l)«en 
huatt'd,  there  is  no  rouction.  The  guuiuc-wuiid 
tincture  is  said  to  tje  more  reliable  than  other  tinc- 
tures, and  it  shtmld  not  be  used  when  fresh,  but 
when  at  least  n  few  d.ivH  old  and  its  potency  has 
been  determintnl. 

Te9t  for  arid. 

It  is  nut  practicable  to  iwiUte  lactic  acid  from 
milk  and  muB.-iuru  it  aa  milk-fat  \s  moaaured.  But 
its  iiuantily  can  be  easily  determined  by  slowly 
adding  to  a  known  quantity  of  milk  an  alkali  of 
known  strength  until  all  the  acid  is  neutralized. 
The  neutralization  is  indit-atetl  by  phennlphthalein 
which  wa.')  previously  added  t»  the  milk  and  which 
ciUiie^  the  milk  to  turn  pink  aa  soon  a»  it  liegin.o  Lo 
show  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  is  cuntomury  (Hann'a 
test.  Pig.  199)  to  use  deei-rtormai  alkali  solution. 
1  cc.  of  which  will  neutralize  .IXRI  grama  of  lactic 
lacid.  The  equipment  includes,  Itesides  the  neutrai- 
izer  and  phenolphthalein,  a  burette  for  measuring 
the  neutralizer,  cup  and  glass  rcid.  If  20  grams  of 
milk  i.s  used  and  it  reqnireit  4>  re.  of  alkali  tn  neu- 
tralize the  acid,  it  is  known  thut  the  milk  contains 
6  X  .009  or  .054  grams  i»f  lactic  acid  or  :Z1  per 
cent,  .'\ikali  tablets  ( Karri ngton's),  each  capable  of 
neutralizing  .0:^4  grams  of  acid,  are  on  the  market. 
They  may  be  used  in  solution  instead  of  the  deci- 
normal  solution.   (See  page  211.] 

Thr  laditmetfr. 

As  the  specific  gravity  of  milk  is  markedly 
changed  when  it  is  adulterated  by  the  addition  of 
water  or  the  removal  of  cream,  the  lactometer  is 
an  important  ini«trument  tu  indicate  such  adultera- 
tions. It  is  of  little  use  if  both  kinds  of  adultera- 
tion hare  been  practiced  on  the  same  sample  of 
milk,  as  the  increase  in  weight  dua  to  removal  of 
cream  can  be  offset  by  the  addition  of  water,  which 
is  lighter  than  skimmed  milk.  In  connection  with 
the  Babc'wk  t««t,  the  lactometer  is  most  valuable, 
and  Several  formula  are  in  qm?  by  which  the  solids 
not  fat  or  the  total  solids  of  milk  may  be  closely 
computtd  from  the  specific  gravity  and  the  fat  test. 

The  lactomeUT  is  a  form  of  hydrometer  adapted 
t;st>ectally  for  use  in  milk.  Several  styles  are  in  use. 
the  Quevenne  (Pig.  170)  being  the  most  convenient 
because  its  rejulings  indieato  the  ttifecific  gravity 
withoat  the  necessity  of  more  than  a  simple  mental 
calculatinn.  The  readings  on  the  stem  of  the  Que- 
venne lactometer  aro  from  l.'i  to  40,  and  they 
represent  the  second  and  third  decimal  figures  of 
the  specific  gravity,  the  preceding  figures  always 
being  1.0;  thun,  a  reading  of  29  represents  a  spe- 
cific gravityof  1,029.  Thisinstmmenti'hooldbenseJ 
in  milk  at  a  temperature  of  tiO"  Fahr.  If  the  t«m- 
pt-rature  varies  therefrom  a  correction  of  the  read- 
ing muHt  1>e  made,  .1°  being  added  to  the  reading 


MARKET  PROI 


for  wch  decree  of  temperature  of  the  milk  abnve 
60",  or  thf  0]>p(wiU>  if  the  temiHralure  is  Ik-Iow 
60".  Thus,  if  the  lactometer  reiulH  3L  at  a  tein- 
peratareof  6S°,  thecorrecteil  ri*aiiinK  for(i()"  wimld 
be  :'1.5.  srwi  the  iii)eciric  jtravity  uf  this  milk  at  (iO° 
would  \)G  1.0HI5.  Spocsal  talik-a  fur  niakiiiR  corrtic- 
tiws  for  dilfercnt  tompcraturt-s  are  pobli^hiid  in 
h(M>ka  truatinjT  on  the  subject.  Hy  the 
ru)e  given,  it  is  not  advisatile  to  attempt 
to  correct  for  a  variation  of  more  than 
10"  from  60"  Fahr. 

AnothtT  style  of  lactometer  in  com- 
mon use  is  known  as  the  New  York 
Board  of  Health  lactometer.  ItftRnwiu- 
ations  are  frnm  10  to  liiO.  Thi*  instru- 
nent  stands  ai  1(K)  in  milk  having  a 
specific  gravity  of  l.Olii),  and  it  would 
stand  at  0.  if  ijradnated  to  that  point, 
in  a  fluid  having  a  specific  pravity  of  1, 
Thus,  it  has  10<J°  with  the  same  value  as 
Zi*"  on  the  Qaeveniie  lactometer,  and  it 
is  a  simple  matter  to  compute  thee<iuiv- 
alent  reading  of  one  lactometer  for  any 
given  reading  on  the  other  by  the 
forraaU : 

.29 


Q  =  .29B(.f  H,  ur  Bdf  H 


Computirif}  Uitnl  tdidA  nf  milk. 

Babcock  and  Hichmond  have  proposed 
formula}  for  computing  the  total  solids 
of  milk.  OntJ  of  the  bfst  13  : 

^-t-1.2F  +  .I-l  =  total  solids. 

L  repreaenta  the  second  and  third  deci- 
mal fignrea  of  the  Bpecilic  gravity,  or 
the  Qnevenne  reading,  and  F  repredents 
the  per  cent  of  fat.  Thi^  formula  is 
Qsed  largely,  and  for  practical  purpoat^s 
agreea  clowly  enough  wiih  results  of 
gravimetrii;  analysis. 

Frodurtion  of  milk. 

The  production  of  milk  involves  two 
large  qawitioiiis— the  cost  of  production, 
and  the  quality  of  the  milk.  The  fir^t  is 
chivlly  a  matter  of  the-  t-fficLercy  of  thu 
cowfi,  and  the  aecoitd  is  chiedy  a  matter 
of  rltfanlinej>».  It  in  now  recoi^nized 
that  any  healthy  cow,  in  normal  condi- 
tion, gives  milk  that  w-  whole.'tome.  Cows 
of  different  hreeiU  have  their  renpeotive 
advnntagOH,  hut  thew  an-  not  ro  great 
bvtwwn  the  Itiiading  dairy  hreedn  a«  id 
popularly  »iippo«i«d.  A  matter  of  larger 
imporlano)  to  mo«t  dairymen,  in  the 
proportion  of  good  dairy  hlood  in  their 
cows.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  thip.  a»  well 
as  the  lack  of  good  care,  there  are  many  unproRt^ 
able  cows.  It  in  often  stated  that  onti'-fourth  or 
one-thini  of  th«  dairy  cowh  throughout  the  country 
are  kept  at  a  lotM — that  itt,  the  valine  of  their  milk 
is  Iwn  than  the  valoe  of  their  feed.  Thcru^  arc  no 
official  figorvfl  to  coalinn  this  statement,  but  there 


Fli.  170. 


are  a  large  number  of  unofficial  figorea,  which  are 
reliable,  and  which  do  show  a  very  large  proportion 
of  cows  to  be  "roliliers."  Some  euch  may  be  found 
in  most  hprda.  When  ihey  are  given  giKiti  fet-d  and 
care,  and  with  thitte  lulvanliiges  HtJIt  fail  to  pro- 
duce profits,  they  should  be  quickly  disposed  of. 
In  recent  years,  an  important  feature  of  dairy 
development  in  districts  where  comjxvtition  is  moat 
keen  ha.s  been  the  formation  of  cow-test  associ- 
ations, the  chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  see  that 
the  production  of  each  cow,  and  the  value  of  food 
C'jnsumf<i  by  each  cow  in  the  herds  of  the  members, 
are  carefully  recorded  for  the  year.  With  the  accur- 
ate information  thus  provideti.  it  is  posaible  for 
owners  to  dl'![x>se  of  the  poorest  cows,  and  statis- 
tics show  that  they  do  this,  with  the  result  that 
the  avL-ragu  yield  per  cow  and  the  average  profit 
per  cow  have  increased.  The  most  progrcM  along 
these  lines  has  been  made  En  Denmark,  where  the 
valoG  of  cow-test  associations  is  widely  recognized. 
The  movement  is  nuw  extending  «I«wly  to  Canada 
and  the  United  States. 

But  a  great  many  individual  dairymen  are  learn- 
ing the  value  of  individual  cow  records  and  they 
are  taking  advantage  of  this  (K^3t-known(  help  to 
develop  a  herd  of  good  milkers.  No  judge  can  pick 
out  the  cows  of  a  herd  in  the  order  of  their  own 
value  as  milk-producers,  as  a  record  will  enable 
one  to  do. 

The  only  requirements  are  a  spriog-ba lance,  a 
sheet  ruled  for  dales  and  cows*  names,  a  lead-pen- 
cil, and  a  mitk-testing  outfit.  For  practical  pur- 
poses, it  is  sufficient  to  weigh  the  milk  only  one 
morning  and  evening  per  week,  and  from  thesw 
weights  compute  the  total  milk-yield.  It  is  soffl- 
cient,  also,  to  make  a  composite  wimple  tcM  only 
once  in  two  weeks,  for  computing  the  fat-yield.  In 
many  dairies  the  milk  of  each  cow  is  weighed 
twice  daily.  Not  a  few  dairymen  have  begun  by 
making  occasional  records  of  their  individual  cows, 
and  have  found  this  so  satL^factory  that  they  wgot 
thu  rwf^ords  as  complete  a*  possible. 

At  the  present  time  there  i.'^  a  widespread  and 
increnfiing  demand  for  cleaner  milk.  Thin  demand 
comes  from  thnwe  who  are  manufacturing  butt&r 
and  cheese,  but  more  c-^pecially  from  milk  con- 
sumers in  cities  and  towns,  and  is  shown  chiefly  by 
thu  enactment  of  laws  and  ordinances  demanding 
specific  Lmprovenuents.  Some  of  these  improve- 
ments can  he  put  into  effect  at  low,  or  no  extra 
cost  on  the  part  of  the  producer.  Others  are  less 
easy  to  provide.  All  of  them  require  more  intelli- 
gence than  is  needed  in  the  production  of  ordinary 
dirty  milk,  and  for  this  reason,  if  no  other,  the 
jidoption  of  sanitary  improvements  in  dairies  should 
be  rewarded  by  some  increase  of  the  selling  price 
of  thii  mill(. 

In  the  production  of  sanitary  milk,  the  different 
points  to  be  carefully  safeguarded  may  be  grouped 
under  five  headings: 

(I)  The  fret  is  the  health  of  the  herd.  An  ani- 
mal  that  is  diseased  is  likely  to  give  nnwholesome 
milk.  Her  milk  may  contain  germs  of  diseam, 
whether  the  disease  is  established  in  the  udder 
tisAue  or  cot.  Tuberculoals  is  the  pKncipal  disease 


182 


MILK  AS  A  iLlRKET  PHODrCT 


that  caiiaes  troublo.  It  (luvclopa  in  an  instldirtus 
manner  and  cannot  always  bo  recopnizwi  by  phys- 
k-al  HX.iminati<ins.  Many  progressive  cattle-i>vim*'r8 
now  HRiiiepL  tht!  i<t-j<^ntinc  te»chinf;  thnt  the  tiext 
ratithud  to  aKsurv  u^in^^t  the  presunce  ot  lulwrru- 
tiMis  in  a  htird  is  tu  duin-nd  on  tht»  tubt'rculin  Ltwt 
tjiago  13(j).  It  should  bu  applied  by  a  compeU-nl 
veterinarian,  at  intt'rvals  of  one  or  two  yt-Jin*, 
and  oftener  wht'n  there  ia  a  tipt^cial  reason.  An 
animal  HntTi'ring  from  tuWrciilnsiirt  should  be  isola- 
ted fruiD  tha  remaimler  iif  the  hi^nl,  Ixwauae  nf  tht» 
dartgur  »f  IhiH  animal  tu  thH  ulhen;,  a»  wbII  an 
bt'caufiit  tha  milk  may  Iw  infMClwl.  Othur  di3ua«K8 
to  which  cowa  ara  aobjt-tft  are  niort*  or  less  oornmon, 
but  they  are  easily  pecognizc-d. 

Fur  the  protection  of  the  health  of  the  herd,  it 
is  important  l-o  provide  an  abnmlance  of  light  and 
ventilation  tii  the  stable.  It  han  Uwn  altempteH  to 
formulate  riilea  for  thufin  eH8t>nti»l»,  but  thii»  far 
no  better  riitus  have  bwn  prot>»>.'«!d  than  that  the 
cow  stable  Hhall  have  as  niuvh  dayli^it  as  lliu 
dwellinE-hoTiae,  and  it  should  be  mo  well  ventilated 
that  the  air  will  at  no  lime  be  oppressive  tu  one 
who  enters  frum  oiit-ofnloorB. 

The  cjuality  nf  fowl  and  watf*r  may  have  an  effi>ct 
on  the  health  of  the  cows,  and  tfiuH  imlirertly  on 
the  value  of  the  product.  KKpecialty  must  can?  by 
tak(-n  to  avoid  foods  that  are  not  in  wholesome 
condition,  such  an  certain  by-product«  of  breweriea 
and  distilleries  when  these  are  allowed  to  remain 
wet  and  hecfime  considerably  fermentetl  before  use. 
It  in  necessary,  also,  to  avuio  j^ivin};  any  elnglo  foixl 
in  excessive  quantity. 

(2)  Tliem*cond  ruqnirement  for  the  [production  of 
sanitary  milk  i»  cleanliness  of  the  cows  and  their 
purronndings.  This  implies  a  reasonable  dL-gree  of 
scientific  cleanliness  in  the  stable.  The  stable  and 
cows  must  be  rlraned  freiiiientiy,  bwt  not  jnst 
before  milkin[;timu,  whi^n  the  air  »ltnuld  be  kept 
as  free  as  p-jssibte  from  duBt,    It  is  well  to  clip  the 


Pin,  la.  iJicotdionrrnilUniui  poil;  tbe  "milt  luttlc."  which  (^.tkc*  ^Eood 
BuU-top  mUkinji  poll,  411(1  umo  wUh  low  ind  bieb  viton.  furtlm  to  rsdoco^Up 
>t  opMlflK  tbioufb  whlcb  dlit  may  fall. 

Ion}:  hairs  from  the  udder  and  surrounding  partot. 
A  common  mistake  is  to  allow  the  stable  air  to  bo 
filleil  with  dust  of  hay  or  other  dry  fi-eds  jnst  before 
milking.  The  small  particles  of  dnst  carry  enor- 
moaa  numbers  of  bacteria,  which,  falling  intji  milk, 
find  satisfactory  conditions  for  rapid  growth. 

At  the  C-ornell  Agrictiltural  Exi»«riment  Station, 
it  was  found  that  more  than  r»,00(),(XX)  bactvria  fell 
into  an  Ojwn  milk  can  when  it  was  exposed  seven 
minutes  in  a  st^tbte  in  which  the  air  dii]  not  contain 
an  excessively  large  r|uantity  of  dust.  It  was  shown 
also  that  a  large  amount  of  contamination  by  bac- 


teria occurs  from  fnie  [)articl«!i  of  dirt  dropping 
from  the  udder  into  the  pail  at  Iho  time  of  milking. 
When  the  adder  and  surrounding  parts  were  wiped 
with  a  damp  cloth,  contamination  from  this  source 
amountivl  to  less  than  four  per  ci^nl  of  what  it  was 
when  the  udder  had  bi^n  carelrawly  brushwl  before 
milking.  A  fly  falling  into  thu  milk  may  introduce 
as  many  as  1.0U0,0(.H)  organisms.  A.  cow's  hair 
was  found  to  carry  '2f\,iMJ0  bacteria,  and  a  small 
piece  of  bay  that  dni'pped  from  the  cow's  body  was 
found  to  carry  more  than  !-*>U,OfK')  bacteria. 

(3)  Tht^  tbinl  ntiuifi'ment  rvfurs  to  the  utensils 
ancl  their  care.  They  should  K-  cotistructeil  in  such 
a  way  as  to  matie  cleaning  easy.  This  demands  free- 
dom from  sharp  corners  and  cracks,  and  places 
that  can  not  he  reached  by  a  brush.  They  should 
be  sterilised  after  cleaning,  an  operation  that  is 
usually  neglected.  At  the  Cornell  Agricullumt 
Kxperiment  .Elation,  old  milk  wfis  plaeed  in  several 
dilfurent  puils.  Thsu  were  cleaned  with  different 
degrees  of  thoroughness,  and  clean,  fn»h  milk  was 
put  into  each  one.  It  was  found  that  the  pail  that 
had  been  cleaned  only  by  rinsing  with  cold  water 
contsiminnted  the  frr*.sh  milk  to  the  extent  of  130.- 
000  bacteria  per  cubic  wntimeter.  The  pail  care- 
lessly watched  and  rtn»ed  with  warm  water  furnished 
nearly  l.'i.WKl  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  to  the 
milk  it  contained;  while  those  carefully  washed  and 
sterilised  furnished  only  a  few  hundred,  or  practi- 
cally no  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter. 

(-1)  The  fiHirth  point  rei]uiriiig  attention  la  the 
he:iUh  and  manner  of  work  on  the  |Mirt  of  the  em- 
ployees. Typhoid  fever  and  other  human  diseases 
are  ea>iily  carrieii  by  milk,  if  the  organisms  get 
into  it :  hence  the  im])ortance  of  insisting  on  good 
health  of  those  who  handle  milk.  The  milk  han- 
dlers also  should  wear  sjiecial  overall  clothes  for 
their  work.  In  the  highest  ctasn  dairipB,  white 
o%"era!Is  are  worn  and  these  are  frequently  washed 
and  often  sterilized.  Special  attention  also  is  given 
to  the  cleanliness  of  the  milkers* 
hands  and  to  their  care  to  keep  the 
hands  dry  when  milking. 

(5)  The  fifth  i)otnt  is  the  hand- 
ling of  the  milk,  which  means  its 
prompt  and  ethcient  cotiling,  and 
it«  storage  at  low  teni[)crature  until 
Dsod.  The  accepted  limit  to  which 
market  milk  should  lie  cooled  is  now 
50'*  Kahr..  and  it  should  be  cooled 
more  than  this  when  prat^licahle. 
Pome  cities  have  rigid  require- 
ments on  this  point,  to  New  York, 
the  inspuctunt  may  dump  into  the  gutter  milk 
having  a  t^imporature  above  riO*  Pahr. 

The  above  items  have  been  arranged  in  their 
order,  with  sub-headings  and  nnmerical  valoea,  on 
a  8('ore-<'.anl  which  was  proposed  by  the  writer 
liefnre  the  Syracuse  Farmers*'  Club  in  February, 
lai.'i.  This  score-card,  with  slight  modification. 
Follows,  together  with  a  statement  showing  what 
constitutes  perfect  under  each  heading.  Such  a 
card  has  been  shown  to  be  of  value  in  city  mJlk- 
inspectttm  work.  It  [Kiints  directly  to  and  shows 
the  gravity  of  faults  in  equipment  and  methods: 


J 


MILK  AS  A  MARKET  PRODUCT 


183 


Date- 


Depaetkent  op  Dairy  Industry,  College  of  Agbicdlture,  Cobnell  Ukivessity. 

Score-card  for  ProCaction  of  Sanitary  Milk. 
Dairy  of P.O.  . 


I.  Health  of  the 
herd  and  its 
protection. 


II.  CleanlinesB  of 
the  cows  and 
their  aur- 
ronn  dings. 


III.  Construction 
and  care  of 
the  otensile. 


rV.  Health  of  em- 
ploy eee  and 
manner  of 
milking. 


V.  Handling 
milk. 


the 


Health  and  comfort  of  the  cowa  and  their  isolation 

when  sick  or  at  caMng  time 

Location,  lighting  and  ventilation  of  the  stable  .  . 
Food  and  water 


Total 


Cowa 

Stable 

Barnyard  and  pasture 

Stable  air  (freedom  from  dust  and  odors) 


Total 


Perfect 

45 
I  35 
'     20 

i   100 


30 

20 
20 
30 

100 


Score 


DefertB 


Construction  of  utensils   and   their  cleanii^   anrl 

sterilizing 40 

Water-supply  for  cleaning  and  location  and  protec-  [ 

tion  of  its  source I    25 

Care  of  utensils  after  cleaning '     20 

Use  of  amall-top  milking-pail 15 


Total 


Health  of  employees 

Clean,  over-all  milking  snits  and  milking  with  clean, 

dry  hands      

Qniet  milking,  attention  to  cleanliness  of  the  udder 

and  discarding  foremilk 


100 


Total 


Prompt  and  efficient  cooling  ; 

Handling  milk  in  a  sanitary  room  and  holding  it  at 

a  low  temperature 

Protection  during  transportt^ion  to  market    .   .   . 


Total 


Total  of  all  scores 


45 

30 

25 

100 


35 

35 
30 

100 


500 


If  the  total  of  all  scores  ts 
480  or  above 

4.">0  or  ahnvB  . 

400  or  above 


And  each  division  is 

90  or  above 

_     80  or  above . 
_    60  or  above - 


Below  400 

The  aanitary  conditions  are- 


Or  any  division  is  below  60 
Scored  by 


The  sanitary  conditions  are 
Excellent 
Good 
Medium 
Poor 


BRrEF    DESORIPTION    OF    WHAT    CONSTITUTES       PER- 
FECT" UNDER  EACH  HEADING  OP  ABOVE  SCORE 

I.  Health.  No  evidence  of  chronic  or  infections 
diiieafle  or  of  acute  disease  in  any  member  of  the 
herd  on  the  dairy  premises.  Freeidom  from  tuber- 
culosis proved  by  the  toberculin  teat  made  within 
one  year. 

Comfort.  Protection  from  weather  extremes. 
Stall  comfortable — at-  least  three  feet  wide  for  a 
small  cow,  or  three  and  one-half  for  a  large  cow  ; 
lenffth  of  stalls  sufficient  for  cows  to  rest  easily. 
Sufficient  bedding.  Frequent  outdoor  exercise. 

Itolation.  Removal  of  cowa  to  comfortable  quar- 
tern outside  of  the  dairy  stable,  when  sick  or  at 
calving  time. 


Location  of  stable.  Elevated,  with  healthful  sur- 
roundings. 

Lighting.  As  light  as  a  well-lighted  living-room, 
and  with  not  less  than  four  square  feet  for  light 
from  the  east,  south  or  west,  for  each  cow. 

Ventilation.  An  adequate  ventilating  system  of 
the  King  or  other  approved  pattern,  and,  except 
when  the  stable  is  being  cleaned,  no  marked  stable 
odor. 

Food.  Clean,  wholesome  feeding-stuffs,  fed  in 
proper  quantities. 

Water.  Clean,  fresh  water,  free  from  pwssibility 
of  contamination  by  disease  germs. 

II.  Cows.  Cleaned  by  thorough  brushing,  and, 
when  necessary,  by  washing ;  no  dust  or  dirt  on 
the  hair  (stains  not  considered).  The  udder  thor- 


184 


MILK  AS  A  MAKKET  rRODUCT 


oaghly  cleaned  by  brusliinK  at  Iea«t  thirty  ininuten 
before  milkiiiK,  arid,  tiy  washin;;  jUMt  litftirt'  milk- 
ing, leaving  the  mlder  dam|i  to  cauae  du»it  to 
adhere.    Hbir  tiliiiiwd  on  udder  and  flanks. 

Sfabie.  Frw  frum  the  accumulation  fif  (Just  and 
dirt  except  fresh  manure  in  the  gutter,  Ajiart  f  rnm 
horaes,  pigs,  privy,  pnrtltry-houw.  etc. 

Ifamynrd  antt  jmuc/utv.  No  injuriutui  pluite,  no 
mudholc  or  pile  of  manure,  or  any  decaying  nub- 
stiince  where  cowa  have  access. 

Stable  air.  ¥r&)  from  floating  duft  and  odi^rs. 
Tight  partitioTi  or  floor  Iietweon  the  spaco  occupit-d 
by  cows  and  that  uswl  for  storage  of  feed  or  other 
purpose.   Floor  damponLti  before  milking. 

ih.  Construdwn  of  nlensih.  Non-ahsorlient  mate- 
rial, and  every  jiart  tirceiwible  to  the  brush,  and, 
exc-ept  inside  of  ttibes,  visible  when  lieing  cleiuieil. 

Cleaning.  Thorough  cleaning  with  brush  and  hot 
water,  and  rinaingeach  utenail  in  clean  wuter.  No 
laan<try  soap.  Thorough  atoriliiation  in  special 
apparato^. 

Wat^r.—trom  a  source  known  to  b*;  pure  ;  pro- 
tected from  contamination  from  seepage  or  sur- 
face drainage. 

Care  fffutcnnit.  Such  as  to  avoid  contamination 
by  dost  as  well  as  by  coarser  dirt 

Sinall-top  fail,  -with  opening  not  over  seven 
inches  in  tliameter,  and  at  !eaat  one-third  of  thia 
opening  protected  by  hood. 

IV.  Emptonffs.—tt'^  from  contagious  disease 
and  not  dwelling  in  nor  frequenting  any  place 
where  contagious  disease  exiats. 

Milking  «ut/s,— freshly  laundered  and  clean; 
ample  to  protect  fro'm  dast  and  dirt  from  the  milk- 
er's person  nr  clothing. 

Milker'*  hand*.  Hands  and  teata  dry  when  milk- 
ing. Ilands  thoroughly  cleaned  before  milking  each 
cow.  Wash  bafiin  and  clean  towel  in  stable  or  milk- 
room. 

Milkina  (fuietlif, — so  as  to  avoid  dislodging  dirt 
from  cow's  hair.  At  lea^t  four  streams  of  foremilk 
from  each  teat  to  be  discarded  into  a  separate 
vessel. 

V.  Cnaiing.  Coiiledwithinfifteenminuteaof milk- 
ing, to  temperature  Itelow  ■l.V  Fahr. 

Handling.  —  in  u  room  uwd  exclunivaly  for  IhantE- 
ling  milk,  iind  free  from  duKt,  dirt  and  odors  ;  ami 
the  milk  after  being  ciooled,  always  at  a  tem(>iTa- 
tutL-kdow  45". 

I'rottction  during  trannporlation.  Protected  from 
dirt  by  tightly  closed  receptacles,  temperature 
alwavH  below  15"  Fahr. ;  not  de]aye<l  in  transit, 
reaching  market  within  twenty-six  hours  after 
milking. 

Fermeniaiivn  trgt. 

The  fermentation  te^st  is  sometimeA  UHeful  to 
show  the  result  of  objectionable  baci(*ria  present 
in  excessive  numbers.  A  few  ounces  of  milk  is 
placed  in  a  cle^n  glass  jar  and  coagulated  by  ren- 
net. It  is  held  at  about  l+(r  Fahr.,  and  the  whey 
drained  olT.  When  the  curd  ha8  shrunken  and 
become  fairly  firm,  it  is  examinerl.  It  should  be  free 
frum  holes  and  without  bail  wlor.  These  faults  are 
roughly  in  proportion  to  the  contamination. 


Piuftrurizaliim  of  milk. 

PjiKteurizatiiin  is  the  desrtrtiction  by  heat  of  a 
large  proportion,  of  the  micnwirganisms  in  milk. 
The  principal  advantage  of  this  treatment,  from  the 
commercial  standpoint,  is  the  improvement  result- 
ing in  the  ketjping-qnahty  of  the  milk.  i\om  the 
standpoint  of  the  hygienist,  the  advantage  of  pas- 
teuriyjition  is  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  this  treatment 
can  1)8  de]iKniled  iin  to  dei<trny  pathogenic  organ- 
isms. The  practice  of  pa^teiiriration  is  rapidly 
increasing  in  certain  places,  but  it  is  making  no 
progress  in  others,  becaus^e  of  strong  opposition. 
.\mnng  the  arguments  against  pasteurization  is  the 
fact  that  this  treatment  does  nut  kill  all  the  organ- 
isms in  milk  but  only  those  which  are  mo^t  easily 
de-stroyed,  and  these  include  the  relatively  harmless 
lactic-ai'id  forms  and  dn  not  inclade  some  of  the 
most  harmful  putrefactive  bacteria  which  have 
the  property  of  pnxlucing  resistant  spores.  Thos, 
aft«r  milk  has  been  pasteurized,  it  may  contain 
only  a  small  number  of  organisms,  but  all,  or  prac- 
tically all  of  these,  mav  be  highly  objectionable 
typen.  If,  then,  the  milk  is  exposed  at  tempera- 
tures favorable  to  bacterial  growth,  or  held  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  at  a  fairly  low  tempera- 
ture, these  few  bacteria  have  an  opportunity  to 
grow  without  the  checking  influence  of  other 
forms.  They  may  increase  to  snch  an  extent  as  to 
injure  seriously  the  quality  of  the  milk  without 
giving  any  outward  sign  of  their  action,  such  as 
is  occasioned  by  the  growth  of  lactic-acid  bacteria, 
which  cause  milk  to  become  sour.  Milk  that  is 
heavily  loaded  with  harmful  but  unobserved  organ- 
isms may  cause  eerious  disturbance  in  the  digestive 
tract.  Another  strong  objection  to  pasteurisation 
is  on  the  ground  that  the  work  U  often  poorly 
done:  and  it  is  trae  that  in  some  places  the  so-called 
pasteurization  is  conducted  in  a  most  careless  man- 
ner, the  pasteurized  milk  actually  containing  a 
larger  number  of  bacteria  than  it  contained  before 
heating.  This  is  due  to  careless  methods  through- 
out: the  use  of  improperly  cleaned  uieneibi,  the 
use  of  insuflicient  heat,  delay  of  cooling  and 
inauffirient  cwding,  and  unneceasary  exposure  of 
the  milk.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  in  such  cases 
the  milk  is  not  desirable  for  fiMxl  purposes. 

The  chief  value  of  pasteurization  is  at  times 
when  there  is  a  general  outbreak  of  a  contagious 
disease,  when  it  is  not  known  but  that  persons 
handling  the  milk  are  affected  with  the  disease.  In 
all  Huch  CAfitfH,  the  milk  should  be  pasteurised,  and, 
after  troatment,  protected  with  the  utmost  care  to 
assure  no  further  infection. 

Prohabty  the  must,  n-sistant  of  the  pathogenic 
organisms  that  are  likely  to  be  in  milk  is  the  bacil- 
lus of  tuberculosis.  To  kill  these  germs,  milk  most 
bo  h(^ated  to  150°  for  thirty  minutes,  or  15T  for 
fifteen  minutes,  or  IGT"  for  ten  minutes,  or  to  180* 
momentarily.  It  has  lately  been  shown,  however. 
by  Smith  and  Rusnell,  that  it  is  sttfficient  to  heat 
the  milk  only  to  NO'  for  twenty  minntea,  provided 
it  is  heatwi  in  closed  receptacles.  For  market- 
milk  purp<)xi<^  this  lower  temperature  is  preferred 
because  it  is  not  accompanied  by  the  cooked  flaror, 
which  is  objectionable  to  many  persons. 


MILK   AS  A  MARKET  PROnUCT 


185 


Pit.  171,    Mllt-COOler. 


An  caaentlal  purl  of  the  work  of  j)aHt«iirizatmn 
oftnaiBtB  in  cooling  the  milk.  Th«  optiratior  really 
18  not  cnmpleted  until  the  milk  has  biwncwivd  tit  a 
puint  U^Inw  50".  at  which  t>uotvria  gniw  but  slowly. 
There  are  many  different  forms  of  apparatus  for 
use  in  pasU*ariziRg  milk.  Thtty  xn&y  he  divided  into 
twojfcnural  cluiises,  those  for  tr&ating  the  milk  in 
hoik,  and  thone  for  treating  it  continuoiiflly.  (1)  Th^ 
former  method  would  be  employed  in  a  lioust^hold 
and  is  nsed  in  a  few  commercial  plants.  It  consists 
of  ptacing  the  milk  in  a  receptacle  that  in  nur- 
riiunded  by  hot  water  or  steam.  The  temperature 
of  the  milk  w  ruised  to  the  required  point,  held 
there  the  re<inired  length  of  time,  after  which  the 

milk  is  coolc-d. 
With  this  method 
one  has  perfect 
control  of  all  con- 
ditions, and  for 
this  reason  it  is 
more  thorough 
than  the  continu- 
ciUB  method-  Very 
simple,  inexpen- 
sive equipment 
may  be  iwed,  — 
even  ordinary 
kitchen  atonsilsi, 
such  as  a  gmall 
tin  pail  standing 
in  a  pan  of  hot 
water  which  i^ 
placed  on  the  »t«>VL*.  It  is  essential  to  have  an 
accurate  thennjimeter;  the  best  form  \»  the  glass 
floating  thermometer  which  can  be  easily  cleaned. 

(Pig.  m.> 

(2)  The  continuous  pasteurizers  perform  their 
Work  continnoQsIy  and  usually  are  arranged  to  heat 
the  milk  and  at  least  partially  to  cool  it,  a  stream 
of  milk  flowing  through  them  constantly  so  long  as 
the  operation  la  in  prngrefs.  There  are  several 
diilerent  style**  of  the.se  machinee.  All  are  con- 
structed so  that  the  milk  ia  separated  from  the  hot 
water  or  steam  by  a  thin  sheet  of  metal,  usually 
cdpper  covered  with  tin.   (Fig.  'M2.) 

One  of  the  latest  improvements  tn  pasteurizers 
is  known  sa  th*^  rejceoorativ*  feature.  With  this 
the  milk-flow  within  the  machine  is  so  arrangwl 
that  the  heateal  milk  which  needs  to  bo  cooled  is 
fteparated  from  the  cold  milk  which  has  just  entered 
uid  ne«da  to  be  heated,  by  a  thin  metal  piate 
through  which  considerable  heat  readily  pajn.-^es. 
ThBs  there  is  a  large  saving  of  required  heat  untta 
and  an  equal  saving  in  the  cooling.    (Fig.  243.) 

An  improvement  on  continuous  paatfuriaers, 
which  has  been  exhibited  very  recently,  consists 
of  a  HfiM  of  resertoirs  arranged  as  the  sectors  of 
a  circle  These  are  filled  with  hot  milk,  one  after 
soother,  and  when  the  last  of  the  sector  space^t  is 
being  lillod  the  first  one,  which  stands  adjacent,  is 
being  emptied  and  its  milk  is  on  the  way  to  be 
cooled,  and  this  space  is  ready  to  be  tilled  again 
hj  the  time  it  is  needed.  Thus,  all  of  the  milk  is 
heated  to  the  desired  temperature  and  held  at 
that  temperature  u  long  a  time  as  is  re<iuired  for 


all  of  the  sector  Bpaces  to  be  filled,  and  this  is 
uniler  control. 

One  of  the  practical  difficulties  in  connection 
with  the  pasteurization  of  milk,  and  especially  the 
pasteuriaitJon  of  cream,  lie*  in  the  fact 
that  the  heating  of  milk  nr  cream  causes 
it  to  Itec^kme  more  fluid,  or  to  "loHe  ita 
ImkI/."  Thb  in  due,  probably,  to  the  ten- 
dency of  fat  globules  to  break  away  from 
their  irregular  clusters  in  which  they 
gather  in  raw  milk  and  dl-itribute  them- 
selves evenly  throughout  the  entire  maRs, 
causing  it  to  flow  mn re  eaHily.  Babcock 
and  Russell  have  prij[Mwed  the  use  of  vi.t- 
cogen  to  remedy  this  difficulty  in  cn;am. 
Van  Slyke'a  recipe  for  thi^  substance  is, 
^"To  one  pound  of  water  add  one  pound 
of  any  pure  canc-augar  and  dissolve.  Then 
add  an  excess  of  fresh  quicklime  in  small 
chunks  about  the  siie  of  ordinary  mar- 
bles; stir  occasicmally  until  the  action  is 
complete^!.  Let  the  sediment  settle  and 
pour  off  the  clear  litiuid.  Kee]>  in  tightly- 
stoppered  bottles."  This  should  be  added 
to  pastcurii^^d  cream  at  the  rate  of  one 
part  of  solution  to  100  or  150  of  cream. 

Market  miik. 


Milk  contains  all  the  necessary  food 
constituents.  It  is  palatable,  digestible, 
nutritious,  and  cheap.  The  market  milk 
industry,  which  includes  the  preparation, 
transportation,  and  sale  of  milk  for  Vfn  in 
the  household,  has  been  rapidly  developed 
with  the  increasing  size  of  cities  and 
towns.  The  territory  from  which  market 
milk  is  drawn  may  be  divided  into  three 
districts  or  zones:  (t)  the  city  itself, 
where  dairieis  are  often  fonnd.  and  where 
much  of  the  poorest  milk  is  produced. 
Perhaps  the  chief  reason  for  the  poor 
quality  of  milk  produced  in  the  city  ia 
that  the  cows  do  not  have  clean,  roomy 
pa-Hures,  and  they  are  usually  kept  in 
cramped  quarters  ;  but  another  reason  of 
importance  is  that  the  food  given  the 
cows  in  city  dairies  is  often  of  a  character 
that  should  not  tte  oaed  and  can  not  prolita- 
hly  be  transported  to  the  country.  (2)  Tho 
second  zone  is  a  band  of  territory  about 
ten  miles  wide,  surrounding  the  city,  and 
from  which  milk  is  brought  in  the  wagons  OMijjw. 
of  the  producers.  (3)  The  third  district  is 
all  the  territory  beyond.  In  the  ca>te  of  large  cities, 
most  of  the  milk  comes  from  this  last  district. 
Trains  carrying  milk  originate  about  four  hundred 
miles  from  New  York  City.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
milk  from  the  third  district  runs  as  good  in  quality 
as  that  from  any  other.  The  delay  l»ecause  of  long 
hauls  requires  extra  care  in  cooling  and  handling. 
As  a  rule,  milk  shippetl  by  railroads  reaches  the 
cities  in  time  for  it  to  lie  de<livered  when  twenty- 
fonr  or  thirty-six  hours  old. 

M'M  of  the  large  shippers  to  New  York,  and 
home  other  cilies,  now  have  statioos  along  the  rail- 


GUw 

•tei  (« 


186 


MILK  AS  A   MARKfcT  PRODUCT 


rijods  wWre  milk  is  receivwi  nnd  prepared  for  ship- 
ment. Fyr  New  York,  thtwe  used  to  include  bot- 
tlint;  facilitii-fi,  but  thv  railromS  TAini  having  been 
raided  on  hotUt-d  mi!k.  it  has  had  thfoffeot  of  bring- 
in;;  about  the  shipment  of  milk  in  cans  and  bottling 
in  the  city.  At  prt'wnt  tht;  mlitiK  rates  for  tran»- 
portution  of  milk  on  railrords  running  into  New 
York  City  arc  a.s  ftillowH : 

Prots  staliuiu  wttttin  'tO  tuil«8  of  K«w  York  City. 

Froni   sLitioiui   within   ihij   n«xt  60  m\k»,  26 

cents  jjer  40-iiuart  tan. 
ProtD  stations  within  tho   next  OO  mil«a.  29 

oenta  per  40  quart  can. 
Beyond  this  dl*t»iice.  32  cent*  per  40-quart  cw. 

Milk  in  buttieH  '\a  u»u»lly charged  40  percent  above 
these  rates.  Ore  car  carrieii  i;<KJ  to  325  cang. 
About  l.OOO.CXK)  can:!  arc  carried  each  month. 

I'ricei!  paid  to  farmers  for  market  milk  vary  frum 
about  two  to  three  cents  per  quart  in  the  snmnier, 
and  from  about  three  to  ft>ur  oi->nt-*  in  the  winter 
months.  The  retail  price  in  cities  is  genL-ruily  eight 
cents  per  quart,  bul  in  the  paitt  year  there  li:i;8  been 
a  tendency  to  increase,  so  that  the  rej^ular  price  in 
aome  citiiut  iit  now  nine  cents.  Milk  is  often  .sold  at 
lower  riiteij  at  stored  and  tbi!i  ie  pofi^ible  because 
of  the  savinKof  heavy  delivery  cnargea.  In  this 
busineM.  as  in  others,  there  are  usually  a  few  firms 
that  cut  under  the  regular  price  and  are  tnore  or 
k'ss  uncertain  in  the  ^.juality  of  their  product,  as 
well  as  their  reliability.  The  retail  price  in  towns 
is  generally  five  to  seven  CL'nts  per  (luart. 

The  prices  paid  to  product^rs  for  their  milk  are 
announced  in  advance  by  some  concerns  which  have 
a  definite  contract  with  their  producers  and  agree 
to  pay  stated  prices  each  nionth  for  a  period  of  six 
months  after  the  date  of  the  contract.  These  agri-e- 
udDtfl  also  govern  the  manner  in  which  milk  nhall 
b«  produced  -ind  handled.  A  very  large  part  of  the 
milk,  howevt-r,  is  bought  on  the  basis  of  prices 
which  are  announced  by  an  organisation  composed 
largely  of  dealers,  and  which  changes  the  price 
from  timo  to  time,  as  conditions  of  supply  and 
demand  st^m  to  re>^uire.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
relation  between  this  price  for  one  quart  of  milk 
and  thi*  value  of  one  pound  of  butter,  is  about  as 
1  is  to  8.2.  Occasionally  the  price  of  butter  is  ten 
times  aa  hi;:h  as  the  price  for  one  quart  of  milk, 
and  on  the  othe.r  hand,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  when 
milk  fur  the  city  is  scarce,  the  price  of  butter  may 
be  only  about  seven  times  the  price  of  milk. 

Most  states  have  genera!  laws  relating  to  foods, 
and  some  of  thwm  have  s|)ecial  laws  rvlating  to 
milk.  Most  cities  have  special  milk  ordinHnces. 
These  commonly  reiuire  at  least  .T  per  cent  of  fat 
in  the  milk  and  at  least  12  per  cent  total  solids. 
The  remaining  rt-quirements  of  the  lawx,  as  a  rule, 
are  iiulnlinLloly  stated  and  rarely  enforced.  It 
must  be  said,  however,  that  within  the  last  few 
years  a  ft.-w  citiwt  have  adopted  rigid  regalatlons 
which  refer  to  the  manner  of  producing  and  hand- 
ling milk,  and  nre  enforcing  these  regulations  to  a 
limited  degree.  This  movement  in  the  intercjfit  of 
more  sanitary  milk  is  iti  din^ct  accord  with  thw 
movement  for  more  sanitary  conditions  generally. 


Slftndard  mUk. 

Standard  milk  is  that  conforming  to  the  legal 
requirements. 

Siaiidarizfd  milk. 

Standardized  milk  is  m  ilk  which  has  been  changed 
in  its  composition  to  cause  it  t<i  contain  a  required 
amount  of  fat.  This  is  u^nally  done  by  adding 
cream  or  skimmed  milk.  A  con\*eniont  rule  for 
determining  the  amount  of  ingredients  to  make  a 
mixture  toj^ting  a  certain  per  cent  of  fat,  is  as 
follows,  supjvjsing  cream  and  milk  are  to  be  used 
(inmost  states  it  Ls  unlawful  to  add  skimmed  milk) : 

Draw  a  rectangle,  placing  the  per  cent  of  fat  in 
the  cream  at  the  upper  left-hand  comer,  and  the 
jwr  tent  of  fat  of  the  milk  at  the  lower  left-hand 
comer.  Place  the  desired  per  cent  of  fat  in  the 
center.  The  difference  between  the  numbers  in  the 
center  and  at  the  lower  left-hand  comer  should  be 
written  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  and  the 
ditTerence  between  the  numbers  in  the  center  and 
at  the  upper  left-hand  corner  should  be  written  at 
the  lower  right-hand  corner.  These  right-hand 
numbers  represent  the  proportions  of  the  sub- 
stances represented  at  the  corresponding  left-hand 
comers  which  must  be  mixed  to  produce  a  milk 
testing  the  desired  amount  of  fat.  Thee : 

To  raise  the  fat  test  of  a  ■i.A  percent  milk  to 
4  per  cent  by  the  nse  of  cream  testing  2ii  per  cent, 
by  complLtting  the  Itgure  as  explained,  it  will  be 
seen  that  for  every  twenty-one  pounds  of  3.8  per 
cent  milk  there  should  he  u-wd  .2  of  one  pound  of 
25  per  cent  cream. 


25 


SA 


i  per  cent 


.2 


£1 


Ctriified  milk. 

This  term  is  applied  to  milk  that  is  produced  by 
special  agreement  under  certain  strict  regulations 
as  prE>scril>ed  bv  a  milk  commission,  which  certifies 
to  the  high  quality  of  the  product.  Usually  the  com- 
mission is  composed  largely  or  entirely  of  medical 
men  and  they  depend  on  four  expert-s.  a  veterin- 
arian, cheroiist,  bacteriologist  and  physician.  This 
milk  is  used  principally  for  infant  feeding.  It 
commonly  retails  fur  ten  to  eighteen  cente  per 
quart. 

.IMjjiry/  milk. 

This  term  refers  to  cow's  milk  which  has  been 
80  changed  in  its  composition  as  to  meet  the  re- 
quirvmonta  of  young  babies.  It  i^  used  very  largely 
for  feeding  infants  who»e  mothers  are  unable  t« 
nurse  them.  Modified  milk  laboratories  are  estab- 
lished in  some  of  the  larger  cities,  and  there  phy- 
sicians send  prescriptions  for  milk -feeding,  the 
same  as  they  would  send  prescriptions  for  medi- 
cines to  a  drug  store.  Mollification  is  practic«d 
extensively,  also,  in  hoioes,  but  with  less  accurate 
rosalts.   Modifying  is  done  with  the  aid  of  tablet 


BACTERIA    OF   MILK 


187 


I 


©r  M  roles  which  show  the  amrmnta  of  cream. 
skimmed  milk,  sugar  b«lution.  distilled  water  and 
limtj- water  nece^itarjr  for  mixtiuxs  of  difTereul 
compwition. 

UUk  kvrraffa. 

theee  include  Kutdy^K<*phir,  Zoolalc  aad  Your- 
hort,  which  art?  now  made  from  oow'n  milk.  All  are 
the  products  of  fermentali'ongeneirall^  iirixJucud  by 
yi-^uts  and  bacteria.  In  s^itae  coam  fujrar  Is  addod 
and  a  smalt  amount  of  alcohol  is  formed.  The  popu- 
larity of  these  bftveragea  eeeniA  to  be  increasing 
mIowIv.  Thi»  in  partly  due  t<>  ittat^mi-nLH  of  »<*ma 
Eiirnpt^an  itieilical  authoritifK  that  they  am  hualth* 
ful  iind  may  be  thi>  mt^ans  of  prolonging  lifi^. 

LiieraiHre. 

Heonr  D.  Richmond,  Dairy  ChomiMrv,  Charlt'ti 
Griffin  4  Co.,  London  (1899);  Harry  Snydt-r,  Dairy 
C3iemigtn',  The  Macmillan  Compaiiv,  New  York 
(190fi);  ParringUm  &  Woll,  Testing'Milk  and  Ita 
Producta,  Menduta  Rook  Cuinpanv,  Madison,  Wis. 
<1907>;  Luciiw  I..  Van  Slyke.  MwWrn  Melhodn  of 
Testinj!  Milk  and  Milk  E'rudut-Ls  Oran^  Judd 
Compaay,  Now  York  flOOGI;  H.  L.  Kussell.  Out- 
lines of  Dairy  Bacteriolof^y.  Madiiton,  Wi».  ()^^^): 
Jensen,  BsiwntiaU  nf  Milk  Bygiene,  trnn&lated  and 
amplified  by  l^onant  Pearson,  J.  R.  lji|ipincott 
Company,  Philadelphia  (1907);  H.  W.  ('imn,  Pr.HC- 
tical  Dairy  Bacteriology,  Orangu  Jmld  ('ump&nv, 
New  York  (1907). 


BACTKItl.K  OF  MILK 

By  W.  A.  S(flottfl?,  Jr. 

The  relation  exiating  betwm>n  liacteria  and  the 
handling  of  all  milk  )>ruductd  is  an  intlmnti'  one ; 
in  fact,  nearly  all  of  tho  proceasfs  of  hnnillin^c  milk 
and  cheese,  and  to  a  largu  di'gree  of  iiutt^-r  aUa, 
are  haswJ  on  the  action  or  tho  cnntrol  nf  tiact^ria. 
Tht'  nature  of  milk  makes  it  pref*mint'ntly  an  ideal 
habitat  for  miwt  fornix  of  bacteria,  and  tiecanse  of 
the  almost  unirereal  iK*eiirn*nce  of  lliest?  minute 
orKanitinix.  milk  productid  and  bandk-d  undL^  ordi- 
nary conditiona  becomea  planttMl  with  large  number» 
of  them. 

Aff/arr  <^  baderia.   (Fi|i.  174). 

Bacteria  belong  to  that  greal  group  of  the 
lower  plants  known  aa  fungi  l-!uc-b  indJviiluiil 
plant  comiAta  of  a  singlt-  cell  fdled  with  proto- 
plaam.  Thvy  are  microscopic  in  size,  and  without 
any  nf  the  grtt-n  color  common  in  the  higher  planta. 
In  form  they  are  the  simplerit  known  plants,  and 
an-  thereforp  rlassified  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale 
uf  plant  life.    (See  p.  441,  Vol.  T.] 

BecauM  of  the  fact  that  thene  minute  plants 
contain  no  chlorophyl,  they  are  not  able  to  feed  on 
the  mineral  sabstanora  on  which  the  liightT  green 
plants  grow,  bat  most  have  more  highly  organ- 
iied  auliatancea,  thriving  bent  on  nitrogt-noua 
organic  comiiounds,  aa  proteids  and  alhamen,  and 
oo  tUrebea  and  xugjira. 

like  Uie  higher  planta,  they  can  aluiorh  Ihcir 


nouriishment  only  in  aolutions,  and  even  when  liv- 
ing on  solid  siibstanccH  their  food  mast  be  ni;ido 
soluble  before  it  can  be  taken  into  the  bacterial 
CfMfi.  lUctt'ria  need  a  liberal  amount  OL  moi.ttui-u 
in  order  to  grow  rajiidEy,  Mopi  8|ieciefl  thrive  l>efit 
in  liiiviids,  and,  if  gradually  deprivwl  of  moisture, 
they  grow  more  and  nu^re  elowly.  and  finally  cvam 
growing  altogether  when  the  material  in  which 
they  aro  living  becomes  moderately  dry. 

Heat  i^  aUo  ejueential  to  the  grou  th  of  bacteria. 
Different  upecies  vary  considerably  ae  to  the  tem- 
perature at  which  they  will  make  their  maximum 
growth,  but  motit  of  the  common  dairy  bacteria 
diivelop  rapidly  at  temperatures  b^-tween  TiU^  and 
100°  Kahr.  The  optimum  tenijKTature  for  the 
gnjwth  of  most  uf  tht'  cunanmn  sjiecies  Ilea  betwt'on 
70°  and  9.^  Fahr. 

Any  one  familiar  with  the  compoeitton  of  milk 
will  at  once  eee  that  it  supplies  all  the  conditions 
necefwary  for  rapid  Iwicteria)  growth.  Not  only 
does  milk  contain  all  the  npcessary  materials  for 
nutrition,  but  these  are  in  K«ch  form  that  they  are 
easily  upi^ropriatvi)  by  the  bai'tetia.  The  albumen, 
being  in  solution,  ]e  easily  taken  up  by  the  culU ; 
the  milk-sugar  is  also  an  excellent  food,  and,  while 
the  ciiaein  cannot  be  used  directly,  it  is  made  use  of 
by  those  org-iniHrns  whifh  prtxluce  enzymes,  whose 
action  rendwrs  the  caaein  soluble. 

Ilojo  bacteria  gtt  into  miik. 

When  milk  Is  secreted  in  the  glands  of  a  healthy 
udder,  it  contains  no  bucterla.  It  does  not.  how- 
ever, remain  long  in  this  sterile  condition.  Nor- 
mally, the  cavities  and  milk  ducts  in  the  adder 
contain  a  more  or  less  ahnndant  bacterial  fioni. 
These  organisms  l>erome  disseminated  through  the 
milk  i\s  soon  :is  it  is  ebiburalvd,  and  as  a  result  uf 
this  condition  milk  normally  contains  grt-ater  or 
li^&a  numbers  of  bacteria  when  it  is  drawn  from  the 
cow.  It  is,  however,  afti'r  leaving  the  cow  that  it 
receives  its  greatest  hacterialcnntamination.  Even 
if  much  care  is  taken  in  keeping  the  stable  free 
from  dn.st,  and  the  cov.-^  clean,  and  the    milkers 


o^<?3 


c:^^feS3P 


OP 


% 


PI  It- IT*.    Some  eommoii  dairy  Ucterti.    I.ThaeoBtnonnuM* 

uf  (['Ul  iii'iDi,  Hii-rlrrinia  (iir/ij  iiri^i:  1.  «KaL*-ftiTTBlri|  Ivtlr 
Wlppiiim.  A. /d^i'i  atrvg*ni*.  3.  a  oMwoa  fotL&d  In  milk: 
4,  li  latrtU  riim4tit,  IhiirnuMi  of  rnpJT  mllhi  S,  ft  piilrrfaf 
live.  ttKvrt-ruruiliiM  ImHMui. 

exercise  considerable  care,  it  is  impossible  to  pre- 
vent a  certain  numlier  of  organisms  falling  into 
the  milk  ut  the  time  of  milking.  By  the  exercise 
of  extreme  precaolion.  the  numtwr  of  bacteria  thus 
getting  into  the  milk  may  be  reduced  to  a  oompar- 


188 


BACTERIA   OP  MILK 


atively  Bmall  numlifr,  Imt  when  little  care  is  exer- 
cised, aiij  undt-'anly  conditions  i-xiat,  the  rnilk 
commonly  becomes  hL*jivily  pliuiLtHl  wiLli  a  vamty 
of  Apeciefl  of  bacteria.  Cuattiduriittle  nuiiibura  may 
a)Hc>  geL  into  the  milk  from  the  dairy  ulensilB  if 
th(*y  have  not  been  projierly  cK'jinwil  ami  steriliz«fd. 
Expo^uri!  at  any  [mini  lietween  ittt  pnxiiirtion 
ana  consumjhtiim  rn^y  very  mnteritilly  inrreasu 
the  baL'tefia)  i^wtaminatiun  uf  milk. 

It  may  bu  m*in  from  tliu  abcivu  statumDnta  that 
milk  may  become  cmtami Dated  with  organitimi^ 
normally  living  in  the  udder  at  body  temperature  ; 
from  the  exterior  of  the  cow ;  from  the  etahle 
atmosphere ;  from  the  t^trihle  filth,  either  liirecHy 
or  indir«etly,  having;  [niiiaed  fimt  iniii  thf  atmoa- 
phure  iif  tha  stabja.  and  tliuK  fuDinf;  into  the  pail  ; 
from  the  handa  or  clothinj^  uf  thu  milkLT ;  or  fmm 
the  water  that  ia  used  for  the  washing  of  the 
dairy  utent^ils.  As  a  resutt  of  the  large  number 
of  «ourcwi  from  which  thewj  minute  organisms  gi^t 
inU)  the  milk,  we  commonly  fim)  a  cnnRideruhle 
variety  of  speciea,  the  tyfies  and  numlners  depend- 
ing on  the  conditions  under  which  the  milk  was 
produced. 

With  the  exception  of  the  putrefactive  orj^aniBms 
which  get  into  tho  milk  from  the  atable,  these 
varioiifl  sfiecles  are  not  known  to  be  harmful,  while 
8omH  are  beneficial  in  impurtant  dairy  Piwratinnn. 
If,  howuv«r,  the  cow  is  sulfermg  from  certain 
forms  of  diaua*w,  or  a  person  who  'at  alfectwl  with, 
or  is  closBly  associated  with  human  diseaSBB,  auch 
as  tiiberculo«iB,  typhoid  fever,  scarlet  fever,  han- 
dleH  the  milk,  or  if  the  dairy  uteR8ilB  are  washed 
with  water  which  has  been  contaminated  with  the 
organi^mK  of  disease,  the  milk  may  contain  the 
germ.t  uf  that  8|>eciFic  diaea^B,  and  be  a  t^ource  uf 
danger  to  those  who  con^umu  it. 

Normal  <!eveiopmfnt  of  bacteria,  in  m-ilJc. 

When  milk  Firnt  lejives  the  cow,  as  has  already 
been  said,  it  commonly  contains  a  consijerahle 
variety  of  Hpeciea  of  liftcteria.  These  will  normally 
include  a  Hmall  numliiT  of  acid-priHlncingorganismif!, 
some  of  which  may  furrn  ga»t.  There  may  also  h*- 
a  certain  numhor  of  putrefactive  baclt'ria,  togiHher 
with  a  variety  of  mi.scetlaneouB  a).)t.'ciea.  If  aut-h  u 
sample  of  milk  is  taken,  and  tho  bacterial  Hora 
stndiei]  atintervals  of  a  few  hours,  it  will  be  found 
that  thi'  totjil  nnmlier  of  organiams  decreases  dur- 
ing the  Sr^t  few  hiiur»  after  the  milk  has  been 
drawn  from  the  Cuw.  Thin  d*?ereasi?  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  miscelJanaoUB  spwiea  that 
get  into  the  milk  do  not  End  the  conditions  there 
siiitahle  for  their  development,  and,  therefore,  die 
oot  during  the  first  few  hourj*.  It  will  be  noticed, 
also,  that,  while  the  total  number  of  organisma  is 
decreasing,  certain  species  which  exlsti^il  in  very 
small  nnmiiers  at  the  outlet  are  increasing  con- 
stantly from  the  very  Htart.  After  a  time,  the  total 
number  of  organisms  in  the  milk  iHrgina  to  incroaw 
more  or  leas  rapidly,  diepi-nding  on  the  temperature 
at  which  tho  milk  is  kept.  At  this  point,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  increase  in  numbers  is  due  Ui  the 
rapid  development  of  the  acid  organisms.  Some  of 
the  miscellaneous  species  may  also  be  increasing 


along  with  the  acid-producing  species,  while  others 
may  still  be  decreasing  in  numbers.  A  littk-  later 
it  will  be  found  that  the  acidity  of  the  milk  has 
begun  to  incn-ase,  and  cimtinnii-s  to  increajte  until 
tho  milk  becomes  sour  and  curdles.  Stihseqacnt 
examinations  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  rapid 
increa-w  of  bacteria,  commonly  up  in  the  millions 
per  cubic  c4*ntimet*T,  is  due  almost  entirely  to  th« 
rapid  de%'e!opment  of  the  acid-pfulucing  organisms, 
which  gain  not  imly  in  actual  numbers,  but  also  io 
fiercentage  ;m  compared  with  the  oth*>r  specie* 
preaent  in  the  milk.   This  rapid  development  of  the 

y   mi   k-A  K.V.    IS:).' 


vy  Ky  \^  v^y  v_y  w 


PIx.  m.    To  Ulu«triit«  the  ciutractet  a1  si9«-iti  ol  some  oom- 
moti  d^ry  bsctctia  in  cMatio  aUb  oultura*. 

acid  organisms  continues  nntil  the  milk  becomes 
suur  and  curdles,  whi-n  it  is  found  that  they  consti- 
tute at  Iea«t99  per  ct^nt  of  all  the  organisms  pre»MiL 
Hriefly  stated,  therefore,  tho  normal  development 
of  bacteria  in  milk  is  as  follows  :  tho  milk  contains 
at  the  outset  a  variety  of  different  species  of 
bacteria,  with  the  acid -producing  ones  very  much 
in  the  minority.  Someof  the  miarpllaneniia8pi>rie8, 
not  linding  the  milk  suitable  for  their  growth, 
gradually  die  out.  The  acid  organisms,  which  do 
find  the  milk  stiecially  suited  to  thuir  require- 
ments, develop  rapidly  from  tho  first,  and  by  the 
changing  of  the  milk-sugar  into  lactic  acid,  gradu- 
ally prevent  the  growth  of  other  speries.  and  con- 
stitute at  lea.st  99  \k>t  cent  of  all  the  bacteria  at 
the  time  the  milk  curdiea 

Abnormal  developmcni  of  bacteria  in  miti. 

Under  conditions  favorable  for  them,  other  types 
of  bacteria  may  get  into  the  milk  in  snch  numbers 
that  they  will  produce  abnormal  conditions  in  it. 
SomeltmBS  gas-prnducing  bacteria  develop  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  cause  very  serious  troubles, 
especially  in  L'onnection  with  the  manufacture  of 
cheese,  t'ertain  bacteria  produco  a  bitter  tasle  tn 
milk  and  cream,  often  cjiusjng  considerable  trouble, 
efipecially  in  cream  used  for  direct  consumption. 
Sometime.H  milk  becomes  slimy  when  it  is  a  few 
hours  old.  This  condition  is  caused  by  the  develop- 
ment of  certain  species  of  bacteria,  and  such  milk 
is  known  as  "ropy"  or  "stringy"  milk.    Occasion- 


BACTERU  OF  MILK 


isa 


ally  a  Mmple  may  develop  a  ttoapy  condition,  and  a 
number  of  other  abnonnal  conditions  may  Ihj  pni- 
dooed  liy  the  developmont  of  different  species  of 
ornnUnu. 

The  problems  of  those  who  handle  milk,  or  its 
pruJucLs.  are  to  prerent  the  entrance  of  the 
ondMirable  organism;;  into  th<;  milk,  or,  hav- 
ing once  gained  entrance,  so  to  cnntrol  thuir 
development  that  they  will  not  produce  unde- 
airable  results.  To  prevent  the  entrance  of 
bacteria  Into  milk,  much  care  and  cteanlincas 
most  be  exercised  from  the  time  the  milk 
leaves  the  cow  antil  it  is  consumed,  but  hav- 
ing once  gained  acc«<ss  to  the  milk,  their  de- 
Telopment  ean  be  controlled  either  tiy  keep- 
ing the  milk  coiutanlly  at  cold  temperatures, 
or  by  raining  it  to  a  high  temperature  for  a 
short  period  and  then  moling  and  holding  at 
a  low  tumpt^raturv.  This  lalter  process  is 
known  3^  pasteurization.   [See  page  184.] 

PUt 
Metitod*  of  atudjjing  bacteria.     (Figs.  175- 
17ft.) 

It  frequently  becomes  neceswary  to  study  the  dif- 
ferent RpecieB  of  bacteria  that  may  exist  in  any 
given  sample  of  milk.  For  thia  purposM;,  what  is 
known  as  the  "plating"  method  is  commonly  used. 
This  method  conHists  in  dilating  a  given  quantity 
of  milk  with  sterile  water,  and  then  placing  a  given 
amount  of  thin  milk  dilution  in  mat-r-nala  suitablu 
for  the  dnvetoprnt-nt  of  the  bai;t«ria  in  a  tl:it  glass 
diah.  For  this  purpose  bouillon  ia  commonly  used, 
to  which  haa  bi-irn  addi-d  a  sufficient  amount  of 
gelatin,  or  similar  material,  to  causo  it  to  soliilify 
■whfin  cool.  This  material  can  then  be  heated  suf- 
ficiently to  make  it  liijuefy.  when  the  milk  dilution 
containing  the  bacteria  U  adde4l  and  thoroughly 
ttixed.  On  cooling,  the  bacteria  that  were  in  the 
aiitk  are  fixed  in  detinite  potiitions  in  the  plate. 
These  plates  are  then  allowed  to  stand  for  a  time, 
daring  which  the  bacteria  develop,  producing  small 
spots  or  colonies  where  each  organism  was  liKated 
at  the  time  the  plate  was  made.  Ity  counting  these 
coloolea  and  multiplying  by  the  dilution  used,  the 
nomber  of  bacteria  in  a  given  quantity  of  the  origi- 
nal i^ample  of  milk  can  easily  be  duterminwl. 

This  is  illustrated  by  the  following  example: 
The  B-imple  of  milk  to  be  tested   is  tboroaghly 


mixcl,  and  one  cubic  centimeter  drawn  out  by 
means  of  a  sterile  pipette,  and  placed  in  a 
bottle  containing  thirty -nine  cubic  centimeters 
of  sterile  water.  This  gives  one  part  of  milk  in 
forty  parts  of  the  dilution,   .\fter  thoroughly  mix- 


.  177.    Eactcrial  stowUi   (lom  inUk  Icetit  lot  twolve  bouit  sX 
dillemil  tempentnic*,— ai  70^  P.  on  the  left.  «t   W  en  ibe 

ing  by  shaking,  one  cubic  centimeter  of  this  dilu- 
tion is  removed  with  a  clean  sterile  pipette,  and 
[tlaced  in  another  bottlt;  containing  ninety-nine 
cubic  centimeters  of  sterile  water,  giving  a  dilution 
of  one  part  of  milk  in  four  thousand  parts  of  the 
dilution.  After  thoroughly  mixing,  one  cubic  cen- 
timutor  of  this  sL^cond  dilution  is  placed  in  each  of 
two  test-tubes  containing  culture  mrtliji,  which  are 
then  thoroughly  mixed  and  poured  out  into  culture 
itiebeH  \o«.  I  and  2,  and  ullciwed  to  HoHdify.  Now 
another  cubic  c^'iitimHti^r  from  thu  first  dilution 
bottle  is  added  Ut  the  second  to  make  a  dilation  of 
prai^icitlly  one  part  of  milk  in  two  thoiit>and  parts 
of  tho  dilution,  and  plates  Nos.  3  and  't  made  as 
before.  .Similiirly.  plates  N'os.  fi  and  0  are  made 
from  a  dihitiun  hiiving  one  part  of  milk  in  one 
thouBancl.  Afti-r  the  bacteria  hav«  developed  suf- 
firiently,  the  number  of  colonies  in  each  plate  is 
<:ounted,  and  the  avurnge  obtainod  as  follows : 


No.  ofpbi*  .1  2  3  4 

nilntion  .   .   .  1.000    '1.000    2,000    2,000 
No.  of  oolottiwt      44         46        89        90 
44  X4,lHN>=  176.000 
4RX4.(X)()=l»4,()OU 
8»X  2.000=178,000 

90  x  ti.ono^iao.ooo 
180  X  i.ixw^iao.ooo 

182  X  1,000=182,000 


1.000 
]«0 


6 
1,000 

182 


Via,  m.    BMUmi  citrwtli  dom  miUc  prodaccd  uil  tLtuAM    uadcr 
SUmmK  — MdOM  ftf  clwnLrtwiM.    Both  umiilM  are  Ihn  uune 


1,080,000-*- 6=180.000 
Avenge  number  of  b«ct«ri«  p*rce.  of  nlSi, 
180.000. 

This  shows  that  the  milk  contained  180,- 
000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimeter  at  tbe 
time  the  test  waa  made. 

Sometimes  a  ditferent  method,  known  aa 
the  "centrifugal"  methtxl  (Fig.  178).  is  used 
for  determining  the  bacteria  in  milk.  Thia 
consists  in  placing  a  given  amount  nf  mi1lc 
in  a  tube  and  whirling  it  violently  with 
sufficient  force  to  throw  the  bacteria  to  the 
bottom  of  the  tube.   The  sediment  thia 


190 


MANDPACTURE  OF  CONDENSED  MILK 


Obtatned  fn  then  transferred  to  a  slide,  stained,  and 
studied  an>dur  the  microscope,  where  th«  individaal 
bacteria  can  be  »een. 

Leueoeytex  in   milk. 

The  mk:roscol^ic  examination  of  milk  by  the  cen- 
trifugal method  has  revealed  the  fact  that  milk 


University AgricaltnralExperimfnt  Station;  A.  R, 
Ward,  Kopinesa  in  Milk  and  Cream.  Bulletins  Xoa. 
165  and  Itl.').  Omoil  University  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station;  Preventini;  Cunlaminatiun  of 
Milk,  Bulletin  No.  91,  Illinois  Apritulturnl  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  Hiillctin  No.  4'^.  Storrs  .\gricul* 
turat  Experiment  Station  ;  V,  A.  Moorv,  Itactcria  in 
Milk,  New  York  Department  of  Agriculture 
(19U2);  C'laMification  of  Dairy  Bacteria.  Report 
of    Storrs    AgricDltural    Experiment    Station 
(1906);  Russell  and  Hoffmann. Leucwyte  Stan J- 
anls  and  tlie  Leucocyte  C"ntenl  of  Milk  from 
.\p|jiirently  Healthy  CViwk, The  Journal  of  Irfcc- 
liouB  l'isea»es(1907). 


■Or 


Stf.  ITS.    OBtTlhij:«  afid  ralcroacoM  loi  th*  ftuOy  of  bictoita, 

freqnently  contains  %'aryinp  nnmbera  of  leucocytes. 
ThiB  has  rciulted  in  the  iidnittinn  by  some  city 
tionni.'f  of  hi^atlh  at  a  niimerical  stanilani  for  the 
leuewytt'  cont*;nl  nf  milk,  and  the  condemning  of 
milk  that  contains  leucocytes  in  exctfss  of  tha 
standaril.  Wherever  intlammation  and  pug  exist, 
leucocytes,  or  white  blood  corpuscles,  arc  present 
,  in  very  Isr^o  nnmljprs,  and  it  has  Iwen  found  in 
certain  wutes  that  milk  coming  frt>m  diseased  uddera 
ahowx  a  large  Ieuct»cyte  content.  For  this*  reason  a 
lartfe  number  of  leucocytes  in  any  Kiven  sample  of 
milk  is  re^rdefl  as  indicating  inflammation  in  the 
udder  prodncing  it.  On  the  other  hand,  recent 
invegtigationa  indicate  that  norma)  milk  cuntjiins  a 
certain  cellular  conlent  lu  a  result  of  the  normal 
proceK!u>.i  of  milk  i>lab(iration.  With  the  present 
methods  of  examination,  it  is  difficult  to  dLstingui:  h 
these  normal  cells  from  trutj  Ieuci<cyteti.  It  is  aUo 
a  question  as  to  where  to  draw  the  line  between  a 
normal  and  an  ahnonnal  numlH.-r  of  leucocytes  in 
milk.  Until  further  research  throws  more  lifibt  on 
the  real  significance  of  the  celliilarcontent  of  milk, 
and  better  mt-thodi)  for  their  study  have  U'cn 
worked  out,  this  method  of  detennining  the  whol'_- 
Bomenens  uf  milk  cannot  be  regarded  aa  entirely 
satisfactory. 

LUerature. 

Swithenbank  and  Newman.  Bacteriology  of  Milk  ; 
H.  W.  Conn.  Bacteria  in  Milk  and  II*  Products :  II. 
L.  Kusaell,  Outlines  of  iJairy  Bacteriology  ;  W.  A. 
Stocking,  Jr.,  Germicidal  Property  of  Milk,  Ftfport, 
Storrs  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  (1001); 
Studies  of  Market  Milk.  Iteport  of  Storrs  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station  )i;X).'i»:  11.  W.  Conn, 
Practical  Dairy  Bacteriology;  Ed.  von  Freudenreich. 
Dairy  Bacteriolog)- ;  A.  R.  Ward,  The  Invasion  of 
Uie  Udder  by  Bacteria.  Bulletin  No.  ITS,  Cornell 


.MANl'FACTl  UK  OF  CO.VDKSSKU   MII.K 

By  0.  F.  Hunziker 

Conden.'»ed  milk  is  milk  from  which  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  water  has  been  evaporated. 
*"     It  is  primarily  of  two  kinds,- sweetened  and 
unsweetened. 

Sweetened  conrlenaed  milk  is  preserved  with 
cane-sugar,  which  is  adiled  to  the  milk  before 
evaporation.  If  m.inufactured  properly,  it  will 
keep  for  years,  but  it  is  best  when  fresh.  It  i* 
pat  on  the  market  in  hermetically  sealed  tin  cans 
and  in  barrels.  The  cans  vary  in  capacity  from 
eight  ounces  to  twenty  ounces ;  the  fourteen-,  fif- 
teen- and  sixteen-onnce  cans  are  the  most  popular. 
These  are  shipped  in  cases  bidding  forty-eight  can* 
and  sell  for  three  to  six  dollars  per  caw,  according 
to  size  of  c&ns.  soa:!on  of  the  year  and  reputation  of 
brand.  The  sweetened  condensed  milk  in  barreU  is 
sold  to  bakeries  and  candy  and  caramel  factories 
at  four  to  seven  cents  per  poumJ,  the  price  being 
governed  by  the  percentage  of  fut  and  the  local 
market  conditions. 

Unsweetened  condensed  milk,  sold  under  the 
names  "  evaporated  milk  "  or  "evaporated  cream,"  is 
preserved  by  sterilisation  with  steam  under  pres- 
sure. If  placed  in  hermelicallv  sealed  cans,  it  ke^*]  a 
indotinitely.  It  reaches  the  market  in  hermetically 
sealed  tin  can.^,  holding  eight  ounces  to  one  gallon, 
and  sells  for  two  to  four  and  one-half  dollars  ^r 
case.  Unsweetened  conden."«ed  milk,  sold  as  "jdain 
condensed  bulk  milk,"  is  not  sterile  and  will  keep 
for  six  to  ten  days  only.  It  is  sold  partly  to  the 
direct  consnmer  in  ordinary  milk  botlies,  and 
partly  in  large  (forty-quart)  milk  cans  to  ice- 
cream manufacturers.  The  price  varies  from  twentj'- 
five  to  eixty-iive  cents  per  gallon,  according  to  the 
percentage  of  fat  it  contains. 

The  quality  of  the  fresh  milk  is  the  first  and  atl- 
important  reouisite  in  the  manufacture  ofa  market- 
able and  wholesome  condensed  milk  of  any  kind. 

ifigtoT]/  and  ftrvtiopmenl  of  tht.  itiduftry. 

In  direct  contrast  lo  the  slow  and  gr-idnal  evolu- 
tion of  the  ancient  branches  of  dairying,  stands 
the  more  modern  innovation  and  rapid  development 
of  the  condensed -milk  industry.  This  branch  uf 
dairy  manufacture  was  not  developed  on  the 
farm,  nor  can  iti.  origin  be  traced  far  back,  and 


MANUPACTUIIE  OF  CONDENSED  MILK 


yet,  within  the  Iwt  few  dw:a«lcs  it  ha«  ajwumed 
SQch  proportirms  that  today  it«ccDpi«s  a  proniiiii^nt 
place  amoDg  the  leading  branches  of  dairying. 

The  condensed-milk  indiutry  WM  introduced  at 
tbo  same  time  as  the  factory  ByRtem  nf  batter-  and 
cbeeve-naktng,  thoogh  for  many  yeare  beftire  the 
invention  of  a  successful  proceiU!  of  condentting 
milk  some  method  had  been  tttiu^rfat  for  preitcrving 
it  The  Americftn.  Gail  Borden,  the  inventor  of 
ti»  manufacture  of  condensed  milk  aad  thL-  father 
of  the  condensed-milk  industry,  In  Mid  to  have 
experimented  for  wrnie  ten  years,  when  he  finally 
decided  that  a  nemi-liquid  Ftate  vns  the  he^t  fnrm  of 
milk  prewervation,  H*-  patented  his  jircK-twn  in  ISnil, 
andinlhesJunL-yearerwted  the  first  conduHswl-milk 
factory  in  the  world  in  the  town  ut  WoleottviUe. 
Connecticut.  The  beginning  waa  small,  the  jtrocfss 
ctqAv,  and  the  pnjdnct  imperfi-ct,  and  it  wa;*  nut 
until  the  Htrennons  years  nf  the  Civil  wjir  that  the 
vhIua  and  usefnlnatis  nf  condeniwd  milk  a»  a  com- 
modity  became  fully  rccognise<l.  Doritijr  the  Civil 
war  thore  was  a  great  demand  fur  this  pr^Mket, 
and  from  that  time  on,  the  industry  increased 


Pll.  1T9.    VAcoum-iMiD. 


.    ..      Tin  ncvtun-Mii.  amdeiiMT  uul  aa»Mortea. 

jUfeM— ■■  *ta*m   nallot  nf  \»tgr  tntt.   h,  ttmm  oiitiM  Wf 

•tull  «dI1;  «.  Hlwun  niillBl  or  JivkH  i   it,  oiiiM  tif  nnlclivil 

rniulmiU'd    mllli;-     «,    tlcurll    llil<-t  o(    )MkM.     Q.    Boij-f. 

nillk   lnli-1:   fi.  Kti-itni   lulrl   of  Urv«  rriil-    H,  dniin   InM   of 

•  'rt  I  r.Ai      Ul.  DWH'j.  Bianlii>l<^roTfr  Willi  ••!r«icl<i*i:   1. 

i<-t'   I.  tapunni  iikiixt:    m.  Tji)ri>  fnr  ■tkiit  inlrl 

■T.   n    tilow-itnwti  **1»*    a,  pjrgih'tf*:   p.fln'- 

!▼.  OMiMMt-r.  naiPr-plvK  IraiJlus  lo  ipiAy- 

Itlt»,    1.  tUT^i  v^pV:    t.  -HaArt  DHIlH    roonivUnff  Twaam- 

CB>»      V     AUMiOrtM    M.  •IMIN   *n|>i>lT  nii4   »ac>-*    '<•' 
kat  ami  mil*,    r,  iiillh  *II|rLiljl   •■'.  WAlvti  /.  llfNUI. 


with  ennrinouti  rapid- 
ity.   In  the  !iixtie:«  the 
v\nKli»-''''wi»MC(indt'nsifd 
Milk  ConnHiny  was  or- 
ganized inSwitzerland, 
and   the  tirfit  factory 
of  that  comitnny  wii8 
btiilt  and  nperattnl  un- 
der  the  directinn  of  an 
American,  George   H. 
Page,  in  IStJT.  Poth  in 
this  country  and   on 
the  continent  the  nm- 
denm^l  •  milk    industry 
gn>w  rapidly.     Every 
succeeding  decade  marked  the  organization  of  now 
companiL'M  and  the  ercctiun  of  new  factories,  until 
today  tht-ri-  ai'o  milk-condensing  factories  in  nearly 
every  eivilizi-d  country  within  the  dairy  belt. 

According  to  the  United  States  Census  Fleport  of 
190f),  there  were  in  that  rear  eighty-one  condensed- 
milk    fartories   in    the   \Tnite4l  Statea,  distribtlted 
over  Seventeen  ntatoM,  and  receiving  712,OOO.CX)0 
pounds  of  frefh  milk.   The  manufactured  product 
amounted,  in  the  aggregate^  to  I9S,000.000 
poundfl  of  sweetened  condenBed  milk,  and 
lOr),000,OCK)    pounds    nf    unsweetened    con- 
densed milk,  at  a  total  valu«  of  |l2().OtiO,000. 
The  statuft  leading  in  condensed -milk  pro- 
duction are  New  York  and  Mli- 
y    {.        nois,  with  a  total  out;>ut  of 
[-^      V    19fi.000.000  [Miiinds,  or  nearly 
twf>-thinlB  of  the  entire  out^ 
17    put  of  condensed  milk  in  this  country. 

SvKimcd  eondriued  milk. 

In  the  manufacture  of  sweetened  con- 
densed milk,  2.T5  to  3  parts  of  fresh  milk 
are  reduced  to  1  part  of  condensed  milk.  The 
frt'ish  milk  is  heated  la  a  temperature  of 
ISO"  to  ia5^  Pahr.  To  the  hot  milk,  12  to  Ifi 
per  cent  (usually  10  jier  centi  of  the  best  re- 
lined  granulated  caoe-xugar  is  added.  When 
this  is  Ihiiroughly  dissolvctl,  tho  milk  is  dniwn 
into  the  vaciium-pan,  where  the  actual  condensing 
takes  place.  Tho  vacuutn-pan  is  a  retort  (Fig.  I79l. 
eqnippeil  with  steam  jacket  and  steam  coils.  The 
retnrt  lead**  into  the  condenser,  where  the  hot 
vapors  are  wmdenseil  by  means  of  a  powerfnl  spray 
of  cold  water,  isauing  frum  a  perfonited  pipe.  TTie 
condenser  is  connected  with  tfie  vacuum-pump  and 
the  cold-water  Unk.  (Fig.  ]80.)  The  milk  is  con- 
densed under  reduced  pressore,  which  causes  it  to 
boil  violently  at  a  comparatively  lt>w  tem^vrature. 
The  temperature  in  the  varuum-pan  is  regulated 
by  the  supply  of  steam  t<i  the  jacket  and  coils,  hy 
the  amount  and  temperature  of  the  water  spray  in 
the  condenser  and  by  the  capacity  of  the  vacuum- 
pamp.   Although  Iheee  conditions  vary  in  the  differ- 


192 


MANUFACTURE  OF  CONDENSED  KILK 


«nt  factoricji,  experience  has  shown  tbat  about 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  pounds  of  stoam  pressure  in 
jacket  and  coils,  a  vacuum  &f  twenty-five  inchej* 
and  a  temperature  in  the  retort  of  130"  Falir.,  give 
the  must  satisfactory  resuits.  This  ratio  of  steam 
pressure,  temperature  and  vacnum  make  it  poMible 
to  condenso  a  batch  of  15,000  pounU^  of  milk  in 
about  two  and  one-half  hours.  Some  processors  do 
not  add  the  cane-sufirnr  until  the  condensation  has 
been  nejirly  compk-ted.  The  tntlk  irt  then  swelled 
by  super-heating  with  live  steam,  after  which  the 
sugar  Holution  it*  ^Jded  and  the  process  finished. 

Sweetened  condensed  mtlk,  made  from  whole 
milk,  and  under  normal  conditiona,  haa  a  specific 
pravity  of  1.28  to  l.2'J.  When  the  boilinc  milk  in 
the  pan  approaches  the  desired  decree  oiconden- 
aation,  it  is  "atruck."  This  term  is  applied  to  samp- 
ling and  testing  the  sample  for  density. 

The  degree  of  condensation  may  be  determined 
by  various  methods,  such  as  weighing  a  definite 
quantity  of  the  condensed  milk  on  a  sensitive  acaie, 
by  the  use  of  a  resixtancL-  apparatus,  or  by  means 
of  a  specially  constructed  hyarometer.  Mechanical 
devices,  such  as  the  above,  can  be  depended  on  when 
all  the  the  conditions  influencing  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  liquid  to  be  tested  are  definitely  known, 
and  when  there  is  plenty  of  time  for  their  manipu- 
lation. When  the  boiling  milk  in  the  retort  is 
approaching  the  proper  density,  however,  quick 
action  is  essential.  One  minute  over-  or  under- 
condensing  may  cause  the  milk  to  be  either  too 
thick  or  too  thin  for  the  market  and  may  neces- 
sitate the  "re-running"  of  the  entire  batch  with 
a  new  "  run  "  of  milk.  Therefore,  these  in-itniments 
are  practically  worthless  at  the  time  they  are  mottt 
needed.  There  is  not  time  carefully  to  measure  and 
weigh  out  8  sample  of  sweetened  condensed  milk, 
nor  can  the  procesiior  wait  till  the  hydrometer  has 
found  its  equilibrium  in  as  riecous  a  fluid  ad  sweet- 
ened condensed  milk.  Again,  the  density  or  specific 
gravity  of  the  finished  product  depends  on  many 
and  fluctuating  conditinns,  such  aa  the  amount  of 
heat  applied  towanis  the  end  of  the  process,  the 
temperature  of  the  sample  dran*n,  and  the  percent 


pi£.  181.  cooiioic  m. 

of  fat  and  of  sugar  that  the  condensed  milk  con- 
tains. For  these  reasons  it  La  not  difficult  to  under- 
stand why  arbitrary  mechanical  instruments  are 
not  30  satisfactory  as  the  experienced  eye  and 
good  judgment  of  the  processor. 

The  fiiusbed  condenied  milk  in  drawn  from  the 
vacnuiD-{Mui  into  44>qaart  caosj  which  are  set  io  a 


cooling  vat.  (Fig.  181.)  Tht9  vat  is  equipped  with  a 
seri&i  iif  revolving  cog-wheels,  on  which  the  cans 
stand.  Stationary  paddles  or  stirrers,  which  scrape 
the  sides  of  the  revolving  cans,  are  insierted.  The 
cooling  should  be  done  slowly  and  the  milk  most  be 


Kk. 


Plr.  lU.    ThD  Stlclni«7  War. 

stirred  constantly  and  thoroughly.  Rapid  and 
uneven  chilling  will  cause  the  sugar  In  the  milk  to 
re-crystalliae  and  thus  make  the  product  gritty  or 
sandy.  The  sugur  thus  precipitated  has  a  tendency 
to  settle  to  the  bottom  after  the  condensed  milk 
has  been  poured  into  tin  cans  and  render  it  unfit 
for  sale.    (Fig.  182.) 

The  cooled  condensed  milk  is  poured  either  into 
barrels  and  sold  in  bulk,  or  into  tin  cans,  berraeti- 
cally  sealed,  labeled  and  sold  in  cases  holding  forty- 
eight  cans. 

UiutPtttened  nmdenteil  mlik. 

In  the  preparation  of  unsweetened  condensed 
milk  the  fresh  milk  is  conden-ied  st  the  ratio  of 
about  2.5  parts  of  frush  milk  to  one  p^rt  of  con- 
densed milk.  The  process  of  heating  and  condens- 
ing is  identical  with  that  of  sweetened  condensed 
milk,  but  no  sugar  is  added.  When  the  milk 
has  reached  the  proper  density,  specific  gra^nty 
LOG  to  1.08,  which,  in  this  case,  can  easily  be 
determined  by  means  of  the  hydrometer,  the  con- 
densed milk  is  cooled  and  filled  into  tin  cans,  holding; ' 
eight  ouncoH  to  one  gallon.  Tht«e  cans  are  then 
hermetically  seali^d.  Thuy  arv  th«n  put  into  iron 
trays  and  thesi*  art-  locked  in  thv  revolving  fran^ 
work  of  a  elerilizer  (Fig.  183).  where  they  are  sob- 
jected  to  a  high  temperature  under  steam  pressure. 
In  order  to  hasten  the  heating  iind  to  prevent  the 
contents  of  the  cans  burning  on  the  (in,  tbey  9X%- 
kept  constantly  in  motion.  The  heat  applied  variMJ 


MANUFACTURE  OF  CONDENSED  MIUC 


193 


in  different  factories  from  223"  Fahr.  to  2.16"  Fahr., 
and  the  time  i>f  e.ipoRure  rmm  five  to  tiftwn  minuter. 
ThisHU'riiizatinn  hiuia  threefolii  purpose, namely,  to 
deBtruv  allKHrm  life,  tontVL-lhu  ciinUjiitsof  thecana 
B  creamy  texturu  ami  color,  and  i«o  to  change  tho 
physical  condition  uf  the  condensed  milk  a«  to  pre- 
vent the  fat  separating  in  transportation  and  in 
storage. 

WTien  the  cans  are  taken  from  the  sterilizer  the 
Conrlt-nA-ii  milk  haw  the  Liimniatency  of  jwlly  or  cus- 
tant.  Ill  this  comHliun  it  u-uulO  not  liu  tutlalilL'. 
Tho  next  step,  thwrefore,  Is  to  proviju  aomu  nioan« 
to  break  up  this  coni^ulum  into  a  uniform,  homo- 
geneous mass  resemhjing  cream.  Pnr  thiH  purpose 
the  cans  are  placed  in  the  "shaker,"  a  heavy  iron 
box  moving  hack  anil  forth  on  an  tHurentrir.  Their 
exposure,  for  unu  minute,  to  violent  af^'itutiDn  in 
the  shaker  hrinjc  about  the  d^airnd  results.  From 
here  the  cans  are  tranFffrred  to  the  incubator 
room  where  they  are  allowed  to  remain  for  ten  to 
thirty  daye.  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  Fahr. 
This  incubation  in  not  an  ectE^ntinl  part  of  the 
procens,  but  is  merely  a  precautionary  meaHure  for 
the  purpose  of  deteclinf;  Ivakyciinaiintl  thiwe  whiine 
contents  aro  not  absolutuiy  stiTilu,  thus  preventing 
defcctivo  milk  leaving  the  factory.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  this  incubation  the  cans  are  labeled, 
packed  in  canes  and  shipped  to  their  destination. 

Piain  eondenttd  bulk  milk. 

This  is  an  unsweettrnd,  cundenHtMl  milk  which  ia 
not  subjected  to  the  steriliainK  i^roeuss  and,  there- 
fore, is  not  sterile.  It  ia  K'^ntrally  more  conc<.'n- 
trated  than  the  canned  go*«iB,  three  to  five  parts 
of  fresh  milk  being  condensed  into  one  part  of  con- 
densed milk.  When  the  milk  has  reachefl  its  ])niper 
de{n^e«  of  concentration,  the  vatTuum  m  broken  and 
live  steam  is  passed  into  the  contents  of  the 
Tacuum-pan  for  the  purpose  of  swelling  t\m  milk. 
Whfn  the  "suiwrheating"  has  produced  the  proper 
"liver"  ((:on(;ulum).  the  steam  \»  turned  off.  the 
vacuum-pump  starU^l  again  and  the  process  of  con- 


ns. U3.  Tto  BAltI«7  ttKiaim. 

densin;;  completed.  The  finished  product  is  cooled 
and  sold  either  in  milk  or  crm»m  bottli-i*  for  <lirect 
cotunimption.  or  in  ffirty-t^uart  cans,  to  ictMtream 
estAMi«lunents. 

Within  recent  years,  a  new  procraw  of  maniifac- 
toring  plain  condensed  bulk  milk  ami  milk-puwilurs 
basbeien  introduce*]  and  patented  as  Ihti  "Campbell 

C  13 


Patent."  In  this  process,  the  mi!k  ia  condensed  by 
forcing  a  current  of  hot  air  through  it  antil  the 
priMiuct  h;ui  feat^hed  the  cledired  degree  of  conden- 
sation. The  ]xiint»  in  itri  favor  are  that  the  initial 
cost  of  the  necessary  machinery  is  very  small,  an 
ordinary  jacketed  kettle  taking  the  place  of  the 
expensive  machinery  required  when  milk  is  con- 
densed under  reiluced  presunre :  and  the  milk  is 
not  heated  to  temperatureit  high  enough  to  injure 
it))  digestibility.  This  procuBs  hjis  so  far  been 
confined  to  the  manufacture  of  unHweetened  con- 
dunsed  bulk  milk  and  niilk-puwdurs.  {See  page 
i94.1 

Compogilion  of  condensrd  milk. 

The  composition  of  condensci:!  milk  depends  on 
such  factors  iw  the  composition  of  the  fresh  milk 
from  A'hich  it  in  made,  the  degree  of  comlensatioD 
and  the  |>erceDtage  of  cane-sugar  uddeiL  As  all  of 
these  factura  vary  in  milk  from  different  factories, 
and  in  milk  from  the  samo  factory  during  dilTerent 
seasons  of  the  year,  no  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be 
given.  The  following  figures  merely  represent  the 
avt-rage  com|HiHition  of  sweetened  and  unsweetened 
condenHeil  milk  as  obtained  from  the  results  of  a 
large  number  of  analytua : 

^W-EETa.tED    COMDBNSEU    MlLX     p„  ^^^ 

Water 26.B 

Pat 9.0 

Pn>t«idii 8.6 

MLlk'Sugar 13.S 

Ash 1.8 

CaDe-sugor 40;9 

100.0 

UNSnXETE}<ED    CONDEN'SES    UiLK 

Water 71.0 

Pat 8.1 

rri>t«id« 7.6 

MUk-su^u- 11.6 

Ash 1.6 

100.0 

The  federal  pure  food  law,  which  went  into  force 
in  1907,  requirref  that  confiensed  milk  shall  contain 
not  Icits  than  2S  per  cent  of  milk  solids  and  that 
27 .fi  pur  CL>nt  uf  these  milk  solids  shall  be  fat. 

Rphlion   of  the   industry   to  tiairifing. 

The  presence  of  a  condensed -milk  factory,  oper- 
ated by  a  repatable  concern,  usually  indicates  a 
highi'r  standard  of  sanitary  dairying  in  the  bicality. 
There  is,  jMirhaps,  no  one  dairy  pnxluct  the  i]uality 
ami  uM-fulness  of  which  de|M;ndflso  greatly  on  the 
qnality  of  the  frw*h  milk  as  dow  that  of  condensed 
milk.  Though  hi-ated  and  preserved  with  cane- 
sugar,  condensed  milk  is  bound,  siK>ner  or  later,  to 
be  affected  by  the  many,  and,  in  most  caw-i.  unfavor- 
able conditions  to  which  it  ia  Bul>jvctii?d  in  ita 
transit  from  the  manufacturer  to  the  consumer, 
unteas  made  from  a  high  grade  of  fre«h  milk.  Good, 
clean,  sanitary  milk  is  one  of  the  ess«'ntialp  to  the 
succesti  of  a  cundt'Dsory.  As  a  matter  of  neceasity^ 
therefore,  the  condcnsory  requires  its  patrons  t« 


194 


MILK-POWDER 


produce  ami  tranHport  their  milk  iimler  sanitary 
conditiorw.  Tim  faniwrs  jirw  tauj^lit  huw  to  priMliiOB 
ctoiin  and  wiiolvttomu  iniik,  and  how  to  tuku  care  of 
it.  As  these  inslriietu'nB  are  nrtually  vijforouflly 
enforc-ed,  the  condensory  for  its  own  jirntotftion  is 
thii.4  }il.iying  the  mle  of  an  ediicatio'nal  ini^titution 
for  th»  bHtterment  nf  the  dairy  iniiustrj'. 

Like  the  city  milk  jilitnt,  the  cfind^-nHory  uacfl  up 
all  there  is  in  milk,  nnfi  the  dairymiuK'an  take  hnek 
from  the  factory  neither  BltitnmwJ  milk  unr  butter- 
milk. This  18  one  of  the  soriouH  disadvantajjea  to 
which  the  condensory  patron  has  to  suhmit.  Terri- 
Umea  in  which  much  stock  is  niisod,  therefore,  are 
not  snitahle  for  the  estahliahment  of  milk  cnnden- 
sories,  for  there  the  farmer  cannot  afford  to  s*"!!  his 
skimmed  milk.  (In  the  other  hand,  the  condensory 
uaually  pays  twenty  to  thirty  ceiila  more  per  one 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  than  creameries  and  cheese- 
factories,  a  difference  in  price  which,  in  localities 
not  especially  adapted  for  stock-raising,  is  ample 
compensation  for  the  Rkimmed  milk.  Generally 
speak  in^r,  condensed -mi  Ik  factorie.**,  operateii  Ity 
reajHitwiblfl  partieji,  are  a  benefit  tu  the  fanning 
eommunity  both  financially  and  educationally. 

The  fttlure  of  the  ituiujttry. 

That  the  condensed-milk  indantry  has  paswd  the 
eiperiraental  stace  is  amply  demonstrated  by  the 
enormous  rapidity  with  which  the  number  of 
factoriej*  and  the  output  of  the  old  factories  are 
increasing.  That  there  is  a  place  for  the  product 
in  the  future  it)  slronxly  indicated  hy  the  fact 
that  it  has  found  its  way  into  every  country  on 
the  globe.  Not  only  is  its  consumption  increasing 
in  localities  and  lands  unablu  to  produce  fresh  milk, 
in  the  mining  camps,  on  the  battle-fields,  in  the 
tropics,  in  the  arctic  region,  on  ocean  liners  and 
on  men-of-war.  hut  the  demand  for  condensed  milk 
in  our  home  markets  13  growing  with  astonishing 
rapidity.  This  fact  also  suggests  the  possibility 
that  the  condcnsed-inilk  industry  may  help  to  solve 
the  complex  prol)l<jm  of  supplying  milk  to  our  large 
cities  in  the  future. 

The  fact  that  the  condensed-milk  industry  is 
absorbing,  today,  a  large  and  constantly  increasing 
part  of  the  fresh  milk  produced  in  our  dairy  stated, 
caDBe3  this  industry  to  he  felt  as  an  active  compet- 
itor for  the  supply  of  fresh  milk;  it  has  become 
an  important  factor  bearing  on  the  milk-,  butter- 
and  ch«e9«*market  of  the  country,  and  promLte^  to 
be  a  lasting  and  growini^  benefit  to  agriculture  in 
many  regions. 

L  ilenU  K  rf. 

0.  r.  llunziker.  The  Mantifacture  of  Sweetened 
Condensed  Milk,  ('ornell  ('ountr)Tnan.  Volame-  'i, 
Nos.  'I,  n,  7. 0 ;  Volume  4.  Xoa.  2, 3,  9  (1906-liK)7): 
C.  B.  Cochran.  Analysis  of  Condensed  Milks  and 
Infants'  Foods,  IVnnsvlvania  I>epartment  of  .Agri- 
culture (1905):  C.  b.  HoUey.  Condensed  Milk, 
North  Dakota  Department  of  .Agriculture.  Inth 
Annual  Report.  No.  1.  Part  II  (1SK).5) :  Condensed 
Milk,  Inland  Revenue  Department,  Ottawa,  Canada, 
BnlleHna  Ncai.  54  (1897)  and  69  (lIKJi')).  by  Thomas 
UiofarlatM  and  A.  McGill,  respectively. 


MILK-POWDKI? 
By  Geo.  W.  Gn>aniiu<;A 

Milk-powder  ts  the  dry  solids  of  milk  in  the  form 
of  a  powder.  Either  whole  milk  or  milk  wholly  or 
partly  .skimmed  may  he  iwed  in  its  preparation. 
The  milk  must  \m  sweet  anil  produce*!  under  san- 
itary comiitionH  to  yiidd  a  (niwder  of  good  quality. 

A  milk-powdt-r  should  fulfil  thesi>  conditions: 
(1)  U  should  contain  not  to  exceed  'ZJi  per  cent  of 
moisture.  This  small  amount  preclud*5S  the  action 
of  bacteria.  (2)  The  milk-fat  must  be  in  the  orig- 
inal globular  form,  otherwi.se  the  powder  will  not 
mix  with  water  to  a  true  emulsion.  (3)  The  milk 
albumen  must  not  he  coagulated.  When  the  milk 
albumem  is  coagulated,  the  solubility  of  the  powder 
may  be  reduced  bo  that  part  of  it  will  settle  out  on 
standing.  There  will  also  he  a  taste  that  is  charac- 
teristic of  boiled  milk. 

Historic. 

The  first  patent  reconled  fur  producing  dry  milk 
was  grantwi  to  a  Mr.  Newton  by  the  Rrilish  Pat«nt 
OBice  in  lSJr>.  Other  patents  were  recorded  from 
time  to  time,  but  there  is  no  record  of  the  processes 
described  in  them  being  commercially  successful 
until  the  years  18119- 1900.  Since  the  latter  date, 
five  or  six  facturtes  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
have  been  prmiucing  confiiderable  quantities  of  pow- 
derpd  milk  hy  various  proeesses.  Outnide  the  patent 
records,  there  is  yet  no  literature  on  the  subject. 

The  composition  qf  miiA-^wirt/er. 

Whole  milk  has  an  average  compoeition  as  fol- 
lows: Water,  87.1  [ler  cent:  fat,  3.9  per  cent  ; 
ca-sein,  2..5  per  cent ;  albumen.  .7  per  cent ;  migar, 
5.1  per  cent;  ash,  .7  per  cent.  One  hundred  pounds 
of  whole  milk  yields,  therefore,  about  thirteen 
pounds  of  solids  and  skimmed  milk  about  nine 
pounds.  The  partly  skimmed  milk  wilt  yield  an 
amount  of  solids  according  to  the  degree  to  which 
it  has  been  skimmef).  Powdere*!  milk  made  fmm 
whole  milk  ha.*  a  composition  approximately  as  fol- 
lows: Moisture,  2  per  cent;  fat,  28,5  per  cent ; 
casein,  20  per  cent :  albumen,  6.4  per  cent ;  milk- 
sugar,  3H.-i  per  Cent;  asb,  5.8  per  cent.  Milk- 
powder  made  from  half-flkimmed  milk  has  a  compo- 
sition approximately  as  follows:  Moisture,  2  per 
cent;  fat,  17  per  cent;  casiMn,  23.Q  per  cent; 
albumen,  fi.5  per  cent ;  milk-sugar,  4.'i.7  |K!r  cent ; 
aah,  7.2  per  cent.  Skimmed-m ilk- powder  may  have 
the  composition :  Moisture.  2  per  cent ;  fat,  17  per 
cent ;  casein.  liS  jier  cent ;  albumen,  7.4  per  cent ; 
milk-sugar,  53,6  per  cent ;  ash,  8  per  cent. 

The  proeexMt. 

As  a  part  of  the  solkia  of  milk  are  In  solotion 
and  a  part  in  the  form  of  an  emubion,  the  water 
may  not  be  removed  by  any  process  of  straining  or 
filtering,  but  must  be  removed  by  evaporation.  The 
resulting  solids  should  be  miscihie  with  water  to 
yield  a  liquid  milk  in  which  the  several  constituents 
have  the  same  physical  and  chemical  properliw 
that  they  possess  in  ordinary  milk.  The  processed 
for  the  removal  of  Uw  water  by  evaporation,  ami 


; 


MASUPACTURE  OF  ICE -CREAM  AND  OTHER  FROZEN  PRODUCTS 


195 


which    accompliBh    tho    above   tte-sirable    results, 
wholly  or  in  part,  may  l>e  grou|«Ki  an  follows: 

(1)  limiting  the  milk  timlHr  n^iluc't^il  pr^iiituro  in  a. 
vacuum  and  tttirrin);  nnti)  Lhi>  vial^r  in  evaporated. 
Thu  dry  maaa  is  then  Kruund  to  a  puwder. 

(2)  Expoeln^  thu  milk  in  a  thin  layer  on  the 
sorfaco  of  a  revolving  cylinder  that  is  hcaU-d  by 
eteam.  A  knife  removes  the  dried  layer,  which  is 
then  ground  to  a  powder 

(.'i)  Exposing  the  milk  in  a  thin  layer  on  the 
Aurface  of  a  revolving  cylinder  that  is  heatpd  either 
by  staann  ut  hot  water,  the  t:ylindt^r  Ueing  e!U^li)Be<l 
in  8  vacuum  chambt^r.  Thin  niakus  it  putuible  to 
effect  the  (ivaporation  at  a  hi*'(.ir  tfrnporature. 

(4)  Passing  a  current  of  warm  nir  apwarda 
throQgh  the  milk  until  the  milk  thickcna,  and  then 
evaporating  the  remainder  of  tiie  water  by  expo- 
sure to  heated  air.  ThiH  ia  folbiwed  hy  grinding. 

(ii)  Exposing  tliH  milk  in  the  form  uf  a  aprny  to 
a  current  of  heaU-*d,  dry  air,  in  an  evaporating 
chamber.  Tbia  procesa  t3  bo^ed  ou  thu  fact  that  an 
atomized  lir)aid  in  the  form  of  a  mist  ofTurs  the 
maximnm  surface  for  the  evaporation  at  its  watvr. 
The  evaporation  in  m  nearly  instantaneoaathutthe 
milk  aolids  are  in  the.  form  of  a  dry  powder  when 
tberfsll.    No  grinding  or  putverizing  ih  neressary. 

One  cause  of  the  relatively  hIow  development  of 
BoeoBaafiil  procossis  is  found  in  the  difTictilLiua 
encoontereil  in  tha  complt-tu  removal  of  thu  watt-r 
from  milk  after  the  material  becomes  thickened  by 
evaporation.  By  continuing  the  ordinary  procesa 
of  evaporation,  there  i.H  a  neces.'Hiry  concentration 
of  each  constituent  of  the  milk.  .Ml.milk  contains 
small  qaantitieaof  acids  even  when  perfectly  fresh. 
On  concentration  these  actdfl  reai^h  a  degree  which, 
together  with  the  heat  omployed,  tends  to  coagu- 
late the  milk  albumen  and  to  curdle  the  casein.  Thua^ 
while  all  the  water  might  be  remox*ed  by  continu- 
ing the  process  of  evaporation,  it»  removal  would 
be  aoeompanied  by  a  decrease  in  the  sulnbility  of 
the  resulting  powder.  Certain  media  may  be  used 
to  nenlralise  the  acida  of  milk. 

Umb  and  advantages. 

Milk-powder  is  particularly  adapted  for  tiae  in 
baking,  for  which  it  may  bu  used  either  by  mixing 
directly  with  the  flour  or  by  reeonatituting  and 
then  using  as  ordinary  milk.  When  the  powder  is 
mixed  dry  with  the  flour,  the  ma*B  may  then  be 
moiitenea  with  water,  and  the  tiame  result  secured 
H  by  the  use  of  liquid  milk. 

In  t]l«  preparation  of  ^omekinda  of  confectionery, 
M  ohocolAte,  the  use  of  whule-nnlk-iiowder  '\h  very 
■dnuitageottB.  The  water  in  ordinary  milk  or  cream 
•onetimes  eaoaes  an  uneven  di.itrib»tioD  of  the  fut 
or  oil  of  the  chocolate  that  impairs  the  color.  This 
la  entirely  avoided)  hy  the  tiao  of  milk  in  the  dry 
fomi.  In  the  preparation  of  ice-<!reani,  powdi-red 
milk  may  Aerre  not  only  as  the  ba^ia  of  the  milk  or 
enua  that  is  used,  but  also  as  a  thickenur  in  the 
plaoe  of  gelatine. 

A  comparison  with  the  ordinary  sweetened  con- 
deoaed  milk  will  show  the  relative  advantages  of 
povderad  milk  whun  tranHportation  and  economy 
«f  ttonee  «ru  concerned : 


CeDitMUKri  mllli         Psr  r^nl  Mtlk-powdar           Far  caul 

Moisture  ....  25  Hoialar«  .  .   .   .  2^ 

Milk  Doliiis    ...  85  HUk  Bolidi    .   .  9Ti 
Cone-tvgar  ...  40 

The  transportation  of  milk  in  the  form  of  powder 
avoids  the  UHual  refrigeration  and  hence  may  be 
by  freight.  The  raanufai^ture  of  powileretl  milk  will 
undoubtedly  have  an  important  bearing  on  the 
whole  dairy  in(lu»try.  making  powible  the  transpor- 
tation of  fresh  swoot  milk  from  places  heretofore 
inacceasihle  because  of  diatance. 


MANUFACTI.TRK  OP  ICE-CREAM   AND 
OTHER  KROZKV  PRODUCTS 

By  H.  E.  Van  Norman 

The  team  ice-cream  is  applied  to  any  froaen 
mixture  resembling  frozen  cream  and  based  on  milk 
products.  Literally  speaking,  it  is  cream  sweet- 
ened, flavored  and  frozi-n.  Sometimes  it  is  a  com- 
bination of  cream  with  milk,  skimmed  milk  or 
ccfndenKml  milk,  t^tarch,  eggs  or  gelatin,  sweetened 
with  sugar,  syrup  or  gluense,  and  tlavored  with 
fruit  juict's,  exlracla,  fresh  or  canoed  fruit*,  fruit 
syrups,  nuts,  liquors,  macaroons,  bread-crumbs. 

When  large  quantities  of  cream  are  made  for  & 
mnderate-priced  trade,  gelatin  is  often  used  to 
make  the  cream  "stand  up"  or  retain  its  shape 
when  shipped  or  held  for  several  days.  When 
cream  is  low  in  butter-fat,  certain  fillem  arp  added 
to  give  body  to  the  profluct,  such  as  rice  fluur,  corn- 
stiireh,  sago,  arrowroot  and  gelatin.  Condensed 
milk  and  condensed  skimmed  milk  arc  used  to  give 
body  and  smoothness  when  cream  is  not  rich. 

Owing  to  the  confusion  of  terms  and  standards 
of  quality,  there  is  a  growing  disposition  to  con- 
form in  local  practice  to  the  sLandanlK  pramolgated 
by  the  authority  of  Congress  for  interstate  com- 
merce, which  recogniae  as  ico-cream  only  that 
product  made  from  a  standard  cream  (containing 
18  percent  of  fat),  sweetened  and  flavored. 

Kinds  qffnjzut  disha. 

Sfoiigsf.  is  rich  cream  beaten  stiff,  sweetened, 
ItavcirHKl,  pliu-ed  in  a  mold  and  frozen  without 
agitation.  It  must  remain  about  three  hours  in  a 
freezing  mixture  of  equal  parta  of  salt  and  ice. 
Wntrr-iee  is  fruit  juice  sweetened,  diluted  with 
wat^T  and  frozen.  This  requires  a  colder  freesing 
mixture  than  cream.  SkeHief  is  watc^r-ice  to  which 
has  been  added  gelatin,  or  beaten  whiles  of  eggs. 
It  may  be  a  comblnutiun  of  the  juice  uf  susveral 
fruits.  }yappf  is  water-ice  froton  only  to  the  eon- 
fliateiicy  of  mush.  Fxniek  is  water-ice  to  which  have 
been  added  liquors  and  spice.  SftijuTlifan  is  usually 
acnmbination  of  three  different  flavored  ice-creama 
in  a  brick.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
cooked  cream  c^mtaining  eggs. 

Itv-atam. — There  are  many  kinils  of  ice-crpjira 
and  many  namea  for  them.  Ccnerally  fti»5aking, 
ice-creaniB  may  be  divided  into  plain  creams  and 
cooked  cR'anis.  The  plain  product  is  usually  culled 
Philadelphia  cream.  H  ia  a  raw  cream  sweetened, 
flavored  and  frozen.    In  commercial  eetablishmenta 


196 


MANUPACTtIRE  OP  ICE-CREAM   AND  OTHER  FROZEN   PRODTICTS 


in  which  large  (juantitien  of  ico-cream  are  marie, 
the  ert';im  uHually  in  not  c<H»ke(I  except  iis  pasteur- 
izc<j  cnjam  U  used  in  p1»ce  uf  raw  iTeam.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  caterinff  eetablishment?,  where 
Bmall  lots  of  fancy  creams  are  made,  and  In  thti 
family  kitchen,  the  ice-cream  mixture  iafniqaontly 
cooked,  or  at  least  heaWd  lo  lh«!  Itoiliny  point.  Thia 
is  deainihle  with  all  formulas  in  wbicil  eggs  are 
osed.  The  proportion  of  the  fonndatitm  materials 
may  ha  vuriti<!  Uj  ituit  the  requirements  of  each 
maker.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  cream.  The 
cook-booka  give  an  infinite  variety  of  recipes, 
many  of  which  differ  only  in  the  richness  of  the 
cream  or  the  proportion  of  sugar,  eggs,  fruit  or 
other  flavoring  material. 

Ice-ata  m-moJt-tny. 

Tkt  crram.— The  cream  for  an  excellent  quality 
of  ice-creani  should  contain  20  to  £5  per  cent  of 
butter-fat.  Cream  raised  by  allowing  the  milk  to 
stand  twenty-four  hours,  or  from  the  centrifugal 
separator,  set  so  that  the  cream  is  not  more  than 
ono-sixth  of  the  volnme  or  woifjht  of  the  milk  to 
begin  with,  usually  will  huvu  about  this  percentage 
&f  fat  in  it  Double  cream  should  contain  35  to  45 
per  cent  of  butter-fat.  Too  rich  cream  may  be 
reduced  to  suit  the  ta.stG  by  the  use  of  skimminl 
milk  or  whole  milk.  Somci  commercial  makers 
reduce  it  as  low  as  10  per  cent  of  fac 

The  croam  should  tie  free  from  taint«  and  all 
undesirable  flavors,  as  freezing  does  not  drive  olF 
or  materially  disj^iiise  them.  In  commercial  work, 
stable  taints  and  "  cowy"  odor  or  flavor  .ihoulti  be 
guarded  against.  The  cream  should  not  contain 
over  .3  per  cent  of  acid  and,  preferably,  only  .2 
per  cent. 

If  cream  containinc  too  much  acid,  i.  ^..^lightly 
sour,  must  be  usvJ  for  icu-cn-'am-makin]:;,  its  acid- 
ity may  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  a  little  bicarbon- 
ate of  soda  (common  baking-soda).  If  more  soda 
is  luiec)  than  is  necessary  to  neutralize  the  acid,  it 
will  give  the  cream  a  bitter  taste. 

Pasteurized  cream  may  bi^  used  in  part  or 
entirely.  It  U  important  that  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly cooled,  and  it  is  better  if  it  has  been  hcdd  at 
a  temperature  l*Iow  4J3°  for  one  to  three  days 
after  pasteurizing,  as  this  increases  the  apparent 
body  and  the  over-run  of  the  ice-cream. 

Condfusfd  mi/i. —The  commercial  prcMuct  usu- 
ally sold  for  use  in  ice-rream  manufactur.-  m.iy  be  a 
cumlenKiM]  skimmud  milk  orwhole  milk.  Its  use  adds 
to  the  body  and  amriothnL'.^s  of  a  iTeam  not  rich  in 
butter-fat.  due  tr*  the  milk  soHils  nthi.'r  than  fat  in 
the  condensed  milk.  It  may  replacL-  'one-Gfthof  the 
cream. 

5uj7iir.— The  sair&r  may  he  added  to  the  cream 
and  should  1k>  nlliiwed  time  to  dissolve  thoroughly 
before  thu  cream  in  put  into  the  freezing-can.  It 
may  also  be  maile  into  a  cyrup  and  added  in  this 
form,  although  the  least  water  thai  will  answer  the 
purpose  in  making  the  syrup,  the  better.  If  any 
milk  is  lo  he  used  in  the  mixture,  it  may  lie  meas- 
nred  out  and  the  siif:ar  added  to  it.  as  the  sugar 
will  dissolve  more  rapidly  in  the  milk  than  in  the 
richer  cream.  Crt-nlte  stirring  will  hasten  the  dis- 


solving.   When    preserved    fmit"*,  fmit-juicea  and 
sympa  are  aneH,  less  sugar  will  be  required. 

Flamrinff.—  Flavors  may  be  crushed  fresh  or 
canned  fruits,  fruit  juices  or  syrups,  extracta  or 
nuts,  browned  bread-orumbs,  macaroons,  grape- 
nuts,  and  the  like.  The-  flavoring  material  may  be 
added  to  the  mixture  before  freezing  begins,  or  it 
may  be  added  when  the  cream  is  frozen  to  the  con- 
sistency of  mu^h.  The  latter  practice  is  more 
desirable  in  the  case  of  alcoholic  extracts,  as  these 
are  volatile;  also  with  fruits  that  are  fle.iby.  and 
which  it  is  desirable  should  not  Iw  froiwn  too  hard, 
or  when  sour  fniits  are  nsed.  With  sour  fmits, 
such  as  raspberries,  strawberries,  and  the  like,  part 
of  the  sugar  should  be  mixed  with  the  fruit.  With 
canned  peaches  the  addition  of  lemon-juice  is 
recommended,  one  lemon  for  each  gallon  of  the 
peaches.  The  vanilla-bean  may  be  ground  and  mixed 
with  powdered  sugar  and  usod  for  flavoring,  the 
fine  specks  of  the  bean  not  being  objectionable 
when  it  is  understood  what  they  are  ;  or  an  alco- 
holic extract  may  he  use<i.  Since  the  cold  cream 
lessens  the  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  taste,  the 
unfrozen  mixture  mast  be  flavored  more  highly 
than  would  be  necessary  if  it 
were  to  be  eaten  unfrozen. 

.Sdt  for  fretzing.  —  This 
should  be  coarse  rock  salt. 
Ordinary  fine  or  stock  salt 
may  be  used,  although  it  is 
not  very  satisfactory. 

/w.  —  The  ice  should  be 
crushed.  It  may  be  crushed 
in  small  amounts  in  a  ba^ 
with  a  wooden  mallet,  or  in 
a  box  with  a  spiked  ice- 
crasher  (Fig.  1S4).  The  finer 
the  ice  the  more  rapidly  it 
melts.  The  colder  the  freez- 
ing mixture  the  quicker  the 
freezing  will  take  place.  For 
small  lots  of  cream,  anow  can  be  used,  although  it 
is  not  desirable. 

fVerctwj.— The  freezing  is  brought  about  by  the 
melting  of  the  ice  by  the  salt.  The  greater  the 
proportion  of  salt  the  colder  the  freezing  mixture 
and  the  more  T.ipidly  the  cream  will  freexe.  If  this 
(Kcurs  too  rapidly,  the  cream  will  be  coarse  and 
granular.  If  it  is  too  slow,  the  fat  of  the  cream 
may  be  churned  and  appear  as  small  particles  of 
butter  or  the  cream  may  be  greasy. 

For  large  freezers,  one  part  of  salt  to  each  eight 
or  ten  parts  of  ice  is  satisfactory ;  for  small  free- 
zers, the  proijortion  may  be  increawd  to  one  of 
salt  to  four  or  five  of  ice.  For  water-ice,  mousse, 
and  creams  with  syrups  or  liquors,  the  proportion 
of  ice  and  salt  may  have  to  Ik  increased  lo  one  to 
one  or  two,  and  the  ice  made  fine.  The  proportioD 
of  ice  and  salt  should  be  such  as  to  freeze  the  mix- 
ture in  twelve  to  fifteen  minutes.  If  the  agitation 
is  continued  ton  long,  the  cream  will  be  granular 
and  coarse  and  the  swell  or  over-run  will  he  leas. 

The  ice  and  sail  may  be  placi>d  in  the  freezer  in 
alternate  layers.  With  a  large  fnwzer,  it  is  prefer- 
able to  mix  tliem  first  in  a  box  or  on  the  floor. 


Tin.  184. 
Spiked  Im  cnisher. 


MANUFACTURE  OP  ICE-CREAM  AND  OTHER  FROZEN   PROnUCTS 


vnt 


Tig.  MS.    A  hand  tiMiei.    MtuJe  In 

I'  la  :ill-(|ttarl  niiri. 


MiTian  Uie  mixtnre  ia  ready  for  the  freeKer,  5f 
it  ia  nut  thoroiif;hly  chilk^il,  tht;  freezer  should 
be  put  in  mcitiTtn  slowly  or  rotated  intvrmittently 
in  ordw  that  the  mixtnre  may  ho  chilled   thor- 

oaghly  before 
starting  at  full 
speed,  thus  pn^- 
venting  t  h «? 
churning  of  tht; 
fat  purticVs  he- 
fore  liie  crciim 
becomes  chilk-d. 
The  cream  should 
not  be  fillowed  to 
stand  still  in  the 
freezinji  mixture, 
as  cream  freez- 
ing to  the  sides 
of  the  can 
scraptja  off  and 
makes  lumps  in 
the  finished  prod- 
net.  The  richer 
the  cream  the 
more  quickly  it 
will  freeze.  The  agitation  should  be  stopped  when 
the  cream  rolU  up  on  the  stirrer,  has  a  conaistency 
like  thick  naunh,  and  ia  no  lon^^er  ahiney  and  watery 
in  appearance.  Because  of  the  riacoas  nature  of 
cream  and  the  agitation  of  the  Btirrer,  and  other 
factors,  more  or  less  air  \e  incorporated  in  the 
cream,  causin);  it  to  swell  or  over-run ;  the  can, 
therefore,  should  not  !»  filled  more  than  two-thirda 
full  of  the  mixture.  In  factory  work,  ftvfe  and  one- 
half  gallons  of  mixture  should  swell  and  make  ten 
gallons  of  frozen  cream. 

The  fntoT.  -  A  good  freezer  should  be  bo  ar- 
ranged that  the  can  and  da-iher  revolve  in  opposite 
directions.  Fign.  1H5-187  nhuw  types  of  hand  and 
power  machines. 

Spmi  of  frftzing.  — 
The  speed  of  the  factory 
freezer  should  bw  such 
that  the  can  will  make 
135  to  IGO  revolutions 
per  minute.  The  ordi- 
nary hand  freezer  shonid 
be  run  at  fiO  to  100 
revolutions  of  the  crank 
per  miuDte. 

!tipcn\ng.  —  As  soon 
as  the  cream  has  suffi- 
ciently frozen,  the  stirrer 
should  be  removed,  the 
cover  replaced,  ice  and 
salt  added,  if  necessary, 
and  the  ice-cream  al- 
lowed to  stand  in  order 
th.1t  it  may  become 
hardened  thruughout. 
The  smootlinMs  of  the  cream  ia  usually  improved 
by  this  ripening  period,  which  consumes  one  to 
twBOly'four  boors.  In  commercial  work,  the 
lu-creain  ii  sometimes  b«ld  for  two  or  three 
dap. 


Vlfl.  IH.  A  IwtorT  Ice-cieam 
timau.    M«d«  tc  la  to  w 


Faticji  trramt. 

In  Hmjitl  lots  for  home  use,  fancy  creams  may  be 
made  dirwtly  from  formula  an  desired.  For  bricks 
and  fancy  forms  in  moldf^,  the  cream  should  not  be 
frozen  too  hard.  .\  little  gelatin  is  ofte^n  used  to 
make,  the  forms  retain  their  shape  when  served. 
The  brifki*  and  molds  should  be  packed  in  ice  and 
•lalt  unti]  hiinl.  One  to  three  hours  is  required, 
depending  im  the  tshupe  and  ^ize  of  the  mold.  A 
larger  proportion  of  salt  ulioald  be  need  and  the 
brine  should  be  allowed  tt»  drain  out  of  the  packer 
if  the  molds  are  not  tight.  Moldi;  may  be  made 
tight  by  covering  the  cracks  with  butter.  To  re- 
move the  cream  from  the  mold,  dip  the  mold  in 
cold  water,  never  in  hot. 

In  commercial  work  it  is  not  uncommon  to  use 
vanilla  ice-cream  as  a  basis  for  small  orders  of 


m^w 


P(£.  IB7.    A  brine  fncter.  40  qcuitu  ca^adty. 

Special  flavors  and  fruits,  by  stirring  them  into 
the  vanilla  cream  and  placing  it  Jn  bricks  or  other 
molds. 

IWmulti.—  For  this  purpose.  1  cup=i  lb.;  1 
pt.=  l  lb.;  8  lb8.=l  gaL 

For  1  nl.  ie»-ffrwin  For  IR  cnls.  \'9-vn»m 

21  ^ts Cream 44  lbs. 

It  cnpe Svgnr 7}  1b«. 

Flavor. — The  amount  of  flavor  most  be  deter- 
mined by  trial.  The  following  suggestions  may 
help  the  beginner : 

1-2  toa^pnomirtil  .   .  BxtTActs  ....  2-4  on. 
1  tfiwpfionful  .    .   .  Choc(il&t«    ...  7  ots. 
A  I  pL Cnwhed  tnitu    .  Gft  rha. 

If  the  cream  is  not  rich,  the  yolks  of  two  to  four 
eggs  may  be  added  for  each  gallon  of  cream. 
When  the  eggs  are  used  it  Improves  the  product 
to  heat  the  cream  and  eggs  nearly  to  the  boiling- 
point  but  not  allow  them  to  boil.  The  amount  of 
cnishefl  fruits  may  be  very  materially  increoi-sed  if 
desired. 

This  formula  Is  for  a  good  commercial  or  family 
ice-cream.  A  great  variety  of  formulas  will  be 
fonnd  In  the  cook-books  commonly  available. 


19S 


BUTTER -MAKING 


Brine  freezlag. 

In  factory  work  the  brine,  cooltKl  by  artificial 
refrigeration  or  made  by  the  use  of  salt  and  ice,  ia 
Qsed  in  macliines  arr.-in{;t.>d  fur  thin  purpose.  A 
temperature  of  11  to  V^"  Fahr.  Ia  usually  satisfac- 
tory. The  nfte  of  refrigerating  machine  to  cool 
brinii  for  freezing  and  to  hold  ice-cream  in  storage 
a  (Trowing  raiiidly,  because  of  its  great  commercial 
ec&nomy  and  aaving  of  labor. 

Ice-fTeam  pnimning. 

The  poisoning  wbich  in  occasioned  by  eating  ice- 
cream ifl  due  to  ptomiiines  prodoceil  by  bacteria 
that  are  aMiociatet]  with  unclean  utenNJln  at  low 
tempvraturtw.  RecauMt  milk  ttoara  aluwly  at  low 
temperaturefl,  ttomo  makenn  have  been  careless  in 
the  matter  of  cleansing  the  utansils  used  for  glar- 
ing ice<«rcani,  and  thi^  has  resulted  in  the  forma- 
tion of  products  that  have  caused  sickness  and 
oeoasionalty  death. 

UttM  of  iee^ream 

Icecream  findn  large  uue  »»  a  deiawrt  at  the 
tables  in  huteK  r^^taurante  and  humH»,  and  of 
late  has  found  inLTu-aMing  use  at  suda-fuuntnin^ 
and  in  ice-cream  parlors.  MoslestablidhmentH  that 
serve  it  at  the  soda-fountain  are  providcnl  with 
paper  or  other  inexjwnsive,  non-returnable  pack- 
ages, and  have  trarle  that  demands  a  supply  of 
ice-cream  to  Iw  cunHiimfd  immediately,  thus  not 
rwguiring  any  packing.  Thny  make  their  own  ice- 
cream or  buy  it  from  a  large  manufacturer,  often 
securing  it  from  a  confiiderable  distance.  The 
economy  of  manufactnrc  in  large  eatabli^hmenta 
has  enabled  the  latter  to  ship,  at  a  profitr  immense 
quantities  to  the  outlying  towns. 

The  volume  of  the  trade  baa  demanded,  first,  the 
brine  frBHr.Hr  !ia  an  impnivemeiit  over  the  use  of 
ice  and  salt,  and  now,  the  L'ontinuous  freezer.  The 
latter  is  fed  with  brine  and  cooled  by  artificial 
refrigeration.  It  receives  a  continuous  supply  of 
the  cream  mixture  at  nno  end  of  the  freezer  and 
delivers  at  the  other  the  frozen  product  at  the 
rate  of  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  per 
hour. 

Ai^ide  from  the  shock  incident  to  enting  large 
Hunntitiea  of  ice-cream  (juickly,  and  esjiwially  after 
a  heavy  meal,  it  iaa  mo»t  healthful  food  and  dessert 
or  luxury,  for  it  would  seem  that  it  should  bo 
classed  with  food  since  it  is  rich  in  tho  nouri.'thing 
fat  and  sugar.  In  sickness,  especially  in  fever 
cases,  tho  (thysician  finds  it  nneful  beCHiuse  of  its 
cooling  effect.  The  w^e^  and  puTichca  are  largely 
Dsod  as  appetizers  at  meaU  served  in  conrflea,  for 
which  they  are  well  suited,  being  acid  and  locking 
the  bntter-fat  of  the  ice-cream. 

Cott  of  production. 

In  the  eastern  and  thickly  populated  states,  many 
ice-cream  facturiea  turn  to  the  creameriett  for  their 
cream.  They  can  [my  for  the  cream  a  prict*  consider- 
ably in  advano^'  of  what  it  is  worth  for  liutt<.^r. 
When  ictMToam  of  medium  qonlity  sells  for  80  cents 
per  gallon,  the  ice-cream-maker  will  pay  fiO  cents  per 
gallon  for  the  cream,  containing  18  to  20  per  cent 


of  bntter-fat.  This  will  make  about  41J  cents  per 
pound  for  the  butter-fat  in  an  IS  per  cent  cream,  or 
37i  cents  in  a  20  per  cent  cream,  as  compared  with 
20  to  2^)  cents,  the  price  that  the  butter-maker  can 
usually  afford  to  pay  for  butter-fat  during  the 
Hummer  months.  A  gallon  of  cream  ccAting  CO 
cents  may  make,  with  the  sugar  and  flavoring-mix- 
tures, 1.6  gallons  of  ice-cream,  and  sometimeB  even 
more,  to  sell  at  80  cents  per  gallon,  netting  fl.lS 
for  tho  butter-fat,  for  which  the  butter-maker  pays 
about  40  cents.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
uncertainty  of  the  weather  and  the  irregular 
demantl  for  the  product,  the  difficulty  of  disposing 
of  the  product  in  cold  weather,  the  loKsee  from 
insufficient  packing,  the  cost  of  icu  for  hold- 
ing from  day  to  day,  the  lojis  of  packers  and  tubs 
through  failures  to  return,  especially  if  shipped  to 
distant  }>oints,  the  labor  of  delivering  to  patrons 
and  going  after  tho  packers  when  empty,  oil  make 
a  large  total  expense. 

/j  ilrrature. 

TfiR  only  lit^'Tflture  nn  ic<><;ream-making  avail- 
abb  is  found  in  the  cook-books  and  one  small  book 
by  Mai.  Miller,  entitled  "Thirty-six  Years  an  lee- 
Cream-Maker,"  which  gives  many  useful  hints  on 
practice,  together  with  formulae,  but  little  on 
principlee.  A  few  good  articles  have  appeared  in 
''The  Ice-Cream  Trade  Journal,"  "The  New  York 
Produce  Review,"  oilier  creamerj-  journals  and  the 
ciMifectioners'  joitrnals.  There  are  aa  yet  no  experi- 
ment station  bulletins  on  the  subject. 


BUTTER-MAKING 
By  JStflrin  H.  WehntfT 

Butter  ia  defined  as  "the  clean,  non-rancid  prod- 
uct made  by  gnthering  In  any  way  fat  from  fresh 
or  ri[jeTied  milk  ur  cream,  into  a  maaa  which  also 
ciintaina  a  small  quantity  of  other  milk  constituents, 
with  or  without  salt,"  and  "  may  also  contain  added 
coloring-matter."  Butter  is  usaally  made  from 
cream,  "which  is  that  part  of  milk,  rich  In  milk- 
fat,  which  rises  to  the  surface  of  milk  on  standing 
or  is  separated  by  centrifugal  force." 

The  importance  of  the  butter  Industry  ia  indi- 
cated by  the  report  of  the  last  census  (IDOO), 
whun  1,071,745,127  pounds  were  reported  from 
farmn  and  420,li!'(>,546  pounds  from  creameriee 
and  factories  in  the  United  States.  The  Canada 
Yearltook.  for  U05.  reports  10.^343,076  pounds  of 
home-made  bnttcr  for  the  year  1901. 

In  Ihlt  article  we  will  consider  first,  and  at 
length,  tho  making  of  butter  on  the  farm,  and 
Aecond,  briefly,  the  factory  methods.  Much  that  is 
said  in  the  iirst  case  applies  In  the  second. 

I.  BtTTEH-MAKISG  OX  THE  PARH 

Creaming  the  milk. 

There  are  two  general  methods  in  practice  for 
creaming  the  milk.  One  is  to  place  the  milk  in 
shallow  pans  or  d^H'p  cana,  and  allow  the  cream  to 
rise  by  gravity.  The  other  ia  the  use  of  the  ceatrif- 


BUTTEK-SUKING 


„  separator.  (Fi;:.  If^J  Creaning  fay  the  grav- 
ttjr  meti)od  is  best  ncconipliehed  by  iM  oeep-MttiDg 
ByBteEO,  the  cans  buing  submuriTra  in  water. 

Advantaga  ij" mefhanirnl  jir/»arahnTr.— LlndiT  the 
beet  usage  the  gravity  methixl  may  leave  ont-eigbth 
to  one-fourth  of  the  fat  in  thi;  Kkimmi?i]  mtik,  while 
tbemechAntc.'il  orcuntrir- 
ugal  sepanilur  rt^moveji 
practically  all  (►f  tht-  fat, 
leaving  thi)  skiainitkl  milk 
fresh  and  Bwwt,  and  in  a 
superior  condi- 
tion for  feeding 
young  stock. 
There  are  nu- 
mercHiii  kimia  «f 
mwhanical  sejmra- 
torn  on  the  market, 
but  they  differ  in 
details  of  constmc- 
tioD  rather  than  in 
the  principles  on 
which  they  work. 
Tbed  airy  main  shuuld 
IhurouKhiy  under- 
stand these  princi- 
ples. 

Tke  prinrij^es  if 
trparatiini.  —The 
force  that  is  used 
to  sejiaraUi  the  milk 
i.H  known  aa  centrif- 
ugal force.  This 
force  may  be  do- 
felt  when  a  weight 
about  the  hantt. 


mm 


Fjs.  in. 

ScctliNul  tI«w  of  a  iBOdem  power 
omtrUucKl  Mpuxtor. 

scribed  as  the  pull  that  \s 
attai:be<t  to  a  tttrlng  is  whirled 
It  is  tfae  pull  outward,  and  the  faHtt;r  the  wt^ight 
is  whirled,  the  atronger  the  pull  becumL^  In  the 
old  sjstem  of  creaming,  the  reparation  i^  cauiM^d 
by  the  action  of  gravity.  The  fat  globules,  being 
lighter  than  the  other  parts  of  the  milk,  are  forced 
to  the  top  ;  that  i-s,  gravity  acts  stranger  or  pulls 
harder  on  the  heavier  parts  than  it  dews  or  the 
lighter,  and  the  milk  is  gn»lua!!y  arranged  in 
layem,  the  lighter  part  at  the  tu]).  and  the  heavier 
part  at  tbe  bottom.  The  force  acting  in  the  sepa- 
rator has  precisely  the  same  action  on  the  milk, 
but  acta  outward  from  the  center  of  the  bowl  the 
same  as  gravity  acia  downward  from  the  unrface, 
only  many  thousand  times  stronger,  accomplitihing 
in  s  few  roomenti  and  far  mon>  completely  what  it 
takes  gravity  several  honr:^  to  do. 

As  the  milk  goes  inlti  thv  bowl  it  is  nt  once 
thrown  to  (he  outermost  parts  and  filifi  the  liowl 
completely  nnlil  an  op^'ning  is  reachi-d  where  it 
will  flow  nut  again.  The  .surface  of  tho  milk  is  on 
a  line  parallel  with  the  center,  or  axis,  of  the  howl, 
and  is  exactly  in  line  with  the  cream  outlet.  A 
cross  Boctiun  through  the  bowl  from  this  surface 
to  the  oDtside  prceeots  much  the  same  appearancv 
as  would  a  pan  of  milk  after  the  cream  has  raised 
by  gravity.  The  cream  is  on  the  surface,  which 
might  be  called  the  top,  and  the  heavier  parts  of  the 
nilk  at  the  point  farthest  from  the  center,  which 
would  represent  the  bottom. 


There  are  a  unmlier  of  things  to  be  observed 
which  inlluence  the  U'eparatiun.  The  difference  in 
length  of  time  required  to  Kepiu-ute  crejim  by  grav- 
ity and  by  centrifugal  force  shows  plainly  that  the 
tim»  varies  with  the  amount  of  force  applied.  The 
shorter  the  time,  the  greater  the  force  must  be. 
Skimmed  milk  from  the  aeparator  contains  le^a  fat 
than  that  secured  by  the  gravity  system,  showing 
that  the  greater  force  cauaes  more  perfect  sepa- 
ration. 

tVorn  tho  above  statements  the  following  conclu- 
sions regarding  the  use  of  the  separator  may  be 
drawn  :  (I)  If  the  amount  of  milk  that  passes 
thf^ngh  the  separator  in  a  given  time  is  a  fixed 
(|uantity,  any  increase  in  the  speed  of  the  machine 
will  tend  tii>  cause  closer  skimming  because  of  the 
greater  force  e.\erted  ;  (2)  if  the  amount  of  milk 
that  pa&.4es  through  in  a  given  time  is  increiiaed 
and  the  speed  remains  the  same,  the  skimming  will 
not  be  HO  perfect,  for  the  centrifugal  force  is  not 
exerted  on  the  milk  for  so  long  a  time.  It  is  evi- 
dent, therefore,  that  the  closenesa  of  skimming  is 
the  rf'Hult  of  two  factors, —  time  and  forw.  If 
either  of  these  i.s  decreased,  the  result  will  be 
poorer  work.  The  terti(ierftture  and  character  of 
the  milk  are  also  influencing  factors. 

Csnirrwri  crrcirs  iji  oprrafing  srparators.—  Two 
errors  are  made  in  operating  separators  because  of 
ignorarc*  of  the  fjuits  just  stati^l.  The  first  consists 
in  allowing  too  much  milk  to  pass  thniugh  the 
miwhine.  As  there  m  a  limit  to  the  speed  at 
which  the  machine  can  be  run  safely,  it  is  not 
good  practice  to  try  to  overcome  tho  error  referred 
to  by  increa.'dng  the  speed  beyond  the  safe  point. 
The  feed  outlet  is  usually  fixed  so  that  too  much 
milk  will  not  run  thn>ugh,  hot  cases  have  been 
ol)serve<I  in  which  oiierators,  anxions  to  shorten 
the  time  of  separaliun,  have  enlarged  the  opening, 
allowing  too  much  milk  to  pass.  This  error  is  not 
so  common  as  the  second,  which  is  to  allow  the 
speed  of  the  machine  to  become  too  slow.  The  slow 
speed  does  not  generate  emiugh  force  to  skim 
properly,  and  the  a'suit  is  loss  of  butter-fat  in  the 
skimmed  milk.  The  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute  requireii  by  a  machine  is  usually  indicated 
un  the  machine  or  in  the  instruction  book  belong- 
ing to  it,  and  this  should  be  strictly  followed. 

lifgf  trmjvraturt  of  milk  for  Jip/wra/iwji.  — .Ml 
liquids  flow  more  readily  when  warm  than  when 
cold.  Cream  is  one  of  the  products  of  separation. 
It  hu.'^  to  flow  fmm  the  machine  lbn>ugh  a  small 
opening  or  oiitlt^t.  The  warmer  it  is  the  more  read- 
ily it  will  How.  If  the  flow  of  the  cream  is  checked, 
m<ire  milk  will  be  forced  out  of  the  skimmed 
milk  outlet,  and  if  the  obstruction  to  the  flow 
iR'comes  Uk*  great,  butter-fat  will  go  out  with  the 
skimmed  milk,  because  it  can  not  move  fast  enough 
through  the  cream  outlet.  For  this  reascju,  the 
nearer  the  temperatun?  of  the  milk  approucUes  the 
animal  heat  the  better  will  be  the  separation. 

ifumtnari^ (if  points  tobe  oftwriwrf. — Tostummariw, 
tho  point'i  in  thit  operation  of  a  sepanitor,  given  in 
their  order  of  importance  as  bearing  on  the<]uality 
of  the  work,  are  as  follows: 

(1)  The  speed  of  the  separator  must  be  uniform 


200 


BUTTKR -MAKING 


and  up  to  the  standard  required  by  the  maken  of 
that  particular  miLchire. 

(2)  The  tt^mperalure  of  the  milk  ahouLd  be  such 
an  will  make  it  flow  readily ;  the  warniuir  it  is  the 
more  perfect  will  bo  the  Heparation. 

(3)  The  amount  of  millc  that  ia  run  throngh  the 
machine  should  remain  constant,  and  should  not 
be  increased  over  the  amount  intended  for  the 
machine. 

{4)  The  machine  should  be  oet  on  a  aolid  ba«e  or 
foundation,  »o  that  Ihwrc  will  he  no  jar  or  shaking 
about  as  it  is  turned,  i;uch  as  would  tend  to  inter- 
fere with  the  t'wn  flow  of  the  milk  through  the 
bowl  and  thus  todetstroy  Its  eliiciericy  in  skimminpr. 

(5)  The  separator  mxist  bo  kept  thoroughly  and 
Bcrupulotuly  clean,  particular  care  bein);  taken 
that  none  of  the  tubed  ihrough  which  the  milk 
flows  become  ohfitructed  in  any  w.^y. 

(6)  Tlia  test  of  the  cream  can  Us  rejullly  changed 
by  changing  either  the  cruam  outlet  or  the 
skimmfd  milk  outlet 

In  the  mechanical  operation  of  a  machine,  nono 
but  the  best  oil  shonld  b«  used,  and  this  should  not 
l>e  allowed  to  gum  on  the  bearingH.  It  id  good 
practice  ti>  fliiah  the  hearings  with  Iteroflone  oeca- 
flionjiUy  by  making  a  run  with  kuroKene  in  the  uil 
cupx.  This  will  Herve  to  cut  out  any  gam  or  dust 
that  has  accumulated  in  thu bvarings  and  will  maku 
the  machine  run  much  fruer  and  ea.sier,  thus 
^eatly  increasing  the  length  of  time  that  it  will 
last  and  do  perfi^ct  work. 

Ripcnintf  ihr  cream. 

Chaagt*  in  milk. —  A  stuily  of  bacteria  (p.  187), 
their  habita  of  grou'th,  f«<Ki  on  which  they  live, 
kind  of  medium  in  which  t1iL-y  can  devulop,  and  the 
temperature  most  favorable  to  their  growth,  reveals 
the  necessity  for  ohwrving  cleaulinej^s  in  all  dairy 
oU^nHilfl  and  fur  ktteping  the  mflk  culd.  nActeri.il 
life  ia  in  evidence  everywh(*rt«,  iind  imly  awaits  thu 
proper  foixl,  moisture  and  warmth  to  cau&e  the 
bacteria  to  multiply  very  rapidly.  Just  a«  a  grain 
of  com  grows  when  given  projx'r  moisturu  and 
warmth,  so  the  germ  life  that  finds  its  way  into 
milk  utilizes  the  fofxl  and  warmth  found  there  to 
grow  and  multiply,  causing  decnrnpofiitinn.  Whpn 
milk  is  kvpt  free  from  bacturia  it  will  not  cipuil. 
When  it  i.t  heateti  to  a  high  tt;mperature,  most  of 
the  bacturial  life  is  dustruyod.  Thia  prulon;;>;  the 
life  of  the  milk  very  materi.il]y  unless  additional 
bacteria  find  their  way  into  it  and  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  at  temperatnree  favorable  to  growth. 

FortunatHly,  many  Hpecies  of  b.icteria  known  to 
exist  in  milk  are  not  harmful.  Many  are  ht^neficial 
in  that  they  develop  flavurs  de«iriibtH  in  goml  but- 
ler. Prom  thia  it  ajipoars  that  ihu  knowledge  of 
methods  necessary  to  check  or  destroy  bacterial 
development  is  but  a  part  of  the  hutW-miiker's 
art.  Ho  must  know  how  to  promote  the  growth  of 
the  desirable  kindii.  Vp  to  the  point  of  ripening 
the  cream  the  whole  proceKt  is  one  of  retarding 
the  dfVetnpment  of  bacteria  by  cleanly  methiHl^ 
and  the  use  of  cooling  deviceK.  When  Ihi;  ripening 
process  begins,  the  growth  of  favorable  kinds  is 
eacoaragcd. 


PlK.  189. 

A  tnbuUt  ftftotoc  and  coolet. 


Cream  direct  from  the  Beparator  should  be  per- 
fectly sweet,  and  if  cooled  properly  will  remain  so 
for  a  number  of  hours.  In  fact,  it  can  be  preserved 
four  or  five  days  if  kept  at  a  temperature  below 
50^  Fahr.  It  might  be  chum«d  in  this  condition, 
and  a  quality 
of  butter  made 
that  is  excel- 
lent, but,  prac- 
tically speak- 
ing, the  great 
bulk  of  butter 
is  churned 
from  jiour 
cream.  Fresh 
sweet  -  cream 
butter  is  some- 
what flat  and 
insipid,  but  im- 
proves  with 
age,  up  to  a 
certain  point, 
if  made  from 
pure,  clean  cream.  A  tubular  type  of  cooler  for 
factory  use  is  shown  in  Fig.  189. 

The  KlarLer  and  its  ute. — Tlie  dairyman  may 
ask,  if  it  is  necessary  to  sour  the  cruam,  why 
tako  so  much  pains  to  keep  it  sweet.  The  trouble 
with  ordinary  souring  is  that  it  may  not  be  of  the 
desirable  kind.  Cream  must  be  handle<l  in  such  a 
way  that  de^^irahle  flavors  will  be  devclo|>eil  and 
the  DndoAirnbte  ones  kept  in  check.  This  can  be 
done  only  by  starting  with  a  perfectly  sweet  cream 
and  contrulling  the  souring  proci;i>a.  This  control 
is  secured  by  intruducing  into  the  cream  what  is 
known  as  a  "starter."  X  starter  is  nothing  more 
nor  ]e«e  than  nicely  ttonred  milk  either  whole  or 
skimmed.  It  will  contitin  those  kinds  of  bacteria 
that  will  develop  the  good  llavore  wanted,  and  not 
those  that  cause  putrefaction,  gassy  fermenta- 
tions, and  similar  undesirable  changes;.  As  has 
already  been  stated,  the  greater  number  of  bacte- 
ria pre-'<ent  are  the  favorable  kinds,  and  when  milk 
is  handled  in  a  cleanly  mannt-r  practically  all  that 
find  entrance  are  of  these  kimls.  To  secure  a  starter 
containing  deMirablu  bucti-na,  the  dairyman  has 
simply  to  st-t  away  some  skimmetl  milk  as  it  comes 
from  the  st'[»arator  and  await  developments.  If  the 
milk  is  ki-pt  at  a  t<_'mperaturo  betweon  70°  and  80" 
Fahr.,  it  should  suur  within  twenty-four  hours  and 
fifrmasolid  curd.  A  test  of  this  curd  shows  whi'lher 
or  nrit  the  dairyman  has  kept  his  milk  clean.  If  the 
tiiste  is  found  ]dea«ant  and  mildly  acid,  and  the 
curd  readily  broaks  up  when  iMHirwl  from  one  vessel 
to  another,  becoming  crcjimy,  and  showing  no  hard 
lumps  that  wilt  not  break  down,  he  hits  a  good 
starter.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  curd  is  stringy, 
or  will  not  break  with  a  square,  sharp  cleavage, 
but  se^ms  to  be  granular,  or  if  a  clear  whey  is 
fiirmed  un  the  surfwie,  it  shows  thiit  bacteria  of  a 
harmful  specifw  are  present.  The  formation  of  this 
curd  in  caused  by  the  development  of  ai'iil  in  the 
milk.  If  the  souring  continuus  too  long  and  too 
much  acid  is  formed,  the  starCvr  becomes  sharp  and 
unfit  for  Qse.  After  a  certain  amount  of  acid  is 


BUTTER -MAXING 


201 


formed  Its  further  development  in  checked,  but  this 
does  not  occur  until  tht»  milk  is  too  sour  for  a  good 
Btarttr. 

The  start«r  in  at  ita  best  jiist  as  the  card  becomes 
firm,  and  the  dairyman  ghoulcl  plan  to  havo  this 
occur  at  the  time  he  wants  it  to  put  into  the  cream. 
A  glass  jar  is  the  best  veflflel  in  which  to  make  a 
Btarter.  The  giaiw  surface,  being  ntnooth.  ia  easily 
cleaned,  and  the  butter-maker  can  m-s  what  action 
a  taking  place  while  the  milk  is  sourinf;.  If  there 
an  gas^rodacjnf^  bai:ti::ria  in  the  milk,  little  bubbles 
of  ffu  will  form  in  tlie  bottom  and  along  the  sides 
of  the  jar.  If  these  are  formed  the  starter  should 
not  be  tued,  aH  gas  fermentations  always  indicate 
impurity. 

The  amount  of  starter  that  should  be  used  in  the 
cream  will  vary  under  different  conditiona.  Ordi- 
narily, if  one  18  churning  every  day,  about  one  to 
one  and  one-half  gallons  of  etart^r  in  ten  i^allonx 
of  cream  ia  the  right  proportion.  If  it  is  neceaaary 
to  hurry  the  proceaa  of  souring,  more  starter  may 
be  used,  and  vice  versa.  The  tomperatare  at  which 
the  cream  is  set  will  iniluencti  theamount  of  starter 
to  be  used.  If  the  cream  is  cooled  to  about  G0° 
Fahr..  it  will  require  more  rtartor  than  if  it  ia  set 
at  70'^  Fabr.  Unless  the  dairyman  has  mc-ana  of 
controlling  the  temperatures  quickly,  either  by 
very  cold  water  or  by  means  of  ice,  it  is  best  to 
have  the  cream  as  cold  as  well-water  will  make  it 
(which  will  usually  be  60^  Fahr.),  when  the  starter 
is  added.  If  the  cream  is  to  l>e  huld  fur  the  next 
ei^teeo  or  twenty  hoars  at  this  temperature,  the 
aoKFDnt  of  starter  accessary  to  add  can  be  deter- 
mioed  after  two  or  thn;e  trials.  Attempt  should 
be  made  to  add  ju»t  enough  t^t^rter  to  hiivc  the 
cream  soured  properly  at  churning  time.  No  ab»o- 
lute  rule  can  be  depended  or  for  this  work.  The 
dairyman  must  use  his  intelligence  and  decrease  or 
increase  the  amount  of  starter  and  raiitu  or  bwer 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  in  such  a  way  that 
it  will  be  ripened  and  ready  for  churning  at  the 
proper  time. 

If  the  cream  is  not  to  be  churned  every  day,  hut 
most  be  held  two  Ur  foar  days  before  enough  is 
secured  for  a  churning,  either  of  two  pmctices 
may  be  followed:  a  v«ry  small  amount  of  starter 
may  be  added  to  the  first  hatch  of  cream,  which 
will  caate  the  gradual  development  of  the  acidity, 
or  the  cream  may  be  held  Bwe«t  for  two  to  four 
milkings,  and  then  the  starter  addt^l  in  a  little 
lanrer  qoantity.  with  a  view  to  having  the  ripen- 
ing compleU-d  abt^ut  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  after 
the  last  lot  of  LT<;am  is  wldud.  Here  again  th« 
dairyman  must  urn.-  his  judgment  and  experiment 
until  he  finds  just  the  right  qoantitios  and  tho 
right  time  to  add  the  starter. 

Whole  milk  can  be  ustfd  for  making  a  starter,  as 
well  as  skimmed  milk,  but  it  is  usually  considervd 
b«sst  to  Uitu  the  latti-r.  Thtj  surface  nf  thi}  ntart^r 
■boald  be  skimmud  olf  for  a  half  inch  ur  ^^d  in  depth 
asd  thrown  away.  This  is  nt'ceft^ary  bt'caa««  in  opim- 
ing  tfae  jar  for  examination  or  for  any  piirpr.>40,  dust 
may  have  ent«re<l  and  formed  colonie-s  of  undesir- 
able bacteria  which  will  Ite  growing  on  the  sur- 
face, but  have  not  reached  any  depth  in  the  milk. 


When  whole  milk  is  used,  this  skimming  is  not 
desirable  because  of  the  loss  of  butter-fat  that 
would  have  risen  to  the  surface. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  a 
good  starter,  to  save  a  number  of  sampli-s  of  milk 
and  select  the  best  from  th«  lot.  Whun  an  excep- 
tionally good  starter  is  secured,  it  can  be  propagated 
from  d:iy  to  day  by  adding  a  little  of  it  to  a  {|uaii- 
tity  of  sweet  skimmed  milk,  enough  milk  being  u^ed 
to  make  the  neceesary  amount  of  atfirter  for  the 
cream  to  be  churned.  This  controls  the  souring  of 
the  milk  just  the  same  as  the  a<1dition  of  starter  to 
the  cream  cuntrola  tho  souring  of  thu  cream. 
When  onn  is  churning  every  day,  this  ia  a  %'ery 
good  method  for  carrying  forward  the  starter.  It 
may  be  used  when  but  two  or  three  churnings  a 
week  are  made  jiist  as  satisfactorily,  discarding 
the  lota  on  the  days  when  there  are  no  chumings. 

llndur  factory  conditions,  when  mixtxl  milk  frnm 
a  number  of  herds  is  used,  it  is  always  necessary 
to  heat  the  milk  intended  for  the  starter  to  near 
the  boiling  point  to  destroy  tho  bacteria  that  It 
may  contain,  and  then  renew  the  genu  life  in  it  by 
aiiding  a  part  of  a  well-ri[)fned  starter;  but  under 
farm  conditions  there  should  hy  no  necessity  for 
this.  The  milk  should  be  so  clean  and  so  pure  that 
tha  only  decompijsition  which  takes  place  would  be 
that  of  souring,  and  it  will  usually  be  found  that 
this  souring  gives  the  phwiiant  taste  to  the  milk 
that  is  de.xirable  in  the  butter. 

When  an  att^-mpt  is  maiie  to  ripen  the  cream 
without  the  addition  of  a  starter  the  resulta  are 
ntit  usuiilly  so  goud.  An  example  of  what  taken 
place  in  cream  can  be  readily  set^n  after  one  has 
some  exporienco  in  making  starters.  Very  ofton 
ORO  sample  of  milk  will  not  develop  the  desirable 
flavors,  but  will  l>ecome  entirely  nntit  to  use  in  the 
cream  as  a  starter,  while  another  sample,  perhaps 
taken  from  the  same  djiy's  milking,  will  sour  with 
a  fine  flavor.  Tbu  cream  contains  the  bacteria  that 
develojMid  in  both  of  these  startera ;  each  kind  has 
oqual  chance  to  develop,  unless  a  large  quantity  of 
the  right  kind  is  introduced.  These  would  overcome 
the  undesirable  kind  present  and  thus  control  the 
changes  which  take  place.  This  is  tho  purpose  of 
the  starter. 

When  cream  friira  st-veral  Hepariitiomi  is  col- 
lecte<l,  the  churning  should  not  be  made  for  a 
number  of  hours  after  the  addition  of  the  last  lot 
of  cream.  Tnless  this  time  is  given  the  fresh 
cream  added  will  not  have  sourEH],  although  it  will 
be  mixed  throughout  the  mws  of  sour  cn'am.  and 
if  churned  in  this  condition  murh  butter-fat  will 
be  l(Wt  in  lh«  butUfrmilk.  Time  must  be  given  for 
complete  and  thorough  blending  of  the  variima  lots 
so  that  they  are  practically  one,  the  acid  Indng 
developed  in  all  alike.  This  may  be  done  very 
nicely  by  talking  the  previous  night's  separation  as 
the  last  and  churning  the  next  day,  thus  giving 
ample  timu  for  the  profier  riiwnlng  of  the  lost 
cream  ailiU>d. 

Huring  the  last  few  honra  of  ripening  thenj 
should  by  taken  into  <'uiisideratiiin  the  temjierature 
at  which  the  cream  iiwi^t  Ite  L-burne^l.  Wbeti  it  is 
completely  ripe  or  has  reached  that  point  at  which 


202 


BUTTER -MAKING 


the  flavor  is  fine  and  the  aroma  good,  it  should  ba 
quickly  brxtnght  to  tbe  temperature  nec^^ssarj-  for 
churning,  if  not  already  at  that  temporataro.  If  it 
huB  to  bo  lowered  several  degrecB,  it  should  stand 
at  the  chnrninK  temperature  for  3  period  of  three 


Pif.  190.    Butur-maklns  As  tepieaeaU4  io  the  tireUth 
eentuiy  Id  BngLutd. 

or  four  hoQrs  before  churning.  Thid  becomes  nec- 
esBsry  because  the  batter-fat  in  a  poor  conductor 
of  heat  and  takes  longer  to  change  in  temperature 
than  the  milk  semm. 

During  the  proceaa  of  ripening,  the  cream  should 
be  stirred  occasionally  to  nbtain  best  results.  Juet 
what  is  the  result  of  stirring  or  why  it  is  necea- 
sary,  is  not  entirely  understood,  but  it  is  known 
that  cream  stirred  frequently  ripens  with  a  more 
uniform  and  Hner  flavor  than  cream  ripened  without 
stirring. 

Tlte  add  fM(.— The  only  standard  that  has  been 
applied  in  measuring  the  ripening  of  cream  is  the 
determination  of  the  acid  present.  The  acid  test, 
M  it  is  called,  is  a  fair  index  of  the  qun,lity  and 
stage  of  ripene.'W.  It  ia  true,  however,  that  two 
lots  of  cream  may  have  exactly  the  same  amount 
of  acid  and  one  of  them  be  good  and  the  other 
bad ;  80,  aft»r  all,  the  acid  test  is  not  infallible. 
There  is  no  step  in  the  whole  process  of  making 
butter  when  the  judgment  of  the  maker  is  so  much 
needed  as  in  ripening  the  cream.  He  must  cuUi> 
vat«  bis  taste  for  the  desirable  flavors  and  mu.><t 


"vv:-- 


ff-'W 


Pit-  191.      Aad«lll  Ai4b  b^iUir-BAkJsC. 


know  when  the  point  Is  Teache<l  at  which  further] 
ripening  most   be  checked.    Neither  the   butter^' 
maker  who  di->pendj*  entirely  on  the  sense  of  tu8t« 
and  smell,  nor  the  one  who  depends  entirely  on  the 
acid  test  will  get  the  best  results. 

Methods  of  learning  to  ta.ste  and  smell,  or  judg-j 
ment  in  their  use,  can  not  be  written  out.    Thoi 
ability  mutft  be  developed  through  experience.  TboJ 
amount  of  acid   pre^^ent,   however,  is  capable  of 
exact  determination  by  the  test.  (See  piage  180.] 

Coloring  the  butter.  -  If  the  butter  U  to  be  col- ■ 
ored   artiltcialty,  this  should   be  done  aft«r  tbfti 
cream  is  placed   in  the  chum.    Only  a  hannless 
color  should  be  used.  The  amount  to  be  used  will 
depend  on  the  season  of  the 
year  and  the  demand  of  the 
trade. 

TVie  ckuriL  and  churning. 

Xo  other  utensil  in  connec- 
tion with  dairying  has  re- 
ceived so  much  attdotioQ 
from  inventors  as  the  churn. 
Most  of  the  efforts  along  this 
lino  have  been  to  get  achuro 
that  would  save  time.  The 
thirty  to  forty  minutes  spent 
in  churning  has  seemed  a 
prodigious  w.i.<!te  to  the  am- 
bitions inventor.  The  cne- 
minnta  churn  has  been  the 
goal.  There  have  been  more 
patents  issued  by  the  patent 
office  on  chums  than  on  any 
other  one  device.  A  careful 
analysis  of  the  junk  in  the 
attic  or  storehouse  of  the 
average  dair>Tiian  will  reveal 
one  or  more  relics  of  this  kind,  due  to  the  persuasive 
powers  of  an  agent  who  had  convinced  him  that  h«| 
W.W  foolish  in  spending  so  much  time  at  the  churn. 
Figa.  lR>-20i.  and  Zln  show  a  few  types  in  the 
evolution  of  the  chum.  In  spite 
of  all  this  activity  for  an  im- 
proved article,  the  greater  number 
of  chums  in  use  today  are  either 
the  old-fashioned  d^er  chum 
I  Fig.  1!>6)  or  the  equally  old  re- 
volving barrel  (Fig.  200,  a  modem 
hand  type)  or  box  chnm  (Pig. 
IDS),  or  its  later  modification,  the 
combined  chorn  and  worker  (Figs. 
202  and  245).  Of  these  typwi,  the 
barrel  churn  is  by  far  tlio  best. 
Practically  all  factor\*  churns  in 
this  country  are  modifications  uf  it. 
The  Utrnt  cAurji.— Taking  the 
barrel  cham  as  beat  for  the  farm 
butter-maker,  he  should  know  how 
to  get  the  most  oat  of  it.  In  this 
form  of  chum  the  concoioioi)  of 
the  cream  oecessary  to  do  the 
churning  Js  secured  by  the  fall 
of  the  cream  as  the  chorn  is  re- 
volved.  The  faster  the  chorn  ia 


Pff.  I'M. 

Cbant  of  tbe  end  of  Uw 

iDurteeatli  century. 


BUTTER -MAKING 


ao3 


r«vol(r«d.  the  frreatpr  number  of  mnmiiwionM  (wr 
minatowill  bo secunid  within  cerlsin  limita.  If  the 
churn  is  whirled  «o  fast  that  thu  c«ntrifii{ral 
force  created  holds  the  crtiiun  from  falling,  no 
churning  will  take  place. 


>■ 


ng.  H8.    A  ittitiltlve  ivriee,  Mid  to  have  been  lued 
for  ehnniliLC. 

leaning  the  churn.— Chnrns  an*  usually  ruado  of 
wood,  and  their  care  is  an  important  factor.  Whtsn 
ready  to  clean,  the  chum  ahoiiM  be  rini^ed  out  with 
coM  vaUr  to  remove  all  buttennilk.  salt,  and  the 
like;  it  shoald  th«n  be  partially  Hlled  with  boilinf^ 
water,  the  lid  put  on  and  faflti^ne<j  1iia<(ely,  ro  that 
•teain  can  e«:ape.  the  dralnini;  -plxia  withdrawn, 
and  the  chnrn  whirled.  Tht  pressure  on  tho  inside 
caused  by  the  creation  of  ateam  from  the  hot  water 
will  force  water  into  every  nook  and  crevice  of  thi_' 
cham.  After  a  few  revolutiorw  the  water  should 
be  drawn  otf  and  another  lot,  boiling  hot,  added, 
and  the  whirlinj;  repeated.  Empty  this  out  and  let 
the  churn  stand  so  that  it  will  drain  a  ftw  minutftft 
and  then  turn  the  opening  up  and  li-t  it  dry.  The 
heat  in  the  wwkI  will  dry  it  out  rapidly,  and  there 
will  be  no  chance  for  mold  to  grow.  An  occasional 
riasii^  out  with  lime-water  will  help  to  keoj>  a 
chnrn  swt'et. 

All  other  wooden  dairy  ut«n«ilfl  shoald  be  rinaed, 
auMed  and  dried  with  the  same  can*. 

Churning.-  The  process  of  churning  ih  the  gath- 
wiaK  into  a  mass  of  the  batt«'r-fat  in  th(?  cnMni. 
The  lnitt«r-f»t  exiata  in  the  cream  in  minute  ^lob- 
oleii,  ucb  independent  of  the  others,  ami  any  agi- 


tation tends  to  hrinj?  them  together,  the  force  of 
tho  impact  cansint;  them  lo  adhere  to  uach  other. 
X»  the  aj^itation  is  continued,  these  t^mall  partickts 
of  butter  grow  larger  by  additimi  of  other  particles 
until  a  stage  is  reaciied  when  they  become  visible 
to  the  eye;  and  if  the  churning  in  continued  long 
enough  all  will  bu  united  In  one  lump  of  butter  in 
the  churn. 

Ti'/nperatHrt. — The  time  that  it  takea  to  chum 
depumls  Largely  on  the  temperature  of  the  cream 
at  the  beginning.  If  the  cream  is  warm,  the  butter 
will  come  vi-rj'  quickly;  if  it  i«  very  c-old,  the 
churning  may  havt;  to  Ih>  prolonged,  In  Kome  in- 
stances for  hours,  liefore  the  butter  jtranule-R  will 
become  large  enough  to  fnw  themsfUvn  from  the 
buttermilk.  Tho  tempt'ratun^  at  the  beginning 
should  be  regulated  accordingly.  It  is  usually  con- 
sidered that  about  thirty  to  thirty-five  minutes' 
churnini;  t^hould  bring  the  butti^r.    With  different 


-^ 


Fie.  IM.    LeTt-powci  cbuin. 

seasons  of  the  year  the  temperatures  will  have  to 
be  varied  somewhat,  in  order  to  have  the  butter 
come  in  Ibis  length  uf  time.  It  u  necessary  in  hot 
weather  to  chum  at  a  temperature  as  low  as  5*,)° 
or  Tw"  Fahr,,  while  in  the  winter  months,  when  the 
cowa  are  on  dry  feed  and  the  weather  is  cold,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  raise  the  churning  temperature 
to  60**  to  fiiV  Pahr.  Cases  have  bwri  known  when, 
under  some  peculiar  feed  condition,  the  tempera- 
ture had  to  be  raiswi  as  high  a.H  80^  Fahr.  in  onler 
to  make  the  butter  gather  at  all.  Trouble  of  this 
kind  rarely  occurs  when  the  cows  have  succulent 
feed  in  winter,  ."^uch  as  i^ilage  or  mots.  Occasion- 
ally s<ime  ppculiar  fermentation  takes  place  in  the 
cream,  causing  dillicult  churning,  but  this  is  a 
result  of  onreleflsneiM  somewhere,  and  can  be  reme- 
died by  a  thorough  cleaning  up  of  the  premises. 

Wiighing  ami  saUing  thr  bulter.  It  is  important 
to  know  at  ju«t  what  point  to  stt»p  churning.  For 
best  rctiilts  in  freeing  the  grunuli'.i  from  the  but- 
termiik  ami  incinrpurating  the  salt,  it  is  considered 
that  the  butler  grannltvi  ^hnuld  W  about  thf  siie  of 
beans  or  grains  uf  cum.  The  churn  is  then  slopped. 


201 


BUTTER-MAKING 


and  the  buttermilk  allowed  to  draio.  After  the 
buttermilk  is  well  drained  from  the  butter  granules, 
an  amount  of  water  abont  eqaal  in  volame  and  of 
the  same  tempertiture  a^  the 
buttermilk  should  bv  added. 
and  the  chom  ^iven  four  or 
five  revfilutioHH,  nlowly,  bo 
that  the  wut^r  will  come  in 
contact  witli  every  particle 
of  butter  and  wagh  oat  the 
remaining  battenrilk. 

As  soon  m  the  wash  water 
has  drained  well  from  the 
butter  granulefl,  salt  ahonld 
be  added.  The  amount  of  salt 
UHed  will  depend  entirely  an 
the  demands  of  th«  coRBumer. 
TIsually  about  one  ounce  of 
salt  for  each  pound  of  batter 


Fie  199.    Cyllndikftl  (jctorv  cbun. 


Pig.  i«. 

fltUl  Id  iu«. 

win  be  neccHsary.  If 
the  ordinary  barrel  or 
box  cham  ia  used,  the 
Bait  may  be  added  in 
the  chum.  By  giving 
the  churn  a  few  revo 
laCiona  the  salt  wilt  be 
thoroughly    inc-orpor- 


Vig.  197.    Crank  cbtini,  drawn 
cue  In  d*c  at  presest. 


ated  with  the  butter.  It  should  stand  in  thin  con- 
dition for  a  few  minutea,  until  the  salt  Ijccomes 
more  or  leeu  dissolved,  before  the  working  is  begun. 

Wurkinij  tiu-  h\itter. 

TihU  icorkert.— For  working  the  butter  aome 
form  of  table  worker  is  best  to  lue.  The  butter- 
bowl  and  paddle  never  g^ive  so  good  reaultii  becaose 
the  butter  almost  invariably  will  be  greasy,  owing 
to  the  sliding  motion  of  the  paddle  over  the  butter. 
The  table  workers  cora.nionly 
used  are  of  two  kinds— one 
having  a  stationary  bed  and 
a  roller,  either  corrugated  or 
smooth,  arranged  so  that  it 
can  be  passerl  back  and  forth 
over  the  surface  of  the  butter 
(Figs.  21.13.2041;  the  other,  hav- 
ing  a  movable  bed,  revolving 
on  a  center,  usually  under  two 
corrugated  rollers.  [See  Pig. 
193,  Vol.  1.]  Both  of  these 
forms  will  do  good  work  if  the 
operator  nnderstanda  their  UAe. 

StiiJ'jfffw'ts  ai  to  icorking.~U  the  <talt  and  butter 
have  lieen  mixed  in  the  ehnrn.  the  butter  may  be 
placed  on  the  working  table  and  the  working  begun 


'■:0>" 


at  once.  After  the  bntter  ban  Ixten  pressed  oqC 
with  th«  roller  it  should  be  dividi^d  in  the  center, 
one  part  being  laid  over  on  the  other  and  the  rollers 
passed  over  again.  The  pro'VJW  should  l»e  repeated 
until  the  butter  afwnmes  what  ifi  termed  a  waxy 
condition.  If  the  working  is  continued  for  too  long 
a  time  the  butter  will  Wcomu  nalvy,  having  the 
appearance  of  lani, 
and  will  lane  itd 
granular  structure, 
becoming  weak- 
kxiied,  The  tlmi- 
ness  of  the  butter 
must  bo  taken  into 
account  in  deter- 
mining how  long  it 
nhonld  be  worked. 
Udually  the  firmer 
the  butter  the  more 
working  it  will 
stand  and  the  more 
time  it  will  need  thoroughly  to  incorporate  the  salt 
and  bring  oat  the  waxy  condition. 

}'acking  irntier. 

Viiiut  of  appearance.— The  sixe  and  style  of 
package  to  be  used  In  packing  butter  will  depend 
entirely  on  the  market  conditions  where  the 
butter  in  sold.  While  great  stream  ha^  been  laid 
on  the  quality  of  butter  made.  It  must  aUo  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  method  by  which  it  ia 
packed  and  the  neatness  with  which  it  appears 
ou  the  market  have  practically  as  much  to  do 
with  iti?  sale  as  has  Its  quality.   In  fact,  many 
buyers  will  select  a 
neat    package   of 
butter  la  pn^ference 
to  one  that  i8  put  Dp 
in  a  slnvunly  man- 
ner,  even    though 
the  quality  may  not 
be  BO  good.    It   is 
undoubtedly    true 
that   the    a^'erage 
consumer  will  judge 
an  article  of  food 
as  much  by  it«  ap- 
pearance as  by  it« 
general  qualitieA. 
An  unattractive  ar- 
ticle does  not  ap- 
peal to  the  sense  of 
taste.   It  should  not 


from 


Ptt.  loo. 


cbum. 


Vtg.  tw.    Bex  cUnni. 


be  necessary  to 
say  that  a  pack- 
age of  any  kind 
ma  at  be  neat 
and  clean  in  ap- 
pearance, but  a 
large  part  of  the 
farm  bntter  that 
comes  into  mar- 
ket showji  that 
a  great  many 
makers  do  not 


BUTTEK- MAKING 


205 


m^. 


FlK.  ZOQ.    CoiabtdM  ctfttro  and 
buttei-woilEtt. 


^the  imiJortanco  of  this  part  of  thtir  work. 
i>f  othorwwe  grxKl  butter  are  «ol(i  evury 
day  at  »  HiMouni:  Itecauite  of  the  carcU-M  mothod» 

«f  pjickiii^;.  The  fk" 
marnlfi  of  tin.*  ni;irket 
on  which  thL'  buttor  is 
)4i>M  shfiulii  tpc  studi«(! 
cart-fully  ;ind  the  [>ack- 
a^  maik^  uf  a  size  and 
fnrm  that  will  meet 
thotte  demiindK. 

littltrr  in  tulnt. — If 
thH  huttci-  ifi  to  hti  put 
u|>  in  luliH,  thu  pack- 
ing ahoDliI  be  donu  so 
that  the  buttt-r  will  be  solid  throjfihoiit  its  entire! 
mans.  Too  froquently  the  ItutttT  is  thrown  in  with- 
oataufflcient  packing,  und  large  holes  will  appear  in 
the  body  of  the  bntter.  While  thi'sp  may  not  affecrl 
the  quality,  they  affert  the  aptiearaiirt'.  If  a  pamh- 
nent-paper  lining  it;  uiwd  in  th>e  tub  it  should  bi- 
pat  in  Kcnuoth  anit  the  lop  should  by  turnL-d  Bt-atly 
over  th«  eiigo  of  the  butter,  Cuveringa  lliat  urL' 
put  on  the  top,  whether  circles  of  parchment  ur 
chrth  made  for  the  purpose,  should  exactly  fit  the 
top  of  the  package.  Care  should  be  taki-n  that  the 
tub  does  not  ahow  finger-marks  or  ol.hur  dirty 
spoU. 

Butter  in  $maU  pnckagn.—M  w  beeoming  more 
common  fur  the  marketii  Ui  deniiind  that  butter  be 
packed  io  small  [wickaet's,  such  a»  pound  prints  or 
squares;  Butter  put  up  in  this  form  Hhould  be 
WTBpp**!  neatly  in  parchment-pu[«T.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent practice 
for  the  dairy- 
man to  have 
hU  name  or 
latwl  printed 
on  the  parch- 
ment. This 
helw  to  es- 
tablish the 
Uentityofthe 
goods,  and,  if  the  butter  h  properly  made,  it  should 
aid  the  dairyman  in  finding  a  permanent  market 
t<tT  his  prodoct.  Wooden  packages  nf  almost  any 
site  cSB  be  secured  for  (Kicking  the  prints.  (Figs. 
208,  2lW.)  These  should  he  o.'^ed,  particularly  if  it 
ii  neoMMry  to  ahip  the  butter  to  market.  For 
local  distribntion,  light  cratea  or  boxes  which  will 
fit  thfl  prints  end  prevent  their  gt^ttiog  out  of 
shape  in  haaling  shonld  bo  used. 

BqmipmetU. 

7%e  milk-room.—Xt  mWV.  in  pl:ice>d  in  a  cellar  or 

'cave  where  there 
art'  decaying  veg- 
etables or  fruits, 
it  will  quickly  ab- 
sorb the  odors 
from  them.  Su<:h 
plaf-e«arei'ntirely 
unlit  for  the  stor- 
age of  milk.    The 

nc.  m.   Pnm  kuttn-worksf.       dairyman    should 


Fig.  JOl.    Hud  tnittet-worktr. 


PlK-  ;ns,    Aa  eictlLot 
band  butUt-pilatet. 


Fte.  2U6.    Table  tuttCT- printer. 


have  a  building  set  apart  from  the  barns  or  other 

[ilacen  from  whinh  objectionable  odnra  might  come, 

for  the  exclusive  uae  of  the  dairy.  This  building 

neefi  not  be  v«ry  large,  but 

muBt  be  constructtrd  so  that 

it  oan  easily  bo  kept  clean 

and  cool.    A  cement    flo*»r 

should  be  laid,  as  it  lit  the 

easiest  to  clean,  is  oool,  and 

does  not  rot  from  m»i»ture. 

If   the  wallit  are  built  of 

stone,  brick  or  concrete,  ao 

much  the  iMjtter,  for  such 

waits  koDp  out  iho  heat. 

The  roof  construction 
ehould  he  such  that  it  will 
effectually  turn  the  heat  of  the  sun.  If  the  roof  is 
not  of  concrete,  it  should  l>e  l)uilt  double,  ko  that 
an  air-curn-nt  will  pana  between  the   up|H>r  and 

lower  parts.  WhIIb 
and  ceilings  should  be 
eoverod  with  cement 
pla.'tter,  whether  wood 
or  Rt»me  is.  used  in 
their  conBtructinn. 
ThiH  liniflh,  if  properly 
fiut  on,  iseaay  toclean 
and  does  not  readily 
become  affectod  with 
molt)  or  decay. 

Thr  vaier-rupptif. — 
Provision  must  be 
ntade  for  an  abundance^  nf  water,  and  the  pumping 
srrungement  must  be  auch  that  the  fresh  water 
from  the  well  or  spring  will  flow  through  the 
dairy-hoitae.  It  should  run  into  a  tank  built  dwp 
unough  to  allow  the  complete  submerging  of  the 
milk  and  cream  cans.  The  tank  should  have  suf- 
ficient width  and  length  to  h<ild  all  that  it  may 
be  necp.'wary  to  nw.  A  tank  bnilt  up  of  concrete 
an<l  finished  with  a  cement  surfaca  ih  the  most 
economical  in  the  long  run,  and  ib  much  more  aat- 
isfftctory.  Provision  must  bo  made  for  draining  it 
out  for  purposes  of  cleaning.  Wooden  tanks  are 
usually  a  source  of  trouble  from  leaks  and  decay. 
Iron  tanks  do  not  last  long,  because  they  become 
rusty. 

Coalivi}  nrranifrmratg.^U 
the  dairyman  hiL«  ice,  the 
pmblem  of  cooling  is  very 
eimplf.  Broken  ice  can  be 
placed  in  the  tank  about  the 
cansi.  There  are  plans  for 
building  ice-houses  with  re- 
frig^^raCom  connected,  but, 
all  puqiuses  considered,  the 
refrigerator  can  be  built 
with  most  economy  and  with  letter  sanitary  ar- 
rangement if  it  is  constructed  !<ci)ttrat<^  from  the 
ici-honse.  The  common  ice-chest,  in  which  the  pro- 
ducts to  l»e  cooled  are  placed  in  the  box  with  the 
ice,  w  a  very  aatisfaclory  way  for  handling  cans 
(,f  milk  or  cream.  Kor  other  products  it  la  not  so 
t>atiKfnetory.  as  it  ia  not  dry  enougli,  and.  if  the 
articles  are  small,  does  not  afford  shelf-roi;m  for 


Vie.  ior. 
Leftt  buttei-jrintoi. 


206 


BUTTER- MAKING 


Fig.  iOt.    Stuppime  box  loc 
buttK-eriou. 


them.  [See  JUftigeration  oj  Dairy  /•nx/u-cl<,  pagea 
232-246.] 

Vtf  of  steam. — In  a  moderatt'-flised  dairy  there 
should  be  addtnl  to  the  equipment  a  amalt  atuam 
boilwr  which  ehonld  be  in  a  room  separate  from  the 
dniry.  Thoro  is  always  need  of  Rtcam,  and  the 
additional  co»t  involved  is  but  llttk  compart^  with 
the  benefits  derived.  If  steam  cannot  be  provided, 
a  small  hot-water  heat«r 
of  Boni'i:!  kind  nhould  be 
used.  It  i6  essential  to 
have  pli^nty  of  boiling 
water  for  purpcwes  of 
washing  and  scalding 
milk-vesaele  and  the 
fioorw  and  walln  of  the 
building. 

Character  tif  ufrnxiU. — 
Not  all  of  the  boclt^ria 
that  find  their  way  into  milk  come  frum  the  cow  or 
the*  barn.  Often  milk  pjiilfl,  alrainern,  cans  and 
other  uterftils  uBeiil  for  handling  milk  ar«  the  source 
of  iiuch  trouble.  Faulty  construction  of  these  ves- 
Bpln  is  very  common.  Thure  should  be  no  hidden, 
inaccesaiblu  places  in  milk  vessels.  The  Reams 
tthould  be  soldered  ov^r  smoothly,  in.sido  and  ont. 
Cliuap  tinware  is  not  usually  well  soldered,  and  if 
such  is  purchased  it  shmild  be  taken  to  the  tinner  to 
have  all  seams  carefully  gone  ovi^r,  closing  up  all 
that  are  n}»cn  and  can  nut  easily  Iw  cleaned.  Galva- 
niz<^  iron  i«  sometimes  usud  for  milk  pails  and 
other  dairy  vessels,  but  it  should  not  be,  as  the 
galvanizini;  us  rough  on  the  surface  and  affords 
hidinR-places  for  innumerable  bacteria.  Wooden 
vessels  should  not  Iw  tolerat^^  for  holding  milk, 
under  any  condition,  for  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
them  clean.  Uosly  tinware,  besides  its  effect  in 
imparting  rvisty  <>e  metallic  flavor  to  the  milk,  is 
objectionable  for  the  same  reason.  Good  tin  is  the 
only  practicable  material  for  mtlk  vessels,  and  this 
must  be  kept  shining  and  bright. 

dmninfi  the  u/fJiJitV/.— The  proper  waKhing  of 
milk  utensils  ia  sitmethiu^  that  is  often  mif<under- 
«to(>J.  All  milk  should  be  rinsed  from  the  surface 
of  the  tin  before  it  conies  in  contact  with  boiling 
water,  as  the  heat  will  cook  the  milk  on  the  sur- 
face, forming  a  coaling 
very  riilTioult  to  remove. 
If  this  coating  is  not  re- 
moved, it  furni»he»  food 
and  place  for  bacterial 
growth.  This  is  especi- 
ally true  around  places 
likely  to  remain  moist. 
After  rinsing  the  vessel 
free  from  milk  it  may 
then  be  washed  in  hot 
wat<>r.  There  should  be 
added  to  the  water  some 
good  cleaning  compound. 
.Some  of  the  so-called  washing-powders  are  very 
objectionable,  as  grease  of  some  kind  is  used  in 
their  make-up.  When  such  powders  are  used  a  coat- 
ing of  thick  grease  will  be  formed  around  the 
edgee  of  the  sink  or  pan  containing  the  wash* 


Pig.  209.    ABotber  tjrpt  o( 


water.  AH  snch  compounds  should  be  diacarded. 
Powders  can  be  prornred  that  are  guaranteed  to 
contain  no  grease,  and  tbey  are  usually  excellent 
cleansers. 

For  scrubbing  the  surfaces  of  milk  vessels,  a 
good  brush  fthould  be  used.  There  i.t  nothing  more 
objectionable  for  this  pian>'**e  than  a  cU)tb,  particu- 
larly the  cloth  that  has  been  uiied  for  washing  the 
dinner  dishi'fs,  or  the  pots  and  pans.  .'V  good  brush 
can  biJ  purchased  for  a  fi^w  cenUt.  It  \x  the  most 
effective  and  can  easily  be  kept  clean. 

Drying  and  funning  HYfHifii>.— The  final  rinsing 
of  dairy  ve-iwels. -should  be  in  boiling  hot  water.  If 
they  are  allowed  to  remain  a  few  minutes  in  the  hot 
water,  it  is  better.  The  heat  will  reach  every  part, 
and  shonld  be  continued  lung  enough  to  destroy 
bacterial  life.  After  the  rinMing  in  b<iiling  water. 
the  surface  will  tjuickly  dry  ami  fthould  be  allowed 
to  do  so  naturally.  Turn  the  Veast'l  so  that  it  wilt 
drain,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  heat  tn  the  metal 
will  dry  the  snrface.  A  cloth  for  drying  can  rarely 
be  kept  clean,  and  for  this  reason  does  more  harm 
than  good.  It  is  an  excellent  practice  to  stand  the 
(Ktils  and  other  milk  v«s£els  in  the  sun  so  that  the 
rays  will  reach  every 
part  of  the  inside. 
Most  P]>ecie9  of  bac- 
teria cannot  live  in 
the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  Fur  this  reason 
milk-rooma  and  simi- 
lar rooms  for  hand- 
ling milk  products, 
except  cold-storage 
rooms,  should  be  built 
so  that  the  sunlight 
can  enter  in  abund- 
ance. Dairy -rooms 
arc  usually  damp,  and 
if  dark,  will  permit 
the  growth  of  molds 
and  the  development 
of  bacteria,  and  will 
speedily  become  unfit 
places  to  keep  milk. 
The  troubles  with 
stringy  or  ropy  milk  usually  occur  in  plac«s  of 
this  kind,  and  can  bo  overcome  by  a  thorough 
cleansing  and  the  admission  of  plenty  of  air  and 
sunlight.  [For  further  discussion,  see  article 
CVfamcriftr  and  Skimming  Slaliont.  by  H.  h.  Avres, 
pp.  226-232.] 

II.  Creahery  OS  Factoky  Methods 

Everything  pertaining  to  cleanliness  and  care  of 
utensils  in  making  butter  on  the  farm  applies  to 
factory  practice.  The  quality  of  the  milk  or  cream 
received  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  greater 
part  of  the  present-day  trouble  with  poor  butter  on 
the  market  begins  back  of  the  factorj-.  The  batter- 
maker  can  not  make  good  butter  from  bad  cream. 
\h!thoiIs  that  will  produce  good  batter  on  the  farm 
will  produce  like  results  in  the  creamery,  provided 
the  butter-maker  docs  hia  part  properly. 


Fts.  Jio.    w...  .     v.iif  foi  use 


BUTTER -MAKING 


2W    . 


Reeeiving  Oie  crtam. 

The  man  at  thu  weigh ing^can,  'where  the  mltk  or 
cream  is  received,  ahouM  be  a  f!;ood  judge  of  (juality 
and  bad  lot;*  should  bo  rvjcck'd.  If  circumstaDccs 
am  such  that  everything  olfered  must  be  taki-D, 
the  bad  lots  should  be  ftet  a^ide  to  b«  churni^  by 
themselrea. 

Hamiiing  the  eream  bt^rm  rkuming. 

There  are  two  general  8yatL>ma  of  Imndling  tho 
cream  bffore  churning  —  onu  fornmking  pa-stour* 
ized  butter,  and  one  fur  mn.king  unpx'<;teurizi:^  but- 
ter. Paeteurization  is  htcoming  mure  cfimmnn,  and 
for  certain  palhifgeiiiK  reiwuns  may  uUimately  be 
required  by  law.  The  (KH:rel  of  yjj^Uiunzal'um  is  thu 
maintaining  of  a  conatajil  tvmjH^nttiire  Uiru^igbuut 
the  proceaa  of  sufficient  dugnM)  to  dostray  all  [tatho- 
eeotc  organisms,  as  well  as  other  varieties  that 
may  exist  in  the  cr^am.  [See  page  184.]  Many 
Bpore-hearing  organisms  e^tcajM  destruction  in  the 
proce»A,  but,  from  the  bntter-m.-iker'H  standpoint, 
the  few  remaining  vill  not  materially  alTuct  the 
deaired  results. 

The  making  of  starters  has  Iw^en  d*«cribed  {pages 
200-2U2).  Their  use  is  necessary,  particularly  with 
paatearized  cream.  The  Bt;irter  should  be  intro> 
daced  immediately  aft^r  the  cream  iH  put  inUi  th>ii 
rat.  Tliti  cream  may  he  churned  immeidintety  or 
left  to  rijHja  fully  in  the  vat  before  c^hiirning. 
Recent  experimonta  imlieate  that  for  storage  pur- 
pijses  the  sweet  pa«t*^'urizL<d  en^am,  without  the 
addition  of  a  starter,  may  be  churned  at  once,  and 
the  butter  will  be  of  a  «]iiality  that  will  keep  far 
beyond  anything  made  fnjm  ripened  croam.  The 
detatifl  of  the  prifcetts  hav»  not  all  been  determineil 
as  yet,  hut  suflicient  work  hai^  been  done  to  show 
the  practicability  of  thu  process. 

Ckurning. 

Practically  all  literature  nn  bntti>r- making  leaves 
the  reader  in  dnobt  as  to  the  processes  to  be  em- 
ployed  in  chnming.  Ton  much  is  left  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  maker;  he  is  led  tn  think  that  there 
are  do  fixed  laws  governing  the  prtxiesa  of  chnrn- 
iag,  and  that  tho  results  are  not  en;mble  uf  coTitrul. 
It  may  be  put  down  absolutely  that  like  cunditioiiit 
will  bring  like  reeulta.  The  object  of  churning  is 
to  separate  the  fat  from  the  milk-Kerum  and  to 
Secure  a  hnlter  uniform  in  texture,  coJnr.  salt, 
water,  and  other  qualit  itit.  The  ennimnn  thi-nry  is 
that  thosu  facturs  depend  on  the  at^idlLy  of  the 
cream,  tho  fat  in  the  cream,  temi>eraturu  of  the 
cream,  temperature  of  tho  wash-w&t4.'r,  time  taken 
to  work,  amount  of  cream  in  the  churn,  and  the 
like.  The  hotter-maker  is  left  to  judge  these  mat- 
tors  for  each  individual  rhuming.  The  result  is 
butter  of  varying  compcjHition  and  body,  unequal 
•alttng  and  aiwven  color,  the  degree  tif  tbese  vari- 
ations dilfering  with  thy  ability  uf  the  butter- 
maker  to  gness  as  to  what  should  be  the  next  step 
in  the  procem. 

The  acidity  to  which  cream  is  ripened,  and  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream,  should  not  vary  from 
aaytaday.  The  temperature  nf  lite  churning  should 
b*  mch  u  to  secure  exhaustive  churning,  which 


will  requinti  the  operation  of  the  chum  forty  to  fifty 
miautes.  Tho  temperature  of  the  wash-water  Hhnuld 
be  the  same  as  the  temiwraturi!  of  the  buttermi'.K 
when  the  churning  is  comjdete.  There  will  be 
no  uneven  coloring  if  this  rule  is  followed.  The 
amount  of  salt  is  controlled  entirely  by  the  neces- 
fiitiea  of  the  trade  using  the  butter.  The  butter- 
maker  must  know  the  amount  of  butter-fat  in  the 
churn,  and  use  the  ttame  amuuut  of  sail  per  pound 
of  butter-fat  oach  time,  and  the  result  will  b<*  uni- 
form. The  butt^T  should  be  worked  out  at  one 
working  and  packed  immediately.  Tho  working 
should  not  extend  beyond  the  point  where  the  botr 
ter  has  a  firm,  waxy  body.  Overworking  destroys 
much  butter.  If  these  difFerent  parts  of  the  pro- 
cess are  adherod  to  absolutely,  day  after  day,  the 
result  will  lie  a  nniform  line  of  butter,  without  a 
variation  of  more  than  1  per  cent  in  water,  which 
will  rarely  exceed  15  per  cent  in  all.  Rigid  system 
is  necessary. 

Temperature,  acidity,  and  richneea  of  cream  are 
not  causes  of  high  or  low  water-content  of  the  but- 
ter. They  bear  only  a  nuKlifying  influence  on  the 
amount  and  method  of  working,  and  can  be  entirely 
eliminatt'd  from  the  calculation  of  results,  if  they 
are  brought  to  a  constant  factor.  The  waler- 
content  nf  the  butler  is  under  the  control  of  the 
butter-makHr,  to  increase  or  decrease  within  cer- 
tain limits,  as  he  witihea.  If  these  facta  constantly 
vary,  the  results  will  vary  in  spite  of  tlie  skill  of 
the  worker. 

Rrrwdg. 

The  butter-maker  should  at  all  timts  keep  records 
of  his  work.  No  success  aa  a  high-class  operator  can 
be  Secured  otherwise.  The  work  of  making  butter 
is  more  nearly  an  exact  technique  than  is  iisuHlly 
supposed,  and  the  facts  are  rducibte  to  system ; 
and  with  system,  the  facta  are  sure  and  true. 

Likraiure, 

Farrington  and  Woll.  Testing  Milfc  and  Its  Prod- 
ncta,  Madison,  Wis.;  Kieischmann,  The  Hook  of  the 
Dairy,  KbK'.kie  £  Son.  I^imdiin ;  Gray,  Investigations 
in  thti  Manufacture  and  Sterage  of  Kutter,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  .Animal 
Industry,  Bulletin  No.  H4 ;  (Jrotenfelt  and  Woll, 
Princijiles  of  Modern  I)air>'  I'ractico,  Wiley  &  Son, 
New  York ;  Hayward,  Fact*  Concerning  the  His- 
tory. Commerce  and  Manufacture  of  Butter,  I'nitwl 
States  Department  of  .Agriculture,  Hurenu  Animal 
Industry,  Circular  No.  fiH;  McKay  and  Larsen, 
t^rincipies  and  I*ractice  of  Butter-Making,  Wiley  & 
Son,  New  York  ;  Michol.-t,  Oeamery  Butter-Making, 
published  by  Author,  l^ansing,  Mich. ;  Peck,  Profit- 
able Dairying.  Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York; 
Van  Slyke.  Modern  Methods  of  Testing  Milk,  Orange 
Judd  Oirapany,  New  York ;  Webster.  Butter-Making 
on  the  Farm.  United  States  DeEmrtment  of  Agricul- 
ture, Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  iJ4l;  Willoughhy,  Milk 
— Its  Production  and  Uses,  (jriifin  &  Vo„  I^ndon  ; 
Wing,  Milk  nnd  Its  Products,  Mncmillan  Company, 
New  York;  Van  Wagenen.  Farm  Mutter- Making, 
rornell  R*'ading-€our8e  for  Farmers,  Scries  V,  No. 
il,  Ithaca.  N.  Y. 


208 


THE   MAKING   OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


THE  MAKING  OF  CHEDD.VR  CHEESE 

By  ./.  ^1.  Rndd'wk 

The  ChiNiiiar  )it?Iimtp<  to  the  class  known  iis  the 
"hard"  or  pretMH-iJ  cht»?se,  which  includfji  Huch 
other  kinds  as  the  Cheshirv  and  the  fJlon-wttT  of 
Bnglaml,  the  Diinhip  of  Scotlarirf,  and  the  Edam 
ami  the  Gniifla  of  Hollaml,  the  Grnyere  of  .Switier- 
laiiil  ami  certain  departments  of  France,  and  the 
I'artnuKHi]  at  Italy.  There  ai\>  several  varieties  of 
(ii>mi-hanlche«w,  the  maln^f,■^(■ture(^f  whioh  involve-3 
to  Bome  extent  tho  principles  i3mi)li>yw!  in  the 
manufnctare  of  both  thu  hard  chuu^au  und  thu  soft 
moldy  cheese. 

It  mny  he  Btatefl  at  the  outset  that  thU  descrlp- 
tinn  of  the  prwess  of  ChedJar  chetse-making  dot-a 
iii)t  nover  the  nin,nufacture  nf  the  aaft,  weak- bodies! 
chtiiiSBs,  which  B»metimi*ji  g^  by  the  name  of  "  Ched- 
dar" in  thu  United  J^tiittjs.  Such  chwses  are  really 
not  Cheddars  and  shoultl  not  ht)  dHtteritiud  as  pitch. 
The  true  Cheddar  cheese  has  a  firm,  waxy,  meaty 
tt'xture.  which  will  keep  for  a  yt-ar  or  more  in 
jjHod  conditini]  at  a  ternjKTaturc  of  60  doj;rcea. 
The  pnwesa  iw  herein  dejtcrihed,  will  make  a  choe9« 
of  this  t;hara(!ter  from  good  milk.  If  a  slightly 
softer  choese  iti  required,  it  is  neces»ar>'  to  leave 
rather  mora  moi»turt>  in  the  curd  and  to  prevent 
the  deirelopment  of  so  much  acid,  it  ia  recogriwd 
that  moil ifi cations  of  the  process  are  necessary  in 
varwMiH  circumstances,  but  the  [irinciples  involved 
are  the  nume  in  all  cases.  Cheese  cannot  be  made 
by  formula.  Experience  and  judgment  on  the  part 
of  the  cheeae- maker  are  easenlial.  and  he  muet 
determine,  in  every  case,  how  much  moisture  to 
leave  in  the  curd,  how  much  acid  to  develop,  how 


Tftc  fomjMJaiJum  of  Chetldar  theene. 

The  jiereentage  comifoflititm  of  Cheddar  cheese 
variMS  gniatly  in  different  sampleti.  The  fl!ij:hl.iwt 
moditiealiun  in  any  of  the  ditferent  part«  uf  the 
process  of  its  manufacture,  and  the  a^e  of  the 
cheese,  are  important  factors  in  this  connection. 
A  cheese  when  green  shows  a  much  higher  percent- 
age of  wakT  than  it  will  when  well  ripened,  the 
dilferenco  often  being  ,i8  much  as  . 5  or  6  per  cent 
The  following  ftjiHn>H  havi?  been  compiled  fnjm 
various  sources  and  represent  an  average: 

The  Cohtosition  op  Cbbddak  Cutic^G 


WM>T 

r«t 

l'n>t«iilii 

Aih.  MC 

Mm.        Uln. 

Max.        Mill 

Mux.       Mill. 

Mu.      «ln. 

33.90     27.1» 

33.00    30.70 

36.60    27X6 

S.55    4.15 

'iVi 


"^. 


ltv?«fc^^* 


'/ 


y 


w^^^^^-m:^' 


y 


v.. 


FIJI-  211-    tua  viDan  of  Cluddu.  showinc  tbe  luwnu  cliBt. 

much  aalt  to  add,  and  the  other  factors,  and  he 
will  be  guidwl  in  hia  judgment,  if  he  is  wumj  in  the 
maltor,  by  the  conditions  under  which  the  cheeses 
will  be  cured  and  the  i)arttcuUr  market  for  which 
they  are  intended. 


Higtorieai 

The  Cheddar  cheese  derives  it-*  name  from  the 
quaint  old  village  of  Cheddar  (Fig.  211).  in  the 
southern  i>art  of  the  county  of  Somerset,  Engian(I,j 
which  place  first  t>ecame  famous  for  iUs  manufao-j 
ture.  Just  how  long  it  has  been  made  in  that  local- 
ity it  is  impossible  to  determine,  but  most  author!-* 
tiiss  agree  that  it  dates  back  over  two  hundred 
years.  The  proce-«s  of  it«  manufacture  was  brought 
to  the  United  State,i,  probably  by  English  settlen^i 
early  during  the  last  century,  and  to  Canada  some 
years  later.    In   both  countries  it  continued   for 
8ome  time  to  be  made  only  on  farms,  as  it  is  made 
to  this  day  in  its  natal  county  of  Somerset, 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  has  for  many  years 
been  an  important  industry  on  the  farms  in  the 
southwestern  conntiea  of  Scotland,  The  Dunlop.  a 
fiomewhat  softer  and  higher  acid  cheese  than  the 
Cheddar,  was  the  original  variety,  and  takes  its 
name  from  the  village  of  Dunlop, 
I  I      in  Ayrshire.   The  farmers  of  Ayr- 

shire and  Kircudbrightshire  gradu- 
ally acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
Cheddar  pn>ceas,  and  "Scotch 
Cheddars" nowcompete  with  thou 
from  the  south  and  we«t  of  Eng- 
land, and  there  is  great  rivalry 
and  close  competition  at  all  tt 
big  British  dairy  shows  hetweenl 
the  English  and  Scotch  schools  of 
Chi^iUr  cheese-makera. 

The  j'tictortj  ».V)'/'"i7).— The  cbeew, 
factory  i.•^  of  .\merican  origin,  and-l 
it  came  into  existence  about  1^>I. 
One  Jeese  Williams,  of  Herkimer 
coonty,  N.  Y.,  is  said  to  have  Seen, 
the  promoter.  The  factory  8)'3tem ' 
owes   its  growth   to  purely  eco- 
nomic conditions.  It  fiuitit  the  labor 
conditions  of  .\merica,  and  ita  in- 
troduction made  possible  the  rapid 
development  of  the  industry  which 
followed. 
Ther«?  are  probably  at  the  pres- 
ent time  nearly  four  thousand  cheese  factories  in 
the  United  States,  the  actual  number  in  the  la.it 
ceuflUB  year  (1900)  being  .%2I*^.   WiMonsin  heads 
the  lint,  with  over  1,200  factories,  of  vhich  a  cer- 
tain number  are  "Swiss"  cheese  factories.   New 


THE  MAKING  OP  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


209 


York  state  cornea  next  in  namber  of  factories,  but 
probably  stands  fint  in  quantity  of  c^hci-su  produced. 
Thfi«e  two  arc  the  principal  cheese  states.  Ohio 
COUM  next,  with  only  2.21  factories  in  ly<X>,  and 
Uichigan  and  Tennsylvania  follow,  with  130  antl 


I 


Pli.  212.    A  wen-dMl|[Del  cbMM  tacttuy. 

124.  reflpectively.  Tbe  other  -llt^  factories  that 
were  in  existence  in  1900  are  distributed  amon^ 
thirty  other  states.  .^V  welMeaicnt'd  factory  build- 
ing ig  shown  in  Fig.  212.  An  icteriur  is  ahown  in 
Flf.213. 

In  IS64.  the  factory  system  was  introduced  into 
the  province  of  Ontario^  Canada,  by  Harvey  Par- 
rington,  of  Herkimer  county,  N.  Y.,  and.  as  in  New 
York  state,  the  factory  system  was  quickly  adopted 
by  the  farmers  of  Ontario,  who  up  to  that  time  had 
not  engaged  in  the  manufacturt;  of  chinnfe  tu  any 
great  extent.  At  present  there  are  about  four 
thousand  cheese  factories  in  Canada,  mostly  in  the 
provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  although  choose- 
making  on  the  factory  system  is  foUnwud  in  every 
province  of  Canada  except  Uritish  Columbia. 

Id  the  year  18S2.  the  fintt  Chwidnr  ch-^ese  factory 
was  eiitabliiihed  in  New  Zealand,  pattern  being 
taken  after  the  American  and  Canaitian  syKh-m. 
The  latest  returns  show  that  there  are  about  one 
hundred  and  ten  cKvse  fuctoriv»  in  "^vw  j^t-aland, 
and  some  of  them  are  probably  the  largL-st  ( 'iK'ddar 
factories  in  the  world,  turning  out  over  ty-e  hun- 
dred tonn  of  chee-Se  per  annum.  Cheeee-making  nn 
tbe  factory  «y.;iem  ha.-*  alw  been  introducvd  into 
the  stateii  of  New  South  Wales,  Virtoria  and  .'^iiutJi 
Australia,  in  the  Auxtralinn  Ciimmonwcaltii,  Imt  fur 
varioDji  rea^in  thu  industry  has  not  liecome  uf 
much  ini[K>rtance  in  thL-se  last-namod  countrii^t. 

Tbe  cheese-mikt-rs  of  tbu  southweRt  of  England 
do  not  admit  that  the  Bi>-calk'd  Cheddar  cheese 
madf  in  other  p.irt«  of  the  world  is  a  triio  Cheddar; 
bot  the  liitTf  nances  on  which  thin  assertion  ia  based 
belong  moru  pro|»orly  to  the  pnirtine  of  the  art 
than  to  any  mal  difft-ruoee  in  priucipli'.  The  manu- 
facturing of  milk  into  chotwo  in  Iutkb  quantitie-s, 
M  in  the  factory  Ryutem,  has  necesflitaU-d  the  em- 
ployment of  »ome  HpecinI  appliances  and  labor-«nv- 
ing  di?vic«i,  but  the  tnicr  principles  of  Cheddar 
ch»we-maktng  have  not  iKfen  violated  to  any  great 
extent.  As  a  raatt«>r  of  fact,  the  actual  variatinn 
in  proe«M  trhich  is  to  be  found  in  theditferent 


countries  now  making  ROK^alled  Cheddar  cheese  is 
□ot  greater  in  principle  than  that  which  is  Co  be 
found  among  the  cheese- makers  in  the  county  of 
Somerset  itself.  White  the  English  Cheddar  cheese- 
maker  may  have  some  right  to  the  e.xclu8ive  use, 
which  he  asserts,  of  the  terra  "Cheddar,"  on  the 
ground  of  origin,  we  do  not  think  the  assertion  can 
properly  be  founded  on  any  real  dissimilarity  in  the 
procertses  by  which  thecheeses  are  made  in  the  dif- 
ferent countriea  where  this  system  has  been  adopted. 

The  factory  system  has  resulted  in  producing 
greater  uniformity  and  a  better  average  (|nality 
of  cheese  than  is  to  be  found  in  the  districts  where 
farm  cheese-making  is  it^tlll  practiced,  but  it  must 
be  admitted  that  the  possibilities  of  making  a 
superior  article  are  greater  on  the  single  farm  than 
they  are  where  the  product  of  several  fftrms  is 
pooled  in  the  factory  system  ;  and  the  result.-*  prove 
it.  It  irt  well  known  in  southwestern  England,  and 
in  southwestern  Scotland  as  well,  that  much  finer 
cheesu  can  be  made  on  some  farms  than  on  othura, 
and  careful  investigations  by  competent  men  have 
failed  to  show  why  such  diiTerences  in  localitiee 
should  exiet,  although  the  suiteriority  of  certain 
farms  has  been  generally  attributed  to  the  charao 
ter  of  the  (wil  and  herhage  to  be  found  thereon. 
These  fim^r  difttinotions,  which  the  connoisseur 
easily  recognisHS,  are  lost  sight  of  entirely  where 
the  factory  system  is  followed;  but,  on  the  whole, 
thfre  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  division  of  labor 
and  uniformity  of  product,  which  the  factory 
sysU.^m  permits,  have  compensated  the  .\merican 
dairjTnen  for  any  disadvantage  Inseparable  from 
that  system. 

Many  of  the  factories  are  cooperative  or,  at 
least,  semi-ciKijierative,  for  the  tnie  spirit  of  coojwr- 
ation  is  not  often  to  be  found  in  the  clieese-fftctory 
or  the  cruaniery  ;  but  that  ts  another  i>ubJ0ct.  The 
others  are  proprietary,  and  the  owners  diarge,  as 
a  rule,  a  fixed  rate  per  pound  for  the  manufacture 
of  cheese,  providing  all  the  ei^uipment  and  labor 


.^  .A-  JV 


?W^ 


-^■'  -■'",. 


Pfc,  zis.    bteHik  Cif  modvni  chMM  toeUry. 

necefwary  for  the  maoufacture  and  marketing  of 
the  cheese. 

The  output  of  the  factories  varies  considerably 
in  different  locnlitioa.  f^nerally  speaking,  the 
lar^T  the  factory  the  smiillpr  the  ;u*tual  c<«t  of 
manufacturing  per  pound,  bnt  an  output  of  2U0  to 


210 


THE  MAKING  OP  CHEDDAR  CHE£SB 


300  tons  of  che&Ho  per  annum  riMinces  the  cost  of 
manufacturing  to  a  minimum  :in[l  makes  a  satis- 
factory  and  convenient  mza  of  fiictory. 

Total  prviuelUm  of  Cheddar  cheese. 

The  total  annual  production  of  the  Cheddar  type 
of  cheese  throughout  the  world  is  eetiinated  aa 
follows : 

Tons 

Unitud  States 1SS,000 

Cwiada 122.000 

Bngtand  KDil  ScDtlonil 100,CX)0 

New  Zeatand  and  AoatralU 14^)00 

871.000 

The  total  value  of  this  annual  world's  production 
of  Cheddar  cheese  w.  approximately,  $75,000,000. 

77le  pTGceis  qf  Cheddar  chefac-making. 

Wa  have  alresdy  rtat«<I  that  the  principles 
underlying  the  Cheddar  process  are  more  clearly 
defined  and  hotter  understood  than  thow  of  any 
other  variety  of  cheese.  The  Cheddar  process  dif- 
fers in  one  esaential  from  practically  a,II  others, 
inasmnch  as  a  conaidorable  aovelopmtnt  of  acidity 
is  necessary  in  the  milk  before  the  rennet  \a  added, 
and  a  higher  percentage  of  acidity  is  allowed  in 
the  curd  befnre  it  is  finally  removed  from  the  whey. 
It  is  this  feature  of  the  Cheddar  pnx:e.*«i  which 
makea  it  so  applicable  to  the  factory  s>'st«m.  in 
which  the  milk  is  most  conveniently  delivere<l 
only  onco  a  day,  and  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  there  is  natorally  considerable  development 
of  acidity  in  the  milk  before  the  cheeae-makin^ 
process  can  be  started. 

The  methods  in  Togne  in  the  United  States  differ 
slightly  acconling  to  the  market  for  which  the 
cheese  is  inteniitKi.  The  American  taste  appears 
to  favor  the  ?oft,  qaick-ript^ninp  cIiwish,  without 
mach  regard  to  the  real  choosy  flavor,  which  is 
held  in  such  high  esteem  among  the  chw,seti;iter» 
of  Great  Britain.  For  export,  a  firmer,  alower- 
ripening  chee-te  is  desired,  and  some  modifications 
of  the  proCiBSS  are  neceaaary  to  secure  these  differ- 
ent results.  .\s  the  English  taiate  typifies  the 
highest  development  in  Cheddar  cheese,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  process  necessary  to  meet  that  demjind 
M-ill  best  exemplify  the  details  of  the  Chvddar 
system. 

True  Cheddar  cheese  should  bo  firm,  without  he- 
ing  dry  ;  flhow  n  meaty,  waxy  texture  when  well- 
matured,  and  develop  a  clean,  cheesy  flavor  when 
cured  .it  a  proper  temperature. 

In  order  to  secure  this  ideal  it  ia  neceesary  that 
the  milk  should  be  produced  under  good  comlittutiK 
and  kept  free  from  conCaminatinn  of  any  kind,  or 
infection  with  the  germs  of  injnriotis  fermentations 
which  develop  objectionable  flavors.  During  hot 
weather  the  night's  milk,  which  is  kept  at  the  farm, 
shnuld  be  coolwJ  to  a  temperature  of  at  k-ast  fiO", 
in  order  to  prevent  its  deveUiping  tcm  much  acid 
wbi-n  delivered  wilh  the  morning's  milk  at  the 
fact4»ry.  It  ia  gent-rally  reeommyndtKl  that  the 
night's  and  morning's  milk  should  be  kept  in 
sepanto  Tcsselt^. 


Ka  the  milk  ts  received  at  the  factory,  it  is 
pa-tsed  over  a  weighing  machine  and  delivered  into 
a  large  steam  or  water-jacketed  vat.  where  the 
temperatare  is  raised  by  the  application  of  st«am 
or  hot  water  until  it  reaches  86°  Fahr.  Test''  are 
then  applied  and,  if  the  milk  shows  the  reiiuired 
acidity,  the  rennet  is  added  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  bring  about  coagulation  in  thirty  to  forty  min- 
utes. If  the  cheese  is  to  be  colored,  the  prepared 
annatto  or  other  coloring-matter  is  added  to  and 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk  jait  before  intn>- 
ducing  the  rennet.  The  extract  of  rennet  which  is 
now  universally  used  is  prepared  from  the  fourth 
stomach  of  young  calves.  About  three  Itcjuid  ounces 
of  the  standard  brands  to  1,000  pounds  of  milk  is 
usually  sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  resolt. 

liipening  the  viitk. 

If  the  acidity  is  found  to  be  too  low  after  the 
tempeniture  is  rai-tefl  to  the  "setting"  (renneting) 
point,  the  milk  is  allowed  to  "riiwn."  the  test 
being  applied  from  time  to  time,  to  note  the  develop- 
ment of  the  acid.  In  such  cases  the  common  prac- 
tice now  ia  to  nae  a  fermentation  "starter,"  of 
one-half  to  1  per  cent  of  sour  milk,  which  hia  been 
specially  selected  and  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
I'owildy  DO  other  practice  in  the  whole  art  of 
chee-'X'-making  has  given  rise  to  so  much  discossitm 
and  ditfer&ncc  of  opinion  as  hns  this  matter  of  using 
a  starter,  owing  to  a  confusion  of  what  is  mere 
practice  on  the  one  hand,  with  what  is  a  true 
principle  on  the  other.  The  principle  of  the  sLirter 
is  correct,  but  the  practice  ha$  often  been  wrong, 
and  those  making  the  mistakes  have  been  unable 
to  see  that  they  were  violating  the  principle  under- 
lying the  practice.  Others  have  judged  the  prin- 
ciple by  the  results  of  wrong  practice.  It  has  conw 
to  be  generally  recogniied.  however,  that  a  well- 
prepared  starter  is  a  great  aid  to  the  cheeso' 
maker  in  advancing  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  and 
also  in  overcoming  wrong  fermentations,  which, 
if  allowed  to  proceed  unchecked,  will  result  in 
objectionable  flavors.  The  judicious  use  of  a  good 
starter  gives  the  chee«e-iaaker  a  measure  of  con- 
trol over  the  flavor  and  vrea  the  texture  of  his 
cheese,  and  this  is  very  desirable. 

Tht  frnntntalion.   tlaHer. 

There  are  two  ways  of  preparing  a  fermentation 
"starter."  The  cheese-maker  may  porchaae  a  so- 
called  "pure  culture"  from  his  dairy  supply  house, 
from  which  to  make  bis  mother  starter,  or  he  may 
propagate  it  himM^lf.  (V)  If  the  former  method  is 
adopted,  it  will  be  necessary  to  secure  a  quart  or 
two  of  pasteurized  milk,  to  which  the  pure  culture 
is  added.  This  is  allowed  to  stan<l  in  a  sealed  jar 
until  it  has  curdled,  when  it  is  adde<l  to  the  right 
quantity  of  pa.'^teurized  milk  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary one-half  per  cent  of  starter  for  the  next  day's 
cheefle-making  ;  hence  the  name  "mother  starter." 
Refore  the  starter  is  added  to  the  milk,  a  quantity 
is  preserved  to  be  added  to  more  pasteurized  milk 
for  (he  following  day,  and  so  on  indefinitely,  nr  at 
least  aa  long  as  the  starter  retains  its  desirahlv 
flavor  and  character.  (2)  The  mother  start^^r  may 


THE   MAKING  OP  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


211 


be  prepAnd  by  pasteurizing  fleveral  separate  loto 
of  milk,  which  are  afterward  cooled  to  abont  70°.  by 
ponriDg  or  exposure  to  air.  which  ia  as  free  as  poa- 
Bible  from  obj^-ctionable  tainta  or  odors.  By  expos- 
ins  the  pasteurizt^d  milk  in  an  atmosphere  where 
the  chances  are  beat  for  getting  the  riuht  clas5  of 
fermentation,  the  milk  is  a^ain  needed,  and,  in 
moit  cases,  with  tiatiRfactory  re:^ults.  These  sam- 
pled are  then  Icept  in  sealed  jars  until  curdling  takes 
place.  It  may  reqaire  secerat  days  to  reach  this 
stage,  arid  it  should  be  noted  that  practical  experi- 
eooa  teaches  that  the  lower  the  temperature,  down 
to  aboQt  60^,  the  better  are  the  chances  of  obtain- 
tng  fTOod  flavors.  The  best  of  the  several  lots 
should  be  selected,  if  any  are  good  enough.  a,nd 
the  procedure  is  the  same  as  with  the  mother 
starter  prepared  from  the  commercial  pure  culLure. 

It  is  &  good  practice  to  have  a  covered  box  or 
tank,  irttb  steam  and  cold  water  connections,  of  a 
capacity  to  hold  one  starter  can  for  each  vat  of 
milk.  Each  can  should  contain  the  rii^ht  quantity 
to  make  one-half  per  cent  of  the  milk  in  the  vat. 
With  these  conveniences,  the  heating  and  subse- 
quent cooling  are  very  easily  arc-omplishtKl. 

The  starter  will  be  most  effective  if  used  very 
soon  after  the  milk  U  curdled.  Sume  caru  and 
judgment  are  therefore  necessary  to  ensure  that 
the  right  quantity  of  mother  starter  is  added  and 
the  right  temperature  maintained  to  produce  curd- 
ling at  the  proper  lime. 

The  starter  has  been  abused  by  ignorant  and 
careless  cbeeAe-makers.  Some  have  faik-d  to  realize 
that  if  a  bad*llavorud  starter  ts  used  it  is  almost 
certain  that  bad-flavored  cheese  will  be  th<i  rt!sult. 
The  use  of  a  too  large  percentage  of  starter  may 
give  the  cheese  an  actdy  texturt*.  A  pro]K.T  starter 
Earing  a  clean,  pleasant,  acid  taste  and  flavor  in  a 
great  advantage  to  the  cheese -maker,  but  it 
rsqulres  skill  and  care  to  prepare  and  use  it.  The 
grMtftst  can  must  be  taken  to  t4t«rilize  all  vessels 
or  ntensilfl  coming  into  contact  with  it.  Tlie  startiT 
should  not  be  allowed  to  becnmo  too  old,  liucaiise 
putrefactive  ferments  are  likely  to  gain  the  ascend- 
ency. 

The  aeidiauier. 

Nothing  has  helped  more  tu  Kvstematise  th«  pro- 
cess of  Cboddar  crinese-making  than  the  cwmpara- 
tirely  recent  introduction  of  ooidim^itry,  or  the 
adaptation,  for  the  use  of  the  chee.sj-m.-iki.-r,  of  th^.- 
process  known  U>  the  chemists  for  dotemiining  the 
strength  of  acids.  With  this  test  the  cheese-maker 
may  learn  the  exact  acidity  of  the  milk  an  n^Tcive*! 
at  the  factory,  and  is  enabled  to  regulate  tht;  riix^n- 
ing,  or  tbe  addition  of  sturter,  in  an  intuUigHut 
nanaer.  An  accurate  guide  ia  also  providi^d  fur  the 
proper  derelopment  of  acidity  in  the  curd,  by 
^Mying  this  te«t  to  the  whey. 

For  tbe  porpoHe  nf  making  the  test,  a  standard 
alkaline  solution  is  provided  and  k^pt  in  a  well- 
stoppered  bottle.  A  burftle  to  measure  at  leiist  fifty 
tabic  centimeters,  &  white  cup  or  dish,  a  ten-ruhin 
centimeter  pipette,  a  bottle  of  phenol phthaluin 
iadicitor  and  a  glaf<s  stirring-rnd  enmplete  the 
ooUit.  Ten  cobic  centimeters  of  the  milk  or  whey 


to  be  tested  is  measared  into  the  white  cop  and  a 
few  drops  of  the  indicator  are  added.  The  alkaline 
solution  is  now  allowed  to  drop  slowly  into  the 
milk,  which  is  stirred  constantly  during  the  opera- 
tion. The  phenolphthateln  gives  no  color  reaction 
in  an  acid  medium,  bnt  as  soon  as  eafhcient  of  the 
alkaline  solution  has  been  added  to  the  milk  to 
neutralize  the  acid,  a  pink  tinge  appears.  The 
addition  of  the  alkaline  solution  is  ((topped  as  soon 
as  this  pink  tint  is  permanent.  The  number  of 
cubic  centimeters  and  fractions  thereof,  of  the 
solution,  required  to  produce  the  pink  color,  indi- 
catifs  the  percentage  of  acidity,  each  cubic  centi- 
meter representing  .1  per  cent  of  acid.  Milk  will 
show,  on  the  average,  .19  to  .21  per  cent  of  acid 
when  ready  for  the  addition  of  the  rennet,  but  the 
exact  percentage  can  be  determined  only  by  expe- 
rience for  each  locality.  The  whey,  immediately 
after  catting  and  stirring  begins,  will  show  a  lower 
acidity  than  the  milk  did  before  the  rennet  was 
added,  because  of  the  acid  reaction  of  the  casein 
which  \&  retained  in  the  curd.  The  percentage  of 
acid  in  the  whey  immediately  after  cutting  sh-mid 
be  .M  to.l.T  percent,  or  about  .05  per  cent  iess  than 
phown  in  the  milk.  Any  variation  from  that  is  the 
guide  to  the  choese-makHr  either  to  hasten  or 
retard  the  subsequent  beating  and  cooking  of  the 
curd.  The  whoy  should  bo  removed  when  its  acidity 
is  about  .01  less  than  the  acidity  of  the  milk  at 
the  time  of  adding  the  rennet.  If  it  is  "working" 
fast^  rather  more  margin  should  be  given.  There 
are  various  modiiications  of  this  test,  for  which 
apparatus  and  siipplitfS  may  be  procured  from 
dL'alurs  in  dairy  utensils. 

Cvttiag  the  curd. 

The  object  of  cutting  the  curd  is  to  facilitate 
the  removal  of  the  whey.  For  this  purpose  the 
.\mcrican  cnrd-kniveaare  now  most  generally  used. 
These  cnnsist  of  a  set  «f  two  (Pig.  214),  each  hav- 
ing a  numl>er  nf  blanli^K  held 
in  a  frame  three-eighths  lu 
halfaniRchapart,theb[adus 
running  perpendicular  in 
one  knife  and  horizontal  in 
the  other.  A  later  modifi- 
cation of  the  curd-knife  is 
maAe  nf  fine  wirafl,  abuut 
three-eighths  inch  apart, 
stretchwl  on  a  stuel  frame. 
When  the  curd  is  firm 
enough,  the  fierpendieular 
knife  is  passed  lengthwise 
and  crnsswise  of  the  vat, 
and  the  liciriEontal  knife  in 
one  directiim  nnly,  leaving 
the  cunl.  theoretically,  in  cubes,  the  size  of  which 
corresponds  with  the  diatarce  bftween  thf  blades  of 
the  knives.  Frequuntly,  the  horiiontal  knife  is  used 
first.  Great  care  mnst  lie  exerciseil  in  the  cutting, 
beranse  thn  curd  at  this  stage  is  very  jully- 
like  and  easily  disjtiacod,  and  thcru  is  likely  to 
be  much  unevenneaa  in  tht-  sixjj  uf  tbe  cut)«s  and 
loss  of  solid  mattL>r  unless  tbe  work  is  done  care- 
fally.  As  the  liner  the  cnrd  is  cut  the  more  quickly 


Pll.  214,     Cnrd-UtrM. 


212 


THE  IfAKIKG  OP  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


it  becomes  Arm,  it  is  obviously  important,  for  the 
sake  of  uniformity,  U  have  the  curO  cut  or  broken 
M  evenly  as  ]>088ib!e.  If  tbo  milk  is  over-ripe,  it  is 
an  advantatro  to  cut  the  curd  aomewhat  finer  than 
if  the  conditions  are  normal.  Some  makors  follow 
the  practice  of  allowing  the  curd  to  stand  for  a  few 
Tninutes  between  the  two  cuttings,  while  others 
tinimh  the  work  when  once  begun,  without  any 
delay. 

fteaiing  the  curd. 

After  tho  catting;  ia  finished,  Btirring  sboold 
bepin,  beinjj;  v«ry  K^ntle  at  first  t-lae  the  bruising 
of  the  curd,  in  ita  tender  Ktato,  will  cnum  eerious 
loss  of  the  Holid  constituents.  After  tt'Ti  or  fifteen 
minutes  of  careful  handling,  the  curd  becomes 
firniBr  an<I  tke  freshly  cut  surfaces  more  or  less 
"'  heflled  over."  so  that  the  stirring  can  be  proceeded 
with  mort!  vigorDUKly.  Ah  a  matter  of  fiu;l,  it  is 
DBcessary  tu  accelerate  the  stirrinjj  an  the  heating 
[^rofJ^tl8iSe8,  becatifte,  as  the  curd  becomes  firmur 
and  more  solid,  ite  density  is  increa.scd  and  there 
is  more  tendency  to  settle  and  pack  in  a  mass  in 
tho  bottom  of  the  vat.  Toward  the  end  of  the 
heating  periodl,  which  should  cover  aliont  forty 
rainuteB, — at  the  rate  of  one  deKrue  every  thrao 
minutes,— stirring  cannot  be  too  vigorous. 

Tho  "cookioR"  temperature,  so-called,  ref[uires 
to  bo  varied  according  to  locatitit-s  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  milk.  In  some  places  it  h;i«  been  foand 
nece-ssary  to  raifte  the  temperature  as  high  as  108" 
to  110°  Fahr.  in  order  to  get  the  card  suffioiently 
firm  and  tu  «xf>el  a  proper  amount  of  muit^tur^^, 
while  in  other  dixtrictH  much  better  rusultii  are 
obtained  at  a  tempurature  of  %".  A  very  common 
role  is  to  fix  9f^"  as  tlii;  standard  tt.'niperalure  and 
then  to  vary  it  according  to  circumstances.  Tho 
maker  must  use  his  own  judgment  in  matters  of 
thiit  kind.  If  he  finds  that  hi.s  cheese  is  turning 
out  tiio  firm  unii  dry,  a  lower  c<«)l<ing  temppratiirs 
will  have  some  tttfect  in  thie  oppiwite  direcliim,  hut 
there  may  be  other  reasons  for  the  dryness  of  the 
cheese,  and  that  is  where  the  exercise  of  judgment 
is  re(]uired.   If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  found  that 


PiB.  IIS.    A  type  41  cud-clBk. 

the  cheese  retains  too  much  moisture  and  i»  in- 
clined to  show  excess  of  acidity,  the  cooking  U:m- 
poratnre  may  be  raised  a  degree  or  two  and  the 
result  noted. 

There  are  several  things  in  the  process  of  cheese- 
making  which  alfect  ihp  amount  of  moisture 
rptained  in  the  cnnl.  and  Huccess  or  failure  in 
cheese-making  hingen  on  that  point.  In  the  first 
place,  the  aiw  of  tho  particles  into  which  the  curd 


is  cut  or  broken  has  considerable  influence.  The 
cooking  temiieniture  also  atfect^  the  amount  of 
moisture  retained  in  the  curd.  If  a  part  of  the 
whey  is  removed  from  the  vat  as  soon  as  the  heat- 
ing is  finished,  or  oven  before,  the  increased  pres- 
sure on  the  curd  and  the  extra  handling  which  it 
receives  also  tend  to  erpel  the  moisture. 

lh-av:iiig  thr  irhcy. 

It  should  take  two  and  a  half  to  three  hours  from 
the  time  the  rennet  i.^  added  until  sutlicient  aciditv 
is  developed  and  the  curd  has  become  firm  enough 


PIC.  Ilk    Ciud-miU. 

to  permit  of  the  whey  being  entirely  remored. 
If  it  takes  longer,  it  is  wise  to  allow  the  ripening 
of  tho  milk  to  advance  a  little  farther  before 
the  rutiiiet  ijt  added.  If  it  take^  le«ti  time,  it  i^ 
evidence  that  the  milk  is  over-rijife,  and  every 
effort  should  bo  made  to  have  it  dolivured  In  a 
sweeter  condition,  and  the  process  should  be  modi- 
fied on  the  lines  already  mentioned,  so  as  to  retard 
the  development  of  iicidity  by  ha.Htening  the  removal 
of  the  whey.  It  ill  the  developmipnt  of  acidity 
beyund  a  certuin  point  in  the  curd,  before  it  has 
liw^ome  sutBciuntly  firm  or  free  fnim  moisture, 
that  makt^  a  sour  cheese.  The  cord  Bhoold  be 
firm  enough  to  have  a  slightly  elastic  conKiMency 
when  presited  in  tho  hand  by  the  time  the  acidity 
has  reached  .19  or  J20  per  cent. 

The  "hot  iron  test"  was  generally  used,  until 
recent  yearti,  to  determine  the  projwr  stage  for  the 
rBmoval  of  whey,  and  many  cheewwnakers  still 
depend  on  it.  Thistesi,  which  is  of  American  origin, 
is  simplicity  itself,  as  f.ir  as  apparatus  goes,  but 
the  dif^culty  experienced  in  acquiring  the  knack  of 
applying  it  usually  surprises  the  novice. 
The  test  consists  in  pressing  a  handful  of 
runi,  from  which  the  surplun  whey  has  beeji 
.■iiineeze<l,  agaiurtt  a  heated  iron  surface. 
IJiven  the  right  temi«-*raturo  in  the  imn, 
and  proper  manipulation,  the  curd  sticks  to 
it  and  at  a  certain  stage  begins  to  spin  tine 
threads  when  slowly  drawn  away.  In  the 
best  practice,  the  whey  is  removed  when 
these  thrp!ids  may  be  drawn  out  one-eighth 
ii>  one-fuurth  of  an  inch,  which  is  eiiuivalent 
to  about  .19  t«)  .20  per  cent  of  acidity  as 
shown  by  the  ncidimeter. 

As  the  whey  is  being  removetl,  the  curd  is  atirred 
and  finally  placed  on  racks,  which  are  covered  with 
a  linen  cloth,  to  facilitate  the  drainage  of  the  whey. 
The  racks  may  be  placed  for  this  purpose  on  tho 
bottom  of  the  cheese  vat,  or  they  may  be  in  a 
special  frame,  technically  called  n  "  curd-sink" 
{Fig.  '.iiri}.  One  ailvantage  of  the  sink  ia  that  it 
can  be  fitted  with  castors  and  wheeled  from  place 


THE   UAKJNti    OF  CHEDDAR  CUBESE 


SIS 


to  pUc«,  which  pennite  of  a  different  plan  of  build- 
ing and  arraii(;ement  of  macfainery  as  compared 
wiU)  a  facUiry  in  which  Lhe  racks  ure  uned  in  the 
vat.  Doth  methods  have  their  advuntages  and  dis- 
advantages, but  the  choicti  iaonu  of  convenience 
aod  suitability  for  a  particular  buildinp:  rather 
than  fnr  any  essential  dirferoncf  aa  far  as  the  art 
of  cheese-making  is  cunccnied.  In  eith^^r  method, 
m  cover  should  be  provided  to  retain  the  heat  in 
the  curd  and  to  prevent  its  drying  on  the  sarface. 
Only  experience  can  teach  the  right  amount  of 
Btirrin^  or  handling  of  the  curd  at  thij;  statue  to 
engar«  the  proper  amount  of  moisture  in  the  cheese. 
A  prominent  instrnctor  used  to  say  to  his  staddots: 
"Always  stir  the  curd  until  it  'aqueaka'  between 
ibe  t«eth,"  and  the  rule  in  a  very  good  one. 

Maturing  Um  curd. 

When  the  curd  has  been  allowed  to  stand  long 
enough  for  the  particles  to  adhere  and  form  a  solid 
mas^  it  is  cut  or  broken  into  pieces  of  convenient 
size  for  handling,  and  then  turnt^d  from  time  to 
time,  in  order  further  to  facilitate  the  removal  o1 
the  whey,  and  to  preserve  an  even  tem- 
perature and  color.  At  the  second  and 
iubsequent  torninps  the  pieces  aro 
usually  piled  two  or  three  layers 
deep. 

When  the  curd  draws 
about  one  inch  on  tht*  hut 
iron,orthewhey 
which  drains 
from  it  shows  .G 
per  tt-nt  of  acid, 
it  i«  milled  (Fip*. 
216,  217)  and 
then  frequently 
_    , ,    „    .     „  stirred  until   it 

*  bucomes  mellow 

and  velvety.  whL-n  thw  salt  is  applied  at  the  rate  of 
one  and  ono-balf  to  three  pounds  |>er  1,000  ptiunda 
of  milk,  according  to  the  season  of  the  yi^nr.  and  the 
Tietd  of  cbet^so  from  the  milk,  the  smaller  quantity 
being  used  in  the  ti)jnaf;,  ivhvn  thtt  milk  is  pour,  and 
■when  Iha  che<e«e  is  usually  wanted  for  quick  con- 
sumption. The  whey  dripping  from  the  curd  should 
tt«t  1  to  l.'il  per  cent  of  acid  liefore  the  salt  is 
added.  Aft*ir  the  salt  has  tieen  thnrotighly  mixed 
with  the  curd,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for  aboot 
twenty  minute-s. 

Prating  tht  rhettf. 

Tlio  cuni  is  now  ready  for  the  molds  or  presses 
(Figs.  218.  219).  A  sUndard  Cheddar  cheese  has  a 
diameter  of  fourteen  and  one-half  to  fifteen  ami 
ono-half  inches,  variiw  from  ten  to  twelve  inches 
in  height,  and  weighs  seventy  to  ninety  pounds; 
but  there  is  no  limit  to  the  sixe  or  shajiH  into  which 
this  choese  may  lie  moldifd.  The  varii^tius  in  the 
United  States  take  the  form  of  "  twins,"  which  are 
of  standard  diameter,  but  half  the  usual  height,  so 
that  two  go  in  a  standard  box ;  "flat^,"  also  of 
standard  diameter,  but  shallower:  "dnisiet^,"  smaller 
to  all  dimensions;  "Young  AmeriiMs"  or  "Stilton 
shapes,"  six  or  seven  inches  in  diameter,  weighing 


ten  to  twelve  pounds,  and  manf  otiier  il»s.  For 
show  purposes,  ChMldar  cheese  is  often  made  to 
weigh  1.000  to  1.200  pounds.  About  forty  years 
ago,  a  T.OiXJ-pound  cheese  was  made  at  Ingoraollf 


FIs.  lis.    Cbeeae-pren. 

Ontario,  and  exhibited  as  a  curiosity  in  England  ; 
but  the  record  was  reached  in  1892.  when  the 
writer  assisted  I'rofeasor  J.  W.  Uobertson,  then 
Dairy  Commissioner  for  Canada,  in  "  building  "  the 
22,000-pound  cheese,  at  Perth.  Ontario,  which  was 
exhibited  at  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago,  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

When  ready  for  pressing,  the  curd  Is  weighed 
into  the  molds  or  "hoops"  to  insure  uniformity  in 
size,  and  the  pressure  applied,  lightly  at  first,  but 
gradually  increjisetl  until  the  full  strength  of  the 
press  is  reached.  In  the  course  of  about  one  hour, 
the  cheese  is  ttimporarily  removed  from  the  hoops, 
and  the  bandage  trimmed  and  adjusted  so  as  to 
secure  a  neat  [and  attractive  finish.  The  cheese  is 
then  left  under  heavy  presisure  over  night.  In  the 
best  factories  it  is  again  trimmed  in  the  morning, 
re-pressed  and  finally  removed  in  time  to  make 
room  for  the  next  day's  curd. 

Curing  the  ckrfse. 

It  has  often  been  said  that  cheese  is  only  half 
made  when  it  is  placed  in  the  curing-room.  At  any 
rate,  the  beat  of  cheese  is  seriously  injured  in 
quality  if  exposed  to  a  temperaturrt  of  over  60°, 
and  there  is  I  to  2  fwr  cent  of  unnecessary  shrink- 
age. The  texture  becomes  more  or  less  "mealy" 
and  objectionable  flavors  are  likely  to !«  developed. 
It  has  been  demonstrated  that  curing,  or  ripening, 
will  proceed  at  very  low  temtiera lures,  even  below 
32°,  bot  more  slowly  as  the  te-mperatnre  is  reduced. 


Fit-  iiv.    steel  Mfflblaation  <rhw«  piwt. 

Extremely  low  temperatures  are  inadvisable, 
because,  while  such  practice  may  result  in  an 
absence  of  bad  flavor,  it  also  has  the  further  nega- 
tive effect  of  preventing  the  development  of  the 
characteristic  chet-sy  Itavor  which  is  an  essential 
quality   iu  first-class  typical  Cheddar.  The   ideal 


214 


THE  MAKING   OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


ehM«e  has  a  poeitlvd  as  well  ta  a  negative  quality 
of  flavor.   On   the  whole,  a  temperature  of  C0° 
seema  to  be  beat  suited  to  produce  this  desired 
•result. 

A  cnriDg-room  with  walls  slightly   insnlated. 
with  tight-fitting  doors  and  windows  aud  with  a 


Pif.  ZID.    Two  cboew-tilDta  ftiid  nati  buttGi-triei  ^tbe 
luznl  Doel. 

cement  floor  to  utilize  the  cooling  power  of  the 
earth,  will  erwure  the  propL-r  temperature  except 
in  very  hot  weather.  To  remove  the  moisture 
which  exudes  from  the  cheese,  and  that  which 
results  from  the  reduction  wf  t^^mperature,  ant)  also 
to  insure  a  proper  temperature,  it  is  advisable  to 
provide  a  well* insulated  ice-chaiuber  adjoining  the 
curing-room,  with  a  provision  for  the  circulation 
of  air.  under  control,  betwwn  the  curinff-room  and 
the  ice -chamber.  The  air  ia  thua  cooled  in  hot 
weather  and  the  moistnre  which  it  collects  ia 
depoiiited  on  the  uncovered  aarface  of  the  ice.  If 
properly  coiistructed.  the  ice-chamber  Uieed  be  only 
about  one-third  the  size  of  the  curing-ro<>m  in  cubic 
capacity,  assuming,  of  coursOr  that  the  coring-room 
is  no  larger  than  is  neceasary  to  hold  the  cheese. 

Thr.  rhffM  fturjorff. 

The  early  cheese- factory  boildinga  were  more  or 
law  makL-shift  in  character,  and  usually  constrocted 
(•ntirely  of  wool ;  but  these  are  gradually  being 
replaced  by  a  more  permanent  and  more  sanitary 
t)TKf  of  building.  The  cement  floor  is  very  properly 
anperseding  the  wooden  floor,  both  for  roaking- 
rooma  and  curing-rooms.  No  cheese  factory  can 
have  perfect  drainage  unless  the  floors  are  imper- 
vious to  water,  and  no  ordinary  wooden  floor  can 
remain  waterproof  for  any  length  of  time.  The 
cement  floor  is  impervious  and  permits  of  pn)per 
drainage,  without  which  the  factory  premisej)  can- 
not be  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

The  surroundings  of  factories  have  been  very 
much   negliicted,   but    there    is    evidence  of    an 


PIC-  in.    Butter  tabs  and  ehtxat  boxes. 

improvement  in  thia  respect,  and  ownora  and 
naiugers  of  factories  are  beginning  t)  take  more 
pride  ID  the  appearance  of  the  buildings  and 
grounds  surrounding  them. 

The  following  specifications  were  prepared  by  the 
writer,  from  plans  that  were  recently  designed  and 
that  hare  proved  in  actual  practice  to  be  very 


satLsfaetory.    [See  Report  of  the  Dairy  Comniiii-  ■ 
aioner  for  Ihe  i>ominion  of  Canada,  1W6.  Ottawa.]* 

aPBCinCATION  FOB  A  CSBESE  FACTORT  WITH  A  COOL 
crKlSO-ROOll.    TO    BB    CONSTRUCTED   OF    WOOD. , 

Materials, 

H'fflxf.— All  lumber  employed  must  be  thoroughly 
dry  and  sound,  without  loose  knots  or  shakes,  and 
should  be  odorless. 

Spruce  and  hemlock  arc  the  best,  in  the  order 
named.  Pine  is  not  so  suitable  for  inside  sheath- 
ing, because  of  its  odor. 

All  boards  employed  should  be  dressed  as  well  as 
tODgued  and  grooved. 

Unseasoned  lumber  must  be  carefully  avoided. 
^^Tien  building  in  winter,  fires  must  be  kept  goinjj, 
so  as  to  have  all  materials  as  dry  as  possible.  This 
ia  very  important,  as  dampness  in  insulation 
destroys  its  efficiency. 

Paper.— .\\\  papers  used  to  be  strictly  odorlew 
and  damp-proof. 

Damp-proof  insulating  papers  can  be  had  in  rolls 
of  500  to  l.OOO  square  feet,  thirty-six  inches  wide. 
The  following  brands  can  be  recommended,  viz. : 
"Neponset."  "Ilercule*."  "Ko-Sat." 

Tar  paper,  felt  paper,  straw  paper,  rosin-aiwd 
paper,  and  all  other  common  building  papertf,  are 
nut  suitable  and  should  not  be  use^l. 

Use  double  thicknesses  in  all  caws,  each  layer 
lapping  two  inches  over  preceding  one.  The  layers 
should  extend  continuously  around  alt  comers.  All 
breaks  to  be  carefully  covered. 

.SAflriHi/jt.— Shavings  must  be  thoroughly  dry, 
free  from  bark  or  other  dirt.  Shavings  from  some 
odorless  wood,  such  as  hemlock,  spruce  or  white 
wood,  to  have  the  preference. 

Balas  of  shavings  received  in  a  damp  condition 
should  t>e  opened  and  the  shavings  exposed  to  the 
air  and  stirred  occasionally  until  they  are  drv. 

The  Bp.ic&4  in  the  walls  should  be  filled  gradually 
an  the  insidt)  sheathing  is  being  put  on,  and  the 
shavings  well  packed. 

About  eight  pounds  of  shavings,  closely  packed, 
will  be  required  for  each  cubic  foot  of  apace  filled. 
For  a  room  8x8x7  feet,  with  anteroom  8x4x7 
feet,  btiilt  on  thia  specification.  3.000  pounds  wiU 
be  needed. 

CinrffT*.— Coal  cinders  should  be  used  wherever 
possible  to  cover  the  earth  over  area  of  ice-cham- 
ber, in  preference  to  sand,  gravel  or  tan-bark. 

fouwia/ioTut.— The  building  to  real  on  stone  or 
concrete  foundations. 

V^oor*.— Floors  throughout  the  building  to  He  of 
cement  concrete.  The  area  under  the  icc-chaml«er 
need  not  bo  provided  with  the  usual  finish  or  wear- 
ing surface,  as  it  is  intended  only  to  give  solidity 
to  the  ice-chamber  fioor. 

Floor  of  iix-chamhcr.  -  Lay  a  false  floor  six  inches 
above  concrot«  and  fill  space  between  concrete  and 
false  door  with  cinders,  dry  ashee,  tan-barit  or 
dry  sand. 


Pic  m.    DtUU  or  coutrvctiOQ  toi  fnms  tmUdlBjE.     (BiilHtnKi  -ho<ni  In  Tit*-  SS?-?IT,  l1c■i■n^d  bj  J.  A.  Riid<II<'ti  ] 


Fix  2  X  12-inch  joiata  as  shown  on  plan.  Covor 
with  two  courecs  of  mstchod  lumber,  with  two-ply 
of  damp-proof  p&pcr  between.  Cover  the  whole 
with  ealvaoized  iron,  with  soldereiS  seamft,  ani 
tashed  aloDg  the  walla  about  ei^ht  inch<!fi. 

The  main  floor  of  tfab  ice-cliamber  should  have  a 
slope  of  one  inch  in  every  four  fuet,  to  a  gutter 
CAonected  with  the  drain,  to  carry  off  tho  watt-r 
from  the  melting  ice. 

The  drain  must  be  trapped  to  prevent  passage 
of  air. 

Drainat/e. —  ProviHion  for  drainage  to  be  made 
by  forminj;  the  UHual  gutttrs  in  the  cpment  floor 
of  the  makin;;-room  and  presK-nxmi.  ThiB  floor 
nhoald  be  niadu  with  a  sbpo  of  on*.*  inch  in  every 
four  feet  toward  the  gutter.  A  g'^^'d  tilu  drain 
with  eemenled  joint.t  Hhniild  he  provided,  to  carry 
all  dr;iina^  tn  a  safe  dii4tnnre  and  thiiK 
avoid  creating  a  niiiitance  nitar  the  fac- 
tory, or  ruDning  the  riak  of  containi-  ^h^^h 
Dating  the  water-eupply.  ~F^^ 

n'ofl*.— Set  up  2  X  6-inch  atuddinfi,  «  b-^' 
and  cover  outside  with  one  course  of  ^^S^m 
matched  lorober,  two  ply  of  damp-proof 
paper  and  aiding^,  or  clapbunrdi.  For 
iiuide  finish  of  matcing-roum,  lino  up 
with  matchei)  lumber.  For  finish  nf 
coring-room, cover  inaideof  «tud«  with 
two  conraes  of  matcJinl  lumber,  with 
two  ply  of  damp-proof  paper  between. 
For  inside  finiah  of  ice-chamher.  &et 
op  another  row  of  2  x  0-inch  .stiidn, 
to  alternate  with  outside  row,  am 
shown  in  the  detail  of  Fig.  223.  Cover 
uuide  of  atnda   with  two  conrsex  of 


matched  InniW,  with  two  ply  of  damp-proof  pajwr 
botwLHin.  Over  this  lay  another  ply  of  danip-prouf 
paper,  one-inch  furring-strip  and  linJRh  with  one 
course  of  matched  lumber.  The  inside  row  of  studs 
Bhoulrl  be  jjlaced  ho  a«  to  Ipave  a  space  of  twelve 
inches  for  fthavingK  between  tha  inside  nn^l  the 
ovitntile  sheathing. 

Partiliimx. — Partitiun  Wtween  maVing-room  and 
drying-n>i)m  to  be  of  2  x  4-inch  »tuds  with  one 
course  of  matched  lumber  on  both  sides.  I'artition 
between  drying-room  and  ctiring-room  to  be  of 
2  X  t>-inuh  studs  with  two  courses  of  matched  lum- 
ber and  diinble  ply  of  damp -proof  paper  on  each 
eidb"  of  studding.  Partition  between  lee-chamber 
and  curing-ruum  to  bo  same  as  walls  of  icc-chambrr. 

CcUingf. — Ceiling  of  making-room  to  \ye  vanltwl 
by  laying  one  course  of  nvat-ched  lumber  on  under 


DE.TAIL  or   FRAMt  CDNSTRUCTIQH 


|rCL**ttO«l>0 


■PsoMa 

4KB 


r«ai  MMUL  or  cmtiNS  rdou. 


¥UU    or  ICC  CHkMBER 
DETAIL  OF  QRICK  CONSTRUCTION 


B* 


Sp-AviHtia 
1^ 


r; 


Bi»ie« 


MALL  or  cumie  room. 


W»LL    or   ICC  CHAHBCB 

Piji-  la,    DvtaU  al  w-aU  ooostnicUoo. 


TEE  MAKING  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESE 


iii(!e  of  raftera  and  crass-pipcea  fixed  at  auitablo 
height-  CuiliiiK  in  dryinn-rixim  to  consist  of  one 
course  of  matchi'd  lumber  on  under  sirle  of  joisttt. 
Ceiling  of  cnrins-ronm  to  consist  of  two  coursen  of 
matched  lumber,  with  two  ply  of  damp-proof  paper 
between.  Cuiling  of  ica-chumtwr  Lo  in*  LKb  same  as 


n 


30 


^W 


n 


T 


■^  4C.  j^  ^ 


-^- 


aPECIFJCATION  FOR  A  CHEESE  FACTOnV  WITn  A  COCA. 
CUKINU-KIXJM.  TO  BE  CtlNSTHlXTED  OK  BHICK  OR 
fBMENT  ANTi  WOOD.    (FtJt.  2X.) 
The  RptTilicatinns  for  materials  are  the  same  as 
for  W(Knl  conatmction. 

Foaadaiivn$  and  Jlaora. —  fSee  BpeciScattons  for 
wood  construction,  p.  214.] 
Ftoor   (^  ice-  fiia mber. -  - 
^  Lay  ovtjr  concrete  be*!  six 

inches  of  dry  coal  cinders 
and  ram  solidly  to  make  a 
firm   bearing  ^m  whirh  to 
place  one    layer    of   four- 
inch  hollow  brick,  laid  In 
cumt-nt.    Finish   with   one 
inch  of  cement,  c-overing 
the  sDrfacc  well  with  neat 
cement  to  make  it  as  nearly 
damp-prdofasposwitile.  The 
floor  shoidd  sln]>e  one  inch 
in  every  four  feet  to  a  pt't- 
ter  on  ww  aide,  connected 
with  the  drain,   to  carry 
off  the    water  from  the 
melting   icff.    The    connec- 
tion with  the  drain  miLit  be 
trapped  to  prevent  passage 
of  air. 
Draincge. — [See  wood  c(.>n«lruction,  pajte  214.] 
Wallg. — The  brick  or  ceniynt  walU  will  need  no 
interior  finish  in  the  making-room,  presjt-room,  dry- 
ing-room, waah-room    and   engine-room,  except  a 
smooth  coat  of  plaster,  preferably  of  cement.  Such 
a  finish  is  sanitary,  durable  and  e&sily  cleaned. 

For  the  in-sulated  rooms,  i.  e.,  the  ice-chamber 
and  curing-room,  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  inside 
surfacea  of  the  brick  or  cement  walU  should  be 
waterproofed    by  coating  with   pitch   (not  tar). 


.„JU 


Pis.  li*.    LoDjcJtudlcx]  oMtlan  o1  wood-coos  miction  «1wcbc  Uctory.    a.  TMail  <>t  rarkkj 
li,  ilrtail  (if  pQKti  Aiiil  lirBckrl*:   e.  ilnor  fiulrnlnz. 

walla  of  ice-chamber.  On  upper  side  of  juista  lay 
two  couHHw  of  lumber,  with  two  ply  of  paper 
between,  over  area  of  tce-chaml>er ;  over  curing- 
room  and  drying-room  one  coarj»o  of  matched 
lumber. 

Spaeet  tc  he  fiiied.—Fin  all  spaces  between  joists 
and  studH  in  wall.4,  floor,  ceiling  and  partition  of 
ice-chamber,  and  all  spaces  between  studs  and  joists 
in  wall?,  cerling  and  partition  of  curing-room,  with 
planing-mill  shavings,  as  shown  on  plan. 

Wiiidmi^s  in  cunrtf^-nxrm.^Shonld  not  be  over 
two  feet  square,  ami  placed  between  the  rows  of 
shelving.  cJose  to  the  coiling,  as  shown  on  plan. 
The  sash  should  be  double  and  each  double-glazed, 
and  be  carefully  fitted.   They  should  be  hinged  at 

the  top.   Each  window  should  be  fitted   with  a  -  , 

wooden  shutter  to  k<M?p  ont  direct  rays  of  the  eun,  '     I    tij| 

but  not  to  keep  out  the  light. 

Curing-room  donrr, — 
Doors  to  bo  built  up 
with  two-inch  skeleton 
frame,  covered  on  both 
sides  with  two  courses  of 
matched  lumber,  with 
two  ply  of  damp-proof 
paper  between.  Edges  to 
DC  beveled  and  covered 
with  felt.  Doors  to  be 
fitted  with  a  wrought- 
iron  door  fastener,  as 
shown  at  Pig.  224. 

Double  doors  should  be  fitted  to  all  openings 
into  the  ice-chambbrs.  Theft©  doors,  which  are  not 
often  opened,  should  be  provided  with  a  apectal 
fastener  consisting  of  bolts  with  a  long  thread 
and  tail-nots,  in  order  that  they  may  be  screwed 
up  tight. 


FiU.  I2i.    Plui  of  crouad  flooi  of  wwd-ccastittctim  Uctotr. 

aftphalt  or  paratRn  wax.  These  substances  are  not 
easily  applied,  es|>ecially  in  cold  weather,  because 
of  their  quality  of  hardening  verr  quickly.  A 
plastering  of  cement  improves  the  damp-resisting 
quality  of  brick  or  concrete  walls. 
For  the  insulation  of  the  coring  rooms,  lay  one- 


THE   MAKING  OF  CHEDDAR  CHEESB 


217 


10 


.a. 


inoh  fmrmff-stripB  on  wall,  and  nail  thereon  one 
course  of  matched  lumher.  Set  np  a  row  of  2x4-inch 
studs  and  finiflh  with  two  coiirHes  of  matched  lum- 
ber, with  two  [)ly  of  idamjj-jinwf  paper  hetween. 
The  space  lK-twt>(^n  studii 
to  be  filled  with  «having». 
(Pip  223,  lower  right- 
hand  gectioa). 

For  inAubtioD  of  ic!e- 
chamber  waUs,  ta>'  one- 
inch  fnrring-gtritis  and 
cover  with  om  cuurtwi  of 
matched  luiiiWr.  Set  up 
one  row  of  2x4- inch 
studs  againj^t  tho  shuath- 
io;;,  and  another  row  to 
altemat*  with  first  row, 
with  outer  edges  tuelve 
tnchea  from  the  nheath- 
iag,  80  ait  to  form  a  npace  of 
twtrlve  inchea  for  filling  with 
shavings.  Nail  on  studs  two 
courves  of  m^itched  lumlx-T,  with 
two  ply  of  dam|>-pr(K)r  pajM.-r  hc- 
tween.  Over  this  lay  another  ply  of  damp-proof 
paper,  onvinch  furring-Rtrtpn,  and  one  course  of 
matched  lumlwr,  leitvinj;  a  one- inch  air-gpacu, 
which  is  for  tha  purjjose  of  eliMkinK  the  dampness 
that  comua  from  the  ht',  and  that  mu^t  he  kept  out 
of  the  inhalation,  (f'l^.  22:jl,  lower  left-hand  sec- 
tion). 

If  the  inside  surface  of  brick  or  cement  is  made 
thoroughly  damp-proof,  an  dfscrilied,  the  furrinji- 
atripa  and  aingle  course  of  mat«hwl  lumlwr  may  he 
dispensed  with,  ami  n\so  the  tirst  row  of  studa  next 
the  wall  of  the  ici-chumhur,  if  the  construction 


will   iHtrmit,  as  they  are  not  nKcenwry   to  the 
insulation. 

Partitiont. — Partition  l«etwwn  inakinK-room  and 
drying-room  to  be  of  brifk  or  cement.  Tarlition 
betwettn  drying-rvwm  and  curing-room  to  to  iho 
eame  ait  curing-room  wsIIb.  Partition  lietween  cnr- 
ing-room  and  ic^-chamlter  to  be  the  fiame  as  walls 
of  ic«-ch,amb«r. 


Fit.  Z17,    CiDniuI  b]>i  Id  «  Uige  cbcesc  iadotj. 

Cd'/irtffji.— [See  specification  for  vhmA  construc- 
tions, pagi:  214.] 

Spaix*  to  b(jillf.<i. — Fill  at!  spaces  betwoon  studs 
and  joists,  in  walls,  ceilings  and  partitions  with 
dry,  ptaning-mill  Bhavinijs. 

Winilou-E  in  curln^'rvom. — [See  specification  for 
wouil  construction.) 

Vurinij-room  doors. — [Seo  specification  for  wood 
construction.] 

It  is  important  that  the  doors  should  maki'  an 
air-tight  joint  when  closed.  The  8lighte.'<t  opening 
will  result  in  unnecessary  consumption  of  ice,  and 
at  this  same  liniu  allow  suHicit-nt  warm  moi«tare- 
laden  air  to  entor  to  cause  dampness  and  an  unduly 
high  temperature. 

For  litoratore.  see  page  219, 


■Kt  rsoom  tua  mlftH. 


^ 


lOC  CmAmCC^ 


CuniNS  ROOM 


*»«»» 


Ql^VINe  ROCu 


a'4  »fu*h 


MAN  I  NO  noQu 


P 


?r^m 


Fl£.  IM.    Detail  i>t  couuiictloa  (oi  buck  butldiiu:. 


218 


OTHER  VARIETIES  OP  HARD  CHEESE 


OTHER  VARIKT[ES  OF  IIAItD  CHKESE 

By  Ouirlcs  Tkom,  and  others 

The  number  of  varietiea  of  cheeae,  grading  from 
hanl  throujijh  semi-liiini  to  soft,  in  almtwt  innumer- 
able, inasmuch  a^  s.1ight  variatiorut  in  the  processes 
of  cheese-making  greatly  influence  the  chanicter  of 
the  product.  For  the  same  reason.  Iheru  in  much 
variation  in  the  quality  and  character  of  a  ^ven 
variety,  depending  on  the  details  in  its  malcing. 
The  aame  cheese  may  be  jrut  up  in  different  forms, 
In  order  lo  reach  sjiecial  market!?.  ThuH,  we  have 
several  modifications  of  the  common  Cheddar 
ch«ew  —  the  voung  America,  pineappif,  piercicx, 
trwkU — smalt  hard  cheeses,  made  in  different 
form*.  Then  there  are  the  English  varieties  — the 
Lfic^ittTfhire,  GfoucfM^r,  r>frhji»hirc,  and  WUtihirc, 
modilicationd  of  the  Cheddar  cheese  that  are  sel- 
dom foand  in  America.  Sage  chcett  is  not  essen- 
tially different  from  the  Cheddar,  except  that  it  is 
fiavored  with  sage  extract  or  sace  leaves.  The 
American  hoitK'tradf.  or  Hirrcd-cur^  chenf,  ie  very 
similar  to  the  Cheddar  in  the  details  of  its  mana- 
factare;  and  yet  a  slight  modification,  by  which 
more  moisture  is  retained,  results  in  a  very  dif- 
ferent cheese — one  that  is  softer  and  milder.  By 
removing  fat  from  the  milk,  we  get  skimmed  or 

firtially  ikimmed  cheese.  Prepared  cAef««  are  fancy 
rands  made  by  softening  and  reworking  good  com- 
mon chceae,  with  the  addition  of  butter  or  other  fat 
and  some  flavoring  substance. 

In  this  way  the  gradations  from  one  typo  of 
cheese  to  other  entirely  different  types  might  be 
traced.  One  can  readily  see  the  almost  infinite 
number  of  types  or  varieties  that  might  result.  It 
would  be  to  no  purpose  to  mention  all  of  these. 
We  add  here  a  few  of  the  other  hard  cheeses  that 
are  recognized  as  such  on  the  American  market.  For 
fuller  notes  on  these  and  other  types,  the  reader 
should  com^ult  the  references  given  on  page  219. 

Enffiixk  dairy. 

English  dairy  or  imitation  Engli.-th  dairy  cheese  is 
one  of  the  modificationn  of  the  hanl  cht-eiie  that  has 
beendevelopedinreccntyearfl.  ('onsiderabli^  cheese 
ia  DOW  made  undur  this  name.  It  rvachi-s  a  special 
trade  that  demands  a  cheese  having  some  approach 
to  the  texture  and  flavor  of  the  choice  British  varie- 
ties. The  makers  have  developed  a  practice  on 
English  lines  which  produces  cheese  for  a  trade  that 
is  comparatively  limited,  but  which  may  be  expected 
to  enlarge  with  the  increase  in  the  demand  for  the 
finer  flavored  varieties.  Its  market  name  snggosl* 
Its  approach  to  the  qualities  sought,  without  using 
the  name  of  any  particular  type  of  English  cheese. 

Swus  (Sekweitzer)  Rmmmthater  or  Gniyere. 

The  mofit  important  Euro|K>an  cheei>o  in  the 
American  market  is  the  Swiss.  Although  distin- 
guished into  Kmmwntbuler  and  (Jruyeru  by  th*; 
expert,  the  ordinary  trade  reeognizi-ji  only  a  general 
type  of  Swiss  cheese,  for  which  any  of  these  nnmes 
is  commonly  urted.  These  cheeses  are  large,  weigh- 
ing fifty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds,  or 
even  more.  The  cut  surface  showH  numero'jA  holes 


throughout  the  cheese.  These  vary  in  size  up  to  an 
inch  in  diameter.  They  result  from  fermentation 
inducts!  in  making  the  cheese.  The  cheese  itself  is 
rather  hard  or  lirm  in  texture,  mild  but  character- 
i:itic  in  flavor. 

The  prfjdoct  of  the  Swiss  factories  has  won  a 
place  in  all  the  markets  of  the  world  by  its  supe- 
rior [jualities.  Its  importation  probably  exceeds  all 
other  varieties  that  reach  the  American  market. 
Et  in  the  best  known  of  all  the  foreign  cheeses  to 
the  native  American,  The  demand  for  this  cheese, 
coupled  with  the  tuettlement  of  Swiss  farmers  in 
many  parts  of  .America,  has  resalted  in  the  estab- 
lishmc-nt  of  numerou.s  factories,  especially  in  New 
York  and  Wisconsin,  for  the  manufacture  of  domes- 
tic or  imitation  ywias  cheese.  Although  the  product 
has  thus  far  failed  to  pqual  the  characteristic  flavor 
of  the  imported  cheese  w*ith  sufficient  uniformity 
to  rival  it  in  price,  the  production  of  domestic 
SwiAfl  has  ouUtripped,  in  recent  years,  all  other 
varieties*,  except  American  Cheddar,  and  is  rapidly 
increasing,  with  every  prospect  of  equaling  the  im- 
ported cheeee  in  quality  within  ,1  few  years. 

Edam. 

Edam,  as  an  imported  cheese,  comes  from  north- 
ern Holland.  The  cheeses  are  round,  painted  red, 
weigh  about  three  pounds  each,  and  are  rather 
hard.  Although  whole  milk  is  supposed  to  make  the 
best  chet^ses,  lidam,  as  it  reaches  the  trade,  is  usually 
partially  skimmed.  In  ttxture  it  is  compact,  and 
often  very  dry.  In  flavor,  it  is  a  mild  type  of  cheese, 
although  ripened  for  several  months.  Its  keeping 
quality  makes  it  familiar  on  all  large  markets,  since 
there  is  no  Iohs  in  handling. 

Cheeses  labeled  "Edam"  are  made  to  some  ex- 
tent in  .\mi>ric^,  and  resemble  closely  the  imported 
article,  although  di8ting:tii8]ied  by  experts. 

Gouda  or  Pantegra*.  (JohnW.  Decker.)  (Fig. 22S.) 

(louda  cheese  originated  in  South  Holland,  and 
takes  its  name  from  the  city  of  Gouda.    It  is  made 


Fl£.  Zn.    A.  Oanda  or  Piimmru  i*)'  <         H.  ilimtlk  mimld: 
O.  hutlom  nf  mnnlil  Into  irliW-h    I)   Ihr  lop  Atv 

to  some  extent  in  America  for  shipment  to  the 
West  Indies,  where  it  is  known  as  FantegraB cheese. 
It  is  larger  than  Edam,  and  pressed  as  flattened 
spheres.  It  is  a  sweet-cnrd  chee?e-,  which  is  salted 
in  brine  and  cared  in  the  same  manoer  as  Edam. 


OTHER  VARIETIES   OF  HARD  CHEESE 


It  mast  be  made  from  ROfiA  miHc,  aa  passy  fermen- 
tatlonH  spoil  it.  In  tho  hot  aumtner  months  its 
manufacture  igdi^ponAi-d  with  for  this  ri>a.snn.  It 
is  packed  fonr  in  a  ca^e.  the<  catie  having  little 
holcfl  covered  with  vire  wreen  for  ventilation. 

itunnler. 

Kunster  in  one  of  the  snfter  varifitie?  nf  hard 
cheese,  imiKirtwl  from  Germany  in  a  small  way, 
but  maiie  on  a  (;oii»!iiit;rahlQ  scalo  in  America.  It  is 
made  in  small  size-R.  with  s,  HTnootK,  slightly  open 
texture.  It  is  ripened  for  a  slmrt  timR,  ftnd  then 
sold.  It  is  a  mild  cheene,  intermediatB,  [Krha^n^ 
between  the  Cheddar  tvpe  and  Buch  cheesus  as 
Brick.   <Pa^224.) 

Parmrmn,  (Jrcna  an^^f  other*. 

The  Italian  hard  cheesea,  Parmesan,  Crana,  Ro- 
mane,  Keggi&no  and  other  varietal  names,  are 
imported  in  considerable  quantities,  and  ntach  all 
of  tbe  large  markKts,  These  vhefses  are  lurjiP, 
Tery  hard  anrl  dry,  heini;  ri|tenyd  fur  lon^  periiwtB, 
two  to  three  yearw  eomraonJy.  In  thia  ripeninj;  an 
even  distribution  of  small  Kos-holeti  is  secured  ty 
particular  fermpnta.  The  ripenin):;  commonly  gives 
a  Bweotidh  davor.  As  a  market  article  these  cheeseti 
Bstiafy  the  tante  of  the  Italian  immigrant,  and  an 
iocroasing  native  demani  fnr  a  ciheese  suitable  for 
f^rating  and  use  in  C(M>kin|{.  eKiHwially  with  miu-a- 
roni.  No  attempt  to  manufacture  thiJt  cheese  has 
been  made  in  America. 

CoeocavaUo,  Seamorze  ot  Butiim.  {John  W.  Decker.) 

For  this  Italian  cheese,  the  milk  is  skimmed  and 
then  poaj^lated  with  rennet,  and  the  enrd  in  finned 
and  alluwei!  to  settle  tu  the  bcittimi  iif  the  vat. 
The  whey  in  then  drawn  oil.  The  curd  is  cut  into 
pieoeeand  piled  on  a  drainjag-tabk>.  After  a  num- 
ber of  hours  of  draining,  it  is  cut  into  small  strips 
and  thrown  intu  a  vat  of  hot  water.  The  small 
ntripa  of  curd  melt  toother  into  a  maMi  reHemhlin^ 
taffy.  Tho  chtieae-maker  then  draws  it  out  in  a 
etring  and  molds  it  by  hand.  The  uuual  shape  is 
that  of  "Indian  clubs,"  Wt  it  may  be  in  the  forma 
of  animal.4.  Kach  form,  m  fast  as  made,  is  thrown 
into  a  vat  of  cold  water,  to  set  it  in  the  shape  into 
which  it  hait  been  drawn.  .Aftr^r  a  number  of  huurH 
in  this  cold  water,  it  goi's  into  a  hrine  li.ith  for 
salting.  After  Kaltini;.  it  is  hung  u])  hy  a  string  tu 
cure.  It  may  bu  marketed  gruen,  or  may  be 
cured  several  months.  A  small  cheeee  may  weigh 
only  a  pound,  a  large  one  five  or  six  ftounds.  A 
small  ball  nf  batter  in  sometimes  worked  into  tho 
curd,  when  it  is  termed  Buttirn  cheese.  The  cheeae 
is  shipped  in  barrels. 

Italians  coming  to  Americi  have  brnught  with 
them  their  methods  of  cheese-making,  in  Sullivan 
and  Orange  <.'ountto,4.  New  York,  and  in  (>euga 
cosnty,  Ohio,  there  are  factories  making  each 
cbeem. 

RieelU.  (John  W.  Decker.) 

Tfaia  IS  an  albumen  cJiuuse  made  by  heating  the 
whey  drawn  from  the  fonoer  chee«e,  to  about  200° 
Fahr.  The  addition  of  sonr  whey  helps  to  coagulate 


the  albumen,  which  \s  Kkimmed  out  and  put  into 
perforated  tin  cylinders  about  six  inches  in  diame- 
ter. These  tin  molds  are  slightly  tapering,  and  are 
swt  one  into  another  for  pressure.  The  albumen 
block  i^  then  mbbod  with  salt  and  sot  on  a  shelf  to 
dry  for  weekii.  A  ate^m>heated  kilo  may  be  used 
to  facilitate  the  drying.  The  cheese  is  WTapped  in 
parchment  paper,  and  packed  in  barrels  for  ship- 
ment. 

Other  jfirieiU*  and  brands. 

An  increasing  number  of  special  articles  reach 
the  trade  under  factory  names  alone.  Thesu  vary 
from  skilfully  made  skimmed  cheeses,  which  satii^fy 


?tft- 


Pic  229.    lUllao  IScamorse)  c&mbii,  baac  fnun  KtUc 
i4lUii  to  cttie. 

the  demand  for  a  mild-flavored  cheese  at  a  miMler- 
ato  price,  to  the  elaborate  and  attractive  packagun 
of  processed  cheoBe,  which  bring  fancy  prices.  In 
the  altsence  of  standards  and  type  names  of  known 
significance,  these  may  be  said  to  appeal  to  tbe 
appetite  for  variety  among  fooda — the  special 
market  rather  than  to  the  regular  market  for 
standard  producta. 

Literature  on  hant  ehtc9c$.   (J.  A.  Rnddick.) 

The  literature  of  cheeae -making  i^  not  exten- 
sive, n«»r  is  the  fact  surprising,  considering  that 
the  knowledge  of  tbe  aubject  was  almnttt  wholly 
empirical  until  within  the  last  twenty-five  or 
thirty  years.  As  a  matter  nf  fact,  the  only  lit- 
eratore  of  much  practical  value  to  the  phepft&- 
maker  hiis  apEieartid  within  the  lust  ten  or  fifteen 
years.  The  publications  of  the  United  States  and 
the  Canadian  Departments  of  Agriculture  and  the 
agricultural  experiment  stations  of  New  York  and 
Wisconsin  and  other  cheese- making  state*,  are 
among  the  mo»it  impnrtant  contributions  to  the 
prL'Spnt-<lay  cheeae  literature. 

J»ihn  Oliver.  Milk,  Butter  and  Cheese  ;  Aiknian 
and  Wright,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy.  Trnn.4tated 
from  the  tlerman  of  Pieischraann ;  Janiew  I/mg, 
Elements  of  Dairy  Farming ;  II.  T).  ilichm«nd, 
Dairy  Chemistry  :  F.  J.  IJoyd,  Cheddar  Chevso- 
miJting;  M.  A.  O'CiiIlaghan,  Dairying  in  All  Ita 
llranches ;  .1.  H.  Monrad,  A  R  C  of  Chcissemaking; 
J.  W.  Decker,  ChL'ddarCheesemaking;  H.  H.  Wing, 
Milk  and  Its  Products;  H.  11.  Dean,  Can.^iian 
Dairying ;  L.  L.  Van  Slyke,  Tefiting  Milk  and  Its 


220 


SOFT  CHEESES  IN  AMERICA 


Products  ;  H.  W.  Coaa.  B^toria  in  CheeMmaking: 
Farrington  and  WoH,  TeatinK  Milk  and  It^  ProducU, 
AlvOTil,  Cheesemaking  on  the  Farm.  Farmera' 
Bulletin  No.  IGG,  United  States  Department  of 
Apicoltar«. 

SOFT  CHEESF.S  IS  AMERICA 

By  Otarlss  Th^om. 

Ou  definition  would  duacribe  soft  chmsHe  as 
cbeeso  containing  ao  liigh  a  percentage  of  water 
as  either  to  be  ttaft  fram  the  start  or  to  become 
semi-fluid  or  buttery  in  the  ripening  process.  This 
statement  is  ample  for  many  varietieti,  bat  becomen 
inadequate  in  examining  ce^rtain  othent  (such  m 
Hoqnefort)  whoae  method  of  making  or  rijn'ning 
allies  them  moat  cloaely  with  this  group.  Another 
definition  describes  5oft  cheese  as  a  cheese  pro- 
duced by  curdling  milk  at  low  temperatures  (not 
above  32°  C.  or  about  90°  F.)  without  a  subswiuent 
heating  of  the  curd  to  expel  the  whey.  Curd  bo 
made,  in  none  types  is  cut  and  partially  drained 
and  ia  others  is  dipped  directly  into  hoops.  In  all 
cases,  soft  cheesen  are  allowed  to  drain  withuut 
using  a  press.  Such  cheese,  then,  is  maiie  of  »oft 
card  as  distinct  from  curd  which  has  be^'O  hanl^nud 
by  extra  heat  after  curdling.  Yet  this  definition 
would  exclude  mont  varieties  of  Cottage  cheese. 
Used,  howt>vi'r,  in  its  mi>st  gi^neral  Bense,  the  des- 
ignation "Kijft  chu:as«"  may  bii  applied  U>  any 
cneeee  that  is  suft  when  in  thu  propur  cutidition 
for  consumption,  either  from  the  water  remaining 
in  it  or  from  the  action  of  ripening  agents ;  or,  to 
any  cheese  mado  from  soft  or  unheated  curd  and 
put  together  without  pressure. 

Most  variptifts  of  soft  chfese  consist,  in  the 
freshly  made  condition,  of  ■lii  |ier  cent  nr  more  of 
water,  with  the  remaindLT  variously  divided  into 
fat,  proleid  and  a.sh.  Mure  characteriHtic  Htill  for 
the  ripened  cheeses  is  the  complutouL^ss  of  the 
breaking  down  or  digei^tinn  of  the  proteids  {casein 
and  the  like),  brought  ahfmt  by  the  agents  of  their 
ripening.  The  nitrogenous  t.M>nstituents  af  the 
fully  ri[>e  soft  choexes  are  highly  Muluble  in  water; 
i.  e.,  a  well-marked  digestion  of  the  cajvin  baa 
taken  place.  They  may  bo  designateii  us  priMli^fstoii. 
On  the  other  hand,  mast,  if  not  all,  bard  c1i>uuslu( 
contain,  even  when  fn-shly  pressed,  less  than  40 
per  cent  of  water,  and  undergo  in  ripening  much 
less  complete  rligestion  of  the  pmteid. 

Some  varielieit  might  be  claiweil  as  either  ban] 
or  Buft  chouMtK.  Ro«}Uef<krt,  fur  esamjde,  when 
ripe  shown  the  water  couU-nt  and  fl»lii|ity  uf  many 
tnie  hard  cheeses,  but  ita  making  und  the  com- 
pleteness of  its  ripening  process  sIldw  it  mon:) 
truly  a  soft  cheese.  Gorgonzola  and  Stilton  are 
closely  allied  to  Roquefort,  whereas  Brick  and 
Limburger,  with  the  texture  and,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  rifiening  of  aeft  ch^ntiesi,  aro  allied  by  their 
making  procetts  to  the  hard  cfaeoses. 

Htmu  ekeeif-mnki  Jig. 

Soft  che»!su- making  in  America,  as  a  factory 
industry,  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  although 
home  cheese-making  has  been  ami  still  is  widely 


practiced.  The  kind«  of  soft  cheese  made  in  tb* 
homes  are  as  various  as  the  sourc«s  of  oar  won- 
derfully mixed  population.  The  common  Cottage 
cheese,  under  its  various  names,  ia  a  well-known 
article  of  family  use  in  dairy  regions.  In  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  persons  of  different 
atock  vary  the  making  proeeBS  widely,  however, 
and  have  introduced  their  national  varieties  of 
home-made  cheeae.  With  comparatively  few  excerp- 
tions, thu  home  manufacture  of  soft  cheeses  hardly 
affects  even  the  local  markets  except  as  it  forms 
the  foundation  of  a  demand  for  the  imported  or 
the  factory  product. 

IrnjMirlatian. 

The  imjiortationof  the  European  varieties  of  soft 
cheH&e  has  lnjtin  largely  a  growth  of  the  last  gene- 
ration. Even  80,  the  growth  of  thia  trade  baa  been 
limited  to  a  comparatively  few  choice  variuties, 
aUhough  numerous  varieties  are  Imported  in  small 
amounts.  Of  these  cheeses,  the  Roquefort  has  now 
Iwcome  familiar  in  all  our  larger  markets,  and  is 
not  uncommon  in  the  botelR  and  grocery  storea 
even  of  our  smaller  cities.  Camembert  is  widely 
used  in  the  larger  citieui,  but  is  almost  unknown  in 
tht!  Bmaller  cities.  Gorgonzola  reaches  the  largo 
citic\d  and  those  places  where  a  spocial  Italian  trade 
demands  its  importation.  EnglLsh  Stilton  can  be 
found  in  a  very  few  markpts.  Of  the  remaining 
Frent'h  cheeses.  Port  du  Siilut,  Pont  L'Rvpcjue,  Ftrie 
and  Cuulummier  aru  importitd  in  a  small  way  to 
New  York  city.  Kiirwegian  Gammi'lo^t  i*  rarely 
found.  Of  the  German  forms,  Limburgor  and 
Mun^tor  aro  well-known  in  the  Ameriean  m&rket, 
although  the  import:ed  forms  of  lioth  are  largely 
displaced  by  the  domentic  product.  Of  the  multi- 
tude flf  varietii'S  of  soft  cheese  found  in  the  Euro- 
pean markets,  only  a  small  jHtrcentai^,  therefore, 
reaches  America,  and  even  of  those  hut  two  or 
thrive  constitute  the  larger  part  of  the  entire 
importation. 

The  total  importation  of  cheese  given  for  the 
year  1906  (Yearbook,  United  Stat*'p  Oepartment  of 
Agriculture,  19fK),  p.  670)  was  27,2Si(i,)^W  pounds, 
invoiced  at  prices  averaging  fiftt'en  and  three- 
fourth  cents  per  pound.  Of  this  li>tal.  not  moro 
than  one-fourth  can  bo  given  as  soft  cheese-  Com- 
parison of  this  with  our  exportation  of  lti.5(32.'i51 
[iounds  of  cheese,  at  prices  averaging  eleven  and 
three-fnurths  cents  per  pound,  shows  the  disparity 
of  market  values  Iwtween  the  higher-priced  Euro- 
pean checKes  and  the  American  hard  cheese,  our 
tmly  export  article. 

.■in  imjHirtant  barrier  to  the  increase  of  trade  in 
impurltid  soft  cheeses  is  the  very  perishable  nature 
of  the  choicer  varieties.  Many  of  these  cannot 
bo  imported  at  all  unless  shipped  unripe  to  with- 
stand the  conditions  of  transportation,  and  consB- 
i^nently  the  ripening  ia  otlan  abnnrmally  completed. 
Traile  Blandanls,  therefore,  are  diltieult  to  establish, 
ainCH  products  from  ei]ually  reliable  makers  or  even 
from  thip  same  maker  often  differ  very  greatly.  In 
spite  of  these  difBcuUies,  however,  the  trade  in  the 
better  varieties  of  cheese  is  still  growing  rapidly. 

As  found  in  the  American  market,  the  vanona 


SOFT  CHEESliS   IN   AMERICA 


221 


types*  of  soft  chet'se  may  he  separately  diacoBBed. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  only  the  ripened  varietiea  iif 
soft  cheeHe  nr?  actimlly  imported,  anil  uf  t\vxe  only 
the  best.  Thene  few  vark'ties  have  BO  efltablishatl 
their  reputation  thiit  a  ruview  of  the  markets  of 
suireral  countries  of  t)arope  Hbows  the  same  choeae 
commandinK  the  hiijher  prices  in  each  markc-t 
examinoij.  (Uniteii  State*  I'epartmtint  of  Agricul- 
tare.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Report,  1&I}5,  p. 
IDS). 

Oieeta  alwayx  tattn.  frtfh. 

Tho  Mft  cheeHtfd  that  are  eaten  fresh  are  entirely 
of  domestic  make.  Afth'->ii;rh  ap^^arinR  under  vari- 
ona  trade  names,  thorc  arethrct  ty[K!3  already  com- 
mon, namely:  Cottage  cheese, domestic  ANoufchitcl, 
and  Cream. 

CoUagr  fhrntr. —  Of  these,  Cnttape  cheeae  ia 
largely  a  home  product.  As  a  home  product.  Cot- 
tage  cheei*«  Is  made  from  milk  curdled  by  natural 
soariitfc.  th«t)  skimmed,  heated  to  expel  the  whey, 
strainMi  by  banging  in  clothii,  and  salted  to  taste 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  cream  or  butter. 
Some  makers  add  caraway  se^d,  aniiw,  or  other 
flaror.  The  variation."*  are  as  niim&ronft  aa  the 
places  of  making.  In  the  factories,  large  amoTrntfi 
of  Cottage  cheese  are  made  by  curdling  separated 
milk  with  rennet.  Thi.-)  skimmed  milk  curd  is  then 
drained  in  cloth.-*,  packed  and  shipped  to  the  general 
market,  where  it  is  wo^rked  over  and  sold  in  various 
styles  of  fancy  packaces  nnder  trade  namts,  often 
ag  NVufchStel.  At  best,  the  trade  in  Cottage  cheese 
has  never  been  more  than  as  a  by-prod^ict  of  other 
dairy  work.  Its  possibilities  have  scarcely  be«n 
touched  as  yet.  It  i^  also  known  as  Dutch  cheese, 
Bcbmierkafie,  and  pot  cheeHe. 

Domegiic  XcufchiStei.  -On  the  other  hand.  Neuf- 
<;h3t«>l  and  Cream  constitute  a  really  profitable 
industry  of  considerable  magnitude  in  the  st.-itt'B  of 
Vennorit.  New  York.  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa, 
and  io  paria  of  Illinois.  The  use  and  manufacture 
of  these  varieties  of  cheese  is  spreading  over  wide 
areas  in  the  northern  states  and  Canada.  New 
York  produced  nearly  2,000,000  pounds  of  Neuf- 
chflte!  in  1906. 

As  these  cheesea  appear  in  the  marki^t,  Keuf- 
cbatel  ia  foond  in  rectangular  packagi-s  wrnpfXMl 
in  paper  and  tinfoil.  Thagti  weigh  abuut  tiiree 
OOBCM  and  retail  at  fire  cents  each,  as  a  rule.  The 
cbeeMA  of  different  brands  differ  greatly  in  com- 
positioQ;  no  standan)  proportions  are  recognixed 
for  wat«r,  fat,  and  protein,  although  they  commonly 
coataio  about  50  per  cent  of  watt^r.  Xenfchatel  is 
always  a  factory  product,  depending  for  its  accept- 
ability on  the  attractivenL-ss  of  tho  package  and 
the  flmo<ithreM  ami  palatability  of  tha  cheese  itself. 

In  the  m-iking.  milk  of  varying  fat  tost  is  curdled 
in  several  hours  with  a  very  small  amount  of  ren- 
net. The  n-sultiriig  granular  cord  is  strained  in 
cloths,  cooled  to  avoid  losii  of  f.tt,  preiwed,  anil 
finally  molded  by  machinery  to  pniduce  an  excej^- 
tionalty  smooth  texture  in  the  package.  European 
Neufch3t«l  is  a  different  piroduct,  and  is  not 
imported. 

C'rAini.— Cream  cheeses  are  produced  in  exactly 


the  same  manner  aa  NeufchStel,  except  that  a 
larger  amnunt  of  hutter-fat  is  usually  incorporated 
in  the  chee-se.  The  better  grades  teat  3o  per  cent 
of  fat,  or  more,  although  liranda  ditfer  so  widely 
that  some  makes  of  Xeufchalt^l  are  su{H>rior  to  the 
Iroorer  gradw  of  "Cream"  chwMc.  Crtjum  che«ees 
may  be  wrapped  in  paper  and  tinfoil,  making  square 
package,  or  in  many  Qosee  moldt-d  t-o  fit  white  jars 
closed  by  sealed  covers,  I'ackages  of  four  ounces 
sell  at  ten  cents,  making  the  common  price  per 
pound  forty  cents  or  mure.  The  trade  in  NeufchStel 
and  Cn>Hm  cheeses  ha-H  been  limit^'d  to  the  cooler 
months  of  tlio  year.  It  is  gradually  enlarging  to 
become  one  of  the  most  profitable  of  dairy  manu- 
factures. With  it«  largo  yield  of  cheeae  from  one 
hundred  pounds  of  milk,  at  good  prices,  great 
increase  m  such  manufacture  may  be  expected  in 
the  fature.  Such  extension  will  depend  largely  on 
the  multiplication  of  cold-«torage  facilities  in  the 
retail  tra<te.  which  will  make  handling  the  product 
safe  and  profitable  for  a  longer  part  of  the  ye«r. 

liifieneJ  ehee»e$  containing  green  mdd. 

fio^weforf. —Roquefort  cheese  ia  imported  from 
Franco.  It  is  made  from  sheep's  milk,  with  at  times 
slight  admixtures  of  goat's  milk  or  cow's  mitk. 
This  cheese  is  about  eight  inches  in  diameter 
and  three  inches  thick,  and  weighs  about  five  and 
one-holf  pounds.  The  ripe  cheese  presents  a  clean, 
white  surface,  but  when  cut  ia  found  to  have  an 
open  texture  with  all  its  numerous  air-«paces  lined 
with  green  mold  {I'mieiiiium  ro<iurfor(i,  Thom), 
giving  the  cot  surface  a  marbled  appearance. 
.Associated  with  this  marbling  is  the  peculiar 
piquant  flavor  due  to  the  mold.  It  is  to  this  ripening 
and  itA  unequaled  flavor  th.it  Roquefort  owes  its 
preeminence  as  the  fceet  known  of  all  varietiea  of 
ripened  cheese. 

The  industry  centers  in  the  department  of  Avey- 
ron  in  southern  Franco,  and  extends  over  an  irregu- 
larly defined  district,  perhaps  one  hundred  milef  in 
diameter,  reaching  to  the  island  of  Corsica.  From 
time  immemorial  the  cheeses  produced  on  the  farm 
have  been  taktun  to  the  village  of  Roquefort,  and 
ripened  in  caves  which  extend  far  into  the  rocky 
cliff,  along  whose  sides  cluster  the  dwellings  and 
shops  of  the  workers.  In  the  past  century,  how- 
ever, the  industry  has  been  thoroughly  organised, 
so  that  at  present  a  few  companies  control  the 
larger  part  of  the  factories  and  all  of  the  caves 
used  in  ripening  the  cheeiie.  So  complete  has 
been  this  organization,  and  so  thorough  the  study 
of  methtKls  of  making  and  riponing,  that  the  chtH'-so 
bearing  the  name  of  Roquefort  has  earned  the 
highest  reputation  for  unifonnily  in  quality  where- 
ever  it  is  known. 

"In  tho  making  of  Roquefort  cheese  tho  milk  is 
curdled  at  24°  to  28^  C,  in  one  and  ono-half  to  two 
hours.  Thecord  is  cut  with  curd  knives  into  lumps 
the  size  of  a  walnut.  After  the  whey  has  partially 
Keparattnl.  the  curd  is  pmptleil  into  vejwels  coverwl 
with  cloth  to  hapten  tb«  draining,  where  it  is 
ahovolud  over  to  equalize  the  cooling  and  draining. 
After  the  whey  is  removed,  the  hoops  are  fiUeil  with 
the  curd  and  allowed  to  drain  with  absolutely  no 


■ 


222 


SOFT   CHEESES    IN    AMERICA 


preMure.  While  the  curd  is  fcoing  into  the  hocjpfl 
it  is  wtfll  j^prinklHi]  with  Rpor»s  from  a  powdi^red 
bread  cultun^^  of  Hit;  RiK^tieftrrt  PeniciUiam.  Thi»  i^ 
dono  with  an  instrumont  rf-wmlilinp  a  jifiiiwr-box, 
at  tho  rat«  of  Um  firama  uf  Im^rui  U)  ftlxmt  Qa& 
hundred  kiloKrania  of  cheasu  cunl.  Such  a 
cheese  is  tiivTiud  thrt-e  tintes  daring  tlm 
draining  process  on  th>e  same  day.  In  thrLii; 
to  live  days  the  cheeceft  are  &afficiontly  hard 
to  be  bandied  fn^ely.  On  ihetts  daye  the 
cheesuA  aru  lurnwl  thr^n  timeit  each  d»y, 
and  Ihtj  haufM  wa»h»il  oni^e  a  day.  Thu 
chccfios  may  now  ^o  at  one*?,  but  aru  com- 
monly allowed  to  accumulaty  a  fuw  days, 
juid  are  thon  crated  and  carted  or  shipped 
to  Rnqnefort. 

"In  the  eavea  the  cheeses  are  salted  at 
leaut  twice  with  a  coarse  hiLrd-gmitied  salt. 
In  this  p^O(^(>)w  Lht^y  are  lirst  Hidted  iin  iinc 
sidt' and  then  laid  in  piles  of  thns;  for  the 
salt  to  diffuse  into  thu  chuosc.  At  the  secunO 
salting  the  other  side  receives  tho  milt.  They 
are  allowed  to  drain  some  time  after  salt- 
ing. After  the  surface  has  dried  sniimewhat, 
thuy  liPB  run  through  a  bnjRhing  machine, 
which  leavtis  a  cloan  surface.  They  then  go 
through  thti  prickle  machine.  Tbij4  maishiiie  haa 
a  disc  flet  with  UtriK,  parallel,  neeiEle-like  spikes, 
which  make  numerous  holes  through  the  cheese  to 
let  in  the  air  for  the  growth  of  mold. 

"  Rofiuefort.  cheese  when  a  few  days  old  is  hard 
enough  to  stand  handling  and  tranapiirtalion.  In  the 
salting  prociiaji  the  cheesea  remain  in  piUw  of  thnss 
without  support  and  without  change  of  funn.  In 
aeclion,  as  far  as  determim^d,  theyMhow  air  Bpuces: 
that  is,  tho  pieces  of  curd  uri^  not  cumpletely 
welded  together  by  the  treatment  while  making, 
When  the  cheeses  drain,  these  spaces  are  left  as 
the  whey  runs  out»  and  the  cheese  is  thus  from  the 
lirst  specially  suitable  for  the  entrance  and  gruwth 
of  mold.  It  may  he  n»te<I  here  that  thesi>  lart(e 
firms  employ  trained  men  and  forniah  them  well- 
oquipped  laboratories  to  study  the  technical  pha.-H's 
of  the  work. 

"  When  the  chee.'^ea  are  ready  for  ripeninn,  they 
may  be  sent  to  the  caves  at  once  or  he  put  into 
refrigerators.  If  the  fhee.se»  are  intended  for  the 
tmmediata  market,  they  go  at  once  to  the  caves  ; 
but  if  they  are  to  be  held  for  ths  sieiisfjn  when  no 
chcatcf  ift  made,  they  ure  sent  to  the  refrigerator. 
In  the  Utter  case  the  cheesi'M  are  wrapped  closely 
in  tinfoil  and  carrieil  into  great  stonigo-rooms, 
where  the  refrigerating  machines  run  constantly 
to  mjiintain  a  temperatare  of  about  3°  or  4°  C. 
The  makers  declare  that  a  cheew  may  he  kept  in 
this  way  for  five  months  with  very  little  ripening. 
This  does  not  entirely  sU'p  alt  changes,  but  the 
ohanjjres  are  at  lea^tt  very  much  retarded.  When 
DMdeii  to  All  the  demand,  the  cheeses  are  taken 
from  the  refrigerator,  the  tinfoil  is  removetl,  am) 
they  are  placed  in  th«  ciivt>g. 

"  In  the  cave  the  cheeses  stand  on  edge  on  the 
shelves.  They  are  there  exposed  to  a  moist  atmoa* 
phere  at  a  temperature  of  15^  C,  or  lowt^r  in  iiome 
cues.   Here  the  development  of  flavor  takes  place. 


In  80  moist  an  atmosphere  there  is  ver)-  little  dry- 
ing, hilt  tho  cheene  becomes  heavily  coaled  with  a 
yellowish  or  reddish  slime,  which  is  probahly  muntly 
bacteria  and  Oidittm  lactif.  No  development  of 
other  surface    mold.s    is  allowed.    The   surfact!    is 


r^sTj^c^a 


■-i-i 


Flu.  ZM.    Ifl«4  v«U  In  StiltOD  ctiecM  Uctoty.     KiiKlRnil 

scraped  once  or  twice  while  the  che«80  is  in  the 
cave.  A  cheese  coming  from  cold  storage  will  sbow 
flavor  in  three  to  four  weeks.  It  is  then  scraped 
cioan,  wrapped  again  in  tinfoil,  and  sold."  (Charles 
Thorn,  Soft  Chei'se  Studies  in  Kurope,  V.  S.  Depl. 
Agric,  Hiireaii  of  .-Vnimal  Indui^lry,  190.5.) 

.\lih<iugh  some  experimental  wurk  has  been  done 
im  the  making  of  this  genoral  type  of  cheese  (by 
the  Dairy  Division.  I'niled  States  Department  of 
Ai^ricuituro  and  theStorrs  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  at  Storrs,  Conn.),  no  Roquefort  is  at  pres- 
ent known  to  be  produced  for  sale  in  America. 
Certain  brands  of  potted  chee.se,  b*lieleil  Rotpiefort, 
have  l:een  prepare<l  and  widely  ^uld,  and  resemble 
the  imported  cheese  closely  in  llavor. 

GoTtjtmzola. — flnrgonzola  is  a  cow's  milk  choose 
imported  in  large  aToounts  from  northern  Italy. 
The  name  comes  from  the  village  of  Corgonsola, 
but  little  or  no  cheese  of  this  kind  is  now  made 
there.  Corgonxota  cheese-making  is  spread  over  a 
wide  area  extending  from  the  neighlmrhood  of 
Milan  to  the  pasture  reginns  of  the  Italian  .Mpn. 

The  chee-ses  are  alwut  twelve  inclies  (SO  cm.)  in 
diameter  by  six  to  seven  inches  (18  cm.)  in  thick- 
ness, and  weigh  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  (7-10  k.). 
Before  they  are  sent  to  the  markut  these  cheesea 
are  painted  to  form  a  hard  crust  of  a  rx-d-colored 
substance  (said  to  be  barito  and  tallow)  which 
prevents  evaporation  in  shipment.  When  cut,  a 
cheese  of  this  kind  is  rather  tirm  and  cli»e  in  tex- 
ture, streaked  or  marbled  with  grepn  mold  which 
follows  the  botes  made  by  a  punching  inntrument 
and  such  natural  openings  a»  remain  in  tho  curd 
itself.  In  flavor,  Gorgonwla  at  its  best  very  nearly 
equals  Roquefort  and  resembles  it  closely,  but  lacks 
that  friable  buttery  tetture  which  distinguishe-s 
Roquefort.  It  is  not  so  cartfally  made,  nor  so 
uniformly  ripened,  bat  is  commonly  of  very  uneven 
texture  and  often  shows  areas  of  raarkej  injury 
from  bacteria. 


SOFT  CHEBiSES  IN   AMERICA 


223 


Deaeriptii)nB  of  CMrgnmola  chi^ea&-makmg  differ 
widely  SB  ^^ivea  bj-  ilillt-ri-iit  authuritiua.  Tlie 
industry  i&  out  clo&vly  ortinnltM  t>uL  rathor,  iii 
largo  111631801%,  folliiwB  loenl  praclices  hanilttl  down 
for  generations.  All  nf^ec  thatwholti  milk  is  utied. 
is  curdled  with  natural  rennet,  that  the  curd  ia 
cat,  thoroughly  drained,  nnd  dipped  into  himpa 
where  it  drains  witfaoul  iiressure.  After  severHJ 
days  draining;,  during:  which  the  chBeweti  are  turned 
each  day  in  the  lioops,  Ihi^y  are  taken  out  and 
rubbed  with  salt  on  alternate  duya  for  about  two 
weeks.  They  aro  then  carted  or  shipped  to  tho 
ripening  eBtablishments  built  in  the  cool  vallevH  n{ 
the  Alp^,  many  of  them  near  Lectco.  In  the^e 
buildinj^B,  the  cheeseji  are  rt[iened  fur  a  period  of 
thraa  or  four  inontb&  While  on  tlm  t^helvtw,  nrndi 
eheesea  aro   turned    rL-ix-ati'dly  during  the  early 

stsKOof  ripeninK- 
At  the  end  of  the 
firet  month,  they 
are  piiniched  with 
an  aw  I- 1  ike  in- 
strument several 
inchea  in  lenjcth, 
so  that  holea  reach 
every  part  of  the 
cheese  and  allow 
the  green  mold  t<i 
enter.  ThecheeaeH 
are  not  inoculated 
with  mold,  but  Iho 
mold  finds  its  way 
inl-o  the  cheese 
after  the  punch- 
ing ha^  t>ei.'ndi>ne. 
When  ready  for  the  markt^l  the  chePHea  utv  jminteil 
OTer  twice  to  cover  tliem  tliorou),;hly  with  a  hiin] 
crust,  and  shipped. 

.SViVMn.— Stilton  cheese  is  mado  from  cow'g  milk 
in  the  midland  counties  of  England.  The 
curd  is  cut,  drained  thoroughly  nnd  then 
soured  over  night.  The  smir  cnrd  ia  kneaded 
with  the  hands,  salted,  put  in  hcHip^i  lifteen 
inches  hi}{h  and  aeven  incheu  in  diameter, 
and  allowed  tu  drain  wilhout  presiture. 
Several  days  are  necessary  for  a  otieeae  to 
mane  a  Brm  enonKh  texture  to  be  taken 
from  the  hoop,  rubbed,  wrapped  with  a 
cloth  and  placed  on  the  shelf  tu  ripen. 
The  ripening  peri«d  is  four  to  six  months, 
during  which  time  more  or  less  constant 
care  \s  neeeKwary.    tFIgs,  '^iO-'Jii'd.t 

A  ripe  ytil ton  has  a  heavy  rind,  commonly 
infe«t*d  withchee»e-mit*.-»  fnr  the  outer  one- 
half  inch.  As  brf^oglit  t*i  .America  this  rind 
is  Qsoalty  carefully  trimmed  off  and  the 
clwese  paintnJ  over  with  a  grejwy,  red  or 
yellow }in)»tance.  When  cut.aStilton  Hhoutd 
■how  streaks  and  settms  filled  with  green 
mold  (K^Ntuefort  mold);  it  Is  uHually  of 
rath*T  lirm  tcxtuiv,  and,  at  it*(  beat,  com- 
pares favorably  with  Koqucfort  and  Gorgonzola  in 
flavor. 

Stilton  cheese-making  c^'nters  in  the  regions 
about  Leicester  and    Mt^Itnn -Mowbray,  and  con- 


Plf.  231.    stutoa  CHeCM, 


tinuBS  from  April  firt^t  to  October  ^rst.  Although 
Slilton  has  been  produced  in  Cunada  to  tiomv  extent, 
little  practical  succciss  has  been  made  with  it  in 
America.  Except  as  satisfying  special  demands, 
littlo  Stilton  reaches  America.  It  is  obtainable, 
however,  in  the  larger  marketts,  especially  of  the 
Atlantic  states.  Stilton  in  largely  excluded  from 
the  general  market  btM-autw  it  is  generally  inferior 
in  tiuality  tu  Rrnjuefort  ami  Qorgonzola,  although 
sold  at  the  same  or  higher  prices. 

GamtRdoff, — GammeUist,  the  M  eheesf  of  Norway 
and  Sweden,  is  imported  in  small  quantities  by 
dealem  with  a  largo  Scandinnviiin  patronage.  It  is 
a  dry,  hnni,  crumiding  [rheene,  strenkeil  and  discol- 
ored with  ma»-tt!S  of  molil.  Tlie  whol**  ma^  is  mure 
fully  penetrated  by  Wiveral  npeeie«  of  mold  tlwn 
other  types  of  mold-ri|K'ned  cheese,  making  a  i>rud- 
uet  much  loss  attractive  to  the  gent-ral  consumer, 
[n^ome  cases,  che«»e-mile8  were  also  found  through- 
out the  cheese.  .Am^ing  these  agents,  the  I{«»i{nefort 
cheese  mtdd  in  common, 

.'\mong  other  tyjies  of  chram!  containing  green 
mold,  Kunie  Hungarian  Brinse  (Brindse  or  Brimde) 
ia  imported,  but  thus  far  only  in  small  amounts. 

Chf^xrj  with  i)u4'iit  rind  mdy. 

CamemlMTt  and  Urif.  —  Ot  the  imported  soft 
cheese.%  <_'amembert  \s  second  in  popularity  only  to 
Roiiuefort.  In  le^w  than  twenty  years  the  annual 
iinport.Htion  hsis  risen  from  6(1,000,  in  1890,  Uj  over 
:i,Ot»0.tH»0  in  1905-6.  Since  IIKK).  famembert  has 
been  produced  succeasfully  in  New  York  stale,  firet 
by  a  single  I-Vench  factory,  and  more  recently  by 
others.  The  pmsent  production  may  be  estimated 
at  little  Ws  than  1,000,000  per  year.  The  nearly 
related  French  Brie  was  intnxluced  by  the  same 
factory,  and  has  Ibeen  made  sueceSBfuIly  by  them. 
4*^  closely  rtimilar  are  these  cheeaes  that,  aside  from 
their    roeotiurements,   the    same  d^.'^cription   will 


/, 


'  t9mun0x^jr 


A 

I 

Fif.  lit,    lauoix  ol  ^uilaa  cDccM  cuLlaii>ioum. 

an.Hwer  for  both,  although   produced   by  slightly 
different  making  proce.'we.i. 

Camembprt  chee.-it'rt   are    mad«    in   two  aiaee : 
("ami-mbert,  four  and  one-fourth  inchesUO-ll  cm.) 


224 


SOFT  CHKESES  IN   AMERICA 


in  diameter,  and  half-Camcmbort,  aboat  three 
inchea  (7.5  cm.)  in  diameter ;  botb  nires  about  one 
ami  one-fourth  inch  in  thicknetu.  Bn«  x»  usually 
Bliirhtly  thinner  than  OirnctntKart  bat  lar^or  in 
diiinn;U'r,  lx-in|t  madt  in  »ev*;ral  sizea  from  nice  to 
eiRhteen  inchea.  Each  Caracrabert  cheese  ts  always 
6nc]oH<.-(l  in  a  cloim^IUtinK  wooden  box  to  protect 
tho  ript'netl  cheeso  during  shijiment. 

"  The  cheeMe«  of  this  gn>a\>  are mijierfic tally  recoj?- 
niaed  hy  thtjir  moldy  rind.  In  the  earlier  stagen  of 
ripening  thin  ifl  vrhitti.  cottony  with  the  mycelium 
of  a  *iiist:ii.!*  of  Pt'DJcilliam  H'enleiliium  camcmlierti, 
Thom>.  At  the  end  of  one  or  two  wueks  the  color 
bocomt«  a  gray -green  from  tho  ripening  of  the 
fungiu<)<pnrv«.  Pnitiuently  whole  chetstes  are  fairly 
uniformly  covered  with  thist  mold  in  a  few  dayn. 
After  the  firat  two  ww^kn  the  mold  ceaw*  to  gmw 
actively  on  the  Burface.  Thw  dedicate  fliirons 
mycelium  ia  largely  tern  away  later  by  the  hauil- 
ling  of  the  cheirse  in  the  ct^llar.  Thu  |>lac*«  bo 
exposed  become  «ont«ra  for  rich  developments  of 
bacteria  and  Ouliam  laelit  in  reddish-brown  areas, 
which  sometimes  entirely  cover  and  obtiU'rate  the 
penicillium.  The  rind  may  then  vary  from  a  Burface 
i;4imparativt!ly  dry,  molily  and  Kray,  through  every 
slaKe  to  entintly  viHcid,  i^Hmy  and  red  or  reiMiKh- 
yellow,  with  Bcarcelv  a  visihlw  trace  of  mold. 
Intcraftlly,  at  first,  tiie  cheese  should  be  a  fairly 
firm,  homogeneoui^  ma^  of  curd  soured  in  one  or 
two  days  hy  lactic  organisms ;  then  a  digestion 
and  softening  of  this  curd,  heginning  junt  under 
the  rind,  nh'Tiuld  gradually  prngreRR  inward  until 
the  entire  miuw<  Ik  changt^d.  The  extent  of  thin 
change  is  readily  visible,  sii  that  in  a  cut  chi>iwe 
the  exact  stage  of  rijienitig  i«  at  once  apparent. 
The  texture  of  the  resulting  ri[H!  cheese  varies 
exceedingly  with  the  conditions.  In  certain  brands 
of  Caraembert  imported  to  America,  wrapped  In 
tinfoil,  the  interior,  when  rijte,  in  no  mft  lhn,twhen 
cut  the  entire  nia«M  HnwH  out  of  the  rind  &n  a 
lit^uid.  In  other  brandy  and,  ao  far  att  seen,  tmj- 
versally  in  France,  the  che««e  i«  »i  ri[»eiH'd  that 
the  texture  is  waxy  or  buttery  soft,  to  be  i^prend 
easily  on  bread  with  a  knife,  but  solid  enough  never 
tn  'run.'  nerer  liquid.  The  very  soft  brands  nearly 
always  have  very  high  flavor,  even  sharp  and 
biting.  The  waxy  brands  are  much  milder,  not  tin 
intense,  and  with  less  oilor."  (U.  S.  l)wpL  Agric, 
Re{)ort  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Intl.,  1906,  p.  K2.) 

in  Cunerabert  cbeese-making,  a  very  firm  cunt  It 
sooQred  froin  cow's  milk  in  one  and  one-half  hours. 
The  hoops,  four  and  one-foorth  inches  in  diameter 
ami  five  inches  in  height,  are  set  closely  on  mats 
covering  the  draining  Ubleft.  The  cun)  in  dipjiecl 
into  the  boo[)e  with  brng-handte^l  dippers.  The 
KreatMt  enre  is  taken  to  htvak.  thi;  cunl  as  little 
u  possible.  Two  quarts  of  curd  are  reiiuiml  Ui 
nil  each  hoop,  making  nearly  one-hidf  pound  of 
frwh  cbeeiw.  Checaw  n  made  are  alkved  to  drain 
very  slowly  without  pravmre.  WTien  sufficiently 
firm  to  handle,  they  are  salt«l  by  sprinkling  them 
with,  or  ndling  them  in,  coarse  salt,  allowei]  to 
drain  once  more,  then  placed  in  the  rii>eRinx-r(ii)m, 
where  they  obtain  their  moWy  rind.  This  mold  may 
be  inoculated  on  the  cheeee  by  the  maker,  or,  in  the 


presence  of  many  woll-molded  chocsea,  will  propa- 
gate itself  with  ample  rapidity  to  accompliab  tho 
same  end.  The  ripening-rooma  are  b«st  maintained 
at  a  temperature  of  r>l^  to  TiS"  Fahr..  with  fairly 
moist  atmosphere.  Placed  on  shelve*  in  such  a  room 
and  turned  repeatedly,  such  cheeses  should  rip<-n  in 
four  to  six  weeks,  according  to  the  temperature 
and  the  water-content  of  the  cheese. 

Camembert  cheeae-making  in  France  is  practiced 
throughout  the  rugitm  of  Normandy  from  Caen  to 
Rouen,  and  in  many  piaces  east  of  Paris,    i^me 
Caraembert   is  alsu  made   in    [lartji  of  Oerniany. , 
Whole  milk,  or  milk  from  which  less  than  one-half  | 
per  cent  of  fat  has  been  removed,  is  used  for  this, 
cheese  in  France.    In  Germany,  skimmed  milk,  or 
partly  slfimmed  milk,  ia  used,  and  produces  a  much 
lower  grade  of  cheeae.   Some  German  Camembert 
is  imported  in  tiiui. 

Brk  cheese  is  ma<le  in  the  districts  east  of  Paris, 
Brie,  Seine  et  Marne,  and  elsewhere.  Roth  Brie  and 
Camembert  are  used  in  enormous  quantities  in 
France. 

Cou!ommi€T. —  Coulommier  is  closely  similar  to 
Camenilwrt  and  Brie  cheeses.  It  is  made  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Fra,nce,  nnrth  and  e-ast  of  Paris.  It  differs 
from  Camerotiert  in  the  larger  diumeter  of  the 
cheese  (between  Camembert  and  Brie  in  aixe)  and 
in  the  absence  of  salt.  It  has  been  imported  on  a 
very  small  scale  int«  Now  York  city  only. 

ChrtK  rijrned  mainly  ba  bntirria. 

Briei-ekteae  (John  W.  Docker). — Brick-cheese  ia 
maile  moatly  in  Wisconsin.  It  gets  its  name  from 
being  pressed  into  "bricks"  under  weight  of  one  or 
two  bricks.  \  Brick -cheese  weighs  6ve  or  si*' 
pounds.  It  is  made  from  sweet  milk,  coagulated  by 
rennet,  cut  with  curd  knives  and  heated  in  tho 
whey  to  firm  it.  The  temperature  to  which  it  is 
heat«d  depends  on  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  sincQ 
acid  ha:;tens  the  expulsion  of  the  whey.  Very . 
sweet  cuni  must  he  heatwl  to  118°  or  120'  Fahr., 
while  riper  cunis  can  be  finned  at  lower  tempera- 
tures. Brick -cheesi  should  be  made  from  curd 
showing  no  strings  on  the  hot  iron  before  pressing, 
but  enough  acid  for  firming  ejisily  is  desirable.  If 
it  feels  firm  when  sqnee-zed  in  the  hand,  nearly  all 
the  whey  is  drawn  off.  and  the  curd  ifl  dipped  into 
wiKHii'n  molds  plact^  f>n  a  draining-table.  Thews 
molds  are  r>xlO  inches  in  size,  and  without  bet- 1 
turns.  The  draining-table  is  covered  with  draining- 
buurds  with  holes  in  them,  and  they  are  rais(.tt  half 
of  an  inch  above  tho  table.  A  linen  strainer-cloth 
covers  these  boards.  The  wooden  molds  are  set ' 
rlns«  together  on  the  ctoLh.  The  rurd  is  fdled  into 
them,  and  the  whey  drains  out  white  the  curd  set- 1 
ties  together.  A  wu»d(>n  follower  is  placed  oo  top 
of  the  curd  and  a  brick  put  on  for  treigfat.  Tba 
cheese  is  pressed  in  this  way  for  twenty-four  boors, 
then  goes  to  the  salting-table  where  it  is  rubbed 
with  salt.  After  two  to  four  days  nf  salting  it  goes 
to  the  curing-cellar  where  it  is  nildted  and  washed 
and  turned  one  to  three  or  four  times  a  week.  Ak 
the  end  of  a  month  it  is  ready  to  ship.  Each  tirick  j 
is  wrapped  in  a  manila  paper  and  packed  in  a  boi 
holding  a  little  over  one  hundred  poods  of  ohoesa.j 


...... 

■  *... 


SOrr  CHEESES  IN  AMERICA 


je  cheese  is  miid  in  flavor  and  of  mtxlerately 
t'lowti'xture.  Tho  milk  from  which  it  is  made  must 
be  of  inequality,  Ui^  K^l>^J>'  rk<nnent.<itioiid  U'llI  s\ioU 
it.  It  id  easily  made  and  th^  t^rtuiftmijnt  nect-asary 
is  simple.  It  in  host  curt^l  in  <!fllar«  where  the 
temperature  and  muistun*  can  hv  ru^ulated. 

Limburger  chtfte  iJohn  W.  Decker)  Limbarcer 
cheese  is  made  much  like  Brick-theeae.  The  differ- 
ence is  in  the  extrii'mtly  moist  con*iitii>n«  in  which 
it  is  curwl,  and  which  cause  a  charact^riatic  fer- 
mentation. 

It  is  caa^latod  with  rennet,  the  curd  cut  as  in 
Brick-cheeA!,  but  the  firniiiii^  temperature  is  taw*ur, 
about  95-98"  Fahr.  The  curd  is  put  into  molds 
like  those  for  Brick-cheese,  which  are  5  x  20  inches. 
The  follower  and  brick  pressure  are  omitted.  When 
the  curd  has  settled  ti>^t-ther  into  a  solid  cake,  the 
mold  is  removed  and  xh&  cake  cut  into  four  Mocks 
five  inches  s<Lu:ire.  Thp«B  lilwks  are  thtn  removed 
to  a  drain ing-tabie,  wht-Te  each  two  cheeses  are 
seEiaratifl  by  vrotxlen  partitions  to  previ>nt  spread- 
ing. After  "draining  and  cooling  for  twenty-fonr 
hours,  the  blocks  are  i^alted,  as  is  l}rick*cheeae,  by 
rubbing,  on  several  different  dayn,  with  salt.  After 
saltinff,  the  blocks  are  remove*]  to  the  shelves, 
where  they  are  dipped  in  water  each  day  and  kept 
ttnder  Very  moiitt  conditions.  In  a  few  days  a  red- 
dish yellow  mold  iK'gins  to  grow  on  the  aurfaco, 
and  the  hard,  white  curd  softens  and  tarns  yellow. 
In  the  course  of  a  month  the  change  works  to  the 
Center  of  the  block.  Kacb  block  is  wrapi>ed  in 
manjla  paper  and  then  in  tinfoil,  and  jiacked  in  a 
box  fi  X  20  X  Hfl  inchu'S,  for  shippini^. 

Limburgiir  chuiise  is  popularly  known  by  its  odor, 
but  this  odor  is  not  prominent  in  tho  curing-celUr. 
The  odor  is  developed  by  higher  temperature-s. 
Limburger  cheese  is  largely  made  in  Wisconsin  by 
German  makers. 

Fromas*  ^  ^'"V/'*J/i  Fromagtde  Jirie  (domestic). — 
Kumeroua  factories  in  New  York,  Michigan,  Iowa 
and  Wisconsin  produce  a  ty]*  of  chtwse  variously 
labeled  as  Fromage  d'  Isigny,  or  Froniago  de  Brie, 
or  even  both  names  combined  on  a  single  label. 
Perhaps  the  name  "Isigny"  alone  would  liest  des- 
ii;:nate  this  style  of  chiiisp,  which  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  New  York  state  as  far  back  as  18G0. 
Although  bearing  the  name  of  a  French  town  and 
resembling  several  styles  of  Frwrich  cheese,  such  as 
Pont  r  Eveqiie  and  Livarot  especially.  Isigny  may  bo 
called  an  American  product  or  adaptation,  at  le.-ist. 

An  Isigny  cheese  bi  made  about  one  anil  one- 
foarth  inches  in  thickness  and  five  inches  in  diame- 
ter. Different  brands  vary  from  skimmed  milk  to 
whole  milk  cheese.  In  manufacture,  a  hard  curd 
ii  made,  as  for  Caraembert  cht-ese,  dippcnl  into 
hooM  about  ]ive  inches  in  height  and  permitte<l  to 
draui  without  pressure.  The  resulting  cheese  should 
conaist  of  smooth,  close-grained  runl.  It  is  rolled 
in  coarM  salt,  allowed  to  drain  and  then  placed  in  a 
ripening  room  or  ctdlar  at,  or  nearly  at,  fiO^  Fahr. 
In  this  cellar  the  che«se  is  washed  from  time  to 
time.  Colonies  of  mold  arc  scraped  from  the  .lur- 
face.  It  is  ripened  by  the  agency  of  various  spe- 
cies of  surface  bacteria  and  Oidium  lacti*,  which  is 
always  present  to  some  extent.    In  a  period  of 

cie 


three  to  five  weeks,  Isigny  becomes  partially  or 
sometimes  completely  softened,  almost  buttery, 
ac>]uiritig  at  the  same  time  a  pronounced  odor  and 
characteristic  strong  flavor.  Exactly  the  same 
process  has  been  uM  in  making  and  ripening  the 
cbL-esws  labL-lfd  Fnnnagt  de  Brie.  Tbese  arti  made 
merely  with  a  larger  diameter  and  are  often  colored 
more  deeply.  Practice  differs  indifferent  factories. 
One  brand  is  commonly  ripened  for  a  longer  time 
than  the  other.  Such  differences  as  appear  are  dif- 
ferences in  the  stage  of  riiiening  and  intensity  of 
flavors  produced,  not  in  tho  character  of  ripening 
or  flavor.  It  rnui^t  not  be  confounded  with  the 
French  Brie. 

The  same  cheese,  made  four  andono-fourth  inches 
in  diameter,  with  Jte  ripening  completed  in  little 
wowlen  boxes,  has  been  labeled  L'amc-mbert  in  cer- 
tain factories.  The  use  of  thw  names  Camemljert 
and  Brie  for  chtM^ses  of  this  type  is  unwarranted 
by  any  character  uxc«pt  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
package.  The  use  of  the  nanm  "d'laigny"  is  the 
arbitrary  appropriation  of  a  French  name  without 
signi  Seance. 

Exactly  the  same  cheeses  in  different  sites  and 
shapes  are  labeled  liiiifh,  miaiature,  and  other 
names. 

Unripeaed  hign;/. — In  addition  to  the  ripened 
Isigny,  there  is  a  large  trade  in  unripcncid  isigny. 
These  cheeses  are  commonly  made  from  separated, 
or  jKirtly  separated  milk,  curdled  and  drained  in 
the  same  way  as  the  other,  but  shipped  at  once  to 
the  m.irket.  .Such  products  are  said  to  go  mostly 
to  tha  .I«wi«h  trade,  wince  they  conform  to  the 
rwiuirements  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  are,  there- 
fore, "Kosher"  or  "clean."  They  combine  the 
cheapness  of  skimmed  milk  with  high  proteid  con- 
tent, hence  form  an  economical,  though  not  espec- 
ially attractive  form  of  nitrogenous  food. 

Port  da  Salut. —  Port  du  Saint  is  a  cow's  milk 
cheese,  imported  to  some  extent  from  N'ormandy. 
The  sanie  type  of  cheese  Is  made  by  the  Trappist 
Fathers,  near  Montreal,  with  much  succes.t. 

Port  du  .Salut  is  a  cheosc  of  smooth,  fairly  firm 
texture,  made  in  discs  one  and  one-half  to  two 
Inches  in  thickness  and  eight  to  twelve  inches  in 
diameter,  ripeni'Kl  with  a  thin,  yt-llowish  or  colored 
but  sjciooth  rind,  showing  Oidium  lactis  and  bacte- 
ria. With  the  same  odor  aa  d'Isigny,  it  has  a  mild 
flavor  that  is  much  praised  where  well  known. 

Foal  CFrfque  is  but  little  imported,  and  only 
to  Mew  York  city.  No  attempt  has  Ih^en  made  to 
introduce  its  making.  It  appears  as  cheeses  almost 
juiuare  (three  to  four  inch»«'t,  with  rounde<l  corners, 
and  one  inch  or  less  in  thickne«s.  The  milk  u.sed  in 
making  it  is  partly  skimmed  and  curdled  at  3-1^  to 
3fV  C.  The  curd  is  kneaded  with  the  hands  and  the 
cheeses  are  riiwned.  by  the  action  of  the  bacteria 
and  Oidium  /<ir/i>,  to  a  semi-solid,  smooth  texture 
and  very  fine  flavor.  .Such  varieties  offer  large 
possibilities  in  the  disposal  of  partly  skimmed  milk. 

German  brraij'ast  cft^fse*.— The  brands  of  ripened 
cheese  made  from  milk  which  is  partly  skimmed, 
or  even  separated,  are  multiplying.  Most  of  these 
bear  fHTman  names  and  appeal  to  communities  of 
German  deecent.  They  appear  in  nDmerooa  styles 


CREAMERIES  AND  SKIMUING  NATIONS 


of  packaf!:^,  ja  the  bismit-Hhapetl  ''hnnd"  cheeeeff, 
well-sprinkled  with  caraway  seetU,  which  resemble 
tbe  Hartz  Kaese  ;  the  disc-^haptMl  Sinrra  cheese ;  the 
rectan^tar  forniB,  Komatur  and  tViihstiick  Ksese, 
bearing  their  well-known  continental  names.  The 
different  makefi  vary  wWely  in  the  fat  test  of  the 
milk  used,  in  the  shape  and  ittyle  of  ^he  package, 


..^I 


■   ■  "if 


J.S.  (iirrni.  Aikon.  »- C  ) 

and  the  extent  of  ripening.  Their  ripening  is  due 
to  bacteria  and  ^->i>/iur7t  lafiu.  and  is  commonly 
»iwociat«d  with  strong  odors  resembling  Limburger. 
Except  the  German  communities,  especially  in  the 
larger  cities,  the  market  for  euch  chi-escs  haa  been 
etrictly  limited,  and  many  forms  of  them  are  made 
on  the  farm  for  purely  local  use. 

Ripentd  Collage  dtetft. — Among  the  flerman  com- 
nuoities  in  Pennsylvania,  a  ripened  Cottnge  cheese 
is  made  on  the  farm.  In  this  the  milk  \a  allowed 
to  curdle  by  souring,  is  thoroughly  drained,  then 
set  away  to  ripen  for  several  days,  and  atirrKj 
frequently.  When  ripened  to  taste,  the  vease!  is 
placed  in  boilingwaterandthecurd  melted.  Cream 
and  butter  are  added,  to  the  ta^te  of  the  maker. 
Some  cheeses  produced  in  thig  way  suggttii  Camem- 
bert  in  texture  and  liavor.  Although  this  may  be 
very  acceptable  for  home  use,  the  practice  does 
not  admit  of  factory  extension  without  practically 
changing  the  prodnct. 

Other  soft  chttsts. 

Other  varieties  and  brands  of  soft  chee«e,  as 
Lancaabire  and  Wenttleydale,  are  found  fn  the 
markets,  but  in  limited  amounU".  It  ftoema  prob- 
able that  with  the  standardization  resulting  from 
better  factory  organization  and  wider  general 
acquaintance  with  the  really  choice  varieties,  the 
number  of  kinds  of  soft  chvesa  mamafacturod 
will  nut  incrcafie  rapidly,  hut  the  lie«l  kinda 
will  be  better  made  and  hanrlltii.  A  critiral  re- 
view of  actual  products  indicat^^s  that  ainung  tht> 
hundreds  of  described  kinds  of  cheese  very  many 
are  little  more  than  local  trade  names  for  minor 
differeDces  of  manipulation,  or  merely  for  differen- 
ces in  aize  or  shape  of  package,  and  do  not  repre- 
sent real  differenc^a  in  the  product.  With  the 
enlargement  of  production  and  market,  trade  names 


will  mnltiply  en^Kedingly,  but  the  less  attractive 
styles  of  whole-roiik  chet«e  can  not  compt^te  with 
the  better  ones,  ^ueh  as  Rotjuefort,  Camembert, 
Doraeetie  Neafchatel  and  Cream.  A  greatly  in- 
creased market,  howevii^r,  may  be  anticipated  for 
the  better  grades  of  skimmcd-milk  cheese,  which 
are  a  source  of  pnrteid  food,  whofie  value  hitherto 
hax  Iteen  very  little  appreciated  in  America. 

Litrraiurt. 

In  addition  to  the  references  given  on  page  219, 
the  reader  »hiiutd  coiu;uIt  the  following :  Charlea 
Thorn,  Fungi  in  Cheei^  Ripening,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  BoUctin  No.  S2;  Charles  Thorn,  Soft 
Cheese  Studies  in  Europe,  samo.  Report,  1905. 
Current  dairy  textfi  may  also  be  consulted. 

CRE.-VMKK1I-:S  AND  SKIMMING  STATIONS 

By    //.    I.   Ayirs 

A  creamery  is  a  building  equipped  for  receiving 
and  skimming  milk,  ripening  and  churning  crenm, 
and  working  and  packing  or  printing  butter.  Tbe 
term  is  sometime^  applied  to  plants  which  sell  milk, 
cream,  butter,  baker's  ch^'se  and  Cottage  cheese. 
Gathe red-cream  creameries  nx-eive  and  manufacture 
the  cream  that  has  been  separated  on  the  farms. 

Imjnrianix  <^  \3iit  crtanurjf. 

The  creamery  ranks  high  in  tbe  agricnitural 
economy.  Sections  in  which  dairying  prevaiJa  are 
noticeable  for  their  prosperous  condition.  The 
manufacture  of  butter  is  centralized  by  tbe  cream- 
ery and  a  more  uniform  product  is  Mcared.  Each 
patron  has  the  record  of  the  amount  of  milk  pro- 
daced.  and  its  value  and  test,  thereby  stimulating 
competition  in  the  breeding  of  better  cattle  and 
tbe  production  of  more  and  richer  milk.  The  high- 
est prices  are  secured,  and  the  patrons  are  given 
their  money  regularly.  A  center  of  inlenwt  is  also 
formed  in  communii-ieft.   In  encc>uraging  and  enlarg- 


Kg.  234.    A  .-rtamrry  bniUlBiCfiiOatarb. 

ing  dairying,  the  fertility  of  the  farms  is  improved 
by  returning  to  the  land  much  of  the  product  of 
the  land  in  the  form  of  manure.  Consi<ler4ble 
money  ia  realized  by  fccKling  to  calves  and  pigs  the 
Kkimm(!d  milk  thitt  in  returned ;  authorities  place 
the  feeding-value  of  skimmed  milk  at  fifteen  to 
twent/'five  cents  per  hundred  pounds. 

Loeatmn  of  the  erratnery. 

To  insure  success,  a  creamery  needs  to  be  awured 
of  the  milk  of  at  least  three  hundred  cows.  The 


CREAMERIES  AND  SKIMMING  STATIONS 


ee' 


/S 


/♦ 


1 


io 


H 


Vic.  J}}.      Pleor  pUn  qI  a  -CtMnury.      1,  RpL-oliriiLU  i>lnir<>imi  'i,  TrelKlituit-raa  niiil 

•Fkl««;  3,  r«««ivlnc-Tftt  i  4,  in)lk  li(Mi»r  ftrnl  T'isrLt>i  ^.  H^pjtrtitori  6.  ii&tipurutri 

J.  crvBiK'Tsd  It,  c-iirnliliini  i-)ii]rii    ttml   Wirhfr;    D,   rcfrlgerktnr;   lU,  D-IBr^p^     II, 


boitdiiiK  should  he  placed  when?  it  wilt  be  cflnveni- 
«nt  for  the  largtwt  tiumlitT  of  patronB,  hnt.  if 
ncccBsary,  this  mjiy  lie  aacritkred  Tor  x\  iocation 
where  a  large  suppEy  uf  ]>ure  water — ut  least  thirty 
bairelrt  daily,  and  mtirt!  if  pi>Rsilile— untj  gntKl  ilrain- 
8K<?  can  he  f>tH.-uri>d.  lee  shouhl  altto  hv  secured 
readily,  unless  nif-ctiARicui  ryfriKcration  is  used. 
TTie  Ideal  waUr-siippIy  is  from  sprinp*  located 
BQfficiently  ahove  thp  creamery  to  firce  the  wiitpr 
through  the  building  without  pumping.  When  pro- 
tected af:ainsl  8iirfac<^  wali>r  and  iiLhtT  cuntarni- 
nation,  weljjt  are  salisfac- 
tury  if  the  supply  of  wfltor 
is  sufliciont.  A  sprinR- 
water  etrenm  also  fur- 
nishes pood  water  if  a  well 
or  reserviiir  ia  Hug  »  few 
feet  from  the  strpam  ao 
that  the  water  ia  fdtiTL'd 


Wel£hiii£-  or  rMdvl UK-CAD, 


in  paMinj;  thrna^h  the  soil,  and  the  water  pumfed 
from  this  reservoir. 

Draiaa^  may  be  into  a  stream,  on  a  Held,  or 
khroiigb  a  septic  tank.  If  a  neptic  tank  in  used, 
tbe  clear  water  may  be  dL'tofaareud  el^^wherc  and 
only  milky  wat«r  ron  into  the  tank.  Experimenta 
have  shown  that  the  tank  should  hold  ten  day's 
■ewage;  or  ten  small  tanks  might  better  b«  a.-<ed, 
nch  holding  a  day*^  sewage.  The  pun">''H'  of  the 
Kptie  tank  is  to  bold  the  ^ewnjce  nntii  fermenta- 
tion reduces  the  noInWe  part  of  the  solid  matter  to 
liquid  form.  This  is  accompiished  by  having  a 
double  tank.  The  first  tank  is  called  the  receinnj;- 
or  Bettling-tank,  When  the  sewage  in  it  rises  to 
the  height  of  the  outlet  connecting  with  the  second 
tank,  a  few  inches  of  the  liquid  i»  drawn  from  the 
top  through  an  automatic  siphon.  The  sec'^nd  tank 
ie  also  fitted  with  a  siphon  discharge,  this  latter 
outlet  being  continuwl  with  gUzed  tile  to  the  [>oint 
where  it  is  de-sired  to  dispose  of  the  water.   At  this 


point  the  unglazed  tile  should  be 
iiaeil  and  laid  wichoat  cement,  with 
Jdinlj*  o|ieii  three-eighths  of  an 
imh,  Thi'se  latter  tile  may  hranch 
in  vitrious  dir(xrtion.s  and  need  be 
<)nly  tha-e-inch.  Hor«e-shoe  tile 
roay  aleo  he  used.  With  either,  the 
joints  should  be  covered  with  a 
liinse-fitting  cap  to  permit  tho  dis- 
trihutinn  of  the  liquid  through  the 
Bciil,  A  mjinhdle  should  be  con- 
struKted  at  the  top  of  each  tank  for 
the  purpose  of  cleaning.  Cement  is 
the  most  i^atisfactory  material  for 
thit  tanks.  The  laws  are  very  strict 
regarding  the  emptying  of  sewage 
into  rret-ks,  lakes  and  rivers,  whtai 
the  water  i«  used  for  household 
purpooL-H,  und  tht>  health  commis* 
sioFt  should  be  consalied  if  there 
It  is  an  advantage   to  have  the 


is  any  doabi;. 
building  shaded. 

If  the  gravity  system  is  used  in  receiving  milk, 
the  creamery  should  be  built  on  a  hillside,  so  that 
milk  can  be  received  on  the  high  side.  If  the 
pumping  system  is  usfd,  it 
should  be  bnilt  on  level 
ground.  The  gra^-ity  sys- 
tem is  that  which  receix'es 
the  milk  un  a  higher  level 
than  the  work-mom,  caus- 
ing the  milk  to  How  from 
the  receiving-can,  in 
which  it  is  weighed,  to 
the  receiving-vat,  where 
it  is  storpii.  Prom  this 
vat  it  flows  through  the 
heater  to  the  flpp;irat«r  on  a  lower  level.  Ix'sving 
the  separator,  the  «kimme*l  milk  flows  into  a  tank 
fmm  which  tlw  patrons  draw  their  shares.  The 
cream  from  the  separator  flows  into  cream-vats  on 
the  same  level.  The  churn  is  on  a  lower  level,  so 
that  the  cream  will  flow  from  the  vats  to  the  chum. 
In  the  pumping  system  tha  receiving  platform  is 
ylL>vat«!d  tu  allow  the  milk  to  flow  from  thy  receiv- 
ing-can to  the  receiving- vat,  all  the  other  work 
being  done  on  one  level  and  pumps  used  for  elevat- 
ing the  milk  to  the  heater,  the  skimmed  milk  to  a 
storage-tank,  and  the  cream  into  the  chttm.   The 


Fie.  til.     SliRt>le  nllk- 
tMUr.  loi  few  Bunpiea. 

A>lNt>tW  fur  Mnlllt  uw. 


PU.  ZM.    TurUiw  mUk- 
tMttr  wltb  suad. 


PIB.  UQ. 
StMm  B«ku»h  tMter, 


228 


CREAMERIES  AND  SKIMMING    STATIONS 


Fix.  ]«a.    Milk- 01  GiMm-vM. 

skimmed-TniLk  tank  in  usually  place^I  in  the  Attic, 
and  tht;  milk  Hruwn  thruujfh  un  Hulomutic  wvighvr 
by  thf  ingL-rtioii  of  a  proper-sizeil  chi^ck,  givt>n  the 
patron  liy  the  operator. 

Construction. 

The  constniction  of  a  creamery  Jias  much  to  do 
with  the  (Milt  of  maintaining  and  operating  it.  Tha 
biiiidind  tihwuW  Ihj  convenient,  warm,  ami  w«ll 
ventilated.  It  fihouW  have  atvcn  rooms,  namely: 
Work-room,  office,  refri«i?rat«r,  iHjitcr-  and  i.-ngint- 
room,  store-room,  workshop,  bath-  and  laundry- 
room.  In  Fiff.  235  is  .sh<fwn  a  fioor  plan  of  a 
creamery  differing  slightly  from  this  arrangement. 
In  pliice  of  the  bath- mid  Sundry -room  a  coul- 
room  is  shuwn. 

The  grotiti'l  j^hould  be  excavated  to  a  firm  founda- 
tion for  the  walh  and  Hoor.  The  walliii  shouM  be  of 
concrete,  pljwter^-d  smooth  with  jioctland  cement. 
The  walls  are  bt.*ttor  if  built  hallow.  They  should 
extend  three  feet  aJvivo  the  fitmr. 

The  floor  should  be  laid  with  four  inches  of  con- 
crete, made  of  f'>ur  piirtA  of  jjravel,  two  |iart«  wand 
and  one  part  porthind  cement.  Befort-  this  seta, 
the  finish  coat,  madu  of  two  parts  clean,  sharp  sand 
and  one  part  of  portlanJ  cement,  should  be  laid  one 
inch  thick  on  top  of  tho  concrete,  and  made 
smooth  as  it  m  setting.  The  floitr  shnnld  slope  one 
inch  in  three  feet  toward  :i  glitter  rtitining  through 
the  center  of  the  floor  and  discharging  into  a  six- 
or  eight-inch  tile  drain  through  a  trap.  A  basin 
twenty  inches  square  should  he  formed  around  the 
entrance  of  the  drain,  into  which  the  gutter  may 


discharge.  The  gotttr  should  l»c  six  inches  wide, 
very  shallow  at  the  huginiiing  and  gradually  deep- 
ening to  the  [Kiint  nf  discharge.  The  corners  where 
the  floor  and  wall?  meet  t!hou!d  be  rounded,  and  all 
other  corners  of  cement,  ^uch  ati  of  walls  and  8t«p8, 
ghoald  be  neatly  ronnded. 

Th«  receiving  platform  and  steps  are  hest  made 
of  cement.  The  r^-mainder  of  the  building  above 
the  watU  may  be  of  frame  structure,  but  ct-mwnt 
is  very  desirable  for  the  entire  building.  Smo-ith. 
plain  doors,  and  the  absence  of  all  ledges,  window- 


Ill 


X 


FIk.  Mt.    A  tvi>eal  powci  Mparator. 

ailU,  and  other  prujectlonH  are  dexirable,  M  as  to 
have  as  few  phices  aa  possible  to  catch  duat. 

Equipment  and  its  use. 

The  e.H!wntijils  in  the  equipment  of  a  creamery 
are.  receiving-can,  scales, 
milk- receiving  vat,  cream- 
vat,  milk-heater,  separa- 
tor, skimnied-milk  tank, 
flkimmed-Tiiilk  weigher, 
comljined  churn  and  worker, 
Uabcock  tester,  boiler,  en- 
gine, milk-pumps,  water- 
pump,  sterilixer,  and  the 
necewary    tinware,   glaw- 


.^ 


i 


titt.i*l.    A  (xraUanoai  putmulisi. 


IMIN'G  STATIONS 


229 


ware,  and  i^mall   utensils.    A  pastouriE^r  may  be 
added,  if  ilesireil. 

The  receivinB-c.in  may  be  round  or  aquaro,  about 
thirty  inche-H  high  by  thirty  to  forty  inches  in 
diiuneter,  with  »  three-inch  faucet  or  pate  at  the 
bottom.  (Fig.  2:W.)  Thia  i^  used  on  the  acatea  for 
receiving  and  weijthinif  the  mi]k.  The  weiffht  is 
recorded.  The  samples  of  the  milk,  taken  as  it  is 
TWeived,  are  put  in  glaiu  stoppered  bottles,  which 
Contain  prenen-atives,  uaually  corro-sive  fiuMimate, 
with  a  coloring  matter  to  warn  against  their  use 


greatly  increasing  the  relative  difference  in  the 
specific  gravities  of  the  milk  and  th«  rream, 
therefore  the  immediate  and  complete  separation. 
[See  page  199.]  Leaving  the  separator,  the  cream 
i«  conducted  to  a  pasteurizer,  if  it  id  desired  to 
pafttean'ze  the  cream  (Figa.  2-12,  2-13) ;  if  not,  it 
goes  directly  to  cream-vatfl  or  a  cream  ripener. 
(Fig.  244.'t  The  latter  is  a  rat  fitted  with  nn*chani- 
cal  means  of  agitating  and  controlling  thu  tempera- 
ture of  the  cream.  In  the  vnts  or  ripenent.  th« 
cream  is  held  at  C8°  to  75"  Kahr..  and  5  to  2n  per 


'C^U^. 


.gj^^^ 


/ 


flctft 


'«nn— 


Fic.  343,    A  mnsnatlve  HitaniiMi,  ett^winj  pTinclpiJ  dtmeniKiiu  lot  iutaULu. 


as  food:  or  bichromate  of  potash  may  be  used. 
Usually  compogite  sampk-s  are  tested  at  the  middle 
and  end  of  each  month.  Testing  machines  are 
BbowB  in  Figs.  2^  2.19. 

From  the  receiving-can,  the  milk  is  conducted  to 
the  receiving- vat,  which  is  an  oblong  tin  vat  with 
either  a  flat  or  rounding  bottom,  and  a  faucet  at 
ittf  lower  end.  The  vat  may  be  either  skeleton  or 
enclosed  in  a  wooden  jacket.   (Fig.  240J 

From  the  rec*iving-vat  the  milk  runs  or  ie 
pumped  through  a  heater,  which  raiws  th(!  temTier- 
stnre  to  85"  to  90"  Fshr.  Thin  aids  in  c..mplet« 
separation.  The  milk  nnxt  parses  into  the  riepara- 
rator.  fPig.  241.)  A  separator  consists  of  a  frame 
fitted  with  delicate  bearings,  in  which  a  ^teol  bowl 
rcvolvw  at  a  speed  of  G.OOO  to  14,000  revolutions 
per  minute.    The  high  :?peed  has  the  elfect  of 


cent  of  pure  culture  starter  is  added.  Thia  treat- 
ment develops  lactic  acid,  and  (lavore  desired  in 
eight  to  twelve  htmn*.  The  temperature  ia  then 
quickly  lowered  to  50^  to  &4''  Fahr..  and  ht-ld  there 
for  three  to  twelve  hoars.  The  cream  is  then  trans* 
ferred  to  the  churn  or  combined  churn  and  worker. 
(Fig.  24P.) 

The  churn  consists  of  a  large  wooden  cylinder  or 
box  with  tightly  fitting  doors,  containing  shetveB 
or  other  devices  to  increase  the  concussion  of  the 
cream,  and  having  a  euitahlc  gearing  to  revolve  it. 
TTie  combined  machines  have  cnrTugat*d  wooden 
rollers  or  somethinj;  similar  in  effect,  which  are 
brought  into  use.  cau-'ing  the  butter  to  he  wnrited 
before  removing  from  the  churn.  The  buttermilk  is 
then  drawn  off.  and  the  batter  washod  and  Rnlt 
added.  Working  thoroughly  incorporates  the  salt. 


230 


CREAMKKIiB    AND  SKIMMIMI  STATIONS 


and  feathers  th«  butter  in  a  mass,  making  it  ready 
to  be  packed  in  tul«  or  printeri. 

Any  kind  of  steady  powor  may  bo  nued.  A  fif- 
teen or  twenty  horse-power  boiler  with  an  eight 
horse-[ntwer  engine   is   very  satisfactory. 
Water-wheels,  electric- motors  an<l  g:asoIin&- 
eng;m63  may  Iw  used   Gasoline  is  objection- 


--/ 


JJ^ 


FIJI.  244.    A  cteam  ilpeoer. 

able  becaose  of  the  Rtron^  mjor.  which  taints  the 
bntCer  if  It  eomed  in  contact  with  tha  milk,  cream 
cr  butter. 

The  pipes  condncting  steam  and  water  kHouM  bw 
of  ample  size  and  joekntL'd  with  ciivi?rinfia  to 
decrease  conilenHation  and  chaat^i'  of  t«mpi!raturi>. 
All  valves  shonid  be  of  a  kind  that  are  quickly  and 
eaaily  rapaired  wilhoul  removing  from  the  pipe 
linoB. 

{Jrganizatinn. 

Crcamurips  may  ba  propriatary,  j<iint  stock 
company,  or  coiitnirative.  In  IKl-  first,  the  owner 
usually  buys  the  milk  and  returns  the  sktmmL>d 
milk,  in  other  instances  buying  the  whole  milk  and 
making  the  skimmed  milk  into  cheese  — Cottage  cir 
baker's  cheese, — or  casein.  Sometimes  the  same 
price  ia  [uiid  for  all  qnnl- 
iLiiM  of  milk,  but  usually 
the  milk  is  tf»ted  and  thu 
fat  contained  in  the  milk 
is  paid  for.  This  is  the 
more  just  way.  The  but- 
ter may  also  i<e  maile  and 
5old  for  a  certain  price 
per  p<inn*l. 

A  joint  stock  company 
may  buy  thu  milkor  make 
the  butter  in  either  of  thu  above  ways'. 

The  cooperative  creamery  is  owned  by  tho  farm- 
ers who  l>rinK  the  milk.  It  is  an  association 
which  has  adnpte*!  certain  by-laws,  and  elects  ofli- 
cera  or  directors  — usually  five  or  seven  in  numlter 
— to  conduct  the  business.  The  boanl  of  dirvcioni 
eloct  from  their  nomber  a  prej^idcnt,  vice-president, 
secretary.  trea.suror  and  manager.  In  some  in- 
Htancea.  the  board  is  allowed  to  elijct  officers  out- 
side of  their  number,  but  slockholdiTs  in  the 
a!»-VK'iatTon.  Th^-se  officers  hnve  the  care  of  the 
property,  hire  the  butler-maker,  secure  the  snp- 
pliea,  sell  the  products,  compute  the  monthly 
pajTnenls  for  milk,  and  pay  the  pjitmny.  The 
cooperative  method  of  payment  is  to  deduct  all 
expenses  from  all  money  received  for  products,  and 


'/"^z.  ^ 


r-^^' 


pic  i*S.    A  chum  witb 
WDTkct  attubmcnl. 


divide  the  remainder  by  the  pounds  of  fat  fumlshod 
liy  tht!  ])atrons.  This  gives  the  prico  per  imund  of 
fat.  The  weight  of  each  patron's  milk  is  mnltiplii-d 
by  the  teat  to  obtain  the  number  of  pounds  fur- 
nished by  the  patrons.  This  result  is  mnltipliin]  by 
the  price  per  pound  of  fat.  to  determine  the  amuont 
due  each  patron.  The  more  butter  made  the  lesa 
the  cost  per  pound  for  making. 

If  a  creamery  pays  for  pfninds  of  fat,  the  price 
per  pound  will  be  hi^cber  than  if  it  pa}'s  for  pounda 
of  butler,  for  the  samu  amount  of  money  is  divided 
by  a  loAs  nurabt-r  of  jiounds.  Somt-times  the  ex- 
pc-nfii-a  of  tho  ercamtTy  are  dtKiuctud  and  the 
remainder  divided  by  tho  pounds  of  fat  or  butter 
in  order  to  arrive  at  the  price. 

In  most  places  the  amount  of  milk  produced  at 
dilTerent  seasons  of  the  year  is  so  varied  tbat  it 
cjiusen  the  cost  of  making  a  pound  of  butter  to  vary 
so  much  that  it 
is  uuuulty  advis- 
able for  the  as- 
sociation  to 
make  butter  for 
a  stati'ij  price 
per  pound,  and 
once  a  year  to 
declare  a  divi- 
dend to  the 
stockholders, 
pro  rata,  nn  the 
amount  iif  ntnck  owneti.  Once  a  year  a  stock- 
holdera'  meeting  is  held,  when  the  oihcer«  rejKtrt 
on  the  finances  and  directors  are  elected  for  the 
ensuing  year. 

The  first  item  in  the  management  of  a  creamery 
is  to  secure  the  milk.  Tlie  m.irketing  is  ef|ually 
important.  Regularity  in  the  time  of  paying 
patnms,  projHtrLtoiiaLe  distributiun  of  skimmiM 
milk,  a  diplomatic  maker,  careful  buying  and  con- 
b^tant  guarding  again>(t  ivvks  and  losses,  all  go  to 
make  a  aucceraful  creamery. 

Gaihcrfd-rrcam  ercameries  and  centralizerg. 

In  parts  of  the  West-Central  states  the  farm 
separator  and  the  gathi-refl-creara  creamery  have 
sapt^nu^ded  the  whole-milk  creamor^'  almost  entirely, 


Blde-bar  ipllK-twroe  flllei . 


Fif.  2<7.    SulUf7  mlUc-bottle  Uler. 

attd  there  is  little  likelihood  of  the  latter  ever  com- 
ing back  into  use.  There  ha.s  aim)  been  developed 
in  the  same  section,  within  recent  years,  a  clusa  of 
creameries  that  are  called  centralizera.   Tliwe  are 


CREAMERIES  AND  SKIMMING  STATIONS 


231 


Hi.  1*1.    Gol'iiatied  Uos  steillLteii 
toi  eteanury  use. 


now  an  important  factor  in  this  development  of  the 
dairy  indoatry  in  thesu  states.  These  factoriKa  are 
located,  not  in  the  email  towns,  but  in  the  larf^e 
cities.  Their  croam  supply  is  rfceived  entirely  by 
rail,  and  in  some  caaea  is  shipped  two  or  three  hun- 
dn-d  mileB.  This  cream  either  is  i»hip|>ed  dir^ctiy 
from  the  prodncfir,  or,  when  a  Bapply  in  a  i;iven 
locality  iK  lar^T.  the  compiiiiy  had  an  a^^unt  wlm 

rectfives  tliu 
cream,  psyit 
for  it,  and 
forwanisitlo 
the  factory. 
A  conniilera- 
blo  part  «f 
the  Dutter 
now  mann- 
facturud  in 
Kansa?,  Np- 
)intska,Sr>uth 
Dakota  and 
VisBOuri,  ia  made  in  ituch  plants,  and  th>fy  are  alsi) 
dcttng  a  large  husinesiw  in  lh«  butLer  dovebiped  cream- 
ery states,  such  a«  luwa,  Minnesota  and  WiBcousiii. 
This  practice  has  tho  advantage  of  giving  the 
dairyman  the  skimmed  milk  for  feeding  while  it  is 
fresh  and  swwt,  and  not  mixeii  with  other  milk,  tin 
it  would  be  at  the  creamery,  ft  makes  the  amount 
to  haul  much  le;**.  No  time  ia  lost  at  the  creamery 
waiting  for  skiramt-il  milk,  and  the  ureamery  is 
aavod  the  handling  of  the  skimmed  milk.  Tht^ru  are 
also  disadvanta^res  with  this  sj'^teni.  The  care  of 
the  separator  makes  extra  work.  In  many  cases 
considerable  fat  i«  left  in  the  skimmed  milk  by 
farmers  who  are  not  trained  in  the  use  of  sejiara- 
tors.  There  is  a  tendency  tu  hold  the  cream  for 
Iwo  OT  more  day«  inatoad  of  delivering  it  everyday, 
which  results  in  butter  of  poorer  quality.  Milk 
will  hold  over  bott^^r  than  cream. 

In  the  larger  centraltxing  plants,  and  in  mmc  of 
the  smaller  ones,  tw,  the  cream  is  gratk'd  and  paid 
for  accunling  to  grade.  If  each  pn>dncpr  conid 
carry  a  good  clean  fit3rt*?r,  and  add  5  per  cent  to 
the  fn-sh  cream,  it  would  ehet^k  many  uf  the  unde- 
sirable gerni£  and  flavors  that  grow  in  the  eream 
while  it  is  held  for  delivery.  The  cream  from  skim- 
ming Btations  handled  in  this  way  reaches  the 
central  plant  in  much  better  condition. 

Skimminy  etaiian*. 

fifkimming  stations  are  erinipped  much  the  same 
as  creameries,  except  thoy  do  not  have  ripening- 
rats,  chnrns  or  but- 
ter-workers, the 
croam  being  taken  to 
thti  creamery  to  be 
riponed  and  churned 

and  the   buttur   fin-      _,     ,„     .  _„, 

lahed.  The  purpose  of 

a  skimroiag  station  is  to  collect  milk  that  is  pro- 
duced at  too  great  a  distance  to  be  delivered  at  the 
creamery.  The  cotit  uf  etfiiipping  and  ninning  a 
station  is  considerably  less  th.in  fur  a  creamerv.  .\ 
more  QDiform  product  is  setrured  by  being  all  lin- 
ished  in  on«  plant.   A  skimming  establishment  is 


an  intermediate  station  between  the  farm  am)  the 
creamery. 

Cost  n/tfuUifin/}  and  ^vijipiag  mamerin  andtkim^ 
miiig  itinti-nns. 

The  amount  necessary  to  invest  in  a  creamery 
varie*  with  the  rwinirements.  An  ordinary  cream- 
cry  at  the  present  time  ctwts  $3,000  to  ?f..000  for 
building  and  e'|uipment.  For  a  creamery  coding 
$3,000,  the  cost  would  be  divided  about  aa  folluwa  : 

Building.  inL'iuding  ico-huBu,  refriger- 
ator, etc  $1,300  00 

Boiler 000  00 

Enjtlii* .  126  00 

Separator 300  00 

Churn 200  00 

Vau 100  00 

Milk  fafinter 50  00 

Pumjw GO  00 

Scales 40  00 

ShaftiDK.  pullers  snd  Iwlti 75  00 

Pipe  and  valves 60  00 

Tester 26  00 

Small  utetL!iila 25  00 

The  value  ut  a  $G.00O  plant  would  be  divided 
about  as  fiillows : 

Buildinif,  including  ico-koUM;,  mfrigar- 

ator.  etc $2.G00  CW 

Boiler iHH)  00 

Fngitifl 200  00 

Two  eep!u-atora I.(XXl  00 

Cham 2S0  00 

Crejiin  rip«n«r 400  00 

Uitk  beater 80  00 

Pomps GO  00 

Scnlm 40  00 

Shafting,  paileyn,  and  belu  ....  100  00 

PLpa  aiiO  valves KM  00 

Tf>«t«r 30  00 

Vats 90  00 

AatnmaUa  slticnined  mt]k  weigher.   .  100  00 

Small  utensils 50  00 

These  estimates  do  not  include  site,  water-supply 
and  drainage.  The  $G,O0O-plant  might  have  a  less 
expensive  build-  ■« 

ing,  and  no  ice-  It 

house,  but  eulv-  il 

ftitute  artificial 
refrigeration. 
This  would  bo 
d^irahlo  in  lo- 
calities where 
ice  is  expensive 
or  uncertain. 

The  $3,000-   f-yu: 

cn'Hmery  is  »u  it-    j[t_S^  *;-> 

able   to    hamUH 

the  milk  of  Add 

to  (KK>  cows;  by  "*■  '»■    St»«n  WrWnc  ftottlc- 

addmg    another 

separator,  the  milk  from  twice  that  number  of 
cows  could  lie  handled,  but  two  churningts  uf  but- 
ter per  day  would  Iw  necessary.  The  $6,(K'(i-plant 
could  handle  the  milk  of  fiOt")  to  2,000  cows,  hot, 
for  the  latter  amount,  another  cream  ripener  or 
croam  vat  would  nwd  to  be  added. 


m 


232 


RKFRIGERATION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


Aa  a  flkimming  station  nKiuirtst  u  much  smaller 
bunding,  am]  only  i^art  of  the  machinery  necessary 
for  a  cream«'ry,  its  cftfit  isi  much  U-jw.  From  $300 
to  $600  might  be  invt^nled  in  the  building,  anil  $700 
to  $900  in  the  machinery. 

LUerafure. 

McKay  and  Lar^cn,  Principk-g  and  PrnctiC'Q  of 
Putter-Making ;  H.  H.  Wing,  Milk  and  lis  Products; 
Russell,  f)titllne«()f  Dairy  Bacteriology;  Farrington 
anil  Woll,  TfntinR  Milk  and  Its  Prixlucts;  Van 
81yk»',  Modorn  Mtfthodaof  TewtiiiigMilk.  [Sck  Butler- 
rrutking,  page  19K.] 


RHFRIGERATION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

By  Oscar  Erf 

It  has  heen  conaeirativf^lyestimatwl  that  25  fier 
cent  uf  thQ  original  vulue  uf  ctuiry  jiruducU  on  the 
farm  ih  lo»t  by  deterioration  iluu  to  the  lack  of 
proptir  rt-'frigeration.  Dairying  has  become  one  of 
the  chief  induBlries  of  the  I'nited  States,  hence  it 
is  essential  that  proper  refrigeration  be  applied  to 
this  indtintry. 

RefrigHnittiin  nf  diiiry  prodncte  may  be  fliifWfiil 
under  ihreH  heads,  namely:  (1)  Refrigeratiun  on 
the  farm  ;  (2)  Kufrige ration  in  dairy  manufactur- 
ing concerns,  a*t,  for  exanijile,  creameriea,  cheese 
factoritiB.milk-distribii ting  plants,  ice-cream  factor- 
ies, and  the  like;  (3)  Refrigeration  in  cold-storage 
plantft. 

I.  litfrirjrraiion  on  the  farm.   [See  page  241.) 

RtfrigeraticHi  on  the  farm  includes  the  cooling 
of  milk  and  cream,  and,  when  made  on  the  farm, 
of  butter  also.  For  average  farm  conditions  the 
only  practical  method  nf  refrigeration  is  by  means 
of  Hfitnral  ice,  which  has  been  harvested  in  winter 
from  lakes,  ponds  or  streams  and  storer)  in  ive- 
huuses  for  summer  iist<.  This  is  practicable  only  in 
places  in  a  latitude  where  ice  freezes  in  winter  to 
tinch  a  thii^knesa  and  with  such  certainly  ad  lo 
make  ita  harvesting  profitablf.  Sucli  a  latitude 
depends  somewhat  on  the  altitude  and  location 
with  respect  to  large  bodies  of  water.  The  southern 
limit  in  east^-rn  and  ctintrjil  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  abmit  3S'  N.  On  the  shores  uf  the  Pacific: 
ocean  ccmditiuns  are  not  favorable  for  har%'est- 
ing  ice  south  of  parallel  49°  N.  However,  In  thia 
particular  tountry,  snow-capped  mountains  tying 
close  to  the  shore  furnish  an  abundance  of  cold 
water,  the  temperature  of  which  will  preserve 
dairy  prcMiiu-ts  to  a  great  extent.  When  the  har- 
vesting t>f  ice  is  practiced,  economical  refrigeration 
can  be  applied  on  farms  of  any  size  by  means  uf 
storing  ice  in  ice-houius. 

A  different  problem  confronts  the  farmer  in  the 
South,  where  the  tempornture  w  seldom  low  enough 
to  freeze  W'ater.  This  problem  can  be  solved  con- 
veniently by  erecting  artificial  ice-plants  in  connec- 
tion with  the  creiunery  plants,  thiita  prtKlucing  ice 
for  farmers  to  cool  their  milk  or  cream.  The  ice  is 
delivered  to  the  farmer  by  the  creanwry  or  milk 
wagon.  This  wagon  makea  a  circoit  daily  or  every 


other  day,  delivers  the  cream  or  milk  to  the  cream- 
ery, returns  with  the  em|ity  can*  and  delivers  the 
ice.  Thifi  \si  impracticable  in  countries  that  are 
sparsely  settled  and  where  the  ic*;  piust  bedoUvered 
long  distances.  Well-insulated  refrigerators  and 
cooTing-tanksare  very  necessary  where  this  system 
Is  in  vogue. 

(a)  Farm  t»-A«u«M. 

It  is  essential  that  northern  farmers  shoald  pro- 
vide themselves  with  a  properly  constructed  ice- 
house that  will  preserve  the  ice,  so  as  to  allow  the 
ciwling  of  dairy  product;?  throughout  the  warm 
season  of  the  year.  In  building  ice-houses  thero 
are  two  conditiotia  to  U.-  considered  :  First,  the 
cost  of  the  ice  in  the  ice-hon.-*  in  winter  ;  second, 
the  cost  of  constructing  the  ice-hcuijw.  In  localities 
where  the  harvesting  of  ice  is  oxpen.sive,  it  is 
advisable  to  spend  mure  m<mey  in  well-conatrncted 
and  insulated  ice-houstw.  In  localities  whore  ice  ia 
comparatively  iiiL-xpcn»ive  and  can  1«  secured  in 
abundance,  it  would  be  more  economical  to  build  a 
cheaper  but  larger  structure,  and  harvest  a  greater 
quantity  of  ice.  This  is  true  when  ice-houses  are 
located  on  the  shortw  of  large  streams  or  lakes 
where  it  is  not  necemary  to  transport  th&  ice.  The 
hauling  and  tranaportiiig  of  ice  is  the  most  expen- 
sive part  of  the  ice-harvesting  business. 

The  size,  of  an  icf-koti»e  in  relafion  to  (ml. — The 
larger  the  volume  of  ice  to  be  stored,  the  cheaper 
will  bo  the  coat  of  constructing  an  ice-house  per 
ton  of  ice  stored,  providing  it  hiw  ihw  pro|H'r  dimen- 
sions. Theoretically,  the  beat  form  for  an  ice-houso 
is  spherical,  because  it  hius  the  least  possible  num- 
ber of  atiuare  feet  of  surface  in  proportion  to  its 
voEume.  The  heat  can  penetrate  only  through  the 
onter  surface  ;  hence,  the  smaller  the  outer  surface 
in  porportion  to  the  volume  the  belter  the  con- 
struction. The  nest  best  form  for  an  ice-honac 
would  be  cylindrical.  The  best  praiitieal  iee-house 
for  small  farms,  however,  is  built  iu  the  form  of  a 


fit.  2i\. 
fum  Icv-boiiM. 


cnlte.  The  smallest  practical  dimensions  for  a  dairy- 
farm  icf^lumse  are  lOslOxlO  (Fig.  2ril).  The 
greater  the  increase  of  these  dimensions,  the  more 
economical  the  house  will  become  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  ice  it  wilt  contain.   With  a  fixed 


RFPRIOBRATION  OP  DAIRY   PRODITCTS 


23S 


ime,  the  nearer  the  form  of  a  cube  an  ice-hoQsc 
laches,  the  less  Burface  it  will  have. 
The  c(Wt  of  innnlatictn  is  nittiiitty  fi}C»red  hy  the 
nqaare  feet  of  wail  auTface.  The  ti>p  and  bnttom  rtf 
an  ice-housL',  if  [jropurly  constructed,  cunt  jinnior- 
tionatt-'ly  Ihu  samo  as  the  walla  with  insulation; 
hence,  it  is  practical  to  eatimatu  tha  cost  of  such 
fin  loe-bouse  hy  the  square  foot  of  surface  in  the 


r'« 


,x' 


>  "■  \. 


fX   ^" 


^1 


Tig.  2U.    To  sbow  dlllDtcmx*  Id  sartace  ucas  ioi  mudb 
roltimo  IB  different  loims. 

cube.  The  following  ilhistrntion  (leni*>nHtralfH  tbi' 
economy  of  building;  an  ici-houMa  of  the  jn'»J*t'*t 
capacity  needed  for  a  [lartieular  place: 

An  ico-house  10  fwt  lonR,  10  feet  wiJe,  and  10 
feet  high  contains  l.tKH)  cubic  feet.  A  cuhic  foot 
of  ice  weighs  t\'i  pounds;  if  well  pik-d  in  an  ice- 
house, it  is  estimiiU^iI  that  it  will  weigh  on  an 
average  of  40  [xmnds  |M*r  culiic  foot ;  hpTit^e,  in  an 
ice-hoaae  10  x  10  x  10,  containing  l,n<">0  cubic  feet, 
there  would  be  -ID/CX)  [Hjund^  of  iue,  or  20  tonH. 
Thtrre  being  six  sides  to  a  cube,  thure  is  required 
GOO  square  feet  of  insuiation,  which,  at  10  centa 
per  ftquare  foot,  would  co^t  $00.  Assuming  that 
the  ice-house  is  increiwed  In  »ix8  to  12x12x12, 
contaiiiinj;  1,72S  cubic  feet,  it  would  contain  (19,- 
320  pounds  of  ice,  or  appniximat^'ly  3-li  tons.  Thin 
ic«-huuse  has  864  »«|uare  feet  of  influIatiuK  aurfai^e, 
which,  at  10  cents  per  si|uare  foot,  would  cost 
$86.40.  If  the  ice-hoii.se  be  increiised  to  15 x  ]'>x 
15,  it  would  hold  1.15.0<"t;)  pounds  of  ice,  or  approxi- 
aiatety  67}  tonit.  Stirh  a  structure  would  have 
1,850  square  feet  of  insuialinK  surface,  which,  at 
10  centfi  per  square  foot,  would  cost  JKiii.  The 
ratio  of  tlkj  voiumo  to  the  cost  of  coiuitru<?tion 
would  be  asfollows:  For  the  ice-house  H)x  lOx  10 
the  cnnntruction  costs  $3  ]vr  ton  :  for  the  ice-houi»a 
12x12x12  the  construction  custit  $2.r.O ;  for  the 
ice-houne  15  x  15  x  15  the  cost  per  ton  would  be  $2. 
The  ratio  decreases  proportionately  as  the  siw 
i&crfaM.-8. 

Jitlaiioti  of  eonl  to  i'i>lume  in  different  form*. — 
(FiK.  252-1  AssumiuK  lh;it  an  iee-houBe.  instead  of 
beini!  built  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  is  construct«d 
14x11x8  feet  10  inche^i,  this  having  approxi- 
mately the  «ame  volume  a.i  the  one  12k  12x12, 
the  numiwr  of  nguure  feet  nf  surface  on  this  form 
wuabl  be  886,  white  the  naraher  of  square  tuvi  of 


surface  on  the  one  buitt  in  the  form  of  a  cube  is 
8G4.  There  would  be  a  difference  of  22  square  feet, 
which  would  allow  the  meltageof  thM,t  miirh  more 
ic«,  and  it  wouhl  cohL  $2.2C  more  for  coiiHtruction. 
However,  tliiri  form  is  tiswJ  in  lar^e  ico-houHes,  over 
HOx  100  fuL'l,  it  being  impracticable  to  hoist  the  ice 
very  bi;;h  in  order  to  form  a  cube  to  prevoui 
meltapre. 

An  ice-house  built  in  the  forni  of  a  parallelo- 
pipe^t,  18x  12x8,  would  have  912  square  feet  of 
surface  to  tht"  same  volume  ai*  the  cube  12  x  12  X  ll', 
or  48  8>(|uare  feet  more  than  the  uurfaee  of  the 
cube,  co&tiiig  $4.80  mora  fur  cun^itruelion.  ('onae- 
qaontly,  the  best  and  chea{)est  form  is  to  build  an 
ioe-hoo^e  as  nearly  a  cube  as  is  practicable. 

The.  ineatitm  of  nn  icr-himu; — .^n  ice-hnoPCRhould 
he  located  in  a  convenient  place  so  oh  to  avoid  tha 
t  ran  H  per  tut  ion  of  Ice  any  ^reat  distunce.  It  is  liiettt 
lo  have  it  near  or  in  connection  with  a  storaRe- 
house.  The  house  should  be  built  on  dry  Krouod, 
and,  if  possible,  on  a  high  place.  Ice-houses  are 
sometimes  built  in  connection  with  residences. 
White  this  is  a  Rreat  convenience,  if  the  ice  is  to 
l»e  UHeil  in  th»  house,  it  is  not  a<lviiuil)le,  for  ice  is 
alwaya  mote  or  less  damp  and,  iiaturitlly,  increasea 
the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  house.  If  it  is  to  ba 
built  close  to  a  house  it  is  better  practice  to  have 
an  open  space  between  the  ice-house  and  the  resi- 
dence, or  have  a  cold-storage  room  or  a  storeroom 
connecting  the  two. 

t'ndfrffrimitd  jirmw  tmrfnee  ler-kojtM^. — The  first 
ice-houses  were  built  bt^Uiw  the  surface  of  the 
ground  (fig.  253),  but,  owitiK  to  the  great  amount 
of  meltage  in  such  structures,  they  have  been 
abandoned  am!  at  present  arc  being  constructed 
above  the  grnund.  This  affords  better  drainage,  is 
more  convenient  for  Kecnring  ice  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  [ireveutii  iin  excessive  loss  of  ice  Uecause 
of  the  earth  being 
such  a  good  conduc- 
tor of  heat. 

It  may  seem 
strange  that  icemelts 
faster  in  (j^niiind  stor- 
age than  in  surface 
storage,  for  during 
the  summer  the  tem- 
perature of  th©  soil 
is  much  lower  than 
the  t*^m[K'niture  of 
the  air.  and  it  would 
naturally  seem  that 
ice  wouM  keep  better 
in  the  ground  than  in 
a  surface  structure. 
This  would  1»3  true 
were  it  not  for  the 
fact  that  the  earth  is 


Tn" 


ni.  193.    im-hcnm  Mitt  Mmt 


a  gootl  conductor  of  heat.  KxiHTience  ]yrovea  that 
ice-houses  built  in  the  ground  must  b»*  more  thor- 
oughly insulated,  and  therefore  are  far  more  costly 
than  the  surface  ico-houso.  The  temperature  of 
the  earth  ranges  from  4tt°  to  51*  Fahr.  under 
average  conditions.  This  is  appposimiitflly  20° 
higher    than    the  freezing   point  of   water.    It  ia 


234 


ItEFRIGERATIOX  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


estimated  that  rortli  '»f  tlie  parallel  wf  ?iH°  there 
are  twti  hurulrHl  Hrui  ti?ridaj«  io  Hit'  year  in  which 
the  ftvurajju  tem|)tTalure  is  not  obovct  [>2°  Fahr. 
Then!  are  one  huniirod  anil  fifty  days  in  tho  year 
doring  whii'h  the  ke  wiJl  meit  less  in  a  surface 
storage  fnim  ni-tuiiL  cimtHctt  with  the  air  than  in 
the  imderi^iund  iMi?-hiiJusB,  ^'^rt^l[e^nllrl■,  wt>  find 
thiit  th«  Kdiiductivity  *if  the  tjirth  i«  Iwu  and  oiie- 
ha.lf  timua  jirtfater  than  that  of  the  air,  dfpt'iidinK 
somewhat,  however,  on  the  naturu  of  tho  soil.  This 
provtts  the  neceesity  of  having  good  insulation 
when  ice-houses  are  hiiilt  helow  the  surface. 

Underground  ice-)i(iuKt«an>  practtcahle  only  when 
there  is  a  lack  of  rvmn.  They  cost  more  for  cciii- 
structton,  bL'sidea  tho  expense  for  excavating  and 
tht;  extra  amount  of  labor  rtiijuin-d  to  pult  tho  ico 
to  thi-'  surface;  while  in  the  nurfaco  building  it  can 
be  thrown  down  out  of  the  ipe-house. 

Ffiundnliim  and  jimr.  The  three  eiuieiitials  in 
conatructing  the  foundatlim  and  floor  of  an  ict*- 
hmitie  are  aa  follown ;  (1)  Tha  foundation  and  floor 
shiiuld  be  ao  arranged  that  they  wilt  rapidly  drain 
away  the  water  me1t«^-d  from  the  ice.  (2)  Tho  floor 
should  consist  of  some  insulating  material  that  wilt 
insulate  the  ice  from  the  ejirth.  (S)  Air  currents 
should  not  be  allowed  to  circulate  in  the  inHulation 
at  the  hane  of  the  hou^e,  aa  this  freiiuently  caunea 
a  great  amount  of  meltage.    (Fig.  ^M). 

The  foundation  proper  may  be  made  of  concrete 
(which  is  the  cheapest  and  best),  stono  or  brick.  It 
should  be  deep  enough  to  prevent  the  building  from 
settling.  The  depth  may  ninge  from  a  foot  to  two 
and  on&-half  iv*i\.,  with  a  thicknoHa  of  one  foot  to 
eighteen  inchua.    It  m  adviaablo  to  placti  a  poruua 


tftnvi*  1  Mjt  po."'  ^     ft? 

'.  ft  AUCK  ,?nl«Mie        '  JMW 

Fif.  194.    ict-booM  wjtk  proptr  ln*nUtloa  «t  b«M. 

tile  drain  along  the  side  of  the  foundation  or 
through  the  center  of  the  floor  to  take  care  of  the 
ice- water. 

The  floor  should  be  porous  aand,  crashed  rock  or 
cinders;  it  ehotiM  be  tile  drainecl,  and  the  tile 
should  be  imbedded  in  a  layer  of  porous  mciteriul. 
At  th«  end  of  the  drain,  conunt;  through  tho  ice- 


house,  there  should  be  a  trap  \a  prevent  the  ingress 
of  the  air  through  the  tile.  The  best  material  to 
put  on  top  of  the  first  ei.T  inches  of  sand  r.r  tin© 
crushed  stone  itt  locomotive  coal  sparks.  If  the«fl 
are  not  avuilablu,  light  cindenj  are  the  next  best 
thing,  ttisab- 
HoltiU'ly  neces- 
sary that  this 
materia  I  Hh»u id 
be  very  light, 
foritthencon-t 
fines  air,  which 
prinlncea  the 
innuluting  ef- 
fect. At  the 
same  time,  it 


J*^H  t 


l--^ 


~ 

--»^==t 

1 

•BC*^ 

!i 

' 

•O**  *  ■•  • 

— 

.-T-r...-J 

=—■ 


Fl|.  255.    D*talJ  Ol  niMll  [aim  Ice-houM. 


does  not  decompose,  and  allnw^i  the  ice-waler  to 
pa.'«  off  rapidly.  But  when  ice-water  paa»ea 
through  coal  siiarks  or  cinders,  they  lose  their 
insulating  etftciency.  It  is  advisable,  then,  wherever 
pntcticiilile,  to  place  a  thin  coat  of  cement  over  the 
cinders,  not  allowing  the  ice-water  to  pass  through 
the  cinik-rs,  and  thti;^  making  a  better  insulator. 
This  adds  to  the  ex[K'nae  of  constniction,  however. 
In  this  ca'«o,  proper  drainage  must  be  provided  by 
having  outlets  in  several  parts  of  the  building.  On 
top  of  the  cinders  should  Iw  placed  the  insulation, 
to  the  thickness  of  at  least  one  foot,  depending 
fiomewhab  on  the  material  uned,  whether  it  b« 
chafl^,  cut  atraw  or  xKwduj^t.  In  all  caaeB  the  hoae 
of  the  ice-house  on  the  inside  should  )>e  at  least  six 
inchea  above  the  outside  surface,  and  the  outaide 
surface  near  the  foundation  should  always  be  a 
fiHit  or  so  higher  than  the  immediate  grtmnd 
Rurface,  in  order  to  drain  water  away  from  the 
building. 

Thn  eottjdnteium  of  iee-houxt.—  For  an  ice-houae 
of  the  mze  suggested  above  fora  small  dairy-fann, 
12'  X 12'  X  12'  outside  measurement,  the  following  is 
the  most  convenient  construction  (Fig.  2S5>:  The 
frame  shonld  he  made  of  timbers,  2x4,  laid  on  the 
slII.*i,  the  sills  lieing  constructtM-t  in  a  t)ox-«)ill  form. 
The  hou-^e  may  be  lined  inside  with  rough  boards,  but 
ft  is  not  aUicdutely  neoeHSory.  The  outside  may  be 
sided  with  drop  siding  or  with  up-aniUlown  siding, 
and  battened  to  cover  tho  cracks.  If  there  is  an  air 
apace  between  the  rough  boarrU  and  siding  it 
should  be  filled  with  some  good  insulating  material, 
such  AS  coal  Hpark.<i,  planer  shnvings.  sawdust  or 
the  like.  \  felt  or  shingle  rwif  may  be  put  on,  with 
2x4  mftent,  on  which  are  laid  the  rough  boards 
which  support  Hie  nxifing  material.  On  one  side  of 
the  building  there  should  he  a  door  through  which 
the  ice  may  be  put  in  and  taken  out.  This  door 
should  extend  from  the  top  <if  the  building  to 
within  four  or  five  feet  of  the  base.  It  is  not  wise 
to  extend  this  door  too  near  the  ground,  as  more  or 
les?  air  will  gel  into  the  ba»e  of  the  door  and  melt 
the  ice  nnless  it  is  perfectly  seated,  which  makes  it 
more  or  less  expensive. 

I'ntUalum.—Gimd  ventilation  should  be  pro- 
vided by  making  two  lattice  windows  on  either  side 
of  the  gable,  or  a  ventilator  on  top  of  the  roof. 
This  is  very  neccnesry  if  the  ice  is  to  be  welt  kept,  for 
the  heat  frequently  penetrates  the   roof  by  the 


REFRIGERATION  OF  DAISY  PRODUCTS 


S36 


4){n^;t  ravH  »f  the  (nun,  and  by  meann  of  this  vetiti- 
latur  the  hi>at  \n  rcaiiily  remuved. 

InftUatinff  mnlcriali  usett  Jhr  iee - knuMv.^Tlw 
best  insulutini;  TiiuU'riiil  »ii»i]ld  jiussl-ss  the  falluw- 
!ng  qualities :  (1)  It  should  bei  tho  best  non-con- 
dnctvr :  in  other  words,  it  ehnuld  c^onUiin  the 
greatest  miniher  of  8ni,ill  air  hiulc^h,  for  it  is  the 
ccHirineil  air  that  innulatcit,  (2)  It  shoiihj  tie  a 
niaU>riul  thulahtiDrlM  Lhii  Iviuit  itmouiit  of  i»uii;turu. 
(y)  It  should  Imj  u  niatt-rial  that  do^a  not  dueay  or 
born.  At  insulatiiiK  matL-rial  [tossfssinK  all  of  these 
qoalitioti  to  the  highest  dej^ree  would  h«  very  expen- 
aive.  I'robably  the  best  insulator  wu  have  that  will 
comply  with  the  above  conditiotiH,  and  one  that  can 
he  Becurpil  at  a  reaHonabli!  |irice,  m  conl  H[iarJ(». 
Coal  aparka  ar«  the  cinder*  that  imsa  throuKh  the 
flm-  and  fall  on  the  front  end  uf  a  loL-omolive.  They 
are  very  li^iit  and  [wruus,  and  poor  conductors,  but 
in  Honte  cases  it  ia  dittirult  to  secure  them.  It  is 
adviBable.  thtTefore,  to  uw  mnterijiln  that  are  more 
practicable  for  farm  conditions  and  that  can  he 
found  on  almiuit  ewry  farm  —namely,  the  hnwka  of 
wheat  or  wheat-tdiaff.  Cat  ryu-wtraw  or  cut  wheat- 
straw  is  a  Very  j{ui«l  insulator.  Cut  Mwamp-hay, 
whi^n  it  ia  in  aLiundiinee,  it)  somewhat  bettor  than 
cut  wheat-straw.  When  sawdust  is  aviiilable  it  is  a 


possible,  when  the  water  is  frozen  quietly,  to  form 
a  crnst  of  ice  to  prevent  the  air  entering  the  lower 
strata  ;  for  it  is  generally  due  ttv  the  wind  blowing 
over  the  t^urface  of  the  water,  forcing  it  on  in 


.^:in^:-' 


Plf .  iH>.    Ad  ice  pluier. 


Very  Rood  material  for  inrtulating  purjiOBes.  Planer- 
shavinga  may  also  be  used. 

TIte  harvesting  of  tee. — lea  should  be  cut  from  a 
atre&m  or  pond  that  is  not  stagnant.  Lakea  or 
rivers  are  more  desirable  to  cut  from  than  ponds, 
but  when  fret;h,  running  water  enters  the  ]mnd,  ko 
ttiat  it  can  Iw  renewed  often,  there  \«  nu  danf^er  of 
harvuittin^  impure  ice  from  such  pbii:us.  DiwaMa 
can  bv  transmitted  very  readily  by  the  use  of  ice 
barvectod  from  stagnant  ponde.  If  no  ice  can  bo 
aecnred  from  clear-wat«r  streams  or  laken.  and  a 
pond  in  the  only  place  from  which  to  hiir%'etit,  due- 
care  abould  be  taken  that  the  pond  Ik  draine«i  and 
cleaned  late  in  the  autumn  ;  and,  if  ixKwilile,  a  few 
ehowers  Khouli  be  allowed  to  v/mh  the  pond  Wfore 
it  is  o^ain  dammvd. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  tbo  quality  of  har- 
Vi*!(t<*d  natural  ice.  Those  who  have  had  experience 
have  noticed  that  in  some  cawes  fully  half  of  the 
ice  H  of  a  light  cidor,  while  the  remainder  is  clear 
and  solid.  The  white  ice  cuntninH  much  iur,  whii-h 
causes  it  to  have  that  color,  while  th^  clear  ice  i» 
perfectly  solid  and  trani<parent,and  will  lust  longer 
and  give  lietter  results  than  the  white  lee.  Hence, 
in  harvesting  ice  it  is  advisable  to  choose  a  time,  if 


Fix.  257.    As  loe  PICW.  PtC.  2M.    Twio-cut  IC«  rtow. 

frozen  sheets,  or  to  snow  falling  on  the  ice,  forming 
shah  and  freezing  again,  that  this  white  ice  is 
formed.  If  it  Ik  quite  impo^ibte  to  secnre  clear, 
solid  ice.  this  objection  can  be  overcome  by  the  use 
of  a  planer  (Fig.  25(J).  By  this  method,  a  curtain 
i^ection  of  ice  i.^  planed  down  to  where  it  assumes 
a  elear  color.  The  shavings  are  then  removed  and, 
if  the  ice  is  not  thick  enough,  it  is  allowed  to  freeze 
for  a  time  before  it  is  cut.  This  will  give  a  per- 
fectly clear  ice,  and  consequently  a  better  quality. 

Ice  should  be  cut  in  square  or  rectangular  blocka. 
It  is  essential  that  these  blocks  be  perfect  in  shape, 
fio  that  when  act  together  in  the  ice-houao  they  will 
leave  a  minimum  amount  of  air  splice.  This  is  done 
most  conveniently  by  means  of  an  ice-plow  {Figs. 
2r>7,  2r»R).  However,  if  such  an  instrument  is  not 
at  hand,  a  hand  saw  can  be  n^  (Fig.  2i)9).  A  plat 
of  ice  that  has  first  been  thoroughly  cleaned, 
tihould  l>e  marked  olf  into  iujuares  and  sawed  by 
means  of  cross-cut  saws. 

Filling  Ike  iee-koiae. —  Before  laying  the  first 
layer  of  ice  it  is  very  essential  to  have  a  well-pre- 
pared floor  to  insulate  the  h^at  coming  from  the 
earth,  for  a  poorly  iriaulated  floor  it)  the  mottt  wu^tu- 
ful  part  of  an  ice-bouse.  An  has  heretofore  been 
explained,  the  ground  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat, 
and  hence,  by  placing  ice  on  the  ground  directly, 
the  ice  Li  wasted  by  cwling  the  ground  beneath  it. 
After  applying  the  in^iulation  ax  explained  in  the 
paragraph  under  "Fonndation  and  floor"  [p- 231},  it 
ia  essential  to  place  on  the  cinders  at  least  twelve 
incheii  of  insulation,  and  it  is  better  if  more  is  used. 

When  the  insulation  has  been  properly  leveled, 
a  layer  of  ice  should  be  placed  on  it,  with  the 
cikes  laid  flat- 
wise and  cbise 
together.   Due     ■  |^ 

care  should  be     ^^^ 
taken  that  the     l^^B^^" 
first   layer  ia 
level.    On  top 
of  this  plaoo        "*'^"-   i"t«i«--A«.i«^i.u.o. 

tiers  of  cakes 

set  up  e<lgBwiBe,  completing  each  pier  and  smooth- 
ing the  top  of  it  with  an  ads  to  allow  the  proper 
netting  of  the  next  tier.  Kach  tier  should  tie  «et 
some  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  house,  de- 
nding  somewhat  on  the  insolation.  There  should 
le  at  least  eighteen  inches  of  insulation  Itetweea 
the  outside  board  and  the  ice,  the  amount  of  iRBO* 


E 


2m 


EEPRIGERATION  OF  DAIRY   PRODUCTS 


lulion  between  the  ice  and  first  board  depending 
on  tbe  constniction  of  the  ice-hoDst>.    In  some 

itutanreti  th«  wall  in  pnirked  with  Home  good  tn- 
aalutin;;  tniiUtriul  a  foot  thick,  while  in  other  cases 
merely  tb«>  oulKidu  wall  iit  ]>i;rinanent.  Ice-hoosen 
buving  the  walls  permanontly  insulatc^l  by  being 


^ 


-.l-r-    ■  ■   --^. 


/cr  *M'f^ 


Pig.  a/0.    UmdI  lee-watcr  (anK  in  coollnc  tnllk.  Tiil*  hnuM 
la  Ixtlll  of  '-ttiiinnt  •riill*.  In*l4n  ttnil  i>iil,  niird  vrlih  bftkd 

tUHW, 

boarded  up  on  the  inj^idc  posases  an  advantaee 
ovtir  thti  notiwH  conHtrui-tod  withmtt  instilatmn. 
in  that  they  do  not  allow  th<>  instilatinn  to  fnll  nn 
to])  iif  the  ice,  which  hectimoa  excwoUinRly  lliick 
when  near  the  bottom  of  the  bin;  and  it  is  a  ttource 
of  ann'tyance  to  remove  so  miiph  of  the  inaulfttion 
to  get  at  the  ice.  The  inHulation  l»elween  the  wall 
and  ice  should  he  jmcked  aa  firmly  aa  ptwaible,  &o 
that  it  will  mit  p«>rmit  the  tk^ns  uf  ice  to  give  way 
aa  it  h  gradually  being  built  up,  and  not  allow 
say  l&rge  air  spacw. 

(b)    Dairy  r^frisfration  at  appikd  on  the  farm. 

When  the  fiirmer  is  provided  with  the  projier 
facilities  for  storing  icv,  it  l>ecome«  an  imtwrtant 
point  properly  to  apply  the  cooling  effect  to  his 

rrtKluctA  without  tlw  ItiAs  of  H  great  amount  of  ice. 
t  is  necowsary.  then,  to  prc'vide  receptacles,  the 
form  of  which  depends  on  tbe  nature  of  tbe  prod- 
net  to  l>e  cooled. 

JtfiU*-  Bwrf  rri-am-  n'/rjijfni/iort.— The  moat  effect- 
In  way  to  refrigerate  milk,  cream  nr  any  perishable 
liquid  dniry  pruluot  i»  t*»  cool  it  in  ice-water.  In 
this  case.  ■  tank  (FigH.  2)A)  and  2GI),  which  holds 
ioo-watar  and  in  which  the  milk  can  be  placed  in 
a  rw«ptacl«  that  is  a  good  condnctor  of  beat,  is 
the  most  effective  metht>d  of  refrigerating.  Tbe 
tank^  holding  the  ice-waU'r  ^^hontd  l>ewell  in.4nlated 
either  by  constmcting  them  of  a  thkk  plank  of 
porous  wood,  or  by  two  thicknesses  of  thinner 
wood,  tht*  space  between  the  two  being  filled  with 
aoBW  Ensalatiag  material,  aach  aa  coal  sparks,  rock 


cotton  or  Home  other  insolator  that  docs  not  absorb 
moisture  to  any  great  extent.  Cement  tanks  may 
also  t>e  UBed  fiw  thia  piiq>o(»e-  If,  however,  a  cement 
lank  is  tti  be  built,  it  should  be  ti:i.<4ulated  thoroughly 
on  the  inside  with  Aome  non-conducting  material, 
aach  as  coal  sparks  or  cinders. 

Milk-refrigeration  in  cold  stor- 
age without  application  of  water 
is  not  accomplished  m  effectively 
am)  economically,  for  the  reason 
that  air  i»  a  good  irnn- conduc- 
tor, while  water  is  a  good  conduc- 
tor. It  is  a  common  practice  for 
milk-snpply  men  to  make  their 
lirst  attempt  to  cool  their  bottled 
milk  in  dry-air  refrigerators.  In 
nearly  every  case  this  proves  to 
be  a  failure,  unless  the  milk  has 
Keen  cooled  previously  to  an  equal 
or  lower  temperature  than  the 
temperature  of  the  drv  air  of  the 
refrigerator.  To  cool  Ewttled  milk 
effectively  and  thoroughly  it  is  best  to  place  crc-'hed 
ice  around  the  bottles  when  packed  in  this  tank. 

Butttr-  and  ekeege-refr iteration.  —  For  refriger- 
ating dairy  productt)  such  &f.  bntter.  cheese  and  the 
like,  a  refrigerator  is  necessary.  In  constructing 
a  refrigerator  there  are  several  factors  to  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

(1)  The  form.— The  same  principles  that  hold 
true  with  an  ice-house  bold  true  with  a  refriger- 
ator. It  should  be  aa  near  the  form  of  a  cube  or 
a  cylinder  as  practical,  for  the  most  efficient  work. 

(2)  Insulation.— A  refrigerator  should  be  thor- 


'iSSil^!^>lS^Sl^J^^iil«:3s:^^^^ 


P1<.  Ml.    Plai  ot  rethntatac  la  whta*  le»-waiar  i»  wed  tv 
CDol  tkt  mtlk.  Tbt  milk.  In  aau.  U  pUMd  in  Uw  lee-watirr 

tuk. 

oaghly  insalated  to  alkw  as  small  an  amount  of 
beat  as  possible  to  penetrate  the  walU. 

(.1)  I>ryn«as.— Itisvervewential  chat  tbe  refrig- 
erator shoaM  be  so  constrocted  aa  to  allow  the 
proper  circulation  of  air  to  keep  it  irj. 

Jiuulaiing  maUriaUfor  a  r^fiigtnter. — biaalal> 


REFRIGERATinN  OF  DAIRY   PROOUCTS 


237 


•Z 


^^TfT 


■5- 


:2c: 


■6- 


infc  uat^rials  used  for  small  refrigerators  are 
nnmerous.  (Fig.  26:J.)  There  are  some  verj'  impor- 
tant requiflites  that  n«;ed  t<>  l>e  token  into  coruitier- 
ation  u'hft)  ftelt^cting  inj;u1atin};  materiatii  for  a 
refrigerator:  (I) 
Tliuy  must  p«i«iw« 
tht-  power  to  reKixt 
hvat,  or  shouM  be 
non-conductors  of 
beat;  ('i)thvy  should 
hare  a  iDinimuTn 
capacity  for  ahsorb- 
jng  mnidtiire;  (3) 
they  flhoulii  nftt  fpr- 
men  t,  d  isiii  legrMte  or 
decay;  these  rL-quis- 
itos  bvin^  similar  to 
that  of  the  insulat* 
tag  materijil  of  the 
ice-house.  In  con- 
nertion  with  the«e, 
they  should  l>u  oilor- 
les8,  BO  as  not  to 
taint  the  products 
that  arc  stored  in 
the  hotiRe  ;  (■11  they 
shnoLd  not  pack  or 
settle  diiwn,  thus 
leaving  an  air  space 
above;  (fj)  they 
should  be  reanonntjly 
cheap,  anit  k-nd  to 
practirjil  Cfinditions. 
The  male  rials  that 
comply  with  tKc«e 
conditions  atL-  r<x;k 
cotton  or  minerul 
w  ool.  Crunuhitod 
cork  is  very  effect- 
ive am)  chiircDiil  is 
alim  u.se<l  with  a 
great  de;;ree  of  ruc- 
ceee.  Hair  felt  la  a 
good  insulator,  and 
planer-shavingH  bu- 
come  exceedingly 
practical  hecaut^e  of 
the  cheapnewt  at 
which  they  can  be 
wcored.  Sawdust  is 
also  good,  but  does 
not  prove  to  he  so 
effective  after  a 
year's    am-    an    do 

Planer  -  shavings. 
aporhas  frequently 
been  nsed,  but  is  not 
to  be  recommended 
for  all  conditions. 

Airspaces  are  frennently  built  in  refrigerators 
for  the  pur],Hitii*  nf  inniilntion.  While  air  may  he 
eonfrned  to  a  particular  [flace,  it  t»  very  im|Kirtant 
that  Iho  air  should  be  made  [ttrfretly  "dfad"  in 
order  to  prevent  circulation,  Variation  in  tempera- 
tore  indoces  air  to  circulate,  and  the  greater  the 


variation,  the  more  rapidly  will  it  circulate.  The 
more  rapid  the  circulation,  the  poorer  will  be  the 
insulating  etfect.  Furthermore,  air  apacea  built  for 
insulation  are  %'ery  expensive  and  impracticable^ 


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Tlitrtnal  IMilla  trknimlttwl  iwr  <la)'.  t^r  ()p|[r<«  of  tlllTi'rvnrc  of  lDtiitwr>*"r«.    Cooper'*  \<nX. 

Cirruinlron  of  air  in  rffrigrrafvr.  —  A  refrigera- 
tor should  lie  fin  eimtitnK-ti'd  an  to  indmw  the 
gre!it(>Mt  amount  of  circulation,  for  the  fa^tut  the 
air  circulateH  in  the  refrigiTator  the  dryer  will  be 
the  air  am!  the  more  ihorough  will  be  the  refrig- 
eration. Confined  air  is  &  non<ondtictor ;  hence  it 


238 


REKRIOERATION  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


'tS?i 


W* 


18  ne{.-)(»<8ary  to  tiring  the  air  into  circulation  iu 

order  to  iiriMiuw  a  cuolinn  effect. 

Bacteriuhifj/  apfitud  to  n/n'sTpm/ien.^  Decay  is 

doe  to  the  dUintcRration  of  material  by  inherent 

fernipntfl  or  by 
liAi-teria.  Bac- 
turiaare  mic;ri>- 
(ii'uiHclivin^or- 
}>anisnis  wkieh 
actundt-rcnndi- 
ticma  simiUr  t<> 
large  nrgan- 
iRmfl,  namely, 
wbens  there  is 
food,  rnoistare 
and  warmth. 
Some  ferments 
do  not  grow  at 
all  at  freezing 


■-ikMar  Banal 


•^ 


■'/'■y 


I'^'ti* 


iC    oncawarcLT 


To  illustrate  thij^  and  to  tibow  itK  practical  workinf;, 
we  will  suppose  that  air  is  cooled  by  ice  In  38°  Fahr. 
At  thia  temperature  it  wilt  hold  kfv  water  than  at 
50"  Kahr.  If  at  "lO'' Fahr.  it  was  saturated  S<l  (ler 
rnnt,  lit  ^S°  it  would  have  more  wat*?r  than  it 
reiutd  t;arry.  Tlie  excws  would  he.  cvadviwet]  and 
dujiuKiUHl  ))ti  th(!  icu.  This  i»  well  iilustratud  in 
warm  wt.'ather  when  a  glass  of  cold  water  is  drawn, 
wfaeq  the  outside  of  the  gliias  quickly  becomes  cov- 
ered with  tnoistare  and  is  said  to  "oweat."  This 
moistnre  comen  from  the  air  bt^ause  the  air  tRime- 
diatety  Kurniundinj;  the  gbucK  a  cooled  to  a  point 
whure  it  Is  saturated,  and  the  excess  of  water  is 
condensed  on  the  cold  snrface  of  the  ^Isss.  In  Jiuit 
the  same  way  rain  is  brou):;ht  about,  and  the  excess 
of  moisture  of  the  air  in  the  refrigerator  is  depos- 
ited on  the  ice.  This  cidd  air,  now  being  he-avier, 
drops  down  and  prndnres  n  \-acmim,  whicK  throws 
the  other  and  warmer  air  on  the  ice.   Drynees  is 


U--- 


FIe.  IA3.    Sectloni  thowlnc  IniuUtlon 
for  ■  tiame  buildinc- 

temperatures,  and  the  few 
that  do,  develop  very  nlowly. 
This  ia  why  refrigeration  pre-  ? 
serves  perishable  y'ToAucls. 
When  conditiouii  nra  such 
that  moisture,  to  &  certain 
extent,  can  be  withheld,  the 
preservation  can  be  brought 
about  by  higher  temperature. 
This  can  be  applied  only  on 
sach  products  as  are  not 
liquid.  «uch  aa  butter  and 
cheese.  It  is  readily  seen, 
then,  that,  if  a  refrigerator 
can  be  kept  extremely  dry. 
butter  can  be  kept  equally 
well  at  a  somewhat  higher 
temperature  than  if  moiBt. 

Temperature  governs  the 
percentage  of  humidity  of  the 
air.  As  the  air  immediately 
Burrounding  the  ice  is  chilled, 
it  becomes  heavier  and  at  the 
same  time  Us  capacity  for 
holding  moisture  In  lessened. 
Air  that  has  all  the  moisture 
that  it  can  carry  h  said  to  be 
saturated,  or  to  have  100  per 
cent  of  moisture.  The  per 
cent  (if  saturation  does  not 
refer  to  the  actual  amount 
of  water  per  cubic  foot  in 
the  air,  hut  only  to  the  pro- 
portion of  water  to  the  capac- 
ity at  any  given  temperature. 


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RKFRIGERATION   OP   DAIRY   PRODtlcrre 


239 


flnenttal  in  a  refrigerator  for  preserviDg  latter, 
ehNM  ind  the  like. 

7*c  rise  of  a  rf/rfjfra/or.— Tho  same  laws  that 
([otern  the  size  of  an  ice-house  govtrn  the  size  of 
a  refrigerator.  A  refriKenitor  should  be  built  of 
Buch  a  size  as  to  itu|>ply  the  maximum  storage 
capacity.  The  aiie  may  be  determined  by  the  out- 
pT]t  of  the  creamery  or  dairy.  Butter  should  be 
shippod  every  n'eok  unless  it  is  to  be  placi-d  in 
storage  at  extremely  low  temperature.  It  t>hould 
then  be  shipped  twice  a  week.  The  niaxitnuni  time 
for  storage  should  be  thn-e  weeki>.  For  averajje 
conditions.  co!d-slor:ige  roums  in  creameries  nwid 
not  be  much  larmier  than  to  hold  a  week's  output  of 
butter,  besides  the  extra  room  reqnired  for  hand- 
linj;  the  packages. 

For  a  creamLTv  refrinorator,  it  is  essential  and 
convenient  to  have  an  antiToom  iH-'fore  the  entrance 
of  the  refrigerator  in  order  not  to  allow  any  niure 
of  the  cold  air  to  escape  than  is  necessary.  By  this 
method,  when  entering  the  refrigerator  through 
the  anteroom,  the  anteroom  door  ahould  l:»e  closed 
before  the  refrigerator  door  ta  opened.  This  ante- 
room can  be  used  conveniL-nlly  for  printing  butter. 
Light. —It  is  notdesirablu  to  have  a  window  in 
the  cotd-atorage  room.  A  window  may  be  put  in 
the  anteroom,  however.  !f  light  is  necessary  in  the 
Btorage-room  a  lamp  or  candle  should  be  uwd. 

InnUalion. — The  walls,  eeiling  and  fioor  of  the 
refrigerator  should  be  tlioroughiy  in«ubtetl,  includ- 
ing the  anteroom.  All  lumber  n&ed  in  connection 
with  the  refrigerator  nhould  be  thoroughly  dry  and 
free  from  odor.  The  ceiling  on  the  inside,  and  the 
siding  on  the  ontnide,  should  bo  free  from  knots. 
Spruce,  box-elder  or  hemlock  is  the  beat  wood  for 
the  inside.  Soft  pine,  frr«  from  odor,  may  al&o  be 

used,  but  it  ifi 
generally  not 
suitable  for  the 
inside  ftheeting 
becaufie  of  it^ 

fj^^MMmlMlmllSmSS^t^      it  may  be  used 

on  the  outside. 
The  ceiling  on 
the  in-tide  should 
be  well  drtwsed. 
matche<l     and 

Eiw>vi'd.  I-um- 
r  ithould  bo 
dry  in  order 
that  it  may  not 
form  cracks, 
which  will  allow  the  air  to  circulate  in  the  dead- 
air  spaces,  and  at  the  samo  time  make  it  likely  to 
crack  the  paper. 

All  papers  use*!  in  connection  with  refrigerators 
for  butter  and  cheese  should  Iw  strictly  txlorloia 
and  waterproof.  Such  papi*ra  as  tarred,  felt,  straw 
and  resin  papers  are  not  »iiitabk>  fur  this  purpose. 
Only  refrigerat^tr  paper  in  suitablu  for  refriger- 
ating work.  It  is  advisable  to  use  a  double  thick- 
ness of  paper  in  all  ca«es,  and  eiich  layer  should 
overlap  the  preceding  one  at  least  six  inches, 
preferably  mor^.  The  layer  should  extend  contin- 


Wit 


ns.    DiMpim  4(  linpro[>ettr  con- 


TTT 


t^y 


jo^i 


/ 


X 


/ 


N. 


^ 


y 


uouaty  around  all  comere.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  no  breaks  occur  in  the  paper,  and  if  a  break 
is  made  it  should  be  covered  with  another  sheet. 
Dead-air  spaces  may  be  made  for  insulating  pur- 
poses, but,  owing  to  the  expensivenes.^  of  construct- 
ing an  air  space,  it  iit  advisable  to  use  some 
in:<t;hiti[ig  material  such  as  rock  cotton,  ai<be»U>s, 
mineral  wool, 
liniT  felt,  cork, 
charcoal,  or 
planer-shavings. 
The  shavings 
must  be  from 
some  odorless 
wood,  such  as 
spruce  or  hem- 
lock. 

The  thickneea 
of  insulation  dcv 
pends  on  thcma- 
teri.il  used  and 
the  construction 
of  the  walls.  In 
using  rock  cot- 
ton, at  least  four 
inehL'S  should  be 
placed  in  the 
wall,  including 
three  air  spaces 
that  would 
range  as  fol- 
lows: One-inch 
air  space,  two 
inches  of  rock 
cotton,  two-inch 
air  space,  two  inches  of  rock  cotton,  and  one-inch 
air  space.  When  asbestos  is  use<l,  »t  least  six 
inches  should  be  put  in  the  wall,  with  an  air  spatre 
of  one  inch  on  each  side.  When  planer-shavings  are 
Dsed,  an  eight-inch  air  space  should  bo  filled,  with 
no  dead-air  spaces.  For  chaff  or  cut  rye-straw,  ten 
inches  should  he  use<3. 

CoatlTudion. — The  foundations  should  be  made 
of  stone,  brick  or  concrete,  and  built  high  enough 
to  allow  good  drainage  to  the  lower  insulation. 
The  floor  of  the  refrigerator  .should  be  wt-ll  drained 
and  then  covered  with  at  least  eighteen  inches  of 
coat  cinders.  If  cinders  are  not  available,  coarse 
sand  may  l>e  used,  or  crushed  limestone.  Place  on 
this  a  very  light,  thin  coat  of  cement.  On  this 
place  joists,  which  are  supported  at  the  ends  and 
are  of  such  size  as  is  necessary  to  carry  the  weight 
of  ice  and  the  pru(luct.-<  stored.  Between  the  joists 
fill  the  space  with  insulating  material.  On  the 
joists  place  an  inch  thickness  of  Inmber,  then  some 
insulating  mnt<^rial  nnd  lastlr  flooring.  (Fig.  2t>.1.) 
Or,  place  two  thicknesses  o?  |)ji|>er  on  insulating 
material,  with  a  layer  of  fine  san<l.  on  which  place 
two  incheji  of  cement.  The  cement  should  l>c  well 
turned  on  the  sides  of  the  wall,  and  the  floor  should 
have  proper  slope  of  one  inch  to  every  two  fe«t, 
with  a  gutter  on  the  entrance  side  of  the  room  to 
hIIow  for  drainage  from  the  melting  ice.  The  drain 
from  the  gutter  should  be*  trapped  to  prevent  lb« 
air  entering  the  refrigerator. 


mm>'m^^mmmn 


PU.  tub.    OvehMd  Ice.  with  v*A 

sir  cUcuUUoB. 


240 


REPniGERATION  OP  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


Tlie  walls  should  be  constructed  of  2x4'a  set 
alternately  and  united  top  and  bottom,  with  two 
thickne&9C'3  of  torober  on  thf  inside.  The  outside 
8h(»ul<l  Ut  Cdvered  with  two  thickneswes  of  lumlwr, 
with  two  ply  of  papijr  between.  The  inside  should 
also  have  two  p!y  of  paper  between  the  two  thick- 


V?<:. 


-ly-  -— ^r  f^ 


.^ 


^ 


\    -"- 


Pig.  2S7.    A  MtlaficlciTT  laixe  oold-stO'niKe  bmrdJnc.  In  wbEcb  the  Ice  for  ttad 
yt*i  U  Moccd  as  cut. 

nea<<es  of  lamher.  and  the  last  cnurse  of  lumber 
Hhould  he  matched  ceiling. 

Thtr  insulation  should  be  made  according  to  ttie 
plan  adoptLil.  Tht-  inKululion  of  th«  c«i1in;i;  In  the 
rofriKLTator  is  not  so  eswential  aa  the  insolation  of 
the  door,  hocauae  cold  air  is  heavy  and  hovcTi*  at 
the  lowest  point,  hence  the  variation  in  tempera- 
ture  at  the  reiHng  is  \^j»»  than  around  the  base 
of  the  refrigerator.   While  the  aame  construction 


nhouW  he  applied  on  the  inside  of  the  refrigt'nitor 
and  the  same  amount  of  in-^ulation  used,  it  m  not 
necessary  to  put  on  the  iast  coursa  of  outside 
lumlwr. 

Tho  doors  entering  the  coid-atorage  room  Hhould 
be  innaliiled  in  the  :!iarae  way  iis  the  walls.  The 
etlj^  should  Ik-  beveled 
closely  to  fit  the  door 
frame.  Projectiona  should 
t»e  left  on  the  door,  which 
flhould  receive  a  covering 
of  leather,  felt  or  rubher, 
and  should  be  provided 
with  fasteners  so  an  to 
allow  no  po^iible  chanc* 
for  the  air  to  escape.  The 
inside  of  the  room  should 
receive  a  coat  of  shellac 
or  a  coat  of  refrigerator 
paint  til  prevent  any  odor 
ariftinj;  from  the  wood. 

SiyUt  of  rcfriffrntarg. 
— Refrigefatora  are  built 
in  two  styles  with  refer- 
ence to  the  air  spac"e  and 
to  the  ice-chamiwr,  to  in- 
duce the  proper  circula- 
tion of  theair.  The  first  is 
when  the  ice-chamber  Is 
pliiced  above  the  storage 
room  and  connected  with 
duifb*,  so  as  to  allow  the 
warm  air  to  rise  from  one 
duct  and  be  deposited  on 
the  top  of  the  ico.  where 
it  is  cooled  and  falls  down 
another  duct  into  the 
chnmber,  where  it  is  again 
warmed  by  the  products 
in  the  storage  room  and 
rises  to  l>c  cooled  by  the 
ice  above.  The  second 
(Fig.  Jtj-l)  method  ia  when 
the  ice  is  placed  on  the 
siile  of  the  stonigi^  cham- 
ber. In  this  case  the  air 
cooled  in  the  chamber 
enters  the  room  through 
the  lower  bed  course,  and 
the  vacuum  above  draws 
in  the  warm  air.  thereby 
inducing  a  circiihition. 

To  induce  an  air  circu- 
lation in  a  refrigerator  it 
ia  neceaanry  to  build  iluea 
Bo  that  the  down  flow  of 
the  cold  air  will  not  be  interrupte<I  by  the  upward 
flow  of  the  warm.  air.    (Fig.  2(>o.l    The  air  being 
warmed  by  the  products  store*]  in  the  refrigerat^or. 
it  raises  the  aaturation  point,  which  brinp*  on  the 
powirr  for  it  to  take  up  more  mm-tturo.   It  ahoDld 
then  have  a  chance  to  riae  on  the  warmest  aide  of 
the  refrigerator  through  a  flue  to  the  top.   Here 
the  ice  sbould   be   located,  and  aa  the  warm  air 
becomea  cooled  from  being  in  contact  with  the  ice. 


REFRIGERATION 


X 


it  reduces  the  saturation  point  anj  deputtitH  sume 
of  ita  iiKiisture  on  the  ice.  As  the  air  becomes  cool 
it  becomes  heary  and  has  a  temiency  to  flow  down. 
hence  it  18  vory  nocessary  to  pruvide  for  a  ilue  in 
the  downward  pa^atc^  of  the  atr.   (Fi^.  2G6.) 

II.    RefrigrrttiUtn  in  dairn  muwu- 
faeluring  txmetnu. 

There  -atv  two  mtthoda  of  prt>- 
diirinjt  n-frini-ratjiin  in  crtramer- 
iee:  (1)  By  nutural  ice.  <2>  By 
niL'chanical  moans.  While  it  ib 
impractical  to  u.se  nn-chsTiical 
rffri}{eratii>n  nn  the  farm,  it  can 
\iv  profitably  applied,  however,  in 
crfamerieii,  dt^jfendirij;  suniuwhat 
on  thelftcatiun.  In  northern  coun- 
tritw  where  ieo  never  fails,  and 
where  absolute  sanitary  ico  is  not 
necessary,  if  a  creatnery  is  so 
lDcnl«.>d  that  ice  can  lie  sto^red  di- 
rectly from  ponds  or  streams,  it 
may  lie  cheaper  to  priwluce  refrig- 
eratinn  by  meant)  of  iiulnral  ic^e. 
FuMowing  iti  an  experiment  con- 
ducted l»y  the  author  to  determine 
the  profitableness  of  refrigeration 
by  the  use  of  natural  nr  artificial 
means.  The  nuestion  is  one  that 
is  frequently  fli.<(cnrtSpH  by  cream- 
erymen  of  the  prettenl  tJjiy ;  hut, 
because  of  the  varying  coiiditioiiH 
in  the  different  lueulities  within  a 
small  radiurf  of  country,  it  is  very 
diflicult  to  arrive  at  even  an  ap- 
proximate conclusion.  An  exam- 
ple is  here  given  by  which  the 
comparative  cost  of  the  two  sys- 
tema  may  be  computeil. 

NaluTol-ier  refriijenslion .^As  s 
iKUfia  for  our  calculutionsa  cream- 
ery was  chosen,  handling,  on  an 
avtragc,  ID.tKHJ  pounds  of  milk 
pifday.  This  milk  id  supposed  tn 
contair  4  per  cent  of  biitt<*r-fat, 
from  which  ahnut  4.50  pouniin  of 
hutter  are  maile  daily.    It  in  euti- 
mated  that  the  tem)x.>ruture  of  the 
refriserator  must  be  mointained 
at  3tj'  or  37"  Fahr.  for  250  days 
per  ye-fir;  or.  in  other  words,  there 
are  only  115  days    in  a  year  in 
which  the  mean  temperuture  re- 
mainii  IkIdw  32**  Pafar.,  and  durin;^ 
which  time  no  ice  in  required.    It 
was  also  estimated   that   the  mean  temperature 
during  this  time  was  about  fiti"  Fahr.,  or  a  dilfer- 
ence  of  SO".    Prom  the  KUKW  pounds  of  milk.  200 
Rallons  of  cream  are  produced  dally,  which   re- 
quires Butficient  refrigeration  to  rwiuce  the  tem- 
perature. 30°,  af  milk  in  usually  separated  at  SO"  t« 
85°.  and  the  cream  churned  at  hi)'~'  to  55^  Fahr. 

The  advantaged  and  diitadvaDla^^M  of  refrJffer^ 
ating  with  natural  ice  depend  somewhat  on  the 
conHtmction  and  size  of  the  refrigerator.   In  case 

CIS 


the  refrigerator  is  so  »mall  that  it  requires  refilling 
once  a  week  in  order  to  maintain  the  temperature 
at  ;16°,  the  first  cost  of  building  the  refrigerator  ia 
retiuced.  but  the  labor  is  increased  decidedly,  as 
extra  expense  is  incurred  for  constructing  an  ic*- 
honse  tn  store  ice  for  the  season.    On  the  other 


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PIk.  168.    Details  of  bulUloc  aliawii  In  Fit.  267. 

hand,  if  a  refrigerator  is  built  of  eufliclent  aiee  to 
store  the  reqnired  ice  for  the  year,  the  first  cost  of 
construction  would  be  comparatively  great,  but  the 
coat  of  filling  for  the  year  would  l>e  materially 
reduced,  as  the  ice  is  harvested  and  placed  directly 
in  the  refrigerator  at  the  time  when  labor  1.1  cheap- 
est, and  when  ice  has  comparatively  little  value  in 
ear  northern  regions.  Thiii  kind  of  refrigerator 
once  filled  completea  the  work  and  the  expense  of 
refrigeration  for  the  entire  year.   (Figs.  267, 268.) 


DAIRY   PI 


In  thiS  past,  a  few  of  these  large-fltyla  refri^ra- 
tiiVi  were  Imilt  hy  cT&imvry  companies,  but  nearly 
all  failed  to  nccompliafa  the  intunded  rt^suits  bdow 
the  latitude  of  3S^  The  practicability  of  tht-se 
large  refriRcnitrtrs  defjonris  on  the  thoroufrhness 
of  the  insulation  and  the  latitude  in  which  th^y  are 
locattxl.  They  orw  prjjctital  only  when  walla  are 
built  80  that  Tiut  motM  than  iwvcnty-live  heat  units 
per  wiuaro  foot  are  radiatoii  in  twenty-four  hours, 
which  wmild  nocosaitatc  a  wall-<:on»truction  »iniilur 
to  that  indicalotl  in  Fip,  2*i8.  Under  these  circura- 
atancc.i  the  cosit  of  sach  large  refrigerators  would 
be  too  great  for  the  average  creameryman.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  appropriate  to  consider  tliem  in  this 
work. 

There  is  a  rlflk  to  run  in  depending  on  natural 
ice  for  the  year,  unlesp  one  is  situated  in  a  favor- 
able locality  where  the  ice  crop  has  never  failed. 
As  a  rale,  tbo  ice  contains  a  certain  amount  nf  im- 
parities, especially  when  harvested  from  a  atatjnant 
pond,  in  which  case  the  air  in  the  refrigerator  be- 
comes polluted  with  the  imptirities  set  free  by  the 
melting-  of  the  ice.  In  natural-ice  refrigerators  the 
air  is  always  heavily  laden  with  molii'ture,  making 
it  favorable  for  the  growth  of  mold  on  butter-tabs, 
which  is  a  sorions  objection.  The  lowest  tempera- 
ture secured  by  means  of  melting  ice  in  a  refriger- 
ator during  the  summer  months  ranges  from  33'  to 
45°  Pahr..  depending  on  the  insolation.  The  better 
the  in«uiatif>n  the  more  efficient  the  refrigerator. 
The  cost,  therefore,  varies  with  the  insulation  as 
well  as  with  the  size. 

Since  the  specific  heat  of  butter  is  .40fi,  the  cool- 
ing of  450  pounds  of  butter  IHV  would  require 
thirty-nine  pounds  of  ice  daily,  or  9,750  pounds  for 
250  days.  About  25  per  cent  must  be  allowed  for 
cooling  tabs  and  packages,  which  amounts  to  six 
tons  of  ice  for  cooling  -I'lO  pounds  of  packed  butt«r 

fer  year  during  the  250  days.  The  space  occupied 
y  the  -150  pounds  of  butter  packed  in  thirty-pound 
and  sixty-pound  tubs  is  fourteen  cubic  feet.  If  the 
butter  made  in  one  week  is  to  be  stored,  it  requires 
a  refrigerator  having  250  square  feet  of  wall  sur- 
face for  heat  radiation.  The  number  of  ponnds  of 
ice  that  must  be  stored  in  a  refrigerator  over  and 
above  the  amount  re^iuired  for  cooling  the  butter 
depends  again  on  the  insulation,  construction  of  the 
walls  and  wall  surface.  Thw  illiiBtration«  accom- 
panying (Figs.  269-272)  are  sections  of  walls 
ahowing  the  manner  of  con.Hruction  of  the  average 
creamery  refrigerator.  We  find  that  the  average 
coBt  of  ice  in  the  manufacture  and  cooling  of  but- 
ter is  IRl  cents  per  hundred  pounds.  The  average 
coat  pertODof  tee  placed  in  a  refrigerator  is  $2.09. 
In  obtaining  these  reflolts  it  was  the  aim  to  secure, 
aa  nearly  as  possible,  the  average  conditions  of 
northern  countries.  In  Fig.  273  is  indicated  a 
creamery  with  ice  refrigeration. 

XfefJi'jnical  rtfrigemlhn.—'taVmf^  up  the  disad- 
vantages of  mechanical  refrigeration,  we  have  : 

(1)  The  large  capital  invested). 

(2)  It  necessitates  daily  or  continual  operation, 
unless  provided  with  large  storagt^tanka. 

(3)  The  operating  expenses  for  labor,  coal,  oil, 
ammonia  and  repairs. 


(4)  The  eU'^'Sfiive  dryness  in  such  refrip'rators, 
often  causing  a  grt-at  shrinkage  in  the  pHwluct. 

(5)  Great  risk.-*  for  accidents  that  might  hapi-en, 
such  as  the  breakage  on  machines  and  the  delay 
for  repairs. 

(6)  The  expense  of  pumping  water  for  condens- 
ing ammonia. 

The  advantages  ofTsetting  these  disadvantages 
by  using  machinery  fur  refrigeration,  as  compared 
with  the  u.*c  of  natural  ice,  follow  : 

(1)  No  risks  to  run  In  securing  cold  whenever 
needed. 

l2)  Practically  no  variation  in  cost  for  produc- 
ing cold  from  year  to  year. 

(It)  The  refrigeration  is  under  better  control. 

(4)  Practically  any  temperature  may  he  obtained 
above  zero. 

(5)  The  atmosphere  is  drier  in  the  refrigerator  ; 
hence,  butter  is  less  soaceptible  tn  mold. 

(6)  Less  disagreeable  labur,  such  as  the  handling 
of  the  ice. 

(T)  The  cold-room  can  be  kept  clean. 

(8)  It  does  away  with  the  imparities  imbedded 
in  river-  and  pond-ice. 

(9)  It  provides  a  more  nearly  perfect  method  of 
cream  ripening,  resalting  in  a  better  product. 

(lOj  It  secures  economy  of  space  in  the  cool- 
room,  which  lessens  the  radiating  surface  for  the 
same  amount  of  refrigeration. 

The  coAt  of  a  mechanical  refrigerating  plant 
uniier  similar  conditions,  and  for  the  same  purp-ise 
as  the  natural-ice  refrigerators,  was  obtained  from 
the  results  of  a  teat  made  on  a  six-ton  compression 
refrigerating  plant,  which  has  been  in  operation 
for  over  two  years.  (Fig.  274.)  The  capacity  of  the 
machine  is  usually  considered  appropriate  for  a 
creamery  that  handles  10.000  pound.s  of  milk  daily; 
for,  with  ibis  capacity,  it  does  not  necewitate  a 
longer  daily  run  than  the  time  re<|uired  for  operat- 
ing the  factory  to  do  the  necessary  refrigerating 
work. 

From  the  average  results  obtained  from  this  te«i 
it  is  found  that  one  pound  of  cual  produces  a 
refrigerating  effect  equivalent  to  4.7  pounds  of  ice. 
Thia  may  iniem  to  i>e  a  small  degree  of  cold  to 
Secure  from  the  um  of  a  pound  of  coal,  yet  as  near 
as  it  can  he  estimate,  it  fairly  represents  tha 
average  amount  of  work  of  a  small  creamery 
refrigerating  plant.  This  inefficiency,  however, 
must  not  be  entirely  attributed  to  the  compressor; 
in  fact,  the  grenteflt  loss  occurs  in  the  method  of 
firing,  and  inefficient  boilerj*  and  engines.  Cream- 
eries seldom  have  high-cU'is  engines,  and  many 
are  exceedingly  inefficient ;  but  smce  the  exhaust 
steam  is  utilized  for  heating  the  skimmed  milk  and 
water,  this  loss  of  power  cannot  be  considered  as 
waste  of  fuel. 

Repairs  have  not  been  taken  into  account  in 
either  case.  The  estimates  on  these  are  very  dif- 
ferent, decoding  somewhat,  in  the  first  case,  on 
the  materials  of  which  the  refrigerator  and  ice- 
house are  built,  and  on  the  machine,  as  well  as  on 
the  skill  of  the  attendant  for  ojierating  such 
machines,  in  the  latter  cas^.  However,  it  Is  fair  to 
consider  the  coet  of  repairs  nearly  equal  in  both 


Fix.  1T2,    DeUJl*  ol  flow  and  wall  cowtioctioa  ol  Uie  ave(«c»  cfttUMry  ivbliteiatai 


REPRIGERATTON  OF  DAIRY  PRODUCTS 


248 


"^^qlM.  Thu  Tnuy  Hli^litly  favur  the  refrigeratint? 
^^H^inea.  The  aUirajjc  capacity  of  the  refrigerator 
ia  slightly  increastjii  by  the  artificial  system  com- 
pared with  the  natural-ice  refrigRraUir.  TJiKgretiter 
part  of  the  space  rH'cujtled  \ty  ice  \h  utiliuMl  by  the 
hrine-tank,  in  which  brine  is  Klureil  tu  ubj^orb  thu 
heat  which  is  cotulucUsd  thruuftb  thu  rtfrigtirator 
wiUls.  while  the  compreasw  is  not  in  oporation. 

Summarj/.—Jhe  difforence  in  coat  to  cool  ll)0 
pounds  of  packed  butter  to  30°  Pahr.,  including 
tba  cooling  of  crejim  during  the  mvinufiH: luring 
procCM.  between  the  nalnral-ic^  8yKt«in  and  the 
artiScial-rtifrigHrating  system,  is  liK  fulltiWK,  with 
the  use  of  various  tirids  of  inHulationa  in  rffrij^er- 
ators,  u  iodicuted  in  the  illiutration»  : 

Vit.  Ml    Fl«.  JTtl     Pin,  271  FIb.  'JTS 

NitnrHl-iee  Byslem 

(Fig.  273)  .  .  ,20.1c  ]&2c  17.1ic  17.li: 
ll«c)ULitlci]  r«frig- 

erating    syHtem 

(F[g.274(  .  .  .  17.8c  17.1c  16.9c  I6.80 
IVrcent  favur  me- 

clmnicaUystwn    ISl-         6%       4*        2* 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  artificial  systeiTi  uh 
the  moat  practical  for  refrigeration  in  a  crejimery 
handling  10,(XI0  pounds  <if  milk  per  day,  in  .iny 
part  uf  the  country  in  the  H»me  lulitudf.  aa  the 
state  of  IliinoiM  (whure  the  experinit-nt  waw 
maiiv),  except,  perha]>.i,  in  the  exlrvmc  northern 
part,  where  the  cost  of  refrigeration  in  cream- 
eries tnay  become  equal  by  both  systems.  Rut  even 
if  tht8  he  true,  the  ailv!int:ige  cif  refrigerating 
by  artiScial  means  t^verba lances  the  natural-ice 
RVHteni. 

The  fact  must  not  Iw  lout  sight  of  that  thu  pro- 
portionat*  cast  of  refrigerating  by  the  artificial 
ayst^m  increases  when  the  output  of  the  creamery 
decreaseft  from  the  illHstrati^ns  used  above.  Thin 
ifl  due  to  the  increase  in  capital  invested  |K'r  tun  of 
refrigerating  capiLcity  for  a  smail  ictf-machine, 

7S^  eon^rTicfioii  of  erttimery  nfrifierafarjt.—Tho 
same  conditions  that  hold  true  in  constnicting  farm 
refrigerators  aUo  hold  true  with  creamery  refrig- 
erators, except  that  posflibly  it  becomes  more 
economical  to  oae  a  heavier  inHiilatinn.  Rffrigtra- 
tion  in  connectiim  with  !4Hch  plants  need  nuL  necei)- 
iiarily  be  at  lower  degree  than  'i»  prudLtcod 
by  ice,  unlusa  ihv  cream+iry  is  connected 
with  a  cold-«torage  plant,  which  will  )>e 
mentioned  later. 

RefrigenUion  in  eheese  farlftries. —With 
tile  present  Bystem  of  making  it,  cheese  is 
hardly  practical  t<>  prm'ide  fur  any  exten- 
aive  refrigerating  rowms  for  the  jjur^iotte  of 
curing  the  cheese.   A«  cheese  in  ma«ie  at  the 
present  time,  it  needs  only  to  be  stored  until 
a  Rofficient  iiuanttty  accumutatcj*  to  allow  it 
to  be  tran.Hported  towime  large  cold-storage 
room,  where  tbts  proper  caring  of  Cheddar 
cbeaie  may  lie  done.    Hence,  a  small  cheese 
curing-room,  provided  with  a  small  ice-cham- 
ber to  keep  the  temperature  at  4.'V  to  4ri  degrees, 
aimilar  to  that  of  Kig,  '^l&i,  is  alt  that  is  ncves- 
Bary  in  connection  with  refrigeration  for  cheese 
facturiea. 


MilkJj^iliJing  ami  distributing  ptan!t.—]n  nearly 
all  of  the  large  cities  at  the  present  time  some  of 
the  milk  i.s  nhippcd  from  the  farm  in  bulk  U)  a 
hnttling  plant,  where  it  i»  filtered  or  pasteurised, 
cooled    and    bottled.    For  a   large   milk-bottling 


Mf« 


Hi.  273,    CrMJMry  wltb  ic«  letriceratlon. 

plant,  mechanical  refrigeration  is  the  most  practi* 
cable  method,  but  for  smaller  plants  ice  may  t»e  used. 
AfUT  the  milk  has  been  treated  asdesireii,  either 
filterwi  or  piistenrized,  it  shoijtd  Ih;  run  over  a 
cooler,  which  reilucea  the  temperature  to  liG"  to  40° 
Fahr.  Thin  in  the  most  important  eU^p  in  the  pres- 
L>rvation  of  milk  in  bottling  plants.  It  may  then  he 
placed  in  dry  cold-storage  rooms  for  distribution  ; 
but  the  miift  effective  practic-e  it*  to  cool  the  milk 
to  a  miKterate  degree,  bottle  it,  put  the  bottler  in 
cBfiee  and  fill  thu  cjises  with  crushed  ice. 


P 


~^' 


CT, 


^Bfvnrf 


■j^-aJ 


Fl<.  174.    Ci«unec7  with  mechanlMl  refrtieimnoB. 
III.  Rtfrigrmtinn  in  cold-sloraf^  planlt. 

Ftir  /rtr«fr.— The  object  of  the  small  refrigerator 
in  a  creamery  is  to  allow  enough  butter  to  accu- 
mulate fur  shipment  to  cold-etorage  houses  or  for 


246 


MEATS  AND  REUTED  PRODUCTg 


direct  tlJHtribntion.  Fartlicr  storai,"?  ronm  is  nut 
neoGfisitry  fur  creameries.  To  ])n»(lm-e  reTrigeration 
effoctivoiy,  for  tlie  purjiose  t>f  sttirinj;  butter  for  a 
period  of  nine  mimths  or  a  year,  an  extremely  low 
temperature  is  rcquirej,  which  necessarily  must 
accitmpany  a  well -insulated  room.  Biittvr  stortxi 
for  this  |ipri<xl  of  time  rt-qoires  a  tcmjienituni  of 
at  leiiflt  five  to  eight  degrees  below  zero.  This 
temperature  h  difTicult  Loat'cune  in  -iny  way  except 
by  mechanical  refrigeration.  HnwBvt^r,  for  storage 
rooms  in  which  butter  iit  stored  fur  a  shorter 
period  of  time,  the  temiwratxirc'  need  not  b«  so  low. 
Five  fiegreefl  al>ovo  sero  is  probal'ty  the  moett  prac- 
ticable under  Buch  conditions.  This  rcfripjration 
can  be  .lecured  by  a  frwzing  mixture,  such  aa 
crushed  ice  mtxt^  with  .viilL  Cnishoii  ice  and  iuilt 
may  bo  placed  intanka  cuntaining  a  series  of  pifie.s, 
which  are  connected  with  a  Second  t^rieH  in  the 
refrigerator.  The  circulation  induced,  by  placing 
the  cold-brine  tank  above  the  refrigerat<ir  induces 
a  circulation  of  brine  in  the  pipe  and  reduces  the 
temperature  in  tho  rtfrigerattir.  The  latter  method 
is  known  as  the  Cooper  system.  (Fig.  275.)  Here, 
again,  when  ice  must  be  used  it  is  practicable  only 
in  places  wher+j  it  can  be  pn)ductHj  cheaply. 

h'or  eheejit\—li  has  been  demonstrated  ahsolntely 
that  the  only  perfect  way  of  curing  cheese  i»  in 
cold-storage  rooms.  The  temperature  affects  the 
period  of  curing ;  the  colder  the  temperature,  the 
longer  time  it  takes  to  cure,  bat  the  better  the 
quality.  The  bext  temperature  at  which  to  hold 
cheese  ranges  from  36"  to  40"  Fahr.  This  is  easily 

fro<tuced  by  ieo,  and  when  such  a  plant  is  erected 
or  the  purpose  of  curing  chtese  alone,  ice  becomes 
a  cheaper  and  better  refrigerator  than  mechanical 


methods.  Dut  with  a  combined  cold-storage  plant, 
where  butter  ant]  other  jwrishahle  products  are 
stort-d.  it  becomes  equally  profitable  to  provide  for 
rooms  in  which  to  hold  cheese  at  40  degree«  tem- 
perature. 

The  same  laws  that  govern  the  form  of  ice- 
houses aod  small  refrigerators  should  gorem  the 


pis,  ITS.    Sectiioa  tbiuuidi  Coopei  eravlty-liilM  aratcoB 
ot  ttitiena.tlaL.  for  cmuneir- 

construction  of  a  coldvstorage  room.  The  ro*>m 
should  be  built  of  such  a  »ize  as  to  supply  the 
maximum  .ttnrage  capacity,  as  estimated  by  thu 
])rfjducts  to  be  purchased  from  the  commuuity. 

Litcraturt. 

The  following  referenc«-8  should  be  consulted  : 
Scibol,  CompcniTof  Refrigeration  ;  C«o[>er,  Practi- 
cal Cold  Storage.    [See  pp.  265-270,  Vol.  I.] 


CHAPTER  IX 


MEATS  AND  RELATED  PRODIXTS 

Dy  \V.  D.  HO,\RD 


ilAT-PRODlTCTIOK   LS  ABOUT  TO  UNDERGO  A  GREAT  CHANGE  in  North 
America,  consequent  on  the  change  in  farming  conditions.    It  is  evident  to  all 
iiit^iltigent   obstTvers    that   the   evolution  of  American  farm-life  will    make 
several  mark£«d  changes  in  tho  supply  "f  meat.  The  great  ranges  where  cattle 
.  r  i^-i^R6'/       and  sheep  can  be  raised  cheaply  to  a  certain  .-rtage,  are  fast  being  eliminat«l.  The 
wf  \'V*  WbiH::'     supply  of  hogs  has  always  come  from   the  corn-growing  and  dairy- producing 
districts.    In  such  districts  the  people  will  be  ready  for  the  exercise  of  a  more 
scientific  and  economic  judgment  in  iinler  to  meet  the  commercial  demands  of  the 
meat  supply.  At  the  bottom  lies  the  factor  of  profit  to  tht;  meat-producer.   If  he  can  not 
produce  meat  at  a  profit,  then  the  working  of  the  merciless  taws  of  economics  will  rele- 
gate him  to  the  rear,  as  it  has  done  very  largely  in  England,  and  the  United  States  will 
become  an  importer  of  beef  and  mutton  from  the  great  ranges  of  South  America,  Ans- 
tralia.  and  Siberia. 

Wo  must  determine  whether  there  is  any  way  that  the  American  farmer  can  produce 

good  beef  at  a  fair  profit  —  whether  the  .American  market  will  bold  its  pricos,  so  as  to 

give  such  certainty  to  the  future  as  will  warrant  him  in  organizing  hii  farm  on  a  special  meat-producing 

basis.  The  question  of  demand  and  supply  regulates  very  greatly  the  question  of  price.    Quality  is  an 

additional  factor.  It  ia  very  evident  that  there  is  not  wide  profit  in  producing  a  low  grade  of  beef  or 


MEATS  AND  RELATED  PRODUCTS 


247 


UQtton.  The  bust  proSt  liiis  with  the  bost  quality.  We  most  determint',  then,  huw  ili'm  quality  Ik  ti>  be 
secured  with  profit. 

First  of  nil,  is  the  question  of  breed.  On  this  point  there  hsis  been  a  much  greater  advance  in  juilg- 
meiit  and  understanding  th:iD  on  the  tnatt«r  of  economic  feeding.  We  have  clear  and  de<:ided  bre>edd  uf 
beef  cattle  and  mutton  ttbuei*,  and  no  man  ni'i-d  stumble  or  go  fur  wrong  in  this  direction. 

He  second  element  in  the  prfl.fital)lo  production  of  high-quality  meat'^  concerns  the  que;Stton  of  economic 
feeding,  of  reducing  food-prodtiction  on  the  farm  to  its  lowest  percentage  of  waste,  ns  welt  as  of  cost,  and 
thus  expondtng  that  food  with  the  highest  efficiency  in  meat-production ;  these  two  pnthlems  are  as  yet 
but  iraperf«tly  understood  by  the  American  fanner.  Graas  and  com  are  the  fourwJation  of  alt  mtat- 
producttoa  in  North  America.  Therefore,  the  meat  question  involves  the  other  question  as  to  whether 
the  American  fanner  can  produce  gra^ift  and  corn  profitably  —  whether  ho  can  grow  grass  and  corn  more 
■OOCMafolly  and  profitably  than  he  ia  now  doing.  About  forty  per  cent  of  the  meat-producing  power  of 
the  corn-plant  is  wasted  at  pre-sent,  in  alt  of  the  great  corn-prodncing  sections.  This  forty  per  cent  is 
contained  in  the  stalk.  If  the  entire  plant  is  cut  at  the  glazing  stage  and  housed  in  ftilns,  we  are  con- 
vinced that  it  would  prove  a  very  cheap  and  efficient  food  for  the  prodoctioa  of  beef  and  mutton.  Hut 
this  view  of  thu  case  calls  for  a  thorough  recon.-jtruction  of  the  farmer's  ideas  of  farm  economics.  The 
silo  ha.s  long  been  itnown  us  om  of  the  most  ef{icii.'nt  and  profitable  methods  for  rulucing  the  cost  of 
milk,  proviiLed  that  the  silage  is  properly  fed  to  a  cow  that  can  produce  milk  profitably.  The  same  law 
applies  with  equal  force  in  meat-production. 

The  wonderful  spread  of  alfalfa-culture  east  of  the  Missouri  in  the  last  ten  years  has  added  immensely 
to  the  jKissibilitiefi  of  cheap  milk-,  beef-  and  mutton-prmluction.  N'u  more  eflicient  or  cheaper  ration  c:in 
be  found  for  meat-making  than  good  field-corn  silage  and  well-cured  alfalfa  hay.  If  the  animals  are 
comfortably  and  healthfully  boused,  a  ration  of  thirty-five  to  forty  pounds  of  corn  silage  and  ten  pounds 
of  bright  alfalfa  hay  requires  hut  fifty  per  cent  of  the  ordinary  grain  ration  fully  to  complete  the  circle 
of  the  ration. 

Here,  in  my  belief,  lies  the  mode  of  solving  the  problem  of  profitable  beef-  and  mutton-production  from 
the  American  farm  standpoint.  Meat-production  must  become  a  farm  operation,  with  good  supplemen- 
tary feeding,  rather  than  a  range  or  mere  pasture  practice.  We  must  apply  to  it,  therefore,  the  careful 
and  intensive  methods  of  modern  agriculture.  Tha  more  the  American  farmer  studies  economical  grass,- 
corn-  and  alfalfa-production,  economical  and  healthful  stabling,  and  the  science  of  feeding,  together 
with  the  use  of  the  silo,  the  more  folly  will  he  put  himself  in  posseSHion  of  the  e-ssentials  of  economic 
and  profitable  meat-prodactinn.  Many  other  considerations  grimp  themselves  almiit  this  central  etTort, 
as  the  proper  lighting  and  ventilating  of  stables,  guarding  against  tnberculosts  and  oth(ir  dise^ases,  for 
the  more  we  increase  the  animal  population  on  a  given  area  the  greater  are  the  chances  for  infection 
and  disease  conditions. 

lUtimately,  therefore,  it  is  a  question  of  the  education  of  the  American  farmer  out  of  his  wasteful, 
DDScientiiic  practice  and  altitude  of  mind.  If  the  same  oshaustive  economy  of  management  were  prac- 
ticed in  the  raising  of  beef  cattle  as  is  practiced  by  tho  packers  in  their  slaughter,  this  country  could 
prodace  meat  prolitahly  and  abundantly  from  the  Atlantic  to  th^  Pacific,  and  meat-production  wonld  not  be 
a  nid-we«tern  practice  alone.  The  limits  now  assigned  for  meat-production  are  based  on  tack  of  nnder- 
Standing  of  scientific  and  economic  methods,  rather  than  in  the  real  nature  of  things.  As  a  nation  of 
famwrs,  we  arc  as  yet  handicapped  with  pioneer  methods  of  crop-production,  and  the  curing  and  prepa- 
ration of  crops  for  animal -feeding.  The  great  mass  of  farmen*  have  waflted  the  fertility  of  their  suil  to 
the  extent  that  crop-production  is  doubled  in  exi>ense.  It  is  primarily  necessary  to  tfhea[H*ii  and  organize 
crop-production.  Most  men  look  nt  the  market  end  only,  considuring  the  price,  which  they  can  not  control ; 
but  they  should  look  first  at  the  farm  end,  the  cost  of  production,  which  is  largely  within  their  control, 
if  they  could  but  see  it.  Herein  lies  very  largely  the  solution  of  the  question  of  profitable  production  of 
either  meat  or  milk  on  the  North  American  farm. 

The  general  change  in  the  meat  .litimtion  i.t  indicated  in  the  following  editorial  in  the  Wall  Street 
JournJil  for  November  27, 1907  ;  and  this  editorial  is  Rigni(ie.int  as  esprwsing  the  professional  financial 
judgment  on  some  of  the  principles  governing  agricultural  investment : 

"The  life  of  a  western  state  in  which  agriculture  is  the  chief  eonxce  of  weatth.  presenta  certain 
phuee  of  investment  interests  which  apply  to  no  other  portion  of  the  country  to  the  same  extent.  The 
•oarces  of  rural  wealth  of  such  a  state  :is  Missouri,  whose  annual  agricultural  report  li  at  hand,  are  live- 
stork  and  grain.  Their  pr(*i*'(':nt  state  of  pri)ducti»n  shows  that  the  old  order  of  farm  industry  has  passed 
away  and  that  the  new  has  become  well  established. 


4 


248 


UIlKijaLSG,  CARING  FOR  ANU  PRt:SERVlXU   MEATS 


"The  new  pyKk'm  of  meat-product  inn,  for  insUince,  is  haaed  upun  exiu't  ulmen'utton  (if  the  t^ind  and 
quantity  of  feed  as  a  factor  In  preparatmn  of  animaU  for  market.  It  i>i  not  only  a  question  of  quantJlj 
of  prodnct,  but,  also,  one  of  quality.  The  feeder  of  cattle  mtwt  know  at  what  weight  at  ftelUng  time  the 
maximum  net  prtifit  emerges.  This  illnMratea  the  way  in  which  scientific  experiment  enables  the 
grower  of  live-stock  to  find  thp  p^iint  of  larf^est  retarn.  for,  it  is  this  principle  that  controls  the  question 
of  breeding,  feeding  am]  miirJieting  everv  variety  of  stock  which  tht  we«tern  farm  puts  upon  the 
market. 

"The  aame  print^iple  nf  mnximnm  average  net  returns  governs  the  investment  in  dairying  as  a 
branch  of  the  cattle  induHtry,  Uctb  the  efficiency  of  the  dairy  cow,  as  compared  with  the  bp<>f  uteer  as 
a  producer  of  human  food,  is  in  constant  competition.  It  has  been  found  from  Mij«onri*«  exiterience, 
that,  in  this  race  iwtween  the  two  types  of  food  supply,  the  beef  industry  is  the  first  to  go.  One  reason 
for  this  is  that  among  meat  products  the  costlieat  is  beef,  with  mutton  a  close  second,  and  pork  third. 
It  is  the  experience  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  that,  in  marketing-values,  hogs  are  the  best 
sellers,  sheep  ranking  neit,  and  cattle  below  either.  Here  again  is  a  cause  why  investment  in  keef- 
production  is  gradually  narrowing  its  territory  and  yielding  to  more  profitable  linps.  It  If  because  the 
margin  between  prodiicing-cost  and  eel  ling-price,  in  an  agricultural  reRion  like  that  of  the  Miflsisaippi 
valley.  It  lower  in  bvef  than  in  any  other  of  meat  animals. 

"  Applying  the  same  principle  to  meat-producing  animals,  afl  compared  with  dair>'ing  stock,  the  rela- 
tive costs  are  found  to  be  in  favor  of  the  latter  and  against  the  former.  It  is  found  that  dairying  thrives 
better  in  hard  timers  and  the  beef  business  best  in  prosperous  times.  As  land  becomes  higher  priced,  the 
work  of  raising  cattle  for  fattening  on  the  farm  must  he  relegated  to  the  grazing  lands  nf  the  West 
But  as  thefie  lands  disappear  it  is  evident  that  the  cost  of  young  stewk  prfiduction  must  lie  inerefti=vd, 
making  feeders  too  exjK-nfiive  for  profitable  purchase.  Then  the  western  farmer  in  such  states  as  Missouri, 
Illinois  and  Iowa  has  before  him  the  choice  of  selling  his  grain  or  of  utilizing  his  products  in  dairying 
aa  the  mure  profitable  line  of  the  two. 

"  It  thus  becomes  apparent  thiit  within  the  surplus  corn  belt,  the  whole  central  problem  of  farm 
investment  revolves  around  the  qnestitm  of  the  function  of  live-stock  in  high-grade  farming.  On  lands 
worth  $100  an  acre,  or  perhaps  more,  no  vacillating  policy  will  meet  the  nee*ts  of  eucce.'wfijl  manage- 
ment. To  gel  the  largest  net  profit  per  acre,  the  line  nf  pro<Juction  upon  which  farm  eif'irL^  center 
must  have  the  character  of  permanent  profitableness.  Yt^t  It  miut  preserve  in  itself  such  a  degree  of 
adaptability  to  changes  us  to  be  ablo  to  substitute  the  low  for  the  high  elements  of  cost  whenever  profits 
are  impcrik-d. 

•"Thanks  to  the  experiment  stations,  maintained  jointly  by  state  and  federal  outlay,  each  state  is 
experimenting  in  ndu^ance  of  actual  farming  experience,  so  that  by  the  time  the  problem  becomes 
jiCTute  in  farm  i)ractii:t',  lhe)»e  stations  have  alawly  demonHtrated  the  path  along  which  the  more  rather 
than  the  less  profitable  inve-Htment  lies.  No  other  bitsine-ss  really  has  a  surer  fonndation  for  the  present 
and  the  future  than  one  in  which  foresight  is  demons trnted  so  complet«0y  ns  to  solve  its  pr»bh>m3  in 
principle  by  thp  time  thpy  havK  duvelnpwl  in  practice.  The  meaning  of  all  this  to  th«  business  world  lies 
in  the  fact  of  permanent  stability  in  agricultural  welfare  combined  with  a  progressive  spirit  of 
American  farming." 


DKKSSING.  CAKING  ['OK  AND  PRIiSKRVlNG 
MEATS 

Hy  Antiretr  Rons 

Cleantinwss  should  be  the  mottoof  everyone  who 
attempts  to  dre-ss  and  cure  meat  for  human  food. 
All  arrangements  for  slaughtering  and  for  cutting 
the  carcasses  shnuld  be  made  with  a  view  to  pro- 
viding clean,  wholesome  food.  I>irty  carcas.^es  and 
slovenly  handling  of  the  cut  pieces  are  extremely 
objectionable.  Not  only  are  they  objectionable  to 
the  sense  of  sight,  but  dirt  and  blood  are  a  detri- 
ment to  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  meat  when 
curing  is  attempted. 

Tile  important  factors  concerned  in  the  proper 
handling  of  meats  are  discussed  in  thi.s  article. 
Somewhat  full  notoB  are  given  on  the  curing  of 
meats  for  ditferent  purposes ;  and  the  related  sub- 


jectji  of  rendering  tallow,  and  the  making  of  soap 
and  candles,  are  given  notice  at  the  end. 

Sdrttion  "^  animais. 

The  selection  of  animaU  for  meat  is  of  vital  im- 
portance. Healthy  animals  in  at  least  fair  condi- 
tion as  to  fatness  are  the  most  desirable.  If  sutfer- 
ing  from  fever  or  any  constitutional  di-rangement 
of  the  system,  the  flesh  from  even  a  fat  animal  will 
not  be  wholesome  food.  tVequently  animals  are 
killed  that  are  known  to  be  slightly  infected  with 
actinomycosis  (Inmpy  jaw),  tuberculosis  (conimmp- 
tioni.  cholera,  fevers,  and  other  diseases  affecting 
the  muscular  structure.  While  there  is  little  direct 
evidence  that  meat  from  such  animals  is  harmfol 
to  health  when  properly  cooked,  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  distinguish  between  the  incipient  form  of 
disease  and  the  fully  developed  form,  or  to  know 


DRESSING,  CARING  VOli  AND   PRESERVING   MEATS 


249 


wken  the  disease  becomes  virulent  or  harmful.  It 
ia  aafer,  theivfure.  to  uau  fur  food  on]y  iU'eat  fnjm 
tnimalfi  known  to  ht  in  |x>rffct  hvalih.  Fle»h  from 
uimald  that  have  only  recently  recovered  from  an 
attack  of  fever  or  other  disease  is  not  Ukolv  to  care 


»**•. 


15'.:. 


Viz.  in.     B«el  trPt*    ChEmploD  Sli'inhuin  h«jfer, 
Lailr  Amy  7ih, 

well,  nor  to  keep  wall  after  curing ;  neither  is  the 
flavor  of  such  meat  of  the  best.  Bruises,  broken 
bones,  or  like  injuries  have  the  same  effect  on 
the  meat  as  ill-health,  anfi  unleaa  the  animal  can  iie 
bled  and  drejwori  immediately  after  such  an  acci- 
dent, it  it*  not  bei^t  to  use  the  flesh  for  food.  A  rise 
in  the  temperature  of  the  animal  just  previous  to 
BlaHKhterinB  is  likely  to  result  in  etrincy,  gluey 
meat  that  cures  badly,  frequently  souring  in  the 
proceBs. 

Condition. 

A  reasonable  amonnt  of  fat  la  desirable  in  meat 
to  Rive  juiciness  and  contrast  in  flavor.  Within 
certain  limits,  the  fatter  the  animal  the  better  the 
meat.  Common  practice  hait  perhaps  put  a  safe 
limitation  to  the  decree  of  fatnuss  that  shoulJ  be 
attained,  by  dirtnting  the  sellinj;  or  alaoghtering 
of  the  animal  us  soon  aa  it  cea.-»ea  to  make  profita- 
ble uains  on  good  food.  It  is  a  common  observation 
among  butchers  that  an  animal  that  is  gaining 
rapidly  in  flesh  and  w.-ipht  usually  makes  ko<A 
meat.  One  that  is  no  lonjror  gaininjr  flesh  or  that 
is  loaing  flesh  rarely  returns  meat  of  jjood  <|uality 
or  texture.  Meat  from  the  first-described  animal 
stands  up  firmly  under  the  knife,  while  that  from 
the  latter  shrinks  in  volume  when  cut.  through  the 
lorn  of  water,  and  when  cooked  becomes  tough  and 
dry. 

Ase. 

Age  affeeti  the  flavor  and  texture  of  meat  to  a 
gr«tat  extent.  While  it  is  not  ^foasible  U>  fix  the  age 
at  whieh  an  animal  will  be  best  for  me:it,  it  is  well 
known  that  meat  from  old  wnimals  is  more  likely  to 
Us  tough  than  that  from  young  animals.  Meat 
from  extremely  young  animals,  however,  lacks 
flavor  and  is  not  so  nourishing  and  substantial  aa 
that  from  animal*  that  are  fully  matured.  Veal  ia 
often  taken  much  too  yiung.  An  old  animal  well 
fattA>ned  and  in  good  physical  condition  would  1* 
preferable  to  a  young  one  in  poor  condition  and 
thin  in  flesh. 


Qttoiiiij. 

The  best  quality  of  meat  is  usually  secured  from 
well-bred  animals,  Scrub  ami  native  »tock  are  fre- 
quently coante  in  bone  and  texture  of  fletth,  and  do 
not  fatten  so  readily  as  stock  that  has  been  brought 
to  a  better  standard  of  quality  by  several  gene- 
rations of  selections  for  a  »|>e(;ilic  purfMise.  Animals 
that  are  low  and  .smooth  in  frame,  wide  in  propor- 
tion to  depth,  and  thickly  fleshed,  generally  yield 
a  larger  percentage  of  drexsed  carcas^t  than  ani- 
mals of  an  opposite  conformation.  (Fig.  137t>.)  In 
addition,  such  animals  trim  out  less  bone  and  yield 
a  larger  proportion  of  meat  from  the  choicer  cuta 
of  the  carcaffs.  It  is  u.tually  found,  also,  that  the 
thick-meatedtyiwsof  animals,  when  properly  grown 
and  fed,  furnish  a  more  nicely  "  marbled  "  Hesh  (Kig. 
(!T),  that  is,  a  better  mingling  of  the  fat  and  lean, 
and  that  the  bundle.^  of  muttcle  fibers  comiK>sing 
the  lean  part  of  the  meat  are  finer  in  texture,  larger 
in  votome  and  bound  together  with  proportionately 
less  connecti^'e  ti.-wue.  Such  meats  are  found, 
therefore,  to  be  more  tender  and  palatable. 

Equipment  ffir  handlini}. 

Only  a  few  simple  tools  are  necessary  for  dress- 
ing and  cutting  farm  merits.  A  six-inch  carved 
knife  for  skinning,  a  six-inch  sticking  knife,  a 
steel,  an  axe,  a  pritch,  a  candlejttick  scraper,  and  a 
twenty-eighl-inch  meat  saw  are  sufficient  tools  for 
rapid  and  effective  work.  A  twelve-  or  fourteen- 
inch  steak  knife  should  be  added  to  the  equipment 


\-^. 


}y-. 


mil 


i 


'^ 


•=)\ 


V.i>! 


/>.  ■>' 


'Wi 


r^  •'^ 


STj^^k 


PU-  7TI.    Circiu  ot  bMf  rftlwd  by  hlldtlu  a  bone  la  ■  6-liiek 

block  uii]  uclcle  Bu*i<«o4ed  Itom  a  aoB<r«iUent  trat.    Tlip 
b«vf  It  o\\\  q\  the  nftrti  ol  dog*  «r  olhar  katiiMla. 


250 


DKESSING.  CARING   FOR  AND  PRESERVING   MEATS 


for  slicing  heavv  .itcak  when  the  carcasftes  are  cut 
up.  Arraagements  should  be  made  for  raising  the 
carcaaaes  from  tbe  ground  or  Iwnch,  but  since 
local  sntToundings  nfton  determine  the  mannt-r  of 
raJKinc,  it  iti  only  BURgesUK!  that  a  block  .ini3  tackle 
eu^jjumlcd  from  a  trtt*.  a  homi>-iniu)e  windlaas,  or 
even  a  lever  can  oftun  be  uiiwi  i»  good  advan- 
tage and  at  little  ezpenae.    (Figs.  277,  27S.)   One 


sF^^ 


I: 


J'\ 


9^ 

rtM-  in.    A  HADdy  device  for  UnniiiK  n.p  »  hoc- 

of  the  eiwentials  to  a  clean  carcasA  is  a  clean  place 
in  whir-h  to  do  the  work.  A  clean  spot  on  tlie  griu», 
or  a  kvl  of  citan  straw  far  removed  from  foul 
odor»4,  ffL-sb  paint  or  nlbt-r  objectionable  ItiiriLs,  and 
where  thL^re  is  Koud  drainage,  is  satiafftctory  in 
most  cjises.  VVhi-n  the  drussiiig  uf  meats  m  much 
practiced,  a  (ilarik  or  cemont  tioor  that  can  be 
thoroughly  denned  and  drained  is  preferable. 

Preparation. 

Animuls  intended  forEtlaughterBhoold  be  kept  off 
feed  twenty-four  to  thirty-sis  bourn,  On  full  feed, 
the  ayntem*  \s  gorged  and  the  MimhI,  laden  with 
assimilated  nutrivntx,  is  driven  to  the  extremities 
of  the  blood- veiweU  or  capillaries.  Undur  such  con- 
dttioB\s  the  blood-ves3i-la  do  not  drain  out  ro 
thurunghly  when  the  animal  is  bM  and  a  reddish, 
unattractivtt  appearance  13  given  the  carcaw. 
Food    in    the  atomach   decomjwdes   rapidly   after 


elaughtcir,  and  when  dwasing  is  done  slowly,  the 
gases  generated  by  the  decomposing  food  often 
taint  the  meat.  Water  should  be  given  freely  op  to 
the  time  of  slaughtpr,  a«  it  tends  towani  a  normal 
temperature,  and  waiihi«  thv  elFet«  matter  ont  of 
the  Kystum,  resulting  in  whiLtr  fat  And  a  more 
invitingcarca.'W.  ExcttuniL-nt previous  toslaught^-r- 
ing  also  prevents  the  proper  drainage  of  the  hlocjd- 
vessels,  uni!  if  extreme  will  cause  souring  of  the 
meat  soon  after  dressing.  Overheating,  occasioned 
by  violent  exercise,  such  i\s  a  rapid  run  about  tho 
pasture,  ia  almost  sure  to  lead  to  bad  results.  The 
flesh  from  an  animal  BubjetHetl  to  such  treatment 
IB  nsunily  jiale  in  color  and  often  develops  a  sour 
or  putrid  odor  wilhtn  LhreL-or  four  days  after  lieing 
dressed.  Hruises  causo  blwjd  to  w^tUe  to  the  part 
of  the  body  arfecled  anil  present  an  uninviting 
appearance,  and  the  loss  of  a  cnnsiderabte  quantity 
of  meat  results.  A  thirty-six  honr  fast,  an  abun- 
dance fif  wat^r,  Ciiretul  handling,  and  rest  liefore 
slaughtering  are  aclvisalik\  HiniTe  they  affect  materi- 
ally the  llavur  and  keeping  qualities  uf  the  meat. 

Dretfinff  iMtltc. 

In  dressing  cattle,  the  animal  should  be  secured 
to  a  post,  tree  or  other  fixed  object  near  the  place 
of  slaughter,  by  a  piece  of  rope  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  or  larger  in  diameter.  By  making  a  maning 
noose  an»und  the  animal's  neck,  and  in  front  of  the 
horn  un  the  left  side,  the  face  will  be  left  bare  for 
the  litunning  blow.  If  the  animal  ia  polled,  a  halter 
on  the  head,  or  a  noose  about  the  neck  will  suilice. 
The  other  end  of  the  rope  should  be  passed  around 
the  post  or  through  a  common  hay-fork  pnlley 
attached  to  or  near  the  base.  The  head  shonSd  be 
drawn  down  to  the  ground  as  closely  as  pussible, 
and  the  animal  stunned  by  a  blow  in  the  center  of 
the  forehead,  midway  l>etween  the  horns  and  eyes, 
and  on  line  with  the  center  of  tho  face.  IFig.  iiTS.) 
Shooting  has  tho  same  effect,  but  the  use  of  fire- 
arms aliout  farm  buildings  is  attended  with  some 
danger  and  the  utte  of  the  axe,  therefore,  is  advis- 
able if  the  animal  can  be  securely  fiLstened. 

J?/«</iK_(/.  -  Hleeding  is  best  accomplished  by 
sticking  the  animal  just  in  front  of  the  breast-hone 
or  sternum,  (t^g.  '3ni)  The  skin  should  be  split 
open  over  the  windpigie  for  a  distance  of  fifteen  to 
twenty  inches.   An  incision  some  four  to  six  inches 


Pig.  in.  PnpuliuitotUu.istMi.   Puim  to  lUilu  khown  br 
eio«M>d  d«lt«d  Hum  an  li«w4. 

deep,  depending  on  the  size  nf  the  animal,  should 
then  be  made  on  either  side  of  the  windpipe,  Ibe 
knife  being  held  in  direct  line  with  the  npinal  column. 
In  this  way  the  arteries  from  the  heart  and  tho 


DRE3SIN0,  CARINC   FOR  A\D   PRESERVING  MEATS 


251 


jBtrnlti'"  Toiiw  are  both  severe^cl  close  to  the  heart 
where  th«  openinRs  are  large  and  n'sistanctf  »  not 
p^iiU  \i  a  regult,  the  blooJ  flon>A  freely  and  is 
more  completely  slphonuJ  out  uf  thu  smaller  btood- 


Fic-IH.    StlckJDi:  II  b-.'.  I . 

tifftfi-hnni'  '.'I  I    :■■     ■ 
Bark  ,.t  ki.ir.    .^ 

wilts  M1<1  ArV'Ti 

■nd  aboTo  wiiid^po. 


I'l   tuHunI  I'lp  of  ilinuMT* 

1     froiil   of    litYFiit'linnr   ■"■! 

ti.var(l  IhrustB  of  kntte  bnlow 


veueb  and  capi!laric4  near  the  surface.  Th&  pt^ara 
■hoold  not  be  punctured  whh  th&  knife,  or  blood 
will  flow  into  the  chest  cavity,  causing  a  reddish 
tinge  on  the  inside  of  the  riba,  which  is  not  desir- 
able. Not  90  much  flkill  is  required  simply  to  cat 
the  throat  ttack  of  the  jawa.  but  Heeding  will  be 
neither  »o  thorough  nor  so  rapid. 

Skiiininfi  (Fifj  281). — Aa  the  animal  liwi  on  ita 
Bide,  the  face  and  aides  of  the  head  should  bo 
skinned  back  to  and  over  the  poll,  the  tonguu  being 
r«tnoved  by  catting  on  each  side  next  to  the  jaw. 
ind«rerinpfrom  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  Bvplunc- 
ing  the  tynjfue  imnii,*diat<?ly  into  a  pai!  of  warm 
wat<<r  and  scraping  it  with  a  knife,  it  can  be  easily 
and  qcickly  cleaiiwl.  After  removing  thft  head,  the 
animal  should  be  rolled  ot  ita  back  and  hold  thew 
by  the  use  of  a  pritch, — a  stick  thirty  to  thirty-two 
inched  long  with  a  spike  in  each  end.  Beginning  on 
the  front  legs  by  cutting  across  at  the  lower  knee- 
joint,  the  skin  ahonld  be  split  over  the  back  of  the 
leg  below  the  knee  and  skinned  down  around  the 
ehank,  leaving;  the  dew-clawji  on  the  bide.  The 
brisket,  nt^ck  and  forearm  should  not  be  skinned 
until  the  animal  has  been  hung  np,  the  covering 
aiding  greatly  in  keeping  the  meat  clean.  Cutting 
acrooB  the  cord  over  the  hind  nhin  will  relax  the 
foot.  The  skin  may  be  split  and  the  shank  removed 
aa  in  handling  the  fortfli'i:;^.  Th«skin  should  then  be 
opened  over  the  midlini.>  from  breast  to  rectum.  With 
a  very  sliarp  knife  held  nearly  fl;it  againat  the  sur- 
face of  the  tightly  stretched  hide,  the  skin  may  be 
removed  donn  over  the  sides  of  tho  body.  If  the 
Birok£6  of  the  knife  are  in  line  with  the  direction  of 

the  layers  of  mo-l- 
clea,  there,  will  he 
l&M  likelihood  of 
gashing  into  the 
membrane  cover- 
ing tho  floah. 
Oaahos  in  this 
covering  or  in  the 
flesh  are  objeo- 
tinnable.  s\»  mold 
forms  quickly  in 
BiK'h  placm  and  i« 
ranored  with  dilficnlty.  Tho  appcar^ncu  of  the  car- 
cass b  also  much  better  when  it  is  left  smooth.  A 
ooaiw  cloth  and  a  pail  of  hot  water  should  t>e  at 
liand  vhile  skinning  and  all  blood  sponged  from  the 


"^'-^^m 


Ftc,  2>1.    Sliowlu  nods  oi  itaitliia 
U  bUb  ■  bcH. 


surface  before  it  sets?.  The  cloth  should  be  wrung 
nearly  dry  for  the  purp^juie  and  no  wat«r  left  on  the 
carca.-*.'  to  form  slime  or  become  streaky  and  collect 
dirt.  The  carcass  should  be  o]»ened  at  the  belly, 
pulling  the  inteJitines  out  tij  one  side  and  cutting 
the  Btpinuni  and  pelvis  with  a  saw  or  sharp  ax. 
The  windpipe  and  gullet  should  bo  raised  and  the 
diaphrapin  and  pleura  cut  loose  along  the  lower 
part  of  the  cavity.  The  carcass  should  then  be 
raised  to  a  height  at  which  it  ts  convenii-nt  to 
remove  the  hide  over  the  thighs,  rump,  hips  and 
back.  (Fig.  282.)  The  intestines  may  also  be  best 
removed  at  this  time  by  loosening  the  rectum  and 
allowing  them  to  drop  down  over  the  paonch.  The 
"bed  fat"  lining  the  pelvis  and  the  kidney  fat  should 
not  be  disturbed.  But  little  cutting  will  ben&cessarj 
for  the  remainder  of  the  operation.  Ordinarily  the 
entrails  will  drop  out  of  th'eir  own  weight  as  tba 
carcass  is  raised.  The  intestines  and  gall-bladder 
should  be  handled  carefully  to  avoid  spilling  the 


/^j 


isri  \ 


^. 


i 


r<fA] 


Pic  2t2.  Skinnlni  the  shouMen  and  neck  al  a  beel.  The 
currjiiiii  u  t»ft  riivHTMl  iiiiVLl  raiiwU  from  Lli«  ■r»(>liJ,  tat 
tKi-  «■!(«  uf  rlesDllttpm*. 

contents  over  the  meat.  Tho  hide  may  be  removed 
over  the  shoulders,  arms  and  neck  ;  and  the  liver, 
lungs  and  heart  removed  as  the  carca-ss  is  split 
into  halves  and  raised  from  the  ground.  Pinally, 
all  hlniid  and  dirt,  Imth  inside  !ind  out,  should  be 
sponged  otF,  scraggy  pieces  and  bloody  veioa 
trimmed  olf,  and  the  carcase  left  to  cool  and  aat. 

Vrai. 

Veal  for  home  u«e  shoaH  lie  handled  and  dreiwed 
in  much  the  same  way  as  beef.    In  dressing  for 


252 


DRESSINa  CAIUSG   Fitlt   AN'D   PRESERVL\G   MEATS 


^.1 


shipment,  only  the  head,  feet  and  entraiU  are 
removed.  The  Vwvr  and  ttweetbreada  are  left  in  the 
carcass  and  the  skin  is  not  removtid  but  serves  to 
keep  the  flesh  clean  in  shipping, 

Hides  are  easily  kept  in  the  North  during  the 
winter  by  freeKing.  although  salting  is  a  precau- 
tion. In  warm  weather,  however,  they  should  be 
spread  out  flat,  hair  side  down,  and  all  parts  nib- 
bed thnrouphly  with  salt.  If  more  than  one  skin  is 
to  lie  s-ilterl,  they  may  be  spread  one  on  top  of  the 
other  and  salted  as  iipread  with  the  hair  side  down. 
Ten  to  twelve  po-ands  of  salt  wilt  be  sutlicient  to 
preserve  an  ordinary  hide.  [See  article  on  Tanning 
Hidft,  page  271.] 

Drttfiag  theep. 

A  clean,  dry  placa  for  drewing  and  a  rack  or 
beam  on  which  to  hanji  the  body  are  pMential  to 
cleanly  d^e3l^ed  and  nicely  flavorw!  muLtun.  Rapid 
dressing  is  aho  desirable,  as  the  generation  of  fpi^tus, 
in  thii  stomach  and  contact  of  dirty  fleecejf  with  the 
warm  fle»h  are  largely  accountable  for  the  otijec- 

tionable  »heepy 
flavor  of  mutton. 
Tfthf*  animal  can 
be  laid  on  a  plat- 
form or  box  nix 
or  eij^ht  iTiiih-ti 
high  to  be  blwl, 
it  will  aid  mate- 
rially in  keeping 
the  wowl  dry  and 
thucarca>«  cleHn. 
(Fij;.  2S;t.)  Some 
poTBons  prefer  to 
Bwing  them  by 
the  hind  lege. 
Sheep  are  not  tusually  stunned  before  bleeding. 
The  curnmon  pr;u:Lice  ia  to  cnt  tht«  tbniat  to  the 
neck  bone  juat  h»£k  of  the  jaw  a*  the  animal  t» 
held  on  its  side?.  (Fig.  2?^X.)  The  nwk  Hhoiild  lie  dis- 
located immio-^lialuly  al  the  atlas  joint  to  prevent 
mitfering.  The  pidt  should  then  lie  openi'd  over  the 
middlhr  tine  and  the  forelegii  skinned  and  unjointed 
at  the  toe  jointi^  if  mutton,  oratthehi^'hei^t  ankle 
juintH  if  Iambic.  Thu  brittket  and  nidva  iire  mui«t  e^isily 
skinned  as  tlm  boily  lie^  on  th«  floor  or  misiKi  plat- 
form. Care  should  be  exereised  to  prt-vent  t-L'aring 
the  red  muscles  and  the  ntenibranes  covering  the 
sides  and  abdomen. 

The  hindOegn  should  be  akinncd  just  above  the 
h'icka.  On  the  inside  they  may  be  skinnei]  all  the 
way  up.  The  Uk-a  nhuM  Iks  unjointed  and  the  legs 
tied  together  firmly,  and  the  carcastt  htinji,  up.  The 
oQtfiide  of  the  thighs  may  then  be  skinned  by  work- 
ing the  closed  list  with  upward  thrust  betweun  the 
ftkin  and  fleah.  Stretching  the  skin  tightly  renders 
the  operation  Ituw  diffirult.  The  eides,  shoulders  and 
baL-k  should  be  finished  in  the  same  way,  cutting 
the  head  off  with  tlif  pelt  at  the  atbw  joint. 

As  the  animal  hangs,  it  is  wl>1I  to  cot  around  the 
gullet  and  open  the  lower  part  of  the  nv>ck  to  allow 
drainage  of  blow].  The  entrails  are  removed  with- 


*vS 


X- 


FlK.  JU.    Slkkine  s  shMC    The  bnlfo 

la  iDktiiii.ul  J'i»l  l)ri''li  -it  i-nr  Bt  imlnt 
u(  lAoani]  pviivtrnlek  llip  vcliii  na 


out  Opening  the  fltermim  or  pelvis.  The  oraentonn 
or  caul  fat  should  bo  removed  before  taking  out 
the  paunch  and  preserved  in  lambs  or  young  sheep 
to  spread  over  the  thighs  and  abdomen.  The  car- 
cass should  b«  sponged  off  with  a  coarse  cloth  as  in 


f 


Pic.  IM.  Btiekiat  a  plr-  Thn  knifo  u  htaerted  %t  IiaIImt  of 
nprlc  Kbont  a,)!  inch  to  an  iai-h  ainl  n  bnir  In  fnml  of  Ili» 
bmutbnnr.  It  U  dirtvtnj  tnnari:!  [Iw  junniun  »[  loin 
am)  hipi  iind  Ihmit  d»>p  ^cotith  lo  cvar'h  tlio  nrtert^i — 
■Ii  to  unTcu  inrbei  [n  •  ^-  Ui  1^-piiatiil  ifit. 

beef,  trimming  off  the  scraggy  parts,  and  then  be 
hung  away  from  Hies  and  foul  odors  to  cool. 

Drr/iitiiiff  hugB. 

Thf!  Fiame  preparation  ajt  adviaed  far  cattle  » 
recommended  for  hogs.  A  strong  table  or  box  fin 
which  tfi  scrajie,  and  a  barrel  or  vat  in  which  to 
scnld  should  bt-  ;>rovidod,  aa  Well  as  a  plaoa  for 
hanging  up  the  carcass. 

KUlins.—M  is  not  customary  to  stun  hogs  before 
sticking  them,  although  it  is  Bometimes  Anw. 
They  may  either  l:»e  suttiiended  by  the  hind -legs 
or,  BB  commonly  nracticwl  in  farm  slanghtering, 
be  tumwl  on  the  back  and  held  until  stuck  (Fig. 
2841.  The  knife  should  be  inserted  in  front  of  tho 
breast-bone  and  guided  directly  over  the  spinal 
colnmn  and  toward  the  root  of  the  tail.  Care 
sh<)ntd  be  UAed  to  avoid  sticking  to 
side  of  the  rilis,  causing  blood  to  set- 
tle in  the  shoulders.  It  'm  best  not  to 
strike  the  heart  in  sticking,  but  to 
turn  tbo  knife  to  one  side  and  then  the 
other,  thus  opening  the  arteries  on 
each  side  and  Injuring  quick  and  thor- 
ough bleeding. 
Reatding. 
(Fig.  285.)- 
Th©  water  for 
acaldingehould 
beat  a  temper- 
ature of  18.5" 
to  195°  Fahr. 
If  it  is  too  hot, 
the  hair  will 
Set,  causing 
trouble  to  re- 
move-, and  the 
skin,  being 
cooked,  will 
crark  own. ,  Hardw«oi3  ashoa  or  lye,  or  even  aoft- 
Hoaj).  will  aid  in  removing  tbeacnrf  from  the  body. 
The  bog  should  not  be  scalded  before  life  is  extinct, 
or  the  blood  in  the  capillaries  will  be  cooked,  ^v- 


_-^^, 


Fis.  MS.    SwUlas  ■  boK.    N'le  ui 
rnnrpmpiil  of  Utilr  ami  bftrral. 


DRESSING.  CARI.Vn   FOR  ANU   PRESERVING   MEATS 


258 


tinge  to  the  carcaw.  Wh«n  tho  huir 
'Sbadily  Mj  "  airinfi,"  removu  the  hoR  from 
th»  water  and  Bcrap«  thornuKhly,  VL-movinjj;  th;^ 
h.iir  and  scurf  by  shaving  clean  with  a  sharp  knife. 
DreMtng.  —The  earcaaa  shiiiiW  Ihj  hung  up  heftire 
remuving  the  entniilH.  Thu  pelvic  arvh  ani3  ater- 
lumur  l)rt>tu<l-bimR  ttbmld  firtit  tie  K|)lit,  thi^n  the 
♦ntrails  removed  by  openint;  down  over  tht?  middle 
line.  Tha  Ur^w  uiid  »nialt  intystinL's  should  K* 
remo%'Bd  without  dii^turMn^  thu  kidiiL-y  fat.  If  a 
hfavy  hng  J8  to  be  drLissLii  in  warm  weather,  it  is 
anmetimes  adviRjiblu  to  remuve  the  kiikpy  fat  or 
leaf  and  split  the  carcana  intn  hiilves  Ut  hiisten  the 
cnolinK-  The  timgiie,  gulii-t.  InngK  ami  hieart  are 
remove*!  in  one  [liec^e.  A  blm-k  itbituhl  Iw  jilactd 
Letween  the  jawe  uf  tha  ho^  tu  hold  th<!iri  open  fur 
drainai^*  and  the  cavity  waahed  out  with  cold 
water,  and  the  curc^asa  left  suspended  until  cool. 

Cvtting  up  meat. 

For  neat  work  in  meat-cutting,  n  ehnrt.  curved 
knife,  a  twelve-  or  fnurttten-inch  steak  linife  and  a 
twenty-Hi X- inch  meat  Haw  are  etwimCial.  An  t>i);ht- 
inch  cleaver  i«  also  advisable.  .\  block  of  Mome 
kind  ^ould  be  providiiJ,  substantia)  enough  to 
stand  the  weight  cf  a  quarter  of  a  b<i!ef  or  hog  car- 
ets. A  cross-section  of  a  large  log  can  often  be 
made  l«  answer  the  ptirpoae.  and  in  many  canea,  an 
onlinary  tabl<<  will  .luttice.  In  cutting  meat  of  any 
kind,  one  shuuEd  always  cut  aL^rutis  the  grain  uf  Ibti 
meat  when  piissible.  Following  thia  ijrint^ijjle  will 
result  in  uniform  pieces,  and  the  meat  will  carve 
in  bett*r  form  for  table  use  after  cooking.  Unless 
the  meat  in  frown,  it  should  always  be  cut  to  the 
bone  with  a  knife,  and  a  nnw  u^^ed  only  thrmigh  the 
b(int>.  i^aw[ng  the  bone  itt  prefenibEe  to  i'hiip])ing, 
iniumuch  as  tt  does  nut  KpllaLer  or  shatter  Lho 
bone.  Chopping  a  round  bune  with  ii  cleaver  often 
canaea  splinters  t/i  center  the  meat,  and  thusL-  aro 
found  to  be  disagreeable  wht^n  the  meal  is  Rcrved. 
Meat  should  not  i>e  cut  until  the  muscles  have  set 
firmlv  and  the  animal  heat  haa  all  hwn  extrai^U'd. 

Catiins  Ifff.  (Figs.  2^6,  2«7.)  When  the  beef 
is  in  proDer  condition,  the  halves  should  i>e  divided 
iatA  nind  and  fore  quarters,  cuttin;{  between  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  ribs,  S  to  T  or  the  accom- 
paoying  illnt^tratinu.   Thia  teaves  only  one  rib  in 


rated  from  the  round -steak  on  the  line  R  to  I. 
Tho  loin  contains  the  sirloin  and  porterhouse 
8t«ak&  The  round  ii^  usually  cut  into  litlets  of  beef 
or  round-steak,  and  the  romp  Ufieci  either  for  pot 
or  oven  roast*. 

Thts  front  quarter  is  laid  on  tha  block  with  the 


»iue» 


PUATt 

Pic.  IM.    TIM  cute  ot  bart. 

the  hind  fjuart^r.  Tn  cutting  the  hind  quarter,  it 
should  be  laid  on  the  block  with  the  inside  up,  and 
the  kidney  and  suet  remove<l,  and  the  Itunk  cut  off. 
N  to  P.  The  quarter  should  then  U-  Uinied  iiver, 
and  the  loin  removed,  cutting  from  (I  to  N.  The 
round  maji'  then  be  turned  ovor,  and  thu  rump  aepa* 


"*'. 


RiSSl 


PkATt 


LoiM 


I.C 


T 


rig.  217.  UtillflOK  Mel.  N'wk:  linni'jnrc.  tDhiM  tnctrl.  Ixrwf 
mil.'' Bit r ,  f.hmildni':  steak,  tmiUiiit  liopfi  (viLnrk  ribi;  »leak, 
raiiit.  I»llln|[  boof.  CorDttd-bBof i  prnai  rlbm  iHilrok*!, 
conicJ-bcvfl  iFLkiik:  voop'tmiKi  prinir  rflia  nw*li  v'ttc: 
■U'w.  hMnbuni  ntpnk.  FornMt-be«(i  Daiik:  >t«ir,  hunburM 
■iMk,  raimrd-bMf.  flank  (itrnk:  1«lD:  (•"''MrtioaM.  Blrtohi 
■ri'l  li'iiil-rrlulii  ■(«ak.  rlivli>«  rrmttRi  rvmiii  TiMWl.  gonnJ- 
beefi  roiuiiS:  ale4ik,  tmut,  dried  b«ef.  poi-roMl. 

outnide  up.  Beginning  at  P,  about  ten  to  thirteen 
inches  down  the  rib  from  the  spinal  column,  cut 
across  the  ribs  toward  the  armpit  above  M,  and 
cut  between  the  thinl  and  fourth  ribs  to  M,  and 
acroea  the  shank  to  It.  The  "cninn  rilw""  are 
removed  jost  bfb>w  Ibe  Rbnuhler  joinU,  H  to  X. 
(The  "platti"  and  "cniftH  rilw"  are  the  infer- 
ior cuts  of  thi?  front  quarter,  and  usually  well 
for  low  price.s).  With  the  outside  of  the  beef  still 
up,  the  "prime  riha"  are  next  removed  from 
L  to  Z.  This  cut  contains  seven  ribe  and  is  usually 
taken  off  in  one  piece.  The  neck  and  shoulder  are 
divided  G  to  H,  and  the  shoulder  and  "chuck  ribs," 
K  tii  D.  These  are  the  wholeaale  cuts  of  beef  and 
are  tiKi  large  for  family  use.  They  may  be  divided 
again  into  juiate  of  suitable  size  for  the  table  as 
wanted,  observing  the  princijde  mentioned  in  a 
former  paragraph,  namely,  that  of  always  dividing 
acnwB  the  grain  of  the  meat.  The  ** prime  ribs" 
may  be  iHinei]  and  aent  lo  the  table  as  rolled  roasts. 
ThiHrBSulta  usually  in  loss  of  meal- juices  and  flavor, 
but  it  is  a  convenience  lo  the  carver.  The  under 
part  of  the  front  quarter  is  usually  served  on  the 
farmer's  table  with  the  bone  in.  The  "chuck  rilie*," 
shoulder  and  neck  are  used  for  boiling  piecea,  aoups 
and  mince-meat,  the  age  of  the  animal  and  the 
toughness  of  the  muscle  Rliers  often  determining 
the  methi«i  of  cooking. 

ilvthnt}  mutUm.  (Figs.  288.  2«9.)  — First  split 
the  carcass  in  halves,  using  a  saw  or  a  very  sharp 
cleaver  and  cutting  down  the  cent«.-r  of  the  epinal 
column.  The  leg  ahould  he  removed  at  the  top  of 
the  round  just  over  the  hip-joint  and  the  shank 
removed  Whiw  the  tleshy  pari  of  the  leg.  The 
shoulder  is  removed  Iwtween  the  thinl  and  fourth 
rilw  and  the  neck  at  the  shoulder-vein  or  at  the 
Junction  of    the    neck   with  the  ahouldor.    The 


254 


DitE&n.NG,  CARING  FOR  AND   I'RESERVINO  MEATS 


front  shrink  in  rernvt'ed  at  lht>  eiliow-joint.  If  a 
saddle  of  eiiuUud  or  of  lamb  is  waiitud.  the  carcass  is 
not  .split  through  thi;  i;»nt«r  but  both  k'^  rumoved 
at  once  and  the  saddle  or  both  loin«  left  in  one 


w 


uis 


IN  I  Rack. 


c& 


>^ 


Lt& 


iNK"^  Breast- 


'^m. 


Flc  m.  Otniilac  BiatlOD.  Neek:  it«v;  thoalilrr;  rtiap*. 
ronsl,  tHiitlnS:  nkfk;  «bi>pi.  raut;  lolii;  r)inp«.  nMSl; 
hi[:   ruBiI,  •te«ki   Qftok:   ilcn:  Imut:  tiew:  sbkttk:  Bt«v. 

piece.  Mutton -chops  nr  liunh-chops  are  secured  by 
nlicin^  thu  rm:k  and  the  loin  between  the  rilM  and 
across  thu  ttTuk-rloin  and  sirluin  niunelas.  Ril>- 
chops  should  be  one  rib  thick.  Tht-  iihoulder  and 
legs  are  used  for  boiling  and  roasting  pieces,  tho 
loins  may  be  manted  althniigh  they  are  usually  cut 
into  chf»pB,  and  the  plate  and  flank  are  used  fnr 

BtttWS. 

Culliny  pork.  (Ti^-R.  290,  291.)— Pork  should  !« 
cut  up  and  thtt  parts  desirttd  for  curing  saltwl  just 
i»  soon  as  may  bo  after  the  earcBMs  is  cooled 
through.  If  the  carcasR  has  not  been  split  through 
the  Hfiinal  colnnin  for  cooling,  it  may  be  laid  on 
thi<  block  and  the  head  removed  between  the  fnnrth 
and  fifth  ribs,  and  the  h:unH  almut  Iwci  iniihes  in 
front  of  the  |R'lviB  bonwt  (Fi^.  291).  The  hama, 
shoulder  and  middle  pit-ct-s  may  then  be  split 
through  the  center  mort'  easily  than  if  the  at- 
tempt is  mode  before  the  carca.'Vi  is  cot  into  sec- 
tions. The  ham  should  lie  trimmed  to  a  smooth, 
round  pieCf  with  all  suqilus  fat  removed  for  lard. 
Tht!  ft*t  may  be  ramnved  at  the  buck  with  a  knife, 
or  about  two  inchHs  abovt-  with  a  saw.  The  k-itf- 
lard  may  be  removL-d  from  the  sido,  if  not  alrea<ly 
done,  when  the  hog  is  dressed.  Tha  lower  two- 
tbirdR  of  the  nide  shouW  Ite  removed,  ."Uiwiiig  across 
the  rilifi.  The  bdn  nhonld  then  he  removed,  care 
being  exercised  ti>  take  only  the  lean  meat  with 
the  ribi*.  The  spare-ribs  slioult)  b«  removL-d  fnim 
the  lower  strip  and  the  scraggy  edges  trimmed  off 
for  sausage-meat,  the  remainder  of  the  side  being 
cured  for  bacon  or  for  R!tlte<l  [M>rk.  Sometimes 
the  ribs  are  taken  out  entirv-  After  removing 
the  ribs  and  neck-lronea  from  the  nhnulder,  it 
may  tw  trimmod  intn  a  small  "California  hum"  or 
Itft  in  one  lartje  pifwa  for  curing.  All  bloudy  Kpota 
should  be  trimmed  uab  and  every  precaution  taken 
io  remove  any  ek-monto  that  may  tend  to  cause 
souring  in  the  curing  process.  The  head  is  oaaally 
worked  up  into  head-cheese  and  eauaage-nieat.  All 


pieces  intended  for  curing  ahuitld  be  cut  in  as  com- 
pact form  as  pomible,  to  avoid  waste  uf  room  in 
the  vessel  in  which  the  curing  is  dont'.  I^an  Irim- 
ming8  ore  converted  into  sausage-meat  and  the  fat 
trimmings  tried  out  for  lard. 

CiitHng  Vfoi. — Veal  may  be  cut  in  a  way  simitar 
to  mutton,  the  only  ditTprence  being  that  the  rump 
must  be  trimmed  olT  liefure  the  fillet  uf  veal  c-an  be 
secured. 

Curing  meaU. 

Meat  must  be  properly  and  thoroojicfaly  cooled  to 
insore  good  keeping  qualities  wh>L'n  cun^J.  If  salted 
before  the  int-,'rnal  temperaturo  is  reduced,  the 
shrinkajco  of  the  ma.'^cles  causes  the  retention  of 
gwe»,  (fiving  an  ofl'emtive  oiior  to  the  meJit.  Neither 
should  meat  be  frozen  when  .suited,  as  the  action 
of  the  froat  will  prevent  the  proper  penetration 
of  the  salt  and  anevcn  curing  will  result.  It  is  im- 
portant, also,  that  meat  be  cured  as  soon  as  cooled 
and  while  fresh.  Tainted  meat  may  be  cured  eo 
that  it  will  keep,  hut  nnthing  in  the  line  of  preser- 
vatives can  bring  back  the  natural  flavor  when  it 
is  oDce  loHt.  The  safet^t  rule  to  follow  is  to  salt 
meat  aa  soon  as  the  animal  heat  is  out,  and  before 
it  freezes  or  starts  to  decay.  Ordinarily,  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  slaughtering  will 
allow  sufficient  time  for  cooling. 

IViwr/js/nrcunnfl.  — A  clean,  hardwood  barrel  U 
a  suiUiEle  vensel  in  which  to  cure  meat.  A  barrel 
m:tde  for  the  purpose  is  be«t,  but  when  it  can  not 
be  had  a  molaiwea  or  syrup  barrel  will  iini<wer.  A 
kerosene  barrel  that  has  been  burned  out  and  used 
for  water  for  some  time  is  often  used  for  meat. 
The  important  point  is  to  have  the  barrel  clean 


FLANK 

fit.  09.    Cuts  of  mnttoB. 

and  tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage.  A  large  stone 
jar  is  the  best  vusiiel  that  can  \k  had.  One  )iolding 
twenty-five  or  thirty  gallons  is  expensive,  however, 
iLnd  must  be  carufully  handled  to  prevent  breakage. 
The  jar  is  more  easily  cliianed  than  a  barrel  and  is 
in  every  way  preferable  if  the  firat  cost  can  Im 
affonied.  A  barrel  or  jar  that  lias  once  hpbl  meal 
CJin  tie  u)u<d  again  and  again  unless  meat  has 
H]>uiled  in  it.  If  used  repeatedly  it  will  bo  necossary 
l4)  scald  it  out  thoroughly  before  packing  with 
fresh  meats. 

Fretenntiivs. — Salt,  aaltpetor,  and  sugar  or 
molasses  are  the  most  commonly  used  preservatives, 
and  are  the  only  one.'*  neoeflSBry  for  perfect  curing 
and  the  finest  quality  of  cnred  ineata.  Borax, 
)>onicic  m'v],  formalin,  aalicylic  acid,  and  other 
eheniieals  are  siimetiniee  used  in  i*rust>rving  meata, 
but  they  are  considered  by  so  many  authoritiea 
to  be  harmful  to  the  health  of  the  consumer  that 
their  use  should  b«  avoided.   Salt  is  an  astringent. 


DRESSING,  CAKfNG  FOR  AMD  PRESERVING   MEATS 


2SS 


and  when  applied  alone  to  meat  renders  it  very 
hard  and  dry.  Its  action  \b  first  to  draw  out  th« 
meat  juices.  In  a  few  <)ays  it  wiU  contract  and 
harden  the  muiicle  fibers  thus  sbriaking  the  rol- 
ame  of  meat.  iialt[M<tt-r  is  even  more  aatrin^ent 
thaJi  salt.  Its  use  aids  in  rutaininf;  the  natural 
color  of  the  fleah.  It  may  ho  harmful  to  tho  health. 
SoRar  is  not  an  astringent  and  its  presence  in  the 
pickle  softens  the  niu»;le  fibers  and  improves  the 
flavor  of  the  meat.  Saleratas  (hakinfj-stula)  Bome^ 
times  is  u.<ied  in  small  quantitit^s  to  sweeten  the 
brine.  In  uarm  weather  a  finull  quantity  will  aid 
in  prerentln);;  the  brino  spoiling. 

Curing  in  brine  and  dry-taring eompared. — Urine- 
cured  meats  are  bt-st  for  farm  use,  for  the  fcaaon 
that  a  SQitAbl«  place  for  dry-curing  is  not  usually 

^^^  Fix.  290.    Dblislu  potk.    HmuI:  hH<l-(*hM««.  Mtuacr.  tfitn- 

^^^L  pork:     ihoulilpr    liiill:     r'>i>at.    ilpak,    l>atl-fit(:     ■lioitl'itpr: 

^^^H  tteah    plrnlc  liaiu,  riifltl;   Ms:   Tnt  lirvFlt,  ImiiWHolti.  rosvt. 

^^^r  shop*:   tiii-titi   M\i\j):   Xanftun.  mil    \v<j\i:   brlly;  Kbit  pork: 

■  kMB:  rand  ban),  atcklc;  fMl:  plekinl  pis'*  foM. 

to  be  Had.  It  is  also  less  trouLle  to  pack  tho  meat 
m  a  barrel  and  pour  on  a  brine  than  to  go  over  it 
throe  or  four  timeH  to  rub  in  the  salt.  The  brining 
nethod  also  give?  better  pr>'>tc-ction  from  inaects 
and  vermin.  Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  Id 
keeping  brine,  but  if  pure  water  \»  used  and  direc- 
tions followed  in  making  the  brine,  there  should  be 
no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  for  a  reasonable  length 
of  time.  In  warm  weather,  brine  should  be  ctoaely 
watched.  If  it  becomes  "ropy."  like  syrup,  It 
sboold  be  boiled  or  a  new  trine  made.  A  cool, 
moist  cellar  in  the  beet  place  for  brine- 
caring.  Dry-curing  may  be  done  sue- 
CMBfally  in  a  cellar  als'A  althi.>ugh  even 
more  moisture  is  needed  to  effect  a 
thoroDRh  cure.  The  cellar  should  be 
dark  and  tight  enough  to  prevent  flies 
aod  vennin  damaging  the  meat. 

Hveipa  for  curiniJ.' 

Cvrntd  6«r.— Th«  pit-*ces  commonly 
Qsad  for  corning  are  the  plate,  rump, 
orosft-ribK,  and  brisket,  or  in  other 
words,  the  cheaper  cuts  of  meat.   The 


loin,  ribs,  and  other  fancy  cuts  arc  more  oft«n 
used  fresh,  and  since  there  is  more  or  less  waste  of 
nutrtentfl  in  corning,  thi?  i,*  well.  The  pieces  for 
corning  should  be  cut  into  convenient-sized  joints, 
gay  live  or  six  inches  square.  It  should  be  the  aim 
to  cat  them  all  about  the  same  thickness  so  that 
they  will  make  an  even  layer  in  the  barrel. 

Meat  from  fat  animals  makes  choicer  corned 
beef  than  that  from  poor  animals.  When  the  meat 
is  thoroughly  cooled  it  should  be  conied  as  soon  as 
possible,  m  any  decay  in  the  meat  \»  likely  to  spoil 
the  brine  during  the  corning  process.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  the  meat  be  brined  while  it  is 
frozen.  Weigh  out  tho  meat  and  allow  eight  pounds 
of  salt  to  each  100  pounds;  sprinkle  a  layer  of 
salt  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  depth  over  the  bot- 
tom of  the  barrel;  pack  in  as  closely  ^  possible 
the  cuts  of  meat,  making  a  layer  five  or  six  inches 
in  thickness;  then  pat  on  a  layer  of  salt,  following 
that  with  another  layer  of  meat;  repeat  until  the 
meat  and  salt  have  all  been  packed  in  tho  barrel, 
care  being  used  to  reserve  salt  enough  for  a  good 
layer  over  the  top.  After  the  package  has  stood 
over  night  add,  for  every  100  pounds  of  meat,  four 
poundft  of  sugar,  two  ounces  of  baking  soda,  and  four 
ounces  of  saltpeter  dissolv&d  in  a  gallon  of  tepid 
water.  Three  gallons  more  of  water  should  be  suf- 
ficient to  coviir  this  quantity.  In  case  more  or  teas 
than  100  pounds  of  meat  is  to  be  corned,  make  the 
brine  in  the  proportion  given.  A  loaie  board  cover, 
weighted  down  with  a  heavy  stone  or  piece  uf  iron, 
should  be  put  on  the  meat  to  keep  alt  of  it  under 
the"  brine.  In  case  any  should  project,  rnst  would 
start  and  tho  brine  would  spoil  in  a  short  time. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  boil  the  brine  except  in 
warm  weather.  If  the  meat  has  been  corned  during 
the  winter  and  must  be  kept  into  the  summer  sea- 
son, it  would  be  Well  to  watch  the  brine  cltsely 
during  the  spring,  as  it  is  apparently  more  likely 
to  spoil  than  at  any  other  season.  If  the  brine 
appears  to  bo  ropy  or  does  not  drip  freely  from  the 
finger  when  immersed  and  liftvil,  it  should  be 
tnrited  off  and  new  brine  added,  after  carefully 
walking  the  meat.  The  sugar  or  molasses  in  the 
brine  has  a  tendency  to  ferment,  and,  unless  the 
brine  is  kept  in  a  cool  place,  there  is  sometimen 
trouble  from  this  source.   The  meat  should  be  kept 


Pll.  :91.    The  CUtI  C4  pork.     H««<t.  •baolilen,  mlddl*  •.iii  hftoia. 


'Sihp«t«r  in  nmnll  qanntitiM  b  Inchkded  In  Ueae 
redpM  becaOM  iU  u«e  hw  buivtofore  been  cwtomary. 
Inmnmb  as  it  la  ohject«<l  to  by  some  hysieniiito  as  betog 
tnjuriooi  to  health,  sod  (•  Ihoonht  to  bo  usrfnl  only  for 
yruervMg  or  adding  color,  it  is  ooiuidi>ri!d  advisable  to 
■uk*  apcrinrats  to  mm  whether  this  io^^rtdionl  cun  not 
b»  dtspened  with. 


in  the  brine  twenty-eight  to  forty  days  to  secore 
thnrouKh  coming. 

DHcd  Ix^if. — The  round  is  commonly  used  for 
drieil  beef,  the  inside  of  the  thigh  being  considered 
tho  choicest  piece,  as  it  is  slightly  more  tender 
than  the  outride  of  the  round.  The  round  should  be 


256 


DRESSING.  CARING   FOR  AND   PRESERVING  HEATS 


eat  leBKtfawwe  of  tlw  grain  of  the  meat  'm  prepar- 
ing for  dried  beef,  so  that  the  tnascle  fihcin  may 
tw  cut  croM-vitte  w*h(;n  the  drit^d  beef  is  sliced  for 
tabli!  DM.  A  ti^ht  jar  or  C3«k  is  aece^eary  for 
cnrinK-  The  process  is  as  follows:  To  each  100 
pounds  of  moat  weiKfa  oat  five  pooods  of  salt,  three 
pounds  of  granalatfid  sugar,  and  two  ounc«s  of 
saltpeter;  mix  IhorDOghly  togutht-r  Rnb  the  meat 
on  all  surfaces  with  a  third  of  th«  mixture  and 
pack  it  in  the  jnr  as  tightly  a»  ixwMible.  Altuw  it 
to  remain  thrw  days,  when  it  should  be  removod 
and  rubbed  aicain  with  another  third  of  the  mix- 
ture. In  rupacking,  put  at  the  bottom  the  pieces 
that  wi*ru  on  top  the  first  time.  I^et  stand  for  three 
days,  when  they  should  be  removed  and  rubbed 
with  the  remaining  thin]  nf  the  mixture  and 
allrjwed  in  stand  for  three  days  more.  Thu  meat  U 
then  rwuly  t«  be  removed  from  the  pickle.  The 
Ii(iuid  forming;  in  the  jars  should  not  be  removed, 
but  the  meat  should  be  repacked  in  the  liquid  each 
time.  After  being  removed  from  the  pickle  the 
meat  should  be  smoked  ami  hung  in  a  dry  attic  or 
near  the  kitchen  fire  where  the  wat«r  will  evapo- 
rate from  it.  It  may  be  used  at  any  time  after 
smoking,  although  the  longer  it  hangH  in  the  dry 
atmosphere  the  drit-r  it  will  got.  Tho  drier  the 
cliroutie,  in  general,  the  more  easily  meats  can  be 
dried.  In  arid  region.**,  giXMl  dried  meat  can  be 
made  by  exponing  Jt  fresh  to  the  air,  with  protec- 
tion from  flies. 

Plain  aall  pork. — Rub  each  piece  of  meat  with 
fine  common  salt  and  pack  closely  in  a  barrel.  U't 
it  stand  OTCT  night.  The  next  day  weigh  out  ti-n 
pounds  of  salt  and  two  ounces  of  saltpeter  to  each 
100  pounds  of  meat  and  dbtsoive  in  four  gallons 
of  boiling  water.  Pour  this  brine  over  the  meat 
when  cold,  cover  and  weight  down  t^i  keep  it  utuler 
the  brine.  Meat  will  pack  best  if  rut  into  [liecres 
about  six  inches  square.  The  pork  shunld  be  kept 
in  the  brine  till  used. 

Su!iar-<urtd  kamt  attd  fxieon. — When  the  meat  is 
contpd,  nib  each  piece  with  salt  and  allow  it  to 
drain  over  night.  Then  pack  tt  in  a  barrel  with 
the  hamH  and  Hlioulders  in  the  UitU^m,  using  the 
strips  of  bacon  lu  fill  in  lietween  or  to  put  on  t«p. 
Weigh  out  for  each  1(K)  ikjuiuIs  of  mi-tit,  eight 
[H)unils  of  salt,  two  pound;^  of  brown  sugar,  and 
two  ounoes  of  saltpeter.  Dissolve  all  in  four  gal- 
lons of  water,  and  cover  the  meat  with  the  brine. 
For  summer  use  it  will  he  safe.'it  to  boil  the  brine 
before  using.  In  that  case-  it  }<h<iiild  be  thoroughly 
CJ>led  before  it  is  usud.  For  winter  curing  it  is 
not  necessary  to  buil  the  briuo.  Bacon  stripB  shnuid 
remain  in  this  brine  four  to  six  weeks;  hums  six 
to  eight  weeks.  This  is  a  standard  recipe  and  has 
given  the  liest  of  satisfaction.  Hams  iind  t>acon 
cured  in  the  spring  will  kei^p  right  through  the 
summer  after  they  are  smoltHd.  The  meat  will  he 
sweet  and  palatable  if  it  is  propi-rly  smoked,  and 
the  flavor  will  bt-  good. 

Dru-fured  pork.—For  each  100  pounds  of  meat 
weigh  out  five  pounds  of  salt,  two  pounds  of  gran* 
ulated  sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  saltpeter,  and  mix 
them  thoroughly.  Itult  the  meat  once  every  three 
days  with  a  third  of  the  mixture.    While  tite  meat 


ia  coring  ft  is  b«st  to  hare  it  packed  Is  a  1>arrd  or 
tigbt  box.  Fortbesakeof  convenicnct!  it  is  adviH^ 
ble  to  hare  two  barrels,  and  to  transfer  the  meat 
from  one  to  the  other  each  time  it  is  rubbed. 
After  the  last  rubbing  tbe  meat  aboald  He  in  the 
barrel  for  a  week  or  ten  dm.  when  it  will  be 
cared  and  ready  to  smoke^  To  core  nicely  it  is 
deairable  to  have  a  cod  and  rather  moist  place  in 
which  to  ke«p  it. 

This  reci{ie  should  not  be  used  when  the  meat 
must  be  kept  in  a  warm  and  dry  place,  as  tbe  pr»- 
ierratires  will  not  penetrate  easily  and  aniformly. 

Brad<hetM. — Cut  a  bofs  bead  into  four  pieces. 
Remove  tbe  brain,  ean*  win,  snout  and  eyes.  Cut 
off  the,  fattest  parts  for  lard.  Put  the  lean  and 
bony  partit  to  soak  over  night  in  cold  water  in 
order  to  extract  tbe  blood  and  dirt.  When  the  head 
is  cbsaned  put  it  over  tbe  fire  to  boil,  using  water 
enough  to  cover  it.  Boil  nntil  the  meat  separatee 
readily  from  the  bone.  Then  remove  it  from  tbo 
fire  and  pick  out  all  the  bones.  Drain  olf  the  liquor, 
saving  a  part  of  it  for  future  use.  Chop  the  meat 
up  linely  with  a  chopping  knife.  Return  it  to  the 
kettle  nnd  )H>ur  on  enough  uf  the  liquor  t^i  cover 
the  meat.  I^et  it  l>oil  slowly  for  tiftt^en  minutes  to 
a  half  hour.  Season  to  taste  with  salt  and  {loppcr 
just  before  removing  it  from  the  fire.  Turn  it  into 
a  shallow  pan  or  dish.  Cover  with  a  piece  of  cheese- 
cloth and  pat  on  a  board  with  a  weight  to  make  it 
solid.  When  cold  it  should  be  sliced  thinly  and 
Rerved  without  further  cooking. 

Serttjr}Ae.—l)m  article  of  food  is  made  jnst  as 
haad-cheese  is  until  the  bones  am  remored  and  the 
meat  choppL-d,  when  the  liquor  is  added  and  the 
dish  returned  to  the  stove  to  boil.  Com-me.il  is 
then  stirred  in  until  the  contents  are  as  thick  as 
cornmeal  mush.  Stir  it  constantly  for  the  first  fif- 
teen mintitps,  then  set  it  Itack  oa  the  stove  to  1>oil 
fllowly  for  an  hour.  When  it  is  done  pour  it  into  a 
shallow  dish  to  mold.  U^en  cold  it  is  sliced  thia 
and  fried. 

Soiut. — Soak  the  pigs  feet,  ears  and  snout  for 
twelve  boars  in  cold  water.  Scra|»e  them  clean  and 
remove  the  toeti.  Boil  until  soft ;  four  to  five  hours 
will  usually  be  required.  Salt  them  when  [lartially 
dtmc.  Pack  in  a  stone  jar  and  covi-r  with  hot, 
spicMl  vinegar,  f^ouse  is  served  luld  or  fried  in  a 
batter  made  of  eggs,  Dour,  milk  and  butter. 

TYginst-out  /flrrf.— Only  the  best  of  fat  should  be 
used  for  cbnice-  Innl.  Ijtuif-fat  is  the  \teal.  The 
hack  i^trip  of  the  ttide  alsu  makes  good  lard,  as  do 
the  ham,  shoulder  and  m-ck  trimminga.  Oat-fat 
shioild  nevt-r  be  mixed  with  the  leaf-  and  back-fat. 
It  makes  a  strong-smelling  lard  and  should  be  kept 
sepanite.  All  scraps  of  lean  meat  should  be  cat  out 
of  the  fat  before  tryijig-out.  as  they  are  very  likely 
to  stick  to  the  kettle  and  got  scorched,  giving  an 
unpleasnnt  flavor  to  the  tant.  When  pntparing  the 
fat  for  trying,  cut  it  into  pieces  one  to  one  and  one- 
lialf  inrh«4  wiuare.  They  should  be  nearly  equal  in 
size,  su  that  they  will  try-out  in  about  the  same 
time.  Fill  a  clean  kettle  about  three-fourths  full 
and  put  in  a  quart  of  water,  or,  if  convenient,  a 
quart  of  hot  l.ird.  One  or  the  other  is  nocesaarv  to 
pnivent  the  fat  burning  before  the  heat  is  sufficient 


DRESSING,  CARIXG  FOR  AND  PRESERVING  MEATS 


267 


¥ 


h 


to  bring  out  the  grt-ase.  Ki^ep  the  kuttla  ovtir  a 
morfeniW  fire  anti!  the  L-rncklinj^s  arw  brown  and 
liliTlil  *;nout;h  to  float.  bVc-qiitnt  atirrinK  will  be 
necessary  to  prvvent  hamiBg.  Wbon  d<me  rcmnve 
from  the  stovo  iinil  allow  to  cool  Hlightly,  and  then 
strain  through  n  muslin  cluth  into  a  large  jar.  Star 
it  occafiioniLlly  unti]  it  ih  crHil  vndugh  to  tiegin  tij 
solidify.  If  pails  or  smiiUfr  inn  are  to  by  fillwl  the 
lard  should  It  dippwl  out  while  just  warm  enoagh 
to  Ih3  li'iuicl.  Stirring  while  the  iard  is  coiniing 
tends  to  whiten  it  and  make  it  smontbor.  A  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  3uk-ratUH  added  to  each  HKi  poundH 
of  fat  has  a  like  effect. 

SauMffe.  —Pork  «iniutiige  .shonld  be  made  only  from 
cletin.  fresh  pork.  To  each  three  piiundn  of  li^aii 
pork  add  one  ixjund  of  fat.  \s  the  pork  usually  ui^etl 
for  sausage  is  the  shoulder,  neck  and  lean  trimmings 
the  saunage  i»  likely  to  bo  too  fat  unle.'^  part  of 
the  fat  is  removed  and  uaed  for  lard.  Mix  the  fat 
and  lean  meat  together  in  chopping.  When  a  rotary 
cutter  is  used  it  is  \ifsi  to  cut  the  meat  twice. 
Aft<r  it  13  cot  the  first  time  8pn?iuJ  it  out  thinly 
and  season.  One  ounce  of  pure,  fino  salt,  one-half 
ounce  of  jrroond  black  pepjwr.  and  one-half  ounce 
of  pure  leaf-aagf .  rubbed  fine,  to  each  four  pounds 
of  meat,  will  suit  the  taste  of  most  persons.  The 
seaaODing  should  be  sprinkled  thinly  over  the  cut 
mut  and  the  ment  again  run  through  the  cutter 
to  mix  the  seasoning  thoroughly.  Thia  method  will 
give  a  more  even  mixing  of  the  spices  thiin  can  bt; 
aecured  by  working  it  with  the  hnnds.  For  imme- 
diate Ufie  the  sausage  may  Ih>  pncked  away  in  stone 
jara  or  crocks,  to  be  sliced  for  frying.  Many  per- 
sona stuff  it  into  casings  made  fr*im  the  small  intes- 
tines of  the  hog-  When  thirt  in  d»ni>  the  int4Mttines 
must  be  turned  insid*;  out  and  curufulty  clBiiiied. 

Caaings  for  sausago  can  be  bought  for  about 
three  cents  i>er  pound.  At  this  price  it  will  hardly 
pay  to  bother  cleaning  them  for  home  use.  The 
twught  casings  are  more  nnifnnn  in  size  and 
strength,  and  will  usually  give  h«^tter  sntisfactirm, 
A  good  sulatitute  for  ca.sings  may  Ite  hud  in  narrnw 
muslin  bags.  Thfse.  when  filled,  should  be  two  and 
one-half  or  three  inches  in  diamt-tcT  .ind  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  inchus  long.  SUiff  in  the  snusage 
tightly  by  hand  and  hang  in  a  cool  place.  If  the 
sausage  is  to  lie  kept  for  some  time,  melted  lartl 
should  be  nibbe<l  over  the  nul«ide  of  Ihi-  Iwig.  This 
excludes  the  air.  Sau4uge  may  be  kept  for  i^ome 
time  In  a  large  jar  if  a  thin  coat  of  lard  is  put 
over  the  top. 

Mixed  saosago  may  be  made  from  a  mixture  of 
pork  and  beef  in  almost  any  proportion.  It  Is  the 
coalom  on  many  farina  to  kill  three  or  four  h(»gs 
and  a  beef  during  the  winter  for  the  year's  supply 
of  meat.  When  this  practice  is  followetl  a  good 
supply  of  sausage  can  be  made  from  the  trimming!^. 
Saosage  should  not  contain  too  much  f.it.  A  good 
proportion  is  two  pounds  of  lean  pork,  one  pound 
of  fat  pork,  and  one  pound  of  lean  l>eef.  Chop 
together  fine  and  season  the  same  as  pork  sausage. 
Pack  in  jars,  niuslin  bags  or  casings.  Many  persons 
prefer  this  to  clear  pork  Hauaage.  ait  it  ia  nut  so 
fat. 

Hamburg  «taiJr.— This  is  made  from  lean  beef  by 

C17 


running  it  through  a  .taunage  cutter.  A  wry  little 
fat  should  be  added  to  the  lean  beef  to  make  it 
juicy.  It  should  bo  run  through  the  cutter  twice 
before  using  and  saltt-d  slightly.  A  small  amount 
of  sugar-cured  bacon  is  sometimes  cut  in  with  the 
beef  to  aild  Hiivor.  Lean  lieef  from  the  roimd  makes 
the  choifPrit  Hamburg,  but  neck  T>i«*:os,  flanks,  amct 
trimmings  are  frwiuuntly  used.  Hamburg  atealc  is 
not  stuffed  into  caaings,  hut  is  left  in  bulk  and 
madu  into  patties  for  frying, 

Bologna  miimge. —  To  each  ten  pounds  of  lean 
Wef  u.'^e  one  pound  of  fat  pork,  or  bacon  if  pre- 
ferroti.  Chop  line  and  season  with  one  ounce  of 
!^ii\t  to  eitch  four  pounds  of  meat,  one  ounce  of  the 
lnwt  bliiok  ]ji!pi«!r  (ground,  pure)  to  each  itix  pounds 
of  meat,  and  a  little  ground  coriander,  i^tutf  into 
ca-tiiigs  called  beef  "middles "or  bwf  "rounds."  If 
stuffed  into  niiddk-s,  make  the  sausages  ten  or 
twelve  inches  long  and  allow  them  to  bang  straight. 
If  stulFed  into  rounds,  make  them  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  long  and  tie  the  ends  together  ho  aa  to  form 
rings.  Smoke  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  Cook  in 
bailing  water  until  the  sausages  float,  dry  on  clean 
hay  or  utraw  in  the  sun,  and  hang  away  in  a  cool 
place  until  wanted. 

Ca*i>irs.— Sausage  casings  are  the  intestines  of 
hogs,  cattle,  or  sheep,  which  have  hupn  emptied  and 
cleaned.  They  are  turned  inside  out  and  soukeil  in 
a  solution  of  lye  or  limewater.  thoroughly  wiished 
and  salted.  When  cleaned  and  put  up  by  a  rt'puta- 
blie  packer  they  are  as  good  as  when  cleaned  at 
home,  and  when  they  can  be  bought  at  a  reasonable 
price,  it  hardly  paj-s  to  clean  them  for  home  u.*e. 
The  casings  from  different  animals  are  mvd  for  the 
various  kinds  of  sjiusagos.  Keef  casiDgs  are  of 
three  kinds:  "njunda."  made  from  the  small  intes- 
tines ;  "  bungx."  made  from  the  large  intestines ; 
and  "middles."  made  from  that  part  of  the  entrails 
leading  from  the  bung  to  the  rectum.  The  "rounds" 
are  used  for  bologna,  the  "bungs"  for  bologna, 
ham,  .ind  bloiw!  sausage,  and  the  "middles"  for 
bologna  und  summer  sausage.  Hog  casings  are 
made  from  the  Hm:-dll  intestines,  and  are  usc^ 
mainly  for  common  pork  link-sausage.  Sheep  caa- 
ings are  from  the  small  inte.itine«,  a.id  are  com- 
(Honly  used  for  wiencrwurst  and  other  small  kinds 
uf  sausages. 

Smoking   of  meali. 

Pickled  and  cured  medts  are  smoked  to  aid  in 
their  pretter\'ation  and  to  give  flavor  and  palatability. 
The  creosote  funned  by  the  combustion  of  the 
wihhI  chises  the  pores,  to  some  extent  excluding 
the  air,  and  ia  objectionable  to  insects. 

fftfimc  and  fmL  —  Thn  smoke-hoii.'*e  should  be 
eight  or  ten  feet  high  to  give  the  best  rewilts,  and 
of  a  sixe  suit^nl  to  the  ijuarttity  of  meat  likely  to 
be  sniokei].  Ample  ventilation  should  bu  provided 
to  carry  off  the  warm  air  in  order  to  pri'^vent  over- 
heating Ihf  mi-at.  A  fire-pot  outside  of  the  house 
proper  with  a  flue  through  which  the  smoke  may 
be  conducted  to  the  meat  rbiimlier  gives  the  beat 
condition!*  for  smoking.  When  this  cannot  well  be 
arranged,  n  fire  may  be  built  on  the  floor  of  the 
house,  aii'l  the  meat  shielded  by  a  sheet  of  metal. 


SS& 


DRESSI^JU,  CARING  FOR  AND  PRESERVING   MEATS 


When  tho  mcii.t  can  tm  hun^  ^>x  >'r  suVL>n  fuet 
above  the  fire,  liiia  precaution  nM'il  not  bv  taki-n. 
The  conBtniction  «houM  be  such  oa  to  nllnw  thu 
smoke  to  patw  up  freely  over  the  meat  uml  out  of 
the  housv,  though  rapid  circutatian  ift  at  thtj 
expense  of  fuel. 

The  best  fue!  foramokiaK  mwil«  h  Rn-en  hickory 
or  maple  wood  siiKjthertid  with  luiwduttt  uf  iha 
BSme  tnateriitl.  HanJ  wood  uf  any  kind  is  prefer- 
able to  aftft  wood.  Rt-flinous  wuoda  should  never 
bti  used,  as  thuy  iire  likely  to  imp.irt  ba<5  Havors  tii 
the  product.  Com-colw  are  th«  iHmt  Buhstitutfj  for 
hard  wood  and  may  bu  usihI  if  dyaireil.  Snft  wuod 
and  corn-cobi*  give  off  lar^e  amounts  of  carbun  in 
burning,  and  thid  in  deposited  on  the  meat,  making 
it  dark  in  color  and  rank  flavored.  Jiini]>er  berries 
and  fra^ant  woikIe;  are  Rometimes  addei]  to  flavor 
the  meat. 

FiUing  the  house. — Meat  that  Ik  to  Iw  smokwl 
shoald  bti  removod  from  the  brine  twu  or  Uiriiu 
days  before  being  put  in  the  amoko-hoiiBc.  If  it  has 
b^en  cared  in  a  stronj;  brine,  it  will  be  bei>t  to  soak 
the  pieces  in  cold  water  over  night,  to  prevent  a 
crust  of  salt  forminR  on  the  outaiile  when  drainpd. 
Washing  the  meat  in  tepid  water  and  scrubbinf; 
clean  with  a  briit^h  is  a  rqo4  practice.  The  pieces 
■hoald  then  tw  hung  up  to  drain  for  a  day  or  two. 
When  <3rained  they  may  be  hung  in  the  huuKe.  All 
should  be  suspended  below  the  ventilator*  and 
shonld  bang  so  that  no  two  pieceji  come  in  contact, 
as  this  would  prevent  uniform  smoking. 

Kef  ping  rtp  ^Af  jire.— A  slow  firo  may  then  be 
started,  warming  the  meat  gradually.  In  the  win- 
ter monthH  in  cold  climates,  It  is  best  to  keep  the 
fire  going  continually  until  the  smoking  incomplete, 
holding  the  temperature  at  about  the  same  point. 
If  the  fire  ia  allowed  to  die  down,  the  meat  becomes 
cold  and  the  emoke  does  not  penetrate  readily. 
This  results  in  heavy  smoke  on  the  outside,  and 
very  little  on  the  inner  parts  of  the  meat.  In  the 
spring  montlis.  and  In  the  summer,  a  light  lire  may 
b«  started  every  day  for  a  couple  of  weelw,  the 
meat  being  allowed  to  hang  in  the  BTnoke-hoiise 
until  sufficiently  culurvd.  When  tht-  fire  ia  kept 
going  steadily,  and  an  even  temperature  is  main- 
tained, twentr-f(»ur  to  thirty-six  hours  will  be 
required  to  finish  one  lot  of  meat.  Smoke  will  not 
penetrate  frozen  meat,  and  it  will  be  nucessary  to 
extract  all  frost  from  it  before  filling  the  house. 
The  houi<e  should  be  kept  dark  at  all  times  to  pro- 
vent  flies  entering.  As  soon  as  smoked  snflicientty, 
^e  meat  should  be  cooled  by  opening  the  venti- 
lators or  doors.  When  hard  and  firm  it  may  be 
canvassed  or  packed  away  for  summer  use. 

Storage  and   r^rigeratioa. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  get  the  best  conditiona 
for  storing  meat  under  farm  equipment.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  best  principles  of  storing,  however, 
may  aid  in  securing  good  keeping  qualities  in  the 
meat.  It  is  important  that  the  carcass  be  cooled 
soon  after  alanghtering.  The  temperature  should 
be  such  that  the  meat  does  not  freeze,  While  it  ia 
impossible  to  control  the  temperature  in  most  farm 
buildings,  it   is  possible   to  slaughter  when  the 


weather  is  favorable  properly  to  cool  the  mnat. 
The  most  desirable  temperature  for  cooling  meat  ia 
just  above  freezing,  and  any  reasonable  approach  to 
this  temperature  will  give  g(Kjd  resultB.  Very  often, 
a  cool,  dark  room  in  the  barn  or  granary  can  Ire 
made  to  answer  the  purpose,  athoitgh  when  a  tinn- 
fliderablu  ([uantity  of  meat  is  to  bo  handlL>d,  it  ia 
better  to  provide  a  place  especially  for  the  purpose. 
For  the  best  results  in  cooling,  the  air  should  be 
dry  as  well  as  of  a  low  temfwrature.  Free  circu- 
lation aids  greatly  in  carrying  away  foul  tKlonj 
and  mold  Hpures.  Ftien  and  other  insects  should  be 
keiit  away  from  tlie  mtiat. 

Hmff  and  mutton,  if  fat,  may  bo  kept  for  three 
or  four  weeks  at  a  temperature  of  34*  to  40",  if 
the  atmosphere  ts  dry.  The  texture  of  the  meat  is 
somewhat  improved  in  the  curing  process.  Pork 
and  veal,  on  the  other  hand,  will  keep  for  onlv  a 
Hhort  lime  :oid  should  bti  used  fresh,  if  possible. 
The  mt-at  will  ktH_-p  longer  in  large  pieces,  and  it  ia 
bc»t  nut  to  cut  the  carcass  until  the  parts  are 
wanted,  unless  there  is  danger  of  freezing,  which 
would  prevent  cutting  as  wanted. 

CoM-ftomgc  of  cut  itiect*. —  It  is  dilTicult  to  keep 
the  cut  pieces  of  meat  fresh  during  the  summer 
months  without  the  use  of  ice,  and  even  then  but 
little  can  be  handled  at  one  time  under  farm  condi- 
tions. When  a  room  can  be  kept  at  a  temiierature 
of  forty  degrees  or  less  with  good  ventilation, 
fresh  meat  may  be  kept  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 
It  is  important  that  the  circulation  be  free  and 
the  air  dry.  Moisture  in  a  refrigerator  tends  to 
develop  wet  mold  or  slime,  and  the  decay  will  con- 
taminate any  meat  in  the  refrigerator.  A  high 
temperature  and  dry  atmosphere  ia  preferable  to 
a  low  temperature  with  damp  air.  For  ordinary 
purposeii.  the  best  facilities  for  storing  fresh  meat 
will  Iks  alTorded  in  a  email  ice-house  built  for  the 
purpose  with  a  storage  chamber,  well  protected  on 
the  south  side.  By  packing  the  ice  properly  on 
three  sides,  leaving  the  fourth  side  for  entrance, 
a  very  etFi^tive  and  convenient  cold-storage  houas 
may  be  made.  In  addition,  the  room  can  be  nseil, 
if  wanted,  for  storing  butter,  eggs  and  other  [)er- 
ishable  products.  G<><xl  drainage  should  be  provided 
and  ventilation  allowe^t  for  tl^  escape  of  warm  air 
which  will  gather  in  the  top  of  the  refrigerator. 

In  the  North  much  meat  is  kept  during  the  cold 
season  by  freezing.  A  carcass  may  be  cut  into 
quarters  or  smaller  pieces  and  hung  in  an  outbuild- 
ing in  which  it  will  remain  frozen.  When  a  part 
is  wanted,  it  may  be  cut  oif  with  a  saw.  The 
freezing  injures  the  flavor  but  little^  provided 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing  is  not  allowed.  The 
preferable  methwl,  however,  ts  to  cut  the  piecea 
into  marketable-sized  joints,  freeze  them  and  pack ' 
them  in  snow  that  is  cold  enough  to  be  dry.  neat 
thus  packed  and  kept  in  a  room  where  the  tem- 
perature is  uniform  and  below  the  freezing  point, 
will  keep  for  a  long  time.  This  method  of  refrig- 
eration is  applicable  only  to  localities  where  snow 
and  continued  dry,  cold  weather  prevail  during  the 
winter  months. 

Another  method  of  preserving  meat  thai  is  oftea ' 
reported  to  is  that  of  partially  cooking  and  pack- 


DRESSING,  CARING  FOR  AND  PRESERVING  MEATS 


259 


ng  the  piece.-^  in  large  jars,  covering  wUh  hnt 
lara.  As  the  meat  ih  nE>edt>d  for  use,  it  tnuy  bo 
nmoved  from  the  jar  aiiO  r^cooked.  it  is  betU'r 
to  use  aewral  small  jars  for  this  purpose  than  one 
I&rge  wie,  an  only  »  part  of  the  meat  hcmmI  he  di«- 
turbod  at  onci?.  The  jar  cnntaining  the  partially 
cooktMl  meat  slioulil  b«  kfpt  in  a  cool,  dark  cellar 
to  insure  safe  kwjHng. 

Ammonia  rcJ'ngiTtition.  —  Thi)  Tnoriern  piicking- 
houHB  or  meat-sliup  in  usually  equipped  with  an 
ammonia  refrigeration  plant.  This  process,  how- 
ever, is  too  expensive  and  elalMirate  to  be  of  nse 
on  the  onlinary  farm  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  dis- 
cuased  tinder  thut  HubjeeL 

Renderxn$  tallow. 

Tallow  is  composed  lare«)y  of  the  fate  ttom  the 
bodies  of  cattle  and  »hoop.  I'rcviom  to  1871  it 
was  used  largely  for  soap  stock  and.  in  a  limited 
way.  in  the  maTiiifacture  of  candkw  for  illnminat- 
injt  purpoiwa.  Since  that  time  it  ha-i  Itecome  valu- 
able in  the  manufiieture  of  wlible  compounda  and 
ha«  outKrowR  its  former  use. 

In  small  slanphter-houses  or  with  homc-dresaed 
animab  no  separation  of  the  fiit»  is  made.  All  arc 
thrown  together  and  .wld  v»  "  rough  tallow"  or  arc 
rendered  in  an  ojien  kettli>  ami  sold  as  "cake  tal- 
low." When  a  iiiee  brand  of  eake  tallow  is  de«ir(?d, 
care  should  be  uwd  to  select  only  the  choicer  parts 
of  the  fat  that  have  been  kept  clean  and  tliat  are 
free  from  the  lean  parts  of  meat.  Frequent  stir- 
ring and  a  slow,  st^'udy  fire  are  necessary  to  pro- 
vent  scorching  tht  fat,  which  would  result  in  a 
highly-coIore<l  tallnw  with  .'itronR  flavor,  Elashing 
tbe  rough  tallow  finely  aidti  in  the  free  and  nipid 
extraction  of  the  fat 

In  rendering  tallow  in  a  large  slaughtering 
establishment,  the  rough  tallow  is  carefully  sorted. 
That  converted  into  oleo-oil — a  product  used 
extensively  in  the  mannfacture  of  oleomarga- 
rine, hwttt-rine  and  other  similar  wlible  prodncLs 
muHt  Ite  kept  clean  and  u  neon  turn  inat*?)]  and  ren- 
dered at  a  low  tein])eratur);  In  a  steam -jacketed 
kettle.  Even  of  the  oleo-<)i3s  two  or  thre*  grades 
are  made,  depending  on  the  quality  of  fata  used 
and  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  rendered. 
The  residue  and  skimmings  from  the  oleo-oil 
extraction  are  u.sed  with  the  poorer  quality  of  faU 
in  makiD){  ordinary  bi^ef  tallow,  which  i^  used  for 
nesee.  soap  and  inachine-oilii.  Such  tallow  is  ren- 
dered in  8t«am -jacketed  kettles  under  forty  ponnda 
of  steam  pressure  or  a  temperature  of  abiiut  280° 
Fahr.  For  No.  I  oleo-idl,  caul  fat,  brisket  awl 
crotch  trimmings,  paunch,  phick  and  heart  trim- 
mings are  as4'<i.  For  No.  2  oleo-oil.  poorer  gnide.H 
of  tlK«e  same  fatft  with  K»<}-fftt  and  kidney  trim- 
minga  arc  used.  Such  fats  give  a  more  htghly- 
flarored  oil. 

Soap-making. 

Soap  ia  of  two  general  clax.'ae-s  :  soft  soaps,  made 
with  putosh  as  the  alkali,  and  hani  soap;),  in  which 
■oda,  ammonia  and  csther  alkalies  form  the  base. 

The  raw  materials  u»ed  in  soap-making  are  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  fats,  such  as  beef  tallow,  hog 


fats,  cotton.*eed  oil,  coconut  oil  and  rosin,  in  com- 
bination with  cauHtic  soda  in  chemical  combination 
and  S'xia  asih  attd  silicate  of  soda  in  mechanical 
mixtures.  Gradc-s  of  fat  are  used  ordinarily  that 
are  inferior  or  unfit  for  the  manufacture  of  edible 
pr(»duct«.  Grea.se  of  any  kind  may  be  used  for 
making  the  lower  grades  of  soap. 

.4s  nrdinarily  m:ule  for  farm  use,  soft  soap  con- 
sists of  tile  accumulation  of  fnt  and  grease  from 
various  sources,  combined  with  lye  secured  through 
leaching  hardwood  ashes  or  from  commercial 
sources.  The  fat  is  placed  in  a  targe  open  kettle. 
the  alkali  anlded  as  leached,  and  when  In  proper 
prij]>orti4ina,  as  estimated  by  the  consumption 
of  the  fat  by  the  alkali,  the  mixture  ts  boiled 
until  of  the  desiretl  consistency.  The  hanl  soaps 
are  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  tbe  soft  kind^, 
except  that  the  soda  salts  are  used  as  the  alkali 
inBtead  of  the  potash  lye  from  thti  ashes  or  other 
sources-  Rain-water  is  often  added  to  the  liquid 
when  the  lye  w  too  alnrng,  and  salt  or  "brine 
pickle  "  is  used  to  separate  the  soap  and  clarify  the 
precipitate. 

The  manufacture  of  commercial  soap  is  based  on 
the  same  princi])les  of  chemical  action,  but  is  vastly 
more  complicated  because  of  the  nuroerona  kinds 
of  soap  made  and  the  various  forms  of  fats,  oils 
and  lyes  used. 

Making  tandtti. 

The  term,  "candles,"  as  commonly  used  is  meant 
to  indicate  cylinders  of  wax,  fat,  or  other  fusible 
and  combustible  material  i^urrounding  a  combusti- 
ble wick.  Candle.'*  were  used  originally  for  ilinmi- 
nating  purposes,  but  at  the  prfsent  time  largely 
for  decorative  purjHwes  and  religious  symbols, 
although  some  are  still  useni  for  illumination. 

The  materials  used  for  candles  are  hard  pal- 
mitic and  stearic  acids  of  anima!  fats,  hydrocar- 
bons, such  as  parutlin,  ozokerite,  or  e.'irth-wax  and 
esters  of  the  fatty  acids  of  tallow  and  waxes, 
ParafRn  \a  securwl  from  petroleum,  and  has  grown 
strongly  in  favor  for  use  in  candle-making  l)ecauso 
of  its  illuminating  power  and  free^lom  from  smoke 
and  odor.  It  has  a  low  melting  point,  however, 
and  is  impntved  greatly  by  the  addition  of  10  to 
15  percent  of  stejiric  acid,  which  makes  a  harder 
candle.  Owikerite  is  an  earth-wax,  varying  in  hard- 
ne^  from  a  soft  material  to  a  material  as  hard  n» 
gypsum,  and  in  color  from  yellow  to  black.  Can- 
ales  made  from  oiokerite  are  of  greater  illuminat- 
ing power  than  those  from  paratiin,  and  of  a  higher 
melting  point.  Heeswax  is  also  usim)  for  making  a 
high  grade  of  candles  thai  are  free  from  smoke  and 
odor.  Iteef  talluw  in  uhunI  for  the  poor  grades  of 
candles,  but  its  use  in  tbe  pore  form  has  been  largely 
discontinued.  The  fab*  and  waxes  used  for  candleet 
are  colored  in  any  shade  desired  by  the  use  of  ani- 
line dye-s. 

The  e.'wentials  for  gtHxl  candle  stock  are  that  It 
will  burn  frwly  without  mlor  or  smoke,  that  it  will 
not  .soften  ur  lutie  its  shape  at  warm  temperatures 
or  from  the  heat  of  its  own  flame,  and  that  its 
melted  fluid  must  be  capable  of  being  drawn  np 
through  the  wick  by  capillary  action. 


260 


SHrPPING  MEAT  AND  HTOES 


There  are  three  methods  in  geoeral  d^  for  cm- 
lile-making :  (1)  Dipped  candles,  made  by  dipping 
the  wick  in  melted  stock  repeatedly,  each  layer 
being  allowed  tu  harden  and  cool  before  bein^ 
dipp»d  again..  (2j  I'oar^d  candles,  madt;  by  pouring 
the  melted  stock  over  the  wick,  which  is  etretcht-d 
in  a  frame.  Wax  candlea  are  chiefly  made  in  this 
way.  and  are  given  shape  while  still  plastic  by  roll- 
ing ov«r  a  amooth  surface  to  make  them  uniform 
In  size  and  shape.  (3)  Molded  candles.  The  in»»t 
common  method  of  making  candles  h  to  pour  the 
melted  stock  Into  cylindrical  mt<tal  forms  or  molds 
in  which  the  wick  has  bet^n  drawn  or  threaded. 
This  gives  a  candlu*  of  uniform  size  ami  shape. 

The  wicks  are  made  of  cotton,  carefully  spun  so 
that  the  threads  are  even.  The  size  varies  with  the 
size  of  the  candle  to  be  made. 

l.il^rature. 

H,  W.  Wilder.  The  Modem  Packing  Honpe,  Nick- 
ereon  &  OoUinii,  Chicago;  Oscar  Schwarz,  Nblic 
Abattoirs  and  Cattle  Markets,  Ice  and  Cold  Storage 
Publi-shing  Company,  London ;  L.  L.  Lamborn. 
Modem  Soaps,  Cantlles  and  Glycerines,  D.  Van 
Nostrand  Company.  -N'ew  York ;  A.  W.  Winter, 
Winter's  ElanJy  Book  of  Reference.  Laird  &  Lee, 
Chicago ;  A.  W.  Fnlton,  Home  Pork  Making.  Orange 
Jndd  Company.  New  York ;  Bulletin  No.  6r>,  Iowa 
Exp.Sta.;  No.  00,  Ind.  Exp.  Sta.;  Farmers' BullL-tins 
Noe.  44, 169,  1»3,  11.  S.  Dept.  Agric;  Report  Conn. 
Exp.  Sta,  1905,  190*1,  p.  33 ;  nulletins  Nos.  4(),  41. 
45, 4(i,  47,  Bureau  of  ytatiflticH.  and  No.  13.  Bureau 
of  Chematry,  Dept.  Agric;  Special  Rwport  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Corporations  on  the  Beef  Industry 
(Garfield  Report);  Bulk-tin  No.  90,  Neb.  Exp.  Sta.; 
Bolletin  No.  237,  Mich,  Exp.  Sta. 


SHIPPING    MK.\T  AND   HIDES 
By  ir.  //.  Tomhait 

Too  much  titresH  cannot  be  laid  on  the  import- 
ance of  proiHtrly  preparing  meat  product*  for 
shipping  and  of  care  in  shipment.  Losses  and  dfte- 
notation  from  neglect  in  tliis  phase  of  the  work 
need  not  be  experienced. 

Drenfd  hfr/  rifimww/.— Nearly  all  the  shipping 
of  dremed-heef  caroaHwH  in  done  by  tbp  pucker. 
He  M\t»  the  beef  either  direct  to  the  butcher  or  to 
the  wtuilHsale  di«tribuliiig  hi»u«e«.  Farmers  have 
no  nei»ii  for  drcjwing  th«ir  own  cattle  and  flhijKping 
the  carcasses,  iis  they  can  realizu  mom  for  their 
Btock  by  shipping  it  alive.  When  carcasses  are  to 
be  shipped,  they  are  usually  f|aartered  «)  that  they 
may  be  handled  with  ejuie.  They  are  hung  in  re- 
frigerator t'.ar«  madu  exprewly  for  this  purp»»<«. 
Near  the  ceiling  of  the  car  are  a  numixT  of  cn)H8- 
b&n,  with  houkij,  on  which  the  iiuarters  are  hung. 
At  each  end  of  the  car  is  an  ice-box  that  is  filled 
with  ice  when  the  car  is  loaded,  so  as  to  keep 
the  meat  from  spoiling  while  on  the  road.  If  only 
a  few  carcasses  are  to  1«  shipped  they  should  be 
wrappeil  in  burlap,  so  as  to  keep  them  clean  while 
nn  the  road  and  while  being  handleil.  If  hejirtft, 
livent,  tongues,  or  other  minor  prodncta  are  to  be 


shipped  in  the  same  car,  tbey  are  osnalty  pat  on 
raclu  on  the  Boor  of  the  car. 

.S'Acf/t  carrastct,  when  shipped  in  largo  quanti- 
tiea,  are  bandied  the  i$ame  ad  beef.  If  only  a  few 
carcasses  xk  shipped,  they  are  sent  by  express. 
When  this  is  done  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them 
well  wrapped  with  burEap.  so  as  to  keep  them  clean. 

Hog  earcaaet  are  seldom  shippe'l  before  they  are 
cut  up.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  pork  will  spoil 
much  quicker  than  beef  and  mutton,  and  moHt  of 
the  pork  ia  cured  by  the  packer  or  farmer.  Hog 
carcasses  are  cut  up  into  wholesale  cuts,  and  only 
the  loin  and  shoulder  bnttj!  are  shipped  as  fresh 
meat.  In  some  cases,  when  there  is  a  strong 
demand  for  frt-sh  pork,  shoulders  are  included  in 
this  list.  The^  are  packed  in  boxes  or  barrels 
which  will  hold  fifty,  one  hundred,  or  two  hondred 
poun>U.  The  meat  bi  uitually  wrapped  in  paper 
before  it  is  packed.  During  warm  weather  crushed 
ice  is  pnt  in  the  boxes  to  preserve  the  meat. 

Smokfd  kanu,  bacon  and  shoulderg  are  shipped 
by  both  packer  and  farmer.  The  essential  factor 
in  shipping  smoked  meat  is  to  handle  it  as  tittle  aa 
pos.«ib[e.  Smoked  meats  are  packed  in  boxes  or 
barrels  of  convenient  size.  If  care  i»  taken  in  pack- 
ing them  it  is  not  necessary  to  wrap  them  in  paper 
or  burlap.  Very  choice  hams  and  bacon  are  wrap[>ed 
in  pajwr  and  covered  with  burlap,  or  are  wrapped 
in  pajHT  and  muslin  and  covered  with  a  coat  of 
white-wash.  Smoked  meats  should  be  shipped  by 
frt^ight,  as  there  is  no  danger  of  spoiling  and  the 
cost  is  n^-'t  nearly  so  great  as  when  shipped  by  ex- 
press. Comed-tipff  is  usually  put  np  in  kegs  or 
barrfia  and  ship]»e<l  by  frt-iglit. 

I.ard  in  usually  put  up  for  tthipment  in  6fty* 
puuiid  c:ni».  It  may  be  put  up  in  smaller  cans  or 
atf>ne  jars,  but  the  jars  are  usually  too  heavy  or 
too  oxponsive.  The  cans  are  shippt-d  in  frames 
made  of  wood.  These  frames  are  made  by  taking 
four  piece*  of  wood  the  length  «f  the  can,  making  a 
fuur-cornerod  frame-  of  the  proper  sire  and  putting 
cnM«-piece,s  un  b«th  ends  to  pn)te<rt  the  can  and  to 
fcet-p  ihi*  covwr  on.  Unlen-i  8nipi«ed  in  large  ijuan- 
tity,  the  tthipping  diructions  are  put  on  thi;  cratc^ 
which  i«  shipjii-d  either  by  express  or  by  freight, 

Wat  is  probably  as  important  to  the  farmer  an 
any  other  meat  pro<iuct.  Much  veal  is  shipped, 
especially  in  the  northern  states.  As  soon  an  the 
veal  is  dressed,  and  all  inU-rnal  urgans,  except  the 
livpr,  are  n^movwl,  the  rarc:u«  aliould  lie  thoroughly 
cctoled.  The  pifCi'H  of  bide  from  which  the  head  and 
iKhanks  have  lieen  removts]  should  be  folded  up  and 
tied  so  as  to  prevent  dirt  and  ilust  from  ;iccumulat- 
ing.  The  cut  which  was  made  through  the  mid-line 
in  removing  the  internal  organs  shwuld  lie  drawn 
together  in  some  way  to  kei>p  the  inside  clean. 
Thia  can  l»e  done  by  lying  the  sidts  together  or  by 
wrapping  the  imrcasH  with  bnrlup.  If  possible,  veal 
should  Ih>  ithip[ied  so  as  to  reach  the  commiasioD 
man  in  thu  morning.  The  shipping-tag  shoold  be 
firmly  attached  and  shijiment  maile  by  express. 

Itfff  hiffn.  —  In  preparing  beef  hidftin  fornhipment 
they  should  lie  well  salted,  except  during  the  win- 
ter months,  when  Ihf y  may  be  shipped  frozen.  The 
salt  mimt  le  put  un  in  an  even  layer  on  the  inside. 


THE  CANNING   OF  UKAT  AND  FISH 


2lil 


The  hide  flhontd  be  rnlled  tip  tight  and  ti«l  bo  thiit 
it  wil]  Tint  c«nne  apiirt  when  hamUwt.  Th«  shiinpiiiH;- 
taji  may  lio  fa«tenfil  to  the  coni  used  in  tying  the 
hide  and  tht  hide  f>hiti|NKt  by  freiuht. 

Skrep  jM'JIfi  are  prrjiared  for  shipment  in  a  differ- 
ent way  than  bet-f  hide;*.  They  are  put  up  in  packs 
of  aboat  a  dozen  c.ich.  In  tniilcing  a  p:trk.  put  the 
first  jielt  with  the  wiml  side  dnwn.  Cnrtimii'  in  thiw 
miinner  until  the  pack  is  large  emiugh.  Then  tie 
with  heavy  cftrtl  and  »hi[k  Lhi!  same  iw  i^vt  hides. 
Wool  w  ahi])iH?d  in  lar^^y  saekrt  ma'lL*  out  of  hurlup. 
Each  flet'ce  is  tifd  in  a  bundle  and  packed  in  the 
sack  closuly.  TIioHt-  wnolsacks  ciin  W  si'cured  from 
hide  and  wool  companifs  on  application.  Wool  is 
shipped  liy  freight. 

PaxLUrii  it)  ahipikMl  both  alive  and  dressed,  depend- 
ing on  the  time  nf  ihtt  yi-ar  flhipment  is  miule.  it  ift 
bett*?r  U)  whip  pcultry  alive  durinn  the  sunini'er 
months,  M  there  w  lea-i  dan^t-r  of  lona  in  transit. 
If  poultry  is  t«  bo  nhippid  dri-.-':.^'d,  it  in  necessary  to 
keep  the  fowls  off  feed  for  twenty-tnur  h'mrB,  or 
more,  to  empty  the  craw  and  inte^tine.11,  so  thjtt 
dec 'imposition  will  nnt  take  place  so  rapidly.  The 
fowl  Btiould  be  bled  by  sticking  in  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  or  Ihnjugh  the  neck  below  the  ear.  The 
head  ahould  not  be  removed,  aa  that  detriicts  from 
the  Bppearancti  nf  the  fowl  and  makea  a  ku»  of 
w«ight.  The  feet  are  also  left  on  for  ap|[)earance 
and  additional  weii^ht.  F'oullry  dressed  for  market 
ehonld  not  be  drawn. 

The  ponltry  should  be  packed  in  a  box  or  barrel 
of  convenient  siite.  The  head  should  be  wrapped 
with  paper,  which  will  absorb  the  blood.  In  pack- 
ing the  first  layer  in  the  bottom  the  fowls  should 
be  put  in  80  as  to  have  the  breasts  down,  and  tho 
heads  folded  to  one  side.  They  are  th«.i  pot  in 
until  the  t«p  layer  is  reached,  which  should  be 
packed  with  the  breasts  up,  ■m  that  if  the  \m\  or 
barrel  is  opened  on  either  end  the  first  layer  will 
give  a  presentable  appearance.  If  poultry  ar«  ship- 
ped alive,  they  ahould  be  placed  in  crates  made  of 
wooden  strips.  Crates  of  convenient  size  are  made 
about  forty-two  inches  wide,  fifty-four  inche.i  long 
and  eidhtoen  to  twenty  inches  deep.  A  crate  of  this 
size  will  hold  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  live  fowls.  The 
atrips  ahoQld  be  nailed  ab^ut  two  inches  apart,  mak- 
ing the  crate  ^.i.  light  at:  possible.  Both  dressed  and 
live  poultry  should  be  shipped  by  express,  so  as  to 
avoia  being  on  the  road  any  length  of  time.  Empty 
crates  can  always  be  returned  at  a  cost  of  ten  or 
fifteen  cents. 


THE  CANNING  OP  MKAT  AND   FISH 

By    ir.  D.   Birhardmn 

Inasmoch  ax  microorganii'mB  (and  chiefly  bac- 
teria) ana  the  principal  exciting  cau^e  in  the 
deterioration  of  f^esb  foodie,  any  means  vrhich 
defltroys  bacteria  or  lessens  their  vitality  and 
activity  will  lessen  the  deterioration.  The  follow- 
ing list  includes  all  means  which  up  to  the  present 
have  btH;n  uiied  to  hinder  or  prevent  the  growth  of 
bacteria  in  foods : 


(1)  Low  t4-m|>era turns  (freezing  stops  bac- 

terial growth  entirely). 

(2)  Heat  sterilization : 

a.  Absolute. 

b.  Partial  ijiaAteurization). 
(3(  Desflifuitiun. 

(4)  Antis(-ptic»4  (infOuding  salt,  fuiltpeter, 
sugar,    Bpieeit,   vinegar    and    vrinnl- 
smoke). 
(ft)  Exclusion  of  air  (may  be  practiced  in 
connection  with  any  of  tho   fore- 
going). 
In  the  canning  of  meats,  only  two  of  these  inesDB 
are   made    use  of,  namely,  heat-sterilization  and 
exclusion  of  air.    Huwever,  sume  cured  and  smoked 
merits— meals  preserved  by  the  use  of  antiMeptics — 
are  cannt-il ;  but  in  these  ca.«es,  naturally,  the  cun- 
ning is  not  the  essential  means  nf  preservation. 

Heat  MeriliiatioH. 

As  applied  to  meats,  this  is  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  vegetative  frirm.^  nf  niicroiirgKnisms  in 
the  moibtt  onditittn  are  killed  at  or  Ik'Iow  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water  (100"  C),  and  that 
spores  in  the  moist  condition  are  killed  at  a  some- 
what higher  temiierature  (120*  C,  or  below).  The 
temperatures  aliove  100"  C,  used  in  canning,  are 
obtained  by  meiins  nf  steiim  under  pressure,  120" 
C,  corresponding  tn  .saturated  steiun  under  s  gaage 
pressaro  of  one  atmiwphere,  or  14,7  pounds.  In 
the  canning  bu.-«iHesfi,  heat  sterilization  is  known  as 
"  processing,"  and  is  conducted  in  autoclaves  known 
as  "retorts." 

* 

Exdusicjt  qf  air. 

Excluding  air  atone  will  nnt  preserve  fond  prod- 
ucts completely,  but  inasmuch  as  all  molds  and 
most  bacteria  grow  best  in  the  presence  of  oxygen. 
its  absence  materially  assists  the  keeping  qualities 
of  meats.  Furthermore,  oxygen  is  the  active  sub- 
stance concerned  in  the  production  of  thoac  changes 
which  occur  in  fats,  and  which  are  known  collect- 
ively as  rancidity.  Hence,  in  the  absence  of  air, 
rancidity,  with  its  attendant  di.iagreeable  odor,  will 
beavwided.  Allmeats.eventhe  leanest. contain  some 
fat.  and  the  prevention  of  rancidity  is  of  great 
importance.  Exclu.ti<>n  of  air  is  practiced  in  con- 
nection with  heat  sterilisation,  and  also  in  the  can- 
ning of  cured  meats,  as  sliced  dried  beef,  and  sliced 
bacon,  where  heat  sterilisation  is  not  mode  use  of. 

Gre*9  tompogition  of  meat. 

From  the  nutrition  standpoint,  meat-  the  fleah 
of  warm-blooded  animals     is  composed  of: 

(1)  Certain  proteins  whichconstltute  the 

major  portions  of  the  ntucle  fiber 
proper. 

(2)  Collagen,  in  the  connoctive  tissue  sur- 

rounding the  muscle  fibers,  and  in 
the  fatty  ttesue  and  bone. 

(3)  Organic  extractive  matters,  princi- 

pally nitrogen 0U.4,  which  latt«r  ar? 
classified  under  the  name  meat  bases. 

(4)  Mineral  salts. 

(5)  Fau. 


2ra 


THE  CAHKING  Of  MEAT  ANT)  FISH 


The  choracUifriiitic  Havm  of  meat  ig  doe  to  tJu> 
••xtrartlvtt  maLU'ra,  thv  rninttrsl  mIU,  and  io  the 
ciuw  ut  mt-ut  fnfm  winw  nninuilii  (xoch  an  Bhi?np 
AD(I  Rcatii^.  Ut  u^rtsin  fatty  aulmlancw. 

^fM  ^u<aifr  <m  mm/,  air//  M'  Iheiiry  ofenokiag. 

Tho  elfwt  of  wttt«r  on  mviit,  and  Ihc  theory  uf 
coukirifc  mimt  In;  i]<tiiU  with  hrlirfly.  The  ctTiirt  of 
cold  watvr  on  mwit  w  t^j  extract  th«  w)lublo 
•alta,  th«  inaat  baaea  &n't  Homn  of  thtt  \,r<tU.-\T\».  Tht? 
nmnnnt  (if  aotid  matter  thiui  iKimihlp  to  extract  from 
ii<»n  U-vi  Hmounta  to  alnjut  G  \wr  ci'nt.  The  effect 
fif  ItoiliiiK  watRr  la  t^j  ahrinlc  ihu  hulk  of  the  mi'jit 
Ity  <-'iit|;iiliiltnic  tii«  iirotoitui,  lo  hv'lrnljrzethe  olla- 
KHH  of  iha  connocltvc  timtuu,  thiut  [)r<Miucin|{  gelatin, 
which  piMM  Into  solut ion,  mill  I'xJbuujIve  aaltaond 
moat  baaaa.  l/MiR-continucI  (•uiiiiifc  cauaea  hydroly- 
*b  of  more  or  Ii-kh  of  the  meiit  proteins,  which  pass 
!n((i  aolatinn  in  thci  ftJrm  of  alhumoaea.  In  roaat- 
fnt:.  hoilintc,  frying',  niiil  in  thoM  cookini;  proG««se8 
in  which  whUt  Ih  nrtt  oAt'd,  the  effects  are  in 
Kt<n('ral  tho  mmv  a»  in  boilinji  (fur  meat  contains 
7U-7'i  i)(^r  ri.<nt.  of  wator),  excuptinig  that  the  aatta 
ftn'l  rTK>iit  lituwit  nnd  proteins  are  for  the  moat  part 
retainod. 

Sfrat'Cann'ms, 

Th(t  dittaita  of  thft  mt-thodrt  of  dilTerent  packerx 
difTi^r  tr>  a  nli^ht  extent,  although  tho  principles  art) 
[i]  all  i:iu^vt\  ctMifntiully  Ihu  Kamit,  and  th»rte  dittaiU 
will  not  bu  enUirwd  into.  The  dL'Scrijitiona  tjf  th« 
practical  methods,  follow  the  linL-s  of  general  or 
moot  approved  practice.  Thu  patented  method  of 
cantiintt  ni«ittji,  which  came  into  ^enoral  une  a  few 
yi-arH  ago.  ami  which  conNwted  in  Bwaling  the  filled 
cftiw  in  vacuo,  and  cnndiicting  them  on  an  endlefin 
chain,  first  Ihrmiph  ii  hath  of  rmlten  paraffin,  heated 
tij  lliH  profHT  turrifmratiire,  and  then  thrniigh  Jisoln- 
liun  t'f  Riidiuin  oarlHinate  (Ui  remove  the  grease), 
aplHfiirx  tu  Ix!  KuiHK  "ot  ut  uw. 

All  DiLiatHTatinin^'  ut^UtiilinhmentH  that  do  an 
(nttTHtate  burtiiiu'SH  aru  u[jieral«d  .subjtn-t  to  the 
sujucrvtsion  of  a  niiitt'd  Stali?a  guvernmient  in- 
Rpwtor  and  his  oHaintants-  In  this  way  the  pub- 
lic iii  B!««ured  tliut  meats  are  sound  and  whole- 
anmo. 

The  principal  varietii's  of  canned  meat*  are 
canni'd  mast  ln?ef  or  boilwl  bwf,  canned  tongue, 
nmnked  mcatJi  (chipped  dried  beef,  bacon,  aad  thu 
like),  canned  chicken  and  turkey,  cann^-d  saowige 
ami  (Hilled  and  deviled  meat^. 

i'annfd  rmist  iitrf.  Canned  boiled  or  roast  beef 
in  ma*W  from  lean  meat  derived  for  the  most 
part  from  the  fore-quarter  of  the  animai.  The 
meat  in  boHed.  cut  into  pieces  weighing  aSoiit 
one  to  four  pounds  and  these  are  trimnivd  to 
remove  fat  and  j.^'istle.  As  a  preliminary  to  can- 
ning these  pieces  are  tht-n  parlmiled  for  ten  to 
thirty  minutep,  in  order  to  shrink  the  meat.  If 
IhiH  wepo  nt't  done,  when  the  raw  ])iec(.«  were 
nnM-wwed  they  would  shrink  in  the  cans,  leav- 
ing the  cam*  only  partly  filled  with  meat.  The 
product  would  then  present  an  indifferent  appear- 
nnc4^  and  the  package  would  be  less  compact  for  a 
givun  weight  of  meat  than  when  the  preliminary 


psrbtrfling  waa  miort«d  to.  After  parboiling,  tbe 
pieces  arv  pacfced  into  cans  of  tlie  desired  aize,  i^^me- 
tim«*  by  hand  and  winetimee  by  machine.  It  is 
deBiralile  that  Uw  pleoes  in  any  one  can  be  approxi- 
mately of  the  aane  Bise  in  order  that  the  preceding 
may  proceed  uniformly.  A  certain  ^oantity  of  the 
liquid  remlting  from  the  parboiling  is  now  added  to 
the  cans  and  they  are  »older»d  up.  The  cans  are 
oext  placed  on  circular  tray»  made  of  woven 
wire  and  theae  are  placed  in  the  retorte,  tier  on 
tier,  the  top  of  the  retort  is  clamped  down,  and  the 
steam  turned  on.  Each  retort  is  provided  with 
a  steam  gaoge  and  thermometer  in  order  that  tem- 
peratarea  and  preesurea  may  !«  carefully  con- 
trolled. The  heating  proceeds  for  one  to  two  houra 
at  temperatures  of  21K''  to  23Hf  Fahr.,  depending 
on  the  size  of  the  canm  and  the  practice  of  the  fac- 
tory. The  cans  are  then  removed  from  the  retort*, 
a  email  vent  made  to  release  the  euclosed  air,  and 
resoldered.  The  cans  are  returned  to  the  retorts  and 
reprocessed  for  one  to  two  or  more  hoars  at 
temperatures  of  23o°  to  255"  Fahr.,  after  which 
they  are  chilled,  wa.'ihed,  lacquered  and  labeled.  If 
the  processing  is  prcijeHy  carried  out  the  cans  will 
be  sterile  and  free  from  air. 

Canntd  ecTned  betf  is  prepared  from  beef  which 
has  been  "cured"  or  "corned"  in  a  pickling  brine 
containing  salt,  sugar  and  saltpeter.  The  process 
of  canning  is  not  essentially  different  fn>m  that 
umpliuyed  in  the  case  of  boiled  beef;  the  prelimi- 
nary parboiling  is  continued  for  a  somewhat  longer 
time,  and  snmetimea  the  water  itt  twice  changed 
and  two  boilings  made  in  order  to  remove  part 
of  the  salt  taken  up  during  the  caring  process. 
The  processing  may  be  accomplished  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  that  used  for  fresh  l«ef,  both 
because  of  th«  longer  parboiling  and  the  fact  that 
it  IK  more  ea-^ily  accomplished  in  the  presence  of 
salt  than  In  itfi  absence.  In  same  factories  a  tem- 
pprattire  nul  higher  than  the  boiling-point  of  water 
is  used.    [See  |Mit;e  255.] 

Canned  foauar  is  preparwl  from  the  tongues  of 
hefve.*!,  calves,  pheep  and  hogB.  The  tongues  are 
first  pickled  in  a  lirint-  containing  salt,  sugar  aod 
Baltiteter,  and  iin  removal  from  the  pickling 
solution  they  are  cooked  one  to  two  hoars.  Aftar 
this  they  are  trimint'd  and  each  tongue  is  rolled 
separately  and  placisi  in  a  circular  can  of  the 
proper  sire.  InsU-ad  of  proceeaing  tongues  ii 
retortjf.  miinv  houses  prefer  tu  heat  the  cans  ia 
brine  to  n  "temperature  of  2.15"  to  240*  Fahr. 
Sometimes  tongues  are  put  up  in  glass  cans  with 
sheet-metal  cover,  the  cover  lieing  #et  in  pbo»  « 
a  vacuum  machine  which  first  exhausts  tte  air 
from  the  can.  .\  rubWr  gasket  around  the  ran  aC 
the  can  make.-*  thp  package  air-tight.  Ftnaliy  tta> 
cans  are  aterilint^  by  heat  in  the  usual  war. 

Cannai  inmtkrA  iw#a(s. -The  principal  c1wp< 
smoked  meats  are  sliced  dried  beef  and  flfint 
bacon.  These  are  fully  curwl  and  smofad 
earning,  and  therefore  heat-ateriliiation  is* 
essary.  They  are  y>acke<)  in  cans  or  jars  af 
metal  or  glass  of  vnrioiw  aizt-'s,  the  air  isexM 
in  a  vacnora  machine  and,  in  the  caae  of  taa  €■■>. 
the  vent  U  soldered  while  under  vacnm.  n  tw 


MEAT:    ITS  NUTHITIVE   VALUE,  SELECTION   A.N'D   PREPARATION 


263 


case  of  9he«t-meUl  covured  rIum  jars  the  cover  U 
sdjuated  in  the  vacuum  machine  and  the  package 
rvnderwl  air-ti{;ht  liy  means  of  a  rubber  gnitket. 

Ctinnrd!  ehickea  and  Itirkn/  arv  prepared  from 
poultry  which  has  bcon  dTvaswIand  the  carcass  boiled 
until  the  meat  s«?i.arat4i«  easily.  Th«  meat  ia  wpa- 
raCod  by  hand, placed  in  cans  and  these  arc  processed 
in  a  way  similar  to  that  employed  for  boiled  beef. 

Cannrrl  fauMagf.  -A  certain  amoont  of  sausage 
h  placed  in  cant!  and  proct^sHed.  This  saosage  does 
not  differ  eiwentially  from  the  cooked  and  amoked 
ntLiAi^  Rold  without  canning.  Some  ^auitage,  par- 
ticularly that  known  m  bolo^a,  is  canned  in  uil. 
[See  pago  257.] 

PoUfd  auvi/j', —Potted  and  deviled  meats  and 
pst^  are  finely  comminuted  meaU  spiced  and 
■easoned  and  processed.  The  li»t  of  preparations 
Qoder  thJK  head  is  very  large. 

Canning  of  jish. 

In  general,  the  methods  applied  In  the  canning 
of  fish  are  baaed  on  the  same  principles  as  thoae 
employed  in  meat-canning.  P'ish  ia  a  food  which 
andorgoes  deterioration  rapidly,  the  lean  by  bac- 
terial decomposition  and  the  fat  in  the  presence 
of  air  because  of  the  development  of  rancidity. 
Prompt  and  cleanly  handling  of  the  proiioct  Is 
very  essential  in  (Ish-canning  eKt4ibllshmenti4.  Two 
instaneefl  only  of  fish-canning  wilt  be  detailed  here. 

^Imon.  -The  salmon  belong  to  the  genus  Oncho- 
rhynchua,  of  which  Jive  species  are  found  on  the 
western  coaat  of  America.  They  are  taken  by 
hook  hut  chiefly  by  &eine»,  transported  to  the  can- 
ning factories  as  rapidly  as  possible,  cleaned  and 
scaled,  and  the  headfi.  tailii  and  fins  removed.  They 
are  then  allowed  to  atand  a  certain  length  of  time 
in  brine  in  tanks,  after  which  they  are  drained,  cut 
into  pieces  of  the  proper  size  and  placed  in  cans. 
The  space  left  in  the  cans  h  filled  with  salt  brine, 
the  canj  sealed  and  auttKlaved  for  one  hour.  The 
cans  are  removed,  a  vent  made  to  relea.se  the  air, 
resoldered  and  autocLaved  again.  They  are  removed 
from  the  antoclave.  showered  with  cold  water  and 
lacquered  and  labeled. 

^niinrjr.  — The  genuine  sardine  is  found  most 
AbundaRtly  along  the  coasts  of  France,  Spain  and 
Fortuirel.  On  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
from  Florida  to  Cuba,  is  found  the  Spanish  sardine. 
Both  of  these  belong  to  the  herring  family.  Along 
the  coast  of  Maine,  small  herring  are  put  n]i  for 
snnlines.  The  fish  are  brought  Ui  the  factory  as 
quickly  as  possible  and  are  immetliutely  beheaded 
and  eviscerated.  They  are  then  sprinkled  with  salt 
and  drained  on  wooden  slati  over  night.  The  next 
morning  they  are  again  aalted.  dralnni  ami  dried. 
Following  this  comes  the  principal  part  of  the  pro- 
c«BB~cooking  in  oil.  In  the  older  procesA  the  fish 
were  laid  on  pans,  covered  with  olive-oil,  and  placed 
in  the  oven  for  five  or  six  minutes.  Then  they  were 
removed  and  drained  on  wire  trayi^.  In  the  more 
modem  proceaa  they  are  laid  on  wire  baskets*,  and 
dipped  for  the  proper  length  of  time  In  hot  oil. 
Tbo  fish  ar^  laid  in  tin  boxen  .ifi  cloAely  as  poi'.'^ible. 
the  boxes  filled  with  olive^iil.  closed  and  soldered, 
and  cooked  for  one  hour  in  water  whit^h  \»  cold  at 


the  start,  bat  which  ia  boiled  by  means  of  injected 
steam.  The  so-called  shadinu  are  young  menhaden. 

Literatarf. 

For  a  general  discussion  of  the  principles 
governing  the  preserving  of  perishable  products 
by  means  uf  canning,  and  references  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject,  see  Part  H,  of  Vol.  II. 


MEAT:  ITS  NITTRITIVE  VALUK.  SELECTION 
AND  PRKPAIIATION 

By  Flora  Rose 

All  life  has  its  origin  in  a  single  cell  This  is 
a  minute  maas  of  living  aub^tiince,  protoplasm, 
which  posaesses  within  itaelf  all  the  vital  powers, — 
activity,  growth,  assimilation,  reprotluction. 

The  simplest  forms  of  living  things  are  one-cell 
organisms  which  effect  all  their  life  jtroccsifies  inde- 
pendently. Each  is  a  complete  individual  in  its  own 
right.  All  higher  forma  li?gin  life  in  the  same  sim- 
ple way  aa  a  single  cell,  indt-jiendent  at  first,  but 
growing  and  multiplying  into  a  number  of  simitar 
individuals,  able  to  conduct  many  of  their  own  vital 
processes,  but  dependent  for  ultimate  existence  on 
the  organism  they  represent.  As  the  body  develops, 
groups  of  ceils  become  specialized,  some  going  to 
form  skin  and  nervous  system,  others  to  form  bone, 
muscles  and  circulatory  system,  still  others  to  form 
the  alimentary  tract,  liver,  lungH,  and  other  parta. 

The  body  fhm  stands  forth  as  an  individual 
whole,  but  made  up  of  countteAs  le5wr  units.  Ica 
well-being  depends  on  the  well-being  of  ita  compo- 
nent parts.  Health  meanagood  condition  of  the  cells. 
as  disease  means  disturbance  of  some  cell  gronp. 

Some  principlet  of  nutrition. 

The  ultimate  cell  structure  of  the  body  pointa 
to  the  fact  that  the  food  problem  is  a  cell  problem. 
To  feed  the  organism  is  to  supply  it  with  material 
that  has  the  power  of  building  up  new  cell  tissue, 
or  that  will  yield  energy  to  the  cell  and  thua  to 
the  body  as  a  whole.  The  compoi"ition  of  cell  sub- 
stance is  the  first  indication  of  cellular  food  needs. 
It  always  contains  water,  ash  and  substances  known 
as  proteids.  Hence,  for  the  growth  and  repair  of 
active  living  tifwue— protoplasm— the  essentialB 
are  water,  a^h  and  proteid.  Fats  and  carbohjdratM, 
a  group  of  substances  the  important  food  members 
of  which  are  sugars  and  starches,  also  serve  as  a 
form  of  food  fur  the  cell.  They  are  incapable  by 
themseivej!  of  being  built  into  protoplasmic  ti&sue 
but  are  of  greatest  importance  to  the  body,  as  it  is 
chiefly  from  these  th-it  the  cell  dt^rives  energy  for 
the  manifeMation  of  itfi  various  activities.  They 
may  be  found  as  such  within  the  cell  as  a  stored 
form  of  energy  derived  dirwtly  from  tha  fats  and 
carbohydrates  fed,  or  as  a  product  of  the  metabo- 
lism of  proteids. 

To  summariz« :  Proteids,  though  capable  of  yield- 
ing energy  to  the  cell,  have  the  further  function  of 
building  1i%'ing  ti»tue.  CarbohydraloH  and  fata  can 
be  osefl  directly  in  the  body  only  att  a  muroe  of 
energy,  and  when  found  as  ituch  in  the  body,  are 


2t>4 


MEAT:    ITS  NLITRITH^  VALUE,  SELECTIO^J   ANTJ   PRKPARATION 


stored  there  as  a  roAerve  form  of  food  ar  fuel  within 
tb»  ctill  but  not  as  a  part  of  the  protoplasm  and  not 
as  living  tistiue. 

MfamiTe  of  jintri{ii>e  ivSue.  of  food. 

It  has  been  foiinirt  cunvonioiit  to  tine  the  hf^st 
unit  called  Caloriw  aa  tt  muasuro  of  the  nutritivu 
value  of  foods.  The  Calorie  is  the  amount  of  beat 
required  to  raise  one  kihiKram  rif  water  one  degree 
Centigrade  of  temperature.  There  are  accurate 
methods  of  determining  tha  amnunt  of  heat  each 
of  the  siib.'itanct^s,  pmteid,  fat  und  ciirhuhydrale,  is 
capable  of  yielding  to  the  bixly,  and  thiti  amount  is 
expreaswJ  in  t«rm8  of  the  Calorie.  Thus, 

1  gram  or  .0022  [xiixnds  ^roUiid  yiiddH  4  Cab. 

1  gram  or  .0022  jmunds  curl>i:>hrdr»t«  y'w\AM  -1  CsIh. 

1  gram  or  .0022  pounda  fat  yiulds  d  CuIb. 

A  targe  and  intereatinif  literature  has  grown  np 
in  discuBsinnB  of  food  retiuirfmenta.  It  will  ho 
well  to  say  in  passing  that  f()r  the  mirniiil  man  of 
average  »\7m  at  light  inuiwular  work,  foinl  yielding 
2,400  to  3,000  Caltirius  will  be  ample  for  a  day's 


tnaintdnance. 
figures : 


Tigerstedt    gives    tbe    following 

Table  L 


2.000 -2,-100Cai8. 
2,-l(K>-2.70l.l  Cain. 
2,7tlO-a,2f)0  CftU. 
3.200-4.100  Cala. 
4,11X1-5.000  CiiN. 
Over    5,000  Cab. 


for  a  i^lioemaker. 
fnr  a  weaver, 
for  »  ciir(>«nt«r. 
for  a  form  laborer. 
for  sn  «scavikL<:ir. 
for  a  lumberman. 


A  certain  proportion  of  this  Calorie  yield  should 
be  fwrnirihed  by  the  protein  of  food,  since  there 
mu.st  be  provision  for  wear  and  tear  of  tissue. 
There  is  much  diKeuK»ion  and  difftTKnce  of  opinion 
aH  lo  the  ]iri)porlioii  of  protein  the  dietary  should 
contain,  and  it  ia  unwise  to  make  dufinite  state- 
mvuia  in  regard  to  this  point  within  eucb  limited 
space.  However,  it  will  not  he  radical  to  say 
that  for  food  yielding  2.400  to  3.000  Caloriefl, 
if  280  to  300  of  the  Calories  an>  fumiahed  bj 
protein,  there  will  Ik*  no  prnti'in  deficit  in  the  body. 
The  following  tahle  gives  the  composition  of  8ome 
uf  the  more  common  food  materials. 


TaBLB  ]I.— i'loMPOHlTION   OP  SoKE  COMMON   FOOO  MATimtALa. 
(Adapted  from  United  States  D«pArtnD(>nt  of  Agriculture.  Office  of  Bxperiment  Stations,  Balletin  No.  26) 


7 mkI  inlMrlaX 


Wiit«r 


Beef 

Veal 

UuttOB . 

Lamb 

Pork 

Fowbi 

Huni)'  ei££f .  uncooked  «d{ble  port 

Buttfirmilk 

Ch^'fHv,  America]!  <pabi)    .... 

Chp'ese,  I'utUlt* 

Milk,  giiitnmwi 

Milk,  whole     ......... 

Bea.n»,  dried 

Putu*.  dried 

AimondB,  ediblo  part 

Peanutfl.  edibl«  part 

Walauta,  edihl*  part 

Corn-m^al.  granular 

Corn -m pal,  unbolted 

O&U,  ri>LI«d 

Rice 

Wheat  flour,  entire  wheat .... 

Wht'ul  fliiur.  white 

Whf'at  floar.  Graharn 

Whit*  bruad 

Beaaft,  atrintc.  freah.  edible  part   . 

Cabbage,  edible  part 

Corn,  irnstn,  edible  part  .... 
Onions,  freult,  edible  part  .... 
PoAit,  KUgar,  green,  cdibli^  part  . 
Potatoes,  raw  or  freah.  edible  part 

Spinurb.  fre»h 

ApplcH,  edible  part 

Grapeu,  edibla  pari 

OraogN,  «difole  part 

PiRB 

Pmnps,  rdihlp  part 

KaieinB,  edible  part 

Butter 


Per  eeot 
G2.2 
71.3 
63.6 
5a2 
34.4 
6S.7 
73.3 
91.0 
31.6 
72.0 
90.5 
87.0 
12.6 
9.5 
4.8 
9,2 
2.5 
12.6 
11.6 
7.7 
12.3 
11.4 
12.0 
tl.» 
36.3 
88.2 
91£ 
75.4 
87.6 
81,8 
7R8 
92.3 
84.6 
77.4 
86.9 
1&8 
22.3 
14.6 
II.O 


Protein 


fat 


.•i.3 
8&.0 


Cftrbo- 
lijrdMrH 


Fweaal 


Asb 


Fu  Mat 


Tml-vtJne 

twrlb. 


CaJorK'* 
1.135 
735 
1,S60 
1.300 
%S06 

730 
165 

610 

170 

826 

1.605 

1^6 

3,030 

2,660 

8,106 

1,666 

1,790 

1,860 

1,690 

1,075 

1,660 

1,670 

1,216 

195 

146 

336 

226 

386 

386 

no 

290 
460 
240 
M76 
1,400 
1,606 
8,605 


MEAT :    ITS  NUTRITIVE  VALUE,  SELECTION  AND  PREPARATION 


a$s 


In  interpret itig  the  relation  of  nutritive  value  to 
food-neeijs,  it  must  not  bv  forgott«n  that  Bome 
focxU  that  have  a  relatively  low  fael-value  are 
of  very  fp'eat  dietetic  imjK)rtaiico.  For  example, 
vegetables  and  fruit;*,  althoti^h  they  are  largely 
composed  of  water  ami  ffive  a  low  Calorie  yield, 
are  relatively  rich  in  a^h  constituents,  and  the  bulk 
tbey  aitoni  ia  of  physioloifical  value  in  promoting 
peristaltic  action  in  tho  inte^ttines  and  thus  enablint; 
the  body  more  quickly  to  rid  itself  of  its  waste 
materials. 

Protein  in  Jnod*. 

While  most  foods  contain  small  amounts  of  pro- 
telds  there  are  certain  foods  in  which  the«ie  sub- 
9tAnc«fl  pr^otnitute,  and  which  are  adde^l  to  the 
dietary  with  deliberate  intention  of  brinffing  up  the 
protein  ratio.  These  are  mainly  of  animal  oriRin.  aa 
meat.  fgRS,  milk  and  cheese,  although  certain  vege- 
table foods,  SDch  aa  dried  beans  and  peas,  nuta  and 
some  cereals,  are  also  very  rich  in  protein,  and 
may  be  luwd  as  nbstitutes  for  the  animal  products. 
Tbo  protein  food  in  most  common  use  in  this  country 
U  meat.  A  few  fipurea  taken  from  Grindley  fiMce 
of  Experiment  Stations.  Bulletin  No.  lt>2)  will  uhow 
the  importance  placed  on  meat  by  the  average 
American  consumer :  37  per  cent  of  the  IntuI 
expenditure  on  food  U  for  meat :  38.2  per  cent  of 
the  total  protein,  '18.9  per  cent  of  the  total  fat  and 
18.5  per  cent  of  the  total  nutrients  of  the  diet  are 
furnished  by  moat.  Aa  to  the  advisability  of  such 
free  UBe  of  meat  there  is  much  diversity  of  opinion, 
and  aomething  may  be  said  on  both  sides.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  meat  hn»  a  high  food  value,  both 
becaufte  of  its  relati\'ely  large  i>ercentage  of  protein 
and  because  of  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  fat. 

iltucular  atructare. 

Some  understand! nj:>:  of  the  minute  structure  of 
muscalar  tissue  is  a  material  aid  to  the  intelligent 
selection  and  preparation  of  meat  products.  In  the 
development  of  the  body,  those  cells  which  have 
gone  to  form  muscle  have  Ivecome  very  much  modi- 
fied in  charactiT.  They  are  elongated  into  tube-like 
atmctorea  known  zs  muscle  fibers,  each  fiber  repre- 
senting one  muscle-cell.  The  cell-protoplasm  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  thin  membranous  wall,  similar  in 
composition,  but  materially  different  in  character- 
istics and  nutritive  value  to  the  cell  contents. 
The  muscle  fibers  are  bound  together  into  bundles 
by  a  network  of  connective  tissue,  and  these  fiber 
bondlei  are  further  bound  together  to  form  the 
mtwcle.  In  meat  that  has  been  boiled  for  a  long 
time,  it  is  easy  to  separate  out  the  fiber  bundles 
and  note  something  of  this  structure, 

Invisible  droplets  of  fat  may  be  found  imbedded 
in  the  connective  tissue,  and  in  the  flesh  of  many 
animals  distinct  layers  of  fat  lie  iK-tween  the  liber 
buodlea.  Minute  blood-vesseb  ramify  through  the 
oonnective  tissue. 

Compontwn  and  eharatf^ristiea  of  miude-tuhftante. 

Variations  in  the  tenderness  of  meat  and  in  the 
effects  on  it  of  cooking  are  due  largely  to  differ- 
ences in  charact«ri«tics  between  c«ll  content  and 


connective  tissae.  Aa  will  be  understood  by  the 
previous  explanation,  the  muscle-fiber  is  largely 
com]X)sed  of  a  watery  solution  of  protein  subistaa- 
cea  together  with  some  ash.  The  greater  part 
of  these  proteins  is  coagulated  by  heat  and  is 
insoluble  in  both  cold  and  hot  water.  It  is  this 
characteristic  coagulation  which  probably  causes 
the  hardening  of  meat  in  cooking.  Prolonged  high 
tempt^ratures  increase  this  hardening  and  give  a 
touKh.  leathery  character  to  the  meat  thus  treated. 
Along  with  this  insoluble  coagulable  protcid  occur 
small  amounts  of  eoluble  proteids  and  a  group  of 
substances  known  as  meat  extractives,  which  ar« 
soluble  in  both  hot  am)  cold  water.  It  l-^  to  these 
extractives  that  meat  probably  owes  its  character- 
istic flavor. 

Connective  tissue  and  the  membranous  cell-wall 
bocomo  softened  by  the  action  of  heat  and  water 
and.  if  the  beating  is  long  continued,  they  are 
changed  into  a  soluble  eubstance  known  as  gelatin. 

Careful  note  should  be  m:ade  of  the  above  facts 
since  tbey  strike  the  keynote  of  successful  cooking 
of  meat  products  and  explain  some  of  the  fallacies 
which  bold  with  regard  to  the  high  nutritive  value 
of  broths  and  soup  stocks. 

Shortly  after  the  dt-ath  of  an  animal,  the  cell 
content  undergoes  a  characteristic  hardening  known 
as  rigor  mortie,  or  the  stiffening  of  death.  This 
coagulation  is  due  to  some  chemical  change  in  the 
passing  of  tissue  from  a  living  to  a  lifeless  state. 
After  a  certain  number  of  hours,  further  change 
takes  place,  and  the  muscle  grows  softer  as  its 
proteids  again  become  increasingly  soluble.  Meat 
used  before  ricjor  mortix  has  diHappeared  Is  rela- 
tively tough,  hence  the  custom  of  "hanging"  it. 

Chnrarleri^iien  tij  gotfd  meat. 

Meat  should  have  uniformity  of  color  and  should 
be  neither  pale  nor  too  purplish.  There  should  be 
little  or  no  odor  to  it.  The  flesh  should  be  firm  to 
touch  and  should  neither  pit  nor  crackle.  On  hand- 
ling, it  should  scircely  moisten  the  fingew.  There 
should  be  no  evidence  of  parasiUss. 

^«^ should  be  bright  red  in  color  and  should  be 
marbled  with  fat. 

Veal  is  pak-r  and  less  firm  than  beef,  but  it 
should  be  of  good,  pinkish  color  and  the  meat  should 
not  be  flabby  n'^^  the  fat  tallowy. 

Miiiton  shonld  be  heavy  and  firm.  The  fat  should 
b«  white,  hard  and  clear,  the  flesh  fine-grained  and 
bright  red  in  color.  Poor  mutton  has  little  fat  and 
relatively  little  flesh  as  compared  with  the  amount 
of  bone. 

Lamh  is  less  lirm  than  mutton  and  the  fat  is 
softer,  but  it  should  be  relatively  firm. 

Pork  is  the  least  firm  of  the  meatii  and  its  fat  is 
comparatively  soft.  The  flHsh  shoul<f  be  of  good 
color  and  the  fat  should  be  white  and  clear. 

T^iufernrM  in  vital. 

A  small  amount  of  delicate  connective  tissue,  a 
tbin  cell-membran'p.  short  fibers,  and  a  time  suffi- 
cient for  the  disappearance  of  rij^or  mort\»,  are  the 
necesaary  conditions  for  tenderness  in  meat.  A 
general  rule  for  tender  cDt«  of  meat  is,  that  ths 


266 


MEAT:    ITS  iNUTRITrVB  VALUE.  SELECTION   AND  PREPARATION 


least  exercised  and  leoHt  erpotied  niii.icle.1  are  the 
most  tender.  Kxercla«and  (■xposureWm)  to  thicken 
tbe  odll-wall  and  to  incruaM  and  toui^hen  the  con- 
nective tissue.  At  the  samu  time,  the  blood  supply 
is  increased  and,  as  a  rule,  the  toagfaer  cotB  are 
juicier  and  richer  in 
flavor,  ('nunective  tiMue 
ia   abundant    and    tough        ..^t 


%^^. 


n<.  £99.  Tbc  iniiii  cm  Tib. 


^7; 


Flit.  291.    Tbe  tooth  cut  Hb. 

around  the  jointa  of  any  carcass,  and 
cats  which  inclurle  the."*  parts  may 
be  undesirable  for  that  reason.  Ten- 
der meat  is  fine  in  grain  and  cSoae  in 
texture. 

A  (general  rule  is 
that  the  cut  of  meat 
increases  in  tendernoaa 
kit  the  distance  from 
either  head  or  rump  in- 
creasei^.  Thus,  those 
cuts  coming  from  the 
loin  and  prime  riba  are 
considered  the  choic- 
est. 

The  illuatrationB,  FiRs.  202- 
298,  may  serve  to  emphaeiie 
gome  of  the  above  points.  The 
cnt  in  Fig.  292  ia  taken  between 
the  lirst  rib  and  the  shonlder- 
joint,  and  ia  the  tenth  cut  rib.  It 
illustratefl  the  rea'ion  (or  touph- 
new  of  meat  at  points  near  or 
surroundinK  a  joint.  The  cut  in 
Fiji.  203  'lA  between  the  eighth 
and  ninth  ribfl,  and  w  the  third 
cut  rib.  It  flhows  the  increase 
of  those  characterleticd  marking 
tenderness  in  meat.  Fig.  294 
abowfi  the  second  cut  of  the  loin, 
the  rum])  end  of  sirloin ;  Pig. 
295,  the  seventh  cut  of  airloin, 
and  Fi^.  298,  the  tbirt^nth  cut  from  the  loin. 
known  as  tua-bone  {lortvrhautse  steak.  These  last 
three  figorea  show  the  changes  in  characteristics  as 
the  central  cnUt  are  reached  from  the  rump  end  of 
the  animal.  Figs.  29H,  297  illustrate  the  same 
poinlrt  in  cutii  from  the  round ;  Fig.  297,  fourth  cut 
of  the  round,  ia  the  choicest  cut  in  the  round ; 
Fig.  296,  thirteenth  cut  of  the  round,  marks  the 
approach  of  the  knee-joint  and  la  tbe  limit  to 
which  the  round  may  be  cut. 

I'ndertffiny  prineiplf*  qf  mtnt  fookery. 

The  miiin  objucta  in  cooking  meat  are :   (1)  to 
develop  flavor  and  make  it  more  palatable ;  (2)  to 


make  it  more  tender  ;  (^)  to  kill  any  iwrasites  that 
may  occur  in  the  meat^  As  has  previously  been  ex- 
plained, there  are  two  opponing  factors  to  consider 
in  meat  cookery  :  (1)  the  coagulation  of  the  pro- 
teids  by  heat,  and  the  possibility  of  its  being  rend- 
ered tough  and  leathery  by  high  temperatures 
and  too  !ong<ontinuod  cooking  :  (2)  the  desir- 
able softening  effect  of  long-continued  moist 
beat  on  the  connective  tissue.  Tbe  protetd  of 
meat  begins  to  coagulate  at  a  relatively  low 
temperature,  and  at  175''Fahr.,  a  tt-mperatare 
conBiderably  l>elow  the  boiling  point  of  water, 
it  is  complet^'ly  coagulated.  It  has  been  found 
that  meat  proteid  subjected  to  a  temperature  of 
approximately  175"  to  190"  Fahr.,  while  coag- 
ulated, is  tender  and  friable,  and  if  the  tem- 
perature is  maintained  a  sufficiently  long  time 
the  connective  tissue  becomes  soft  and  gelat- 
inous. This,  then,  is  the  guide  in 
marking  the  way  to  roetnods  of 
preparation. 

Mtthofif  of  cooking. 

One  fact  must  not  be  overlooked 
in  diacQHsing  metho(I.'>  of  prepara- 
tion, namely,  that  meat  is  a  very 
Etoor  conductor  of  heat,  and  that  a 
ong  time  may  bo  required  to  bring 
the  center  of  a  piece  of  meat  of  any 
considerable  size  to  the  same  tvm- 
peratnre    as    the   surrounding 
medium.   Fat  seems  to  permit  beat 
to  be  conducted  more  rapidly,  and, 
as  a  rule,  a  fat  piece  of  meat  is 
more  quickly  heated  through,  Quick 
hardening  of  the  surface  of  meat 
lesseos  tbe  rapidity  with  which  heat 
passes  to  the  cen- 
ter. Tliis  is  seen  in 
roasted    meats,    in 
which  the  surface 
is  quickly  browned 
and  the  interior  of 
the   meat  is  thus 
I)role<:ted     against 
the   immediate  ef- 
fcctjt  of  the  high 
tempeniture.  This 
condition   is   often 
sought  in  the  cook- 
ing of  roasts. 


Pic.  194.    Tbe  Noo&d  cut  of  tbe  tola 


na.  l».    Tbe  •ereotli  cm  la  UiMa. 


MEAT :    ITS  NUTRITIVE   VALUK.  .SELECTION   AND   rREPARATION 


267 


Qttiek  pro€fJi»a. 

With  u;ni)er  meats,  no  c»nitid«rattoii  of  the  aoft- 
ening  ut  connt^ctivo  tissue  is  necessary,  Lievelop- 
mont  uF  flavor  and  iitcreatue  in  palatability  are  tho 
main  obje<:ta  in  their  prepanitioti.  Tender  ciit**, 
therefore,  are  usually  cookeil  liy  the  quick  pro- 
ces*w,  as  broiliiiK,  pan-broilinn,  rrtastiiiK,  and  the 
likp.  Th(?««  tnethrtdn  uf  cookmjj;  reijuiru  an  initia- 
tive high  tvniperaturti  for  a  short  time,  and  n  tiub- 
•equent  lessening  of  heat  to  complet«  the  chanfi;o 
to  the  condition  desir&d.  Much  of  the  failure  of  the 
honsevife  to  secure  good  rettutts  in  short-proccss 
tooking  is  due  to  an  (tversight  of  this  imfHtrtant 
factor  of  lowered  tein|ierature,  after  the  browned 
aorfuce  b!i3  l)«en  mjourwi.  The  Iruwned  surface 
aids  in  retardirjt  the  entrance  wf  h«at  to  th«  inner- 
most parts  of  the  meat  and  the 
time  required  for  cooking  after 
the  heat  has  been  tower^  will 
vary  with  the  siee,  co^mpactnejua, 
thickness  and  form  of  the  meal, 
and  with  the  amount  of  fat  pres- 
ent. A  few  simple  directions  may 
be  helpful  in  following  out  these 
processes. 

Broiling  owr  a  fiamf.  —  The 
meat  should  be  thonmuhly seared 
by  brioKing  it  in  fairly  cloee  con- 
tact with  the  flame.  After  mjarinjr, 
the  heat  in  lessened,  both  by  hittdinc  the  broiler 
farther  from  the  flame,  and  by  frtiinint  turning. 
This  factor  of  turning  in  broiling  over  direct  flame, 
or  to  pan-broiling. 


c 


nc. 


/ 


/^ 


■is^5j 


..^'^SS-S 


is  of  flrrt   imptir- 
tance.  as   it    dis- 
tributes the  heal 
evenly  through  the 
meat  and  prevents 
vndoe    hardening.      j 
It  petards  cva[K)-  j^[ 
ration    and    kee|w  "'^ 
in  the  juices,  as 
every  time   the 
meat  is  turned  the 
JQiccs    are    sent 
from  thiitside  back 
toward  the  center 
of  the  meat.  The 
time  ■llowed   muifl  depend 
"doneneiw"  desired. 

Paii-i'roiiing.— By  thii  method,  meat  is  cooked 


tig.  vn.    The  fourtb  cut  of  tbc  raond. 
on  the  condition  of 


in  a  dry,  hot  pan  without  the  uae  of  any  uutMtde 

fat.   The  larger  part  of  th^  fat  of  the  meat  id 

removed  ln>foro  cooking.  The  meat  is  thoroughly 

f«iared    in     the 

dry,  hot  pan,  the 

hejil  is  then  low- 

erwi    and   C4Mik- 

ing  IH  continued 

at  thiti   lower 

temperature 

withatmoatcon- 

Meaf  coSTri  "'•  **•  *  """"^^  rowu^-pw. 
thin  way  hjw  a  flavor  nearly  eiiual  to  that  cooked 
over  a  direct  Qame,  and  ja  superior  in  all  waya  to 
the  old-faahtoned  so-called  '"fried"  meat. 

Otvn  -  reacting.  — 
The  roast  should  be 
put  on  a  rack  in  the 
pan,  skin  side  up, 
leaving  both  eidee  of 
the  meat  equally  ex- 
posed to  the  action 
of  the  heat.  The 
oven  should  be  very 
hot  for  the  first  fif- 
teen minutes,  to  sear 
and  brown  the  roaot, 
and  then  the  heat 
should  be  lowered  to  the  temperature  required  for 
the  completion  of  the  cooking.  The  temperature 
required  for  quick  searing  of  an  oven-roast  is  480* 
Fahr.  TTie  tcmpe^rature  for  the 
longer  period  of  cooking  may  be 
a»  tow  Bit  ^ilS"  Fahr.,  if  sufficient 
time  is  allowed  for  the  process, 
\s  a  guide  to  the  housekeeper  it 
may  be  said  that  480"  Kahr.  gives 
a  very  hot  oven ;  300"  to  ;:i80" 
Fahr.  is  about  the  heat  required 
to  bake  a  medium-aized  loaf  of 
bread,  if  the  heat  19  to  continue 
one  hour;  i;i2*'  Fahr.  is  thw  tem- 
perature of  boiling-water.  The 
roast  should  be  basted  frequently 
with  fat.  a  mixture  of  water  and 
fnt,  or  with  its  own  juices,  and 
this  may  be  done  front  the  outside 


.U^ 


v-i 


m.    Tbe  tUitMatb  cut  01  tlM  immd.  sbowlu  Ue 
polat  to  wlllcb  Uie  cound  mar  be  cue. 


11 


12 


>.<■> 


?;r™-. 


^J' 


'^ 


F^ 


^^■/2^ 


PU.  I9S.    Tb*  tUitaaatb  cut  troin  tbe  hria.  luwws  « 
w  ftoiia  p«n«riioBM  iCMk. 


or  by  the  use  of  some 
such  device  as  the 
double  roasting-pan. 
(Fig.  Uim.) 

The     practiced    ^\Q 
housekeeper  may  be 
able  to  gauge  oven- 
beat    with    a  fair    u^     ^ 
degree  of  accuracy.    ^kS' 
but  for  the  novice  an     ^^^  -j   ——- 
oven  thermometer  is       ^^^^    0 
an    excellent    guide, 
although  not  an  in- 
fallible one.     (Fig. 
30(>.i    Little  thermometers  to  set  inside  the  oven 
may  also  be  uMd  with  goo<l  results. 

6ome  ioteredting  work  has  been  done  by  Elizabeth 


Ptc.  900.  la  ovn  tlwiiMmet*!. 


268 


ME.-VT:    ITS   NUTRITIVE   VAUTE.  SELECTION  AND   PREPARATION 


SpragUtt  anil  H.  S.  Cirinrllc>y  nn  "A  PrecIiH!  Muth<H] 
oiBoasUn^BMf"  (irnivereitj-  Studiti*.  Vul.  11,  No. 
4,  Univeraity  of  IllinoisJ.  The  fi*IIowtiiK  table 
adapted  frum  their  publication  may  be  of  use  to 
the  intereateiJ  hou5ekeeper : 


ato  heat.  The  fundamt^ntal  jirinciple  (if  ;iI1  the 
methods  u»«t  fur  thia  purpose  ia  to  pr&vfiit  high 
tt*m|t«ratQre8  by  limitinj::  tn«m  lo  the  lioilinj;  jiaint 
of  water.  B«ilin^.Htuainin{;,  Uraising,  put-ruastint;, 
slewing,  ail  illut^trate  thi»  principle. 


Tauu  CI.— Tuue  or  Cooking  Sincls  Shdbt-bib  Boasts  ax;> 

TWO-AIB 

BOLLKD  EoASTe 

Tom  pent' 

Tempar* 

Tim 

l>er 
poand 

Kind  at  nwn 

Wdclit  of  rrwat 

taiv>  far 
Antflflwn 

tumfnr 

Tnlal  Liinft 

CuDdlUon  of  meat 

mlniiiei 

llmii 

PoAiid* 

OalMiM 

•^•Iir. 

°  FnUr. 

Hoiirs 

MlB. 

Ulnuiai 

Single  ehort-rib .  . 

4 

4.25 

480 

380 

10 

16.3 

Very  rare 

Single  Bhort-rib .  . 

■1 

2.75 

480 

380 

20 

19.2 

Mfjilitim,  TBrging  on  rare 

Elrucl4  nhort-rili .   . 

3 

.2.'> 

480 

360 

26 

28.2 

Mi^dium,  verging  on  wflll-don« 

Single  »hort-rib.   . 

^i 

r..0() 

480 

380 

40 

30.4 

Wt-ll-donB 

Twrt-rlh  rolW  rnnrt 

4 

11.64 

480 

380 

1 

35 

20.1 

Riirt^ 

r»t>-nb  rollod  roiiat 

^     , 

480 

347 

,      , 

18.3 

Rare 

Twi>rib  mlM  rna^t 

^      ^ 

480 

212 

,       , 

S8.5 

Ran.' 

Two-rib  rolled  r<ja»l. 

4 

3.79 

480 

380 

1 

58 

27.9 

Mediom-rare 

Two-rib  riillLiil  ruast 

^ 

480 

347 

.  . 

26.0 

Mi.«iiuT»-rcir4! 

Two-rib  rolled  rosal 

,       , 

480 

212 

,  , 

42.8 

M«diiim-rar0 

Two-rib  rolleHl  roa^l 

4 

14.37 

480 

380 

2 

49 

34.4 

Wult-d«in) 

Two-rib  rollnd  ro«iit 

, 

480 

347 

81.4 

Well-done 

Two-rib  rollBil  roast 

■    • 

4S0 

212 

■   ■ 

7y.ii 

WvU-ioRi 

In  each  of  the  above  experinnints,  a  stit  was 
made  io  the  roast,  and  a  Htnall  chemical  thermom- 
eter was  inscrtcvl  In  such  a  way  aa  to  huvi.-  the 
bolb  of  the  thermometer  tit  the  center  of  the  roa«t. 
The  roast  was  then  cooked  at  the  usual  preliminary 
tempniturt'  of  480°  Fahr.  for  fifteen  miniitt'S.  The 
aubseiiuent  temperuturu  for  the  completion  of  the 
cookinc  was  varied  for  three  sets  of  experiments. 
In  tht!  fiRft  it  was  kept  at  itHO"  l-'ahr..  in  the  Bec- 
OQd,  at  347"  Fahr.,  and  in  the  thini.  at  212"  Kahr. 
Some  prevtoiw  experiments  had  lieen  made  to  show 
what  tem]»rature  the  center  of  the  beef  shoulfi 
reach  to  secure  rare,  medium -rare  and  weil-done 
meat.  Thes>e  were  &»  follows : 

When  meiit  wus  wetUdonfl,  158"  to  176"  P^dir. 
Wh«n  meat  wiis  mi^ilium-diDne,  Uft^to  168*  Pahr. 
When  meat  waa  rare,  130'  to  149"  Pahr. 

!n  following  out  the  experiment  it  was  necessary 
only  to  watch  the  thermometer  to  know  at  what 
point  the  roast  should  be  removed  from  the  oven  to 
secure  the  desired  condition  of  rare,  medium  or 
well-done  meat.  The  differences  in  conductivity  of 
a  gingle-rib  roast  and  a  compact,  two-rih  rolled 
Tfitist  of  approximate  weights  are  well  illustrated 
by  the  variatinn.-*  shown  in  the  time  required  to 
cook  them.  From  the  reaulta  of  their  oxperimenta 
the  aathoT^  conclude  that  the  interior  of  thu  roasts 
cooked  at  the  lowest  temperature  was  more  uni- 
form, and  although  requiring  a  longer  time  for 
cwking  there  was  less  danger  of  overcooking  by 
hi-ing  in  the  oven  a  little  over-long. 

This  illustration  of  the  possibilities  of  accurata 
methods  in  food  preparation  should  fnmwh  many 
practical  suggestions  to  the  int«rei*ted  hoiwekueper. 

Slow  prvcetact. 

Tough  meiiLi  should  be  cooked  by  sone  process 
w*hich  will  permit  long-continued  action  of  moder- 


-^:L*>^ 


Boiling  Is  the  origin  or  fonndation  of  all  these 
methods,  the  others  hoing  only  variations  to 
impnjve  or  change  the  flavor.  As  has  already  Itecn 
pointed  out,  prolonged  rooking  in  tHiiling  water 
raakeji  meat  ti>ugh  and  stringy,  and    the  modem 

method  is  to 
cook  in  water 
below  the  boil- 
ing point.  The 
meat  ia  plunged 
into  boiling 
water  and  the 
_,     „       ,  ,  temiierature     ts 

thi^n  lowered  to 
about  185"  Fahr.,  nnd  kept  there  for  the  length  of 
time  desired,  varying  from  three  to  four  hours  in 
the  case  of  a  stew-  to  six  to  eight  hoars,  or  even 
longer,  in  the  ca.ie  "f  a  rofiat.  This  long,  slow  cook- 
ing should  make  the  meat  very  tender,  and  if  profv 
urly  done  with  tow,  eteady  Icmijorature  and  time 
enough  allowed,  a  tough 
pit^ce  of  meat  should  slice 
through  Ds  easily  as  a  ten- 
der piece  of  chicken.  It 
should  be  coherent,  and 
not  fall  to  pieces. 

Pot-Tcagting  end  braiit- 
I'njj  combine  the  dry-  and 

moist-heat      

methods.  Th.-  ' 
meat  is  w  l  :  i 
seared  and 
browned  before 
being  put  into 
a  closely  cov- 
ered kettle,  casserole  (Fig.  -301)  or  pot  of  some  kind. 
The  cooking  then  conttnueii  in  the  nlow  way  alMive 
mentioned,  nntil  the  connective  tiwine  is  thoroughly 
gelatinized.    This  combination  of   browning  with 


Pic.  302.    Tlw  •team-ookM. 


MEAT:    ITS  mTTRITI\'E  VALUE,  SELECTION'  AND  PREPARATION 


water-coiiking  gives  a  richer  flavor,  ami  ri'niiers  the 
meat  tnorR  attractive  and  palatalile  tli;in  simple 
vater*cooking  alone.    Almoftt  any  cut  in  tht*  ani- 

m;tl  in»y  be 
mn^e  tt'indfr 
and  |mtatal>It] 
by  propL-rly 
conducted, 
long-prcicess 
cmiking.and  A 
little  ex]i(*ri- 
ence  will  8(Kjn 
ffivf  »kj)l  iii 
regulating 
tcmperuLurt.' 
and  time . 
These  long 
jiriK-eases  of 
c<Jokitig  may 
be  CO  nsum- 
mated  Very 
economically 
in  a  pntperly 
equipped 
kitchen.  The 
steam  -cooker 
(Pig.  302)  for 
th<4  tup  or  a 
gas  burner  or 
Biuall  stove, 
deserves  Iwt- 
ier  recngnitinn  than  it  has.  The  Aladdin  oven 
(Pig.  303)  should  bo  in  every  household,  for  it 
fornijihes  an  accarate,  satisfactory  and  economi* 
eal  nifanx  for  maintaining  steady.  Inw  temp- 
eratures. The  "  firelesB  cooker  "  is  deservedly  com- 
ing into  common  use  in  this  country  (Fig.  ^04.) 
This  is  simply  a  devioo  for  conmerving  heat  that 
w  previously  generated  on  the  top  of  the  Btovc. 
The  principle  of  conatnictinn  is  to  have  a  thick 
rifst  iif  awme  clnsely  packed  non-conducting  mater* 
ial.  Much  U8  mineral  wool,  asbeatos.  w>m>1,  excelsior, 
sawduHt,  liay  or  the  like,  surrounding  (he  recep- 
tacle  containing  the  hot  materiuL  The  ron-conduct- 


Ple.  3(U.     T!i<  ALiddin  ov«n.  ihuvrinc 
^InciplM  gf  opeiatiDD. 


'-"-.r 


ing.  sorrounding  3ub«tancu  allow?  but  slow  dissi- 
pation of  b«.'at,  and  a  slow,  moderate  temperature 
in  thuH  maintained  for  a  long  period  of  time.  There 
are  several  of  these  "fireloHS  rookerH"  on  the  mar- 
ket, but  any  in^^eniou^  perKim  may  cunttLruct  une, 
wbich,  if  carefully  miiile.  will  prove  very  Katisfae- 
tory.  In  brief,  the  "fireiess  cooker"  is  a  light  box, 
tightly  packed  with  non-conducting  material.  A 
Rpaco  in  tho  center  is  allowetl  just  large  enough  to 
hold  the  receptacle  to  tw  used,  ami  the  surrounding 
material  should  be  of  alwut  equal  depth  on  all  sides. 
.A  thick  cushion  of 
the  same  material 
should  lie  made  to 
cover  the  lop  and  (it 
tight,  and  the  top  of 
tho  box  should 
1  ock  closely 
over  all.  The 
utensil  u  seil 
should  h;ivii  a 
tight  -  fitting 
cover.  If  meat 
istobocooktsj 
i  n  such  a 
"  cooker "  i  t 
should  be  com- 
pletely cov- 
ered with  boiling  water  and  allowed  to  l>oil  a  few 
minutes  before  the  kettle  is  covered  and  put  in 
the  cooker.  Experience  will  soon  give  skill  in  the 
use  of  such  an  apparatus. 

Nuiritivt  value  of  meat. 

Meat  has  a  high  nutritive  value,  which  in  th« 
sense  of  fueUvalue,  is  due  largely  to  the  amount  of 
fat  it  contains.  A  comjiarison  of  thecomjxisitionof 
variouii  kindu  of  meat,  as  given  in  the  following 
tables  (adapted  from  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Oflice  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Bulletin  No.  2K).  will  show  thoir  variations  in  nutri- 
tive value  to  be  doe  rather  to  a  dilference  in  fat 
content  than  to  a  dilference  in  the  atnonnt  of  pro- 
tein they  contain ; 


Fix.  304. 
The  "flrrlM*  cooker." 


Tabub  IV 


rood  main-laU 


Yon^vartmr,  M!tblo  f»rt   .   . 
Hiad-qBarter.  ihIjIiIc  port  .   . 

SMm,  edible  part 

Vml— 
ForMjaarter,  edible  put  .  . 
Hind-quarter,  edible  put  .  . 

For»<]aiirt«r,  edible  put  .   . 

Hind-tiuarter,  edible  part  .  . 
IfnttiMi  — 

Pore-quutcr,  edible  paft .   . 

BiBd-quhrt«r,  edible  part .  . 
fork  — 

Bam,  frMhi  )md,  edible  part 

Lda.  tenderloin,  edlbhi  part 

aMDldar,  edibl*  part    .  .  . 


W*ler 

PlM«lll 

fmt 

AA 

RK.A 

ft?..?. 
6Z2 

16.8 
1S.3 
1&8 

1&9 
18L3 

1&8 

.9 
.9 
.9 

Tl.7 
70.9 

30.0 

20.7 

8.0 
8.3 

.9 
1.0 

600 

1&3 
19.6 

25.8 
19.1 

1.0 
1.0 

B2.9 
MA 

1S.G 

16.7 

SiX9 
28.1 

.9 
.8 

G0.0 
51.2 

2&0 

18.9 

laa 

14.1 
13.0 
34.2 

1.8 

1.0 
.8 

Pu*l-v«hM 


1.135 
1.130 
1.145 

710 

788 

1,4S0 
1.170 

1,596 

1.495 

1,075 

900 

IjSBO 


270 


MEAT:    ITS  NUTRITIVE  VALUE,  SELECTION   AXD  PREPARATION 

Tablb  V. —  Bkbp 


Food  Rwierlala 


Ribs,  lean,  edible  part  .  .  . 
Rrtw,  fat,  ediblo  part  .  .  . 
Roiiad,  l«An,  edible  part  .  . 
Ruund,  fut,  (MJiUlu  jKirt  .  .  . 
Fore^oarter,  lean,  edible  part 
P;n-e-qiuu-lt.T,  fut.  «dlblu  part 


Inereaae  of  fat  in  a  meat  product  mcano  a  de- 
creASein  wat^-r  content  aiiil;LU>sser  th»iif;h  ma,rked 
deeraanei  in  protein  conkTit,  with  an  increaj^u  in 
food  valuo.  As  tho  loss  in  watt-r  and  proU^in  m 
replaced  by  fat,  thu  iM?t>ni)my  of  purchasing  hmaf 
well  cnarbk-d  with  fat  Is  obvious.  ThisiH  tieitt  illQ.s- 
trat*d  by  a  tah'o  which  comparvs  the  cf)mi>ofiiiion 
and  caWii)  valua  of  itiinilar  cmIh  of  the  sam^  kind 
of  meat,  having  varying  amount*  of  faL 

Influence  of  cooking  on  the  nulriiive  value  of  meat. 

A  consideration  of  tho  nutritivo  value  of  soups 
and  broths  will  be  includtMi  in  this  headin;;,  since 
the  amount  of  nutritive  mak-rial  that  meat  Ifjsea 
when  cooked  in  wator  goes  directly  into  the-  broth. 

When  muat  is  cooked,  no  matter  iiy  what  method, 
it  undergoes  a  distinct  Iohs  of  weiRht.  Considera- 
ble work  has.  bt^en  done  to  detfrmino  what  part  of 
this  loss  of  weight  is  water  and  what  part  conaista 
of  the  nutrients  of  the  meat.  Grindley  (Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  162)  reports  a 
nitmhitrHf  ituch  exiKtrtments  m;ule  on  variouK  kimln 
and  conditions  of  nifat,  suhjivted  to  diffurent 
methods  and  temperatures  of  cookinR. 

On  an  average,  nif  at  lases  about  4^  per  cent  of 
its  water  content  by  boilinK.  with  a  variation  from 
18  to  67  pftr  cent ;  7  per  cent  of  its  protein,  with  a 
variation  from  .1  to  13  percent;  45  percent  of  its 
miQBral  matter,  with  a  variation  from  20  to  67  per 
cent ;  0.6  to  37  pt-r  CL-nt  of  its  fat  content. 

Tho  fatter  cuts  of  meat  lose  less  water,  protein, 
and  mineral  mutter,  but  more  fat  than  the  leaner 
nuate.  On  an  averai:«»,  the  larger  the  piece  of  meat 
the  smaller  the  percentage  lo;^AeR.  CloBe  study  of 
tho  above  figunss  will  show  the  nutritive  value  of 
broth  to  be  very  small  indwid,  as  even  nadur  the 
mo!;t  favorable  conditions  of  treatment,  meat  lo>sea 
at  most  but  13  per  cent  of  Its  tot;il  protein ;  and 
the  average  of  a  large  number  of  broths  gives  the 
following  compoiiition :  Water,  97  iht  cent ;  total 
solids,  3  per  cent.  Of  these  total  solids,  the  compo- 
sition was  as  follows:  Protein.  0.3;  extractive.% 
1.3  ;  fat,  1.3 ;  ash,  0.5.  As  extractives  have  only 
a  very  amall  fael-value.  and  are  of  ase  to  the  body 
only  as  stimulating  agents,  some  of  the  fallacies  con- 
oerning  the  high  nutritive  value  of  meat  soups  are 
mnde  clear. 

Tho  richness  of  broth  increasea  as  the  time  of 
cookinji;  increases,  and  as  the  size  of  the  pieces  of 
meat  making  it  decreases.  If  the  broth  of  meat 
cooked  in  water  is  eaten  with  the  mttat.  there  is 
practically  no  loss  of  natrttive  material.  "Soap" 
meat  will  thuji  be  »een  to  be  nearly  &a  rich  in 
QatrieDts  as  the  joint  especially  prepared  for  the 


Wftter 


Pro  Ma 


C7.9 
48.') 
TO.O 
60.4 

68.e 

53.5 


19.6 
15.0 
21.8 
19.5 
18.9 
1&.9 


FUI 


12.0 
35.6 
7.8 
\9.h 
12.2 
30.0 


Adi 


Pnel-vatae 

870 
1.780 

730 
1,185 

865 

1^60 


table.  About  70  per  cent  of  the  extractivee  have 
been  removed,  leaving  it  comparatively  tanteleiw, 
but,  while  this  loss  of  thn  stimulating  pniperty  of 
the  meat  may  lessen  the  case  and  rate  of  digestion, 
it  is  a  mi.staken  idea  that  its  nutritive  value  has 
been  materially  affected. 

Meat  cookeil  by  dry  heat  loses  less  than  that 
cooked  in  wiLl«r.  The  average  \i»fi  by  thtK  method 
of  cooking  i«  :  Water  content,  S5  per  cent ;  nilrog- 
BtiouB  extractive,  9  pur  cent;  non-nitrogenous 
extractive,  17  per  cent ;  fat,  7  per  cent ;  ash,  12 
per  cent.   Practically  no  proteid  is  lost. 

The  conclusion.'*  to  be  drawn  from  the  above  are. 
that  the  chief  effi<ta  nf  cooking  on  meat  are 
changi^s  pnxluced  in  appearance,  texture  and  flavor, 
with  bnt  little  effect  on  the  nutritive  value. 

Vomparalivr  digfslibilHy  nf  meal  priiducU. 

It  is  commonly  thought  that  different  meats 
show  a  Ci>nsiderahle  difference  in  the  relative  ease 
with  which  they  are  digftflted,  and  that  the  method 
of  cooking  meat  i.«  an  important  factor  in  ita 
digestibility.  Somie  wxperimenta  report*Ki  by  H.  S. 
Grindley  (United  States  Department  of  .\gricultore. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bdletin  No.  193) 
seem  to  indicate  that  these  differences  are  not 
strikingly  great. 

Piaet'.  of  meal  in  Ike  ditlartf. 

Something  may  he.  said  of  the  place  of  meat  in 
the  dit'tary.  Meat  has  a  high  food  valne,  and  it 
seems  to  be  digested  and  absorbed  with  compara- 
tive ease  and  rapidity  ;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  there 
is  a  growing  tendency  toward  the  belief  that  meat 
furnishoa  too  large  a  percentage  of  the  protein  in 
the  dietary  of  many  persona.  There  ia  much  con- 
troversy with  regard  to  the  amount  of  meat  that 
should  be  eaten,  and  how  much  of  it  should  he 
replaced  by  a  fre«r  u»e  of  milk,  eg^  and  other 
foods.  The  protein  of  milk  and  en^  is  said  to  be 
more  easily  and  completely  made  mto  the  tissue  of 
the  growing  child  than  that  of  moat.  Some  of  the 
best  known  authoritie.i  who  advocate  the  free  use 
of  meat  in  the  dietary  of  the  adult,  think  that  it 
should  have  Itttle  or  no  place  in  the  diet  of  the 
child  before  the  ftixth  year.  Its  stimulating  quality 
is  given  as  one  reason  for  its  elimination  from  the 
dietary  of  the  child. 

Literature. 

Eliaaboth  C.  Sprague  and  H.  S.  Grindley.  A  Pre- 
cise Metho.1  of  Roasting  Ileef,  The  Ifnivereitr 
Studies,  University  Preiw.  Urbana,  111;  Ilarry  f^antt 
Grindley  and  Timothy  Mojonnier,  Artificial  Method 


1 


TANNLNG  HIDES 


271 


for  Determininf;  the  Eaae  and  Rapiility  of  the 
Digeetion  of  Meats,  The  linivorsity  Studies.  Uri- 
Terailyoflllinoia,  University  Press,  Urbana,  Illinois; 
Sir  Henry  Thompson,  Fixtd  and  Feeding.  Frederick 
Warner  &  Co.,  New  York  ;  Hutcthifion,  VckhI  and 
Ititjtetics,  Vim.  Wood  &  Co;  Frtudwnwald  and  Riihrah 
Dift  in  Ueatlb  and  Dbeaaw,  W.  B.  Saund'ers&  Co.; 
CharW  D.  Woods,  Meats :  Composition  and  Cook- 
ing, United  States  Ik'^partnient  of  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Bulletin  Xo.  34 ;  U.  S.  Grindley  and  Tim- 
othy Kojonnier.  Experiments  on  IxNve-s  in  Cooking 
Meats,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  RuLletln  Xo. 
Ill ;  W.  O.  Atft-ater,  Principles  of  Nutrition  and 
NutritiTe  Value  of  Food,  ParmHfs'  Bulletin  No. 
142 :  W.  0.  Atwater  and  A.  P.  Bryant,  The  Chemi- 
cal Composition  of  American  Food  Materials,  Office 
of  Sxperiroent  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  28 ;  H.  S. 
Grindley  and  A.  D.  Kmmett.  Stndies  on  the  Inflor 
ence  of  Oioking  on  the  Nutritive  Value  »f  Meats 
at  the  Universitv  of  Illinois,  Ollice  of  Bxiwriment 
SUtions,  Bulletin  No.  162;  Edward  Atkinson,  The 
Science  of  Nutrition  ;  Damrell  and  Upham,  The 
Art  of  Cooking  in  the  Aladdin  Oven. 


TANNIVG    HIDES 
By  John  F.  Pwter 

It  is  tbe  pnrpoeeof  this  article  to  set  forth  briefly 
the  practioal  aspects  of  the  tanning  uf  hides,  A 
full  discussion  of  tanning  materials  is  found  in 
Volume  II,  pages  t>2n-f^29. 

The  first  tbint;  in  the  procetw  of  tanning  is  to 
see  that  tho  hiiltM  are  projiurly  waited.  All  hides 
thould  be  salted  as  soon  as  thuy  aro  cook-d  after 
they  are  Laken  from  the  animal.  (See  page  2G2.] 

The  heam-hovjie   irtirh. 

When  the  hides  reach  the  tannery,  they  are  put 
into  the  "soak;"  that  is,  they  are  put  into  vats  of 
water  to  souk  out  the  bliMjd  and  s;ilt.  They  are  left 
in  tlH»t!  "soaks'"  for  abont  twenty-four  hours,  when 
they  arc  taken  out,  the  heud,  fivt  and  tail  cut  off, 
and  are  split  up  the  middle  of  the  back,  making 
"sides"  of  them.  The  "riidtw"  are  run  through  a 
machine  called  the  flfj^hing  machine,  which  rvmeves 
all  the  fat  and  tltwh  that  rmiy  bu  left  on.  They  are 
then  put  into  the  "linu-.s,'"  that  is,  into  vats  contain- 
ing lime-water,  which  swidl-s  them  and  loosens  the 
hair.  They  are  left  in  thvw  lime-vats  about  seven 
days,  or  until  the  hair  slips  eaHily.  Then  they  are 
taken  out  and  the  hair  scraped  otT,  either  by  a 
machine  or  by  hand. 

After  the  hair  in  taken  off,  the  "«ide«"  are  placed 
In  BDother  vat.  which  contains  a  [>addle-wbeel  like 
the  wheel  of  a  steam-boat ;  this  is  called  the  "bait" 
wbe<el,  and  the  solution  in.  the  vat  is  e:dled  the 
"bail."*  There  are  variou.-)  kinds  of  bait,  but  the 
most  common  in  made  of  chicken  manure,  which  is 
bcHted,  and  the  li<{ui<l  put  in  the  vat.  This  Imit  kills 
all  tbe  lime  in  the  bich-s  and  makes  them  soft. 

7%e  tan-yard  work, 

the  aides  are  taken  from  the  hait-wheel  and  are 
waahied.  Tben  they  are  put  into  the  vats  with  the 


tanning  liquor,  which  is  rather  weak.  TTiey  are 
handled  every  day  to  keep  them  an  even  color  and 
to  tan  them  more  evenly.  Each  day  they  are  pat 
intfl  a  stronger  liquor  until  tanned. 

The  tanning  liunor  may  be  of  Peveral  different  tan- 
ning niatertaU  ;  hemhick  and  uak  harks  are  the  most 
common  sources.  Tben  there  is  the  chrome  pro- 
cess, composed  of  chemicals  and  acids.  Il  tans  in 
twenty-four  hours.  Furs  are  generally  tanned  in 
tho  pickling  tan  of  salt  and  alum.  There  is  also 
the  oil  tan,  which  is  used  for  all  akins  sncb  as 
buckskins. 

AfttT  the  sides  are  tiinned  through,  they  are 
put  in  a  press  and  most  uf  the  liquor  is  pressed  oat 
of  them.  From  the  press,  they  are  mn  through  a 
splitting -machine  to  split  them  down  to  the 
re(|uired  thickness.  Moot  of  the  shoe-leather  is 
split  to  sin  ounces,  which  is  the  accepted  thickness 
for  this  purpose.  The  splits  that  are  taken  otT  are 
hnished  and  put  into  xhoes. 

From  thu  Bplitting-macbinea.  the  sidts  are  again 
milled  in  the  tanning  liquor,  so  that  if  there  are 
any  "green"  spots  they  may  be  tanned.  After 
they  are  milled,  they  are  hung  up  to  dry.  ftTien 
thoroughly  dry,  they  are  taken  down  and  dampened 
in  water,  Just  enough  so  that  the  water  will  show 
when  tile  side  is  doubJvd  and  squeezed. 

T^«  leather  is  now  ready  for  tho  grease.  The 
water  is  put  into  the  leather  so  that  it  can  take 
only  a  limited  quantity  of  grease.  This  pnx:ess  is 
called  "Mtuffing.^  In  stiifling.  there  are  different 
kiniln  of  grease  to  be  used,  depending  on  the  kind 
of  ItJiLther  that  is  wanted.  Soft  leather  reciuirea 
tallow  and  dagraa  ;  hard  leather  should  be  stuffed 
with  wax  nnd  hard  grease. 

After  tbe  sides  are  "stuffed"  they  aro  put  on 
a  Uilde  and  all  the  'Vtretch"  is  taken  out ;  that  is, 
they  ar«  stretched  and  smoothed  out  by  tools  for 
that  purptme.  Tben  they  are  hung  up  to  dry. 
When  dry,  they  are  taken  down  and  tinishwi  in 
various  ways  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended. 

If  rus-tet  leather  is  wanted,  the  sides  are  staked 
ODt  on  a  machine  calle^t  the  slaking  machine,  and 
are  then  placed  on  a  table  and  grainc^]  by  hand. 
If  ptjhtikH]  black  grain  is  desin^d,  the  sides  are 
blackenvd  with  logwood  vinegar  and  old  iron.  They 
are  then  oiled.  If  pebbled  grain  is  wanted,  they  are 
run  through  a  pebbling  machine  to  give  the  desired 
print.  If  smooth  grain  is  desired,  they  are  staked 
out  and  finit^hed  with  a  dressing  of  nigersene,  glue 
and  soap  to  give  a  glossy  polish. 

Harness-  and  sole-leathers  are  not  split,  but  are 
left  as  heavy  aa  the  hides.  Sole-leather  is  rolled 
and  dried.  Hamoas-leather  is  stuffed  by  hand  with 
tallow,  and  is  set  out  and  dried,  after  which  it  ia 
blackened  and  polished. 

There  is  nothing  that  goes  to  vaste  in  a  tannery. 
All  the  piecra  of  the  hides  that  are  trimmei)  olT 
are  made  into  glue.  The  tails  are  dritwl  and  sold  to 
mattnws  factories  to  be  made  into  mattressea. 
The  hair  ia  washed  and  dried  and  sold  for  plaster- 
ing purposes.  All  such  apparently  waste  parts  as 
fleshings  and  manure  are  saved  and  made  into 
fertilizing  material. 


272 


THE   LEATHER  AND   HIDE  INDUSTRY 


THE  LEATHER  AND    HIDI%  INDUSTRY 

The  leather  and  hide  industry  has  reached  enor- 
mooa  prn  portion  it.  IteginninK  with  the  Uflos  of  hides 
for  dnlhin;;  amon;;  primitive  peopten,  thj>  demand 
has  K'^''^»1I.V  iniTnasfil  until  th«  cupitnl  invested 
in  the  comniLTcial  industry  in  in  the  hundrpda  of 
millions  ot  doliuru.  During  thijt  period,  now  ciusBea 
of  animals  have  attracted  attention  for  thfir  pelts. 
new  methyls  have  been  devised  for  preacrvinjf  and 
tanning  hides,  and  very  prt^at  rnmhcrs  of  tanning 
materiaifl  have  been  riiscovered.  [.See  Vol.  II.  pp. 
ti2;-l-62U.]  A  writer  in  the  New  Intern »tionaI 
Kneycdopedia  (Vol,  XI,  p.  S7)  spealoi  aa  fulhiwa 
regarding  th«  early  development  of  the  tanning 
industry  ;  "  Probably  the  oriijinal  process  of  curing 
skins  was  that  of  simply  cleaninj;  and  drying. 
Then  the  use  of  smoke,  sour  milk,  various  oils,  and 
the  brains  of  animals  themselves  were  found  to 
improve  thr*  texture  of  the  leather.  Later  it  was 
diseoverwl  that  certain  jwtringent  bark-.t  and  vege- 
talikw  ctrectfd  iwrmanent  changes  in  the  texture 
of  skins,  and  8to.pped  decay.  This  knowledge  waa 
possessed  hy  the  ancient  Egyptians,  for  engravings 
on  their  tombs  depict  the  process  of  tanning.  In 
China,  specimens  of  leather  have  been  discovered 
in  crampany  with  nther  relics  that  prove  them  to 
be  over  three  thousand  years  old.  The  Romans  uMd 
leather  which  they  tanned  with  oil,  alum  and  hark." 

The  tanning,  tawing,  carrying  and  finishing  pro- 
ce-sses  of  the  prt'Sent  day  arc  the  «low  growth  of 
centuries,  and  the  production  of  leuthera  of  the 
ni(Kiern  ijualily  and  variety  is  the  culmination  of 
yearn  of  study  by  practkal  taonera  and  by 
chemists. 

Bulletin  No.  72.  Census  of  Mannfactnres.  1905, 
on  "Hoots  and  Shoen,  l>eather,  and  Leather  Gloves 
and  Mittens,"  issuL-d  by  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor,  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Ceiwas 
(1007),  is  a  very  valuable  contribution  on  this  «ub- 
ject.  The  notes  and  tables  that  follow  have  been 
gleaned  from  that  report.  In  regard  to  the  classi- 
fication of  hides,  and  the  influences  that  affect 
their  quality,  this  bniletin  speaks  as  folloi's  : 

"The  skina  of  larger  nnimals.  s;iicl!i  as  oxen, 
cows,  horses,  etc.,  are  called  hides  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  skins  of  smaller  animalii,  »uch  as 
calves,  goats,  sheep,  deer,  hogs,  aeaU.  Ac.  Kip  ia 
the  term  applied  to  the  skins  of  amall  beef  or 
CJ\ttle.  The  quality  and  substance  of  the  skin  are 
affected  by  age,  aktns  from  younger  animals  being 
tht  tinest  in  grain  and  tiklngdye  better  ;  by  sex. 
leather  made  from  the  female  being  finer  in  tex- 
tnre  than  that  made  from  the  male ;  by  breed,  aa 
the  higher  the  breed  the  leaa  thick  the  skin;  by 
the  care  given  the  animal,  animals  raised  in  the 
open  air  having  a  coarser  skin  than  tboA<'  raised 
indoors :  by  state  of  henilth  and  food  eaten ;  by 
the  gadflie-H.  known  .■»  wormiLs,  warbles,  or  grubs, 
which  de[>osit  their  egga  on  or  in  the  skin,  produc- 
ing sores ;  by  contact  with  barbwl  wire,  which 
Bcratchiiijt  the  skin ;  by  ticks  and  saahs,  which 
infect  8he«i>8kins;  and  oy  the  mode  of  pn-venting 
putrefaction  of  the  skin  aft«r  the  aninuJ  has  been 
alaughtered." 


Extent  qf  the  iadugtrj/. 
For  tlie  year  ended  December  31, 1904  : 

Numbvr  of  ntabliiihiiitDtii \M9 

Capital $242,T,^,2M 

SaLu-ied  officiJtlB,  clerks,  etc.,  naniber  .  .  3,251 

SjiL-iri^a $4,4r,I,906 

Wage-esrner«.  av«raee  numbvr  ....  57,239 

Total  wagoft »27.049.152 

UiBcellaoeotts  expense* $1:£.4!^,&01 

Cost  of  maloriitlK  imeil $191,179,073 

Vnlue  of  products,  includinjt  cuh- 

lom  vi'irk S2i^C20,986 

Diittribution  uf  the  capital  inveated  : 

Land     $9.^2.911 

BuiidinfiB :i1,«K.l,frl:i 

Mft?hini>r)-,  tmA*  and  impt«ni«ntd  .    32,>>t^.457 
Cash  anil  eiuitdrJRa 101,107,244 

Materials  used  in  iy05  : 

Numlwr  iif  (Jojitilhy 

EnlAlitlaliiiicriU  Niimlwr  Piwt 

Hides,  an  kinds    .   .  iSiVJ  U.MlfilS  |89.l:»,&{i3 

CjiIE  and  kip  skins    .  192  12.481.221  i5.72ii.616 

C.)lt*kii.H 19  LS36.W8  2.iX(7.mO 

Sheepskins    ....  204  27.492.359  10,547.883 

Gviitflkins 119  47.66o,60S  2(;.753,0i2 

AU  other  skins     .   .    G4  l,G4l),033  1,304,661 

The  rank  of  the  first  live  state?  in  capital 
inveatwl  in  the  leather  industry  in  ly05,  watt ; 

Peniisylviiniu ♦72.972,114 

Wiaconsin 30,409,164 

Massmihusette 27,070^ 

Sow  Yflrk 24,037J»W 

New  Jersey 12,iy2;«3 

The  rank  of  the 'first  five  attttes  in  value  of 
pnxliict!!  ftir  the  aame  year,  was  : 

PeaMylvania ♦69,427^2 

MasHni-husotts Xi^ZjgiQQ 

Wisconsin 25.&4d,I23 

NVw  York 21,612,945 

New  Jersey 21.4*-.329 

The  following  table  gives  the  value  of  leather 
pHNiuctH,  acconling  to  geographical  divisionri,  in 
190.'^: 

Nurth  Atla.ntic  dtvalon      ....  1151,629379 

South  Atlaniic  dirieion 29,108,634 

NLirlh  Q'^ntmr  division 54.768.282 

Sooth'  Central  division 8,441,776 

WMtum"  divtstoa 8,614,991 

^Exrl\igtve  of  Iowa,  Korth  Dakota  and  S^iuUi  Dakota. 
'Rxolusive  of  La.  and  Miu.   'EieluHive  uf  Colo,  und  Utah. 

Value  of  the  exjiortfl  of  the  pnncigml  kinds  of 
leather  for  the  year  endixl  June  liO,  1305: 

Total J38.0.'1S,.342 

So'e     9.I41.873 

KM  (plawd) 1.576,204 

PaUMilorenameW       160320 

Splits.  huiT. grain  Dod  all  otheropper  15,0&7,791 
All  other  leather 1.813.154 

The  vnlue  of  import*  of  the  prineipal  kinds  of 
leather  for  the  year  eiidi-d  June,  I'.UK'i,  follows  : 

Toiul $5,612,642 

[tand  or  bultin^  and  sole  leather   .   .         92.079 

CaKskina 60fi.960 

Skins  Tor  marvcco 2,446,481 

Uppfr  leather,  dreBsed,  aad  skiiw, 
drewed  and  Rnished,  not  «!•»• 
where  spaclAed 2,468,122 


PART  III 

NORTH  AMERICAN  FARM  ANIMALS 


Having  taken  a  rapid  view  of  many  of  the  primary  considerations  involved  in  the  rearing  and 
ntiliiing  of  good  animals,  we  now  procwd  to  a  definite  discussion  of  the  different  kinds.  The  species  of 
domestic  animaU  are  few,  an  corapar«d  with  domestic  plants,  and  an  alphab«tic  arrangement  is  not  so 
neooBsary;  yet.  if  any  arrangement  ifi  attempted,  this  is  aw  good  as  any.  In  this  volume,  as  in  the  other 
three,  however,  tha  reader  mu*t  rety  largely  on  tht?  index  for  ready  reference,  for  it  \a  imjHifiAible  to 
jive  a  general  encyclopedia  nf  agriculture  an  alphabetic  ordisr.  It  id  the  aim  of  Lhis  volume  to  give  tha 
reader  a  comprehenwive  knowledge  of  tha  animaU  that  aro  commonly  indudeii  in  the  term  live-alixTk  ; 
yet  the  book  would  not  be  at  all  complete  If  it  did  not  also  discuss  the  other  animals  that  are  or  may  be 
profitably  rearwi  to  supply  food  and  clothing,  aa  bees,  fish,  oyrters,  and  fur-bearing  animaU.  It  has 
seemed  beat  to  includxs  brief  sketches  of  dogs  and 
cats  in  the  way  tSiat  they  are  wmceived  to  1m) 
farm  animals,  although  a  detailed  discussion  of 
pets  or  of  mere  fancy  animaln  is  not  in  place  in 
a  work  of  this  kind. 


;>*K.': 


'■i^^1(^ 


^ 


Ptg.  303.    The  and  «f  ibe  Hock. 


ZoSteehjiff. 

The  knowledge,  practice  and  industries  con- 
cerned  rn  the  rearing  of  animals  have  recently  Un-n 
designated  by  the  word  nKJtechny  (Creek  wordK 
for  (intmo/  and  kiitifiieniji).  The  correlative  term 
for  the  crop  indaatriea  is  agronomy,  although  in 
the  agricnltoral  colleges  this  word  has  come,  ina[>- 
propriately,  to  be  u-ted  for  only  those  crops  that 
are  at  present  not  comprehended  in  the  word  hor* 
ticoltore.  A  tw^hnieal  correlative  ia  phytote^hny  ; 
but  probably  neither  iUHitechnyn  or  phyttitechny  will 
ever  become  really  common-language  words. 

The  two  great  phaaea  cif  live-stiwk  agrictiltTjre 
are  the  rearing  of  the  animals  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  their  pHHlucts.  There  are  husbandries  and  technological  industriee.  In  the  agricultural  col- 
leges, these  phases  are  beginning  to  be  separated  into  dilTerent  chairs  or  departmenU,  but  there  is  not 
yet  any  clear  terminology  to  distinguuth  them.  The  rearing  of  live-stock,  of  all  kinds,  is  properly  animal 
hasbandry  ;  divisions  of  it  are  :  [Hiultry  huxliandry,  sheep  husbandry,  swim?  husbandry.  t)eef  husbandry. 
The  technology  is  a  manufacture  or  industry,  as  dairy  industry,  meat  industry.  This  Volume  III  is 
practically  a  brief  treatise  on  animal  husbandry  and  technology. 

Animal  htt^adry  adviet. 

The  Editor  has  endeavored  to  emphasize  the  agricultural  utility  of  the  animals,  rather  than  to  make 
A  book  of  mere  formal  aud  historical  description  of  breeds.  Thie  is  difficult  to  accomplish  as  yet.  for  the 
literature  of  live-stock  is  mostly  conceived  od  another  basis,  and  the  real  farm  efficiency  of  the  animal 
hu  received  relatively  little  attention.  It  has  been  the  tendency  for  live-stock  writers  to  be  ads'ocatee. 
ud  to  apbold  the  particular  breed.  We  are  now  coming  to  a  non-partisan  treatment  of  animaU,  as 
a  molt  of  BCteotific  and  therefore  impartial  study,  by  the  college  men,  of  the  really  vital  questiona 

C 18  (278) 


274 


NEEDS  IK  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 


inTolyed  in  the  animal  husbandries.    In  the  next  fifty  years  tha  literature  of  the  subject  will  no  doubt  be 
entirely  re-written  on  a  new  basis. 

LitfrattiTV. 

Th>e  Bpecia]  literature  on  the  difTerent  aniroale  and  breeds  a  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  Tarious 
articles.  Of  course  the  reader  will  consult  the  herdbooks  of  the  different  breeds  if  he  is  seeking  pedi- 
gree and  histijry.  He  must  a!j<o  kwit  in  touch  with  the  literature  of  th*;  experimmit  fttations,  the  agri- 
cultural pre83  and  the  national  Department  of  Agriculture.  There  are  few  American  books  covering 
the  general  live-stock  fi«M,  aside  from  diseaaes,  breeding  and  feeding,  aa  I'lunib.  "Typ  s  and  Breeds  of 
Farm  Animals;"  G.  W.  Curtis,  "HorseB,  ('attlfi,  Shwep  and  Swine;"  J.  A.  Craig,  "Judging  Live-Stock  ;" 
Bhaw,  "The  Study  of  Ureeds  ;*•  Sanders,  "Breed*  of  Live-Stock." 


NEEDS   IN   ANIMAL    IirSBANDRY 
By  JAMES  WII^OV 

The  domestic  animals  of  our  country  present  one  of  the  most  interesting  assets  of  our  national  pros* 
perily.  Animals  change  greatly  from  generation  to  generation,  the  change  being  coincident  with  the 
general  modification  and  [irugresH  of  civilization,  and  with  the  necesaitiea  of  the  peoiile  at  any  given 
time.  It  is  wi'II  to  rL'call  how  urudu  the  beginnings  were,  and  yet  to  realize  how  much  we  need  to 
imjinive  our  present  unimats. 

The  early  importations  of  Spanish  horses  and  cattle  were  well  enough  suited  to  conditions  at  that 
time,  but  they  would  be  of  little  value  in  our  clay.  Hardiness  in  a  horse  and  powers  of  endurance  in  a 
cow  in  times  of  strwe  were  re*)iiired  when  feed  was  scarce  and  uncertain,  and  shelter  primitive ;  while 
responses  in  servi^ie  from  the  horse,  and  yield  in  meat.  work,  or  dairy  products  from  the  cow  and  her  kind 
ftir  every  dollar  invest*-*!  and  for  every  pound  feJ,  are  the  imperative  requirements  of  our  moilom  timos. 
The  saddle,  light  vehicle,  pad  or  yoke  were  useful  in  colonial  days,  when  surplus  farm  crops  were 
exchanged  in  Knrope  for  the  prwlucts  of  the  shop  and  factory.  Hut,  after  manufacturing  had  made 
progreias  in  the  United  State.4.  and  a  class  of  people  multiplied  that  grew  no  crops  and  bought  its  food, 
new  demands  came  to  the  American  farmer  that  couid  not  be  profitably  supplied  from  the  early 
importation. 

It  wu  learned  that  oulure,  by  means  of  pastures,  restored  fertility  to  a  soil  that  hod  been  long 
under  cultivated  crops,  that  harmful  insects  disappeared  when  the  land  was  gra»^'d,  that  droughts  had 
lees  effect  on  crops  following  the  pasture,  and  that  heavy  yields  of  all  crops  came  from  the  plowed-up 
sward  ;  and  consequently  rotation  developed.  How  nature  and  the  pasture  agreed  about  these,  authorities 
differed  in  those  days,  and  they  dllTer  yet ;  practical  farmers  saw  the  re«ulls  then,  and  they  see  then 
now,  and  they  rotate  their  crops,  whether  understanding  all  the  reasons  or  not. 

But  a  nt*w  difficulty  pre»Gnted  itself :  the  saddle  horse  or  light  draft  horse  might  plow  up  a  stubble 
field,  but  he  was  not  heavy  enough  or  strong  enough  to  plow  up  an  old  pasture.  A  heavier,  slower, 
quieter  horse  was  wanted.  The  British  U\m  and  the  continent  of  Europt?  were  called  on,  and  the  heavy 
draft  breeds  were  imported  to  meet  the  emergency.  \a  more  pastures  are  to  be  plowed  up  with  the 
development  of  the  country,  importations  continue.  Heavy  draytng  in  our  cities  requires  heavy  horses; 
work  in  the  forMttn  demands  weight  in  the  collar ;  and  higher-priced  labor  on  the  farm  is,  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  met  by  heavier  horses  and  modem  farm  machinery. 

We  import  the  Shire  horse  and  the  Clydesdale,  the  French  draft  horse  and  the  Belgian,  with  grades 
■ad  crc8B86  of  theee  breeds  that  more  or  less  impre.is  thLimselves  on  what  may  \>e  called  our  native 
faoraea.  We  import  thette  breeds  to  all  the  states,  to  all  our  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  pasture.  We 
bav«  Dot  had  time  to  develop  hones  suitable  to  all  localities,  nor.  in  fact,  to  any  special  locality.  The 
▼arioQS  problems  embraced  in  horse-breeding  are  under  consideration  by  the  federal  goT«mm«nt,  by 
some  of  the  states,  and  by  many  individual<t,  and  no  doubt  the  future  will  do  something  toward  producing 
special  breeds  for  the  several  uses  to  whieli  horses  are  adapted.  The  federal  government  is  at  work  in 
Colorado,  in  cooperation  with  the  experiment  station  of  that  state,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a 
heavy  carriage  hor^e  by  selection  from  the  .American  trotting  horse;  and  it  is  at  work  in  Vermont,  in 
coSperation  with  the  experiment  sution  of  that  state,  for  the  purpose  of  reestablishing  the  Morgan 
horse.  The  trotting  horse  is  an  American  production,  and  one  of  the  few  successes  we  have  had  in  breed- 


NEEDS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRT 


275 


iBg  f or  i  purpose.  Our  monntain  states  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  tbc  development  of  horses  with  good 
bone,  Inng  development  and  hidh  coumue.  Horsc-broodLTR  of  the  stat4«  of  hi^h  altitude)  hnve  not  l>et-n 
careful  with  re^rd  to  early  dcvelnpment  through  good  feedinK  for  jiiite  sufficient  for  many  de-sirab!e 
ufleH,  such  as  the  army  hnrst-.  the  saddle  hnrsi^,  the  heavy  carriage  and  hunting  horse.  It  ia  hoped  that 
th«  Colorado  experiment  will  contribute  to  our  knowle^lge  of  breetling  and  feeding  for  th^«e  purpoiteA. 
The  Vermont  Morgan  horse  wa^  a  common-purpoi^e  animal,  well  adapts  to  mo^t  uses  that  did  uot  require 
heavy  weight.  The  New  Ktigland  farmer  used  oxen  for  heavy  draft  work,  and  found  the  Morgan  horso 
exoellont  for  light  farm  work,  n>ad  work,  saddle  work,  the  stage  and  thi-  hack.  He  haj*  be*'n  crosoed 
with  our  best  strains  of  track  hor»es,  and  imprc^ssed  hi»  strong  individuality  on  all  of  them.  The  beet 
Morgun  hlnod  is  being  as.'*eTnMed  at  the  Vermont  ntation  with  hopes  of  good  results. 

Horaea  are  grown  more  economic  ally  on  the  farm  in  connection  with  farm  operations  than  elsewhere. 
Three  brood-mares  will  do  as  mach  work  an  two  geldinga.  Colts  of  the  draft  breeds  earn  part  of  the  cost 
of  raising  while  being  taught  to  work.  From  one  to  three  years  of  age.  a  good  pasture  does  moat  of  the 
feuding,  «ummtT  and  wintvr,  when  sjuiw  does  rot  cover  the  gnws  deeply,  and  hualthiur  animals  are  grown 
outHjf-dnors  than  in  stables.    The  grasps  should  be  abundant  or  l)e  supplemented  by  grain. 

Dairy  products  were  early  in  reque.it,  and  the  dairy  breeds  of  the  British  leles  and  the  continent  of 
Europe  were  importeii.  They  re(|uired  lietter  pastures,  and  cultivated  graiwefl  were  sought  in  many  lands 
Boitable  to  varying  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  and  the  necessity  is  still  with  us  to  search  the  world 
for  desirable  grasses  and  legumes,  ^ew  demands  are  constantly  arising  in  the  dairy  sections  of  the 
great  North  American  contlniint.  The  beef  industrj'  must  rcadapt  itaelf,  with  the  great  change  in  our 
sgricultural  and  economic  conditions.  Yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  relatively  unimportant  French- 
Canadian  cattle,  we  have  not  yet  developed  any  American  breed  of  dairy  nr  beef  cattle, 

Spain  gave  u«  the  most  valuable  finu-wool  sheep  the  world  could  contribute  at  that  time,  and  they 
have  been  the  foundation  of  unequaled  flocks  of  that  class,  peculiarly  aiiaptwl  to  the  necessities  of  many 
localities  where  large  flocks  are  herded  together  under  conditions  that  are  independent  of  cultivation 
and  its  accompaniments.  'IVhen  our  growing  cities  called  for  mutton,  the  Merino  shucp  failed  to  give  as 
good  satisfaction  as  it  did  as  a  producer  of  line  wool.  Importiitions  were  made  from  Great  Britain  of  her 
mutton  sheep  that  gave  the  best  mutton,  with  wools  de-tirable  for  clothing.  These  breeds  are  not  suit- 
able fiirheniing  in  large  flocks,  hut  are  profitable  on  our  high-priced  f.inn  lands,  and  are  rapidly  extend- 
ing over  our  most  den«'ly  peopled  farming  districts.  The  lambs  mature  early  and  are  in  pressing  demand 
at  profitable  prices.  Few  domestic  animals  are  more  profitable  than  the  mutton  sheep,  and  farmers  who 
do  not  have  hcEp  to  milk  cows  find  them  a  very  desirable  department  of  the  farm.  The  dairy  cow,  where 
dairying  is  understood  and  where  help  can  be  had  to  milk  her,  is  porhaps  the  must  ]>ro(ilable  farm 
animal ;  but  dairying  is  not  welt  understood  everywhere  and  help  cannot  always  be  had  to  milk  twice  a 
day  seven  days  in  the  wee5( ;  the  sheep  requires  as  high  intelligence  to  manjige  as  the  cnw,  but  there  is 
less  labor  and  shorter  days  rwjuire<J  to  do  iU  Dogs  are  the  traditional  enemy  of  the  sheep,  hnt  the  woven 
wire  fence  is  ample  protection  ;  and  altogether  we  look  to  see  the  sheep  get  more  attention  in  the  future. 

The  fanner  reached  the  Mississippi  valley  before  the  railways ;  he  grew  corn  before  there  was  an 
CKitlet  to  market,  for  it :  he  bred  ho^  in  torn  corn  into  meat  and  lord.  There  are  several  breeds  that 
answer  this  purpose.  H  was  supposed  that  the  advent  of  roal-oil  woutd  injure  the  hog  industry,  but  the 
demand  for  hwgs  has  continued  to  grow,  and  prices  to  Ix'  jirofitable,  The  western  farmer  learned  to  use 
the  clover  pasture  to  the  fullfst  extent  in  growing  this  animal.  HV'e  cannot  improve  our  hogs  by  impor- 
tation. Oor  hogs  are  the  product  of  com  and  clover.  They  are  distinctly  an  .\raerican  production,  even 
when  keeping  foreign-breed  names,  and  very  different  from  any  European  hog  where  corn  is  not  aa 
abundant  as  it  is  with  as.   Wc  have  produced  one  recogniied  American  ha-ed,  the  Poland-China. 

Our  poultry  yields  half  a  bjllion  dollars  a  year,  not  because  of  any  special  skill  in  breeding  or  feed- 
ing, but  because  we  have  the  world's  cheapest  grains  and  grasneB.  There  is  scientific  cooperation  at 
present  bet»-(x-n  the  federal  government  and  the  Maine  Experiment  .Station  in  the  hope  of  devi'loping 
a  strain  of  hens  that  will  lay  200  eggs  a  year,  with  good  hope  of  surcess  ;  and  other  stations  and  Indivi- 
duals are  working  toward  similar  ends. 

In  our  crops,  we  have  long  ago  developed  good  native  varieties,  many  of  them  well  adapted  to  our 
varied  localities  and  conditions.  Wc  are  only  emc^rging  from  the  importing  stAge  with  our  animals, 
however.  We  need  distinctly  American  and  local  or  special  types  of  farm  animals.  The  conditiuns  and 
needs  will  always  be  changing,  and  the  live-stock  will  have  to  change  also  in  its  characteristics  as  time 
torn  00.  It  is  therefore  not  only  a  question  of  producing  typed  of  animals  for  present  demands,  but  to 

to  it  that  future  demands  are  met 


276 


ASS 


ASS 


ASS.    Bijum  app.  Equuia.   Figs.  ?)0(i,  ^07. 

By  r.  S.  Plumb. 

Tbe  ass  \a  a  Ix^oHt  of  burden.  The  males  or  jacks 
ant  uitvd  much  hIkq  in  th«  priMJuctioii  of  malea.  (See 
Mulf.)  The  aa«  belongs  to  the  genus  Eqnua,  which 
inc)uije4  the  horse  and  allied  forms. 

Dtacription. 

The  as9  differs  from  the  horse  chiefly  aa  followg: 
The  ears  are  lar^  and  Ion;; ;  th^-  mane  is  short 
and  d(wti  not  fall  to  one  side:  the  tail  i^  nearl)' 
devoid  of  long  hair,  excepting  at  th^  extremity ; 
the  boob  are  small ;  chestnuts  are  lacking  on  the 
hind-legs ;  tbe  period  of  gestation  iii  about  twelve 
months,  instead  of  eleven,  as  with  the  horse.  White 
markini!!).  such  as  a  star  in  the  forehead  or  white 
feet,  are  very  rare. 

Hutory. 

The  ass  vrae  used  as  a  beast  of  harden  for  many 
oenturieH  prior  to  the  Christian  era.  Fiuares  of  the 
ass  are  found  in  the  early  Kj^yptisinsculptures.  and 
the  animal  is  frenii«nt!y  referred  ti>  in  the  bookfl  of 
the  Bible.  Undoamodly  the  wild  form  easily  pai«sed 
into  a  state  of  donieMicntion. 

In  Amrricn. — The  history  of  the  ass  in  America 
datett  back  inln  colonial  times.  About  I7S7,  two 
jacks,  known  as  IC^iyal  Gift  and  Knight  of  Malta, 
were  presented  to  George  Wasbingtun  and  placed 
on  his  estate  at  Mt.  Vernon.  Th«  former,  witb  a 
jennet,  wa^  from  the  King  of  Spain,  while  the 
Knight  of  Malta  was  from  Marquis  de  LaFayette, 
and  came  from  Trance.  These  jacks  were  used  in 
male-breeding  on  Washington's  estate  and  on  Vir- 
ginia mares,  and  thi>se  siretl  by  the  French  jack 
were  very  valuable.  The  development  of  the  mule 
industry  in  Kentucky  began  about  ISOO,  and  many 
valuable  breeding  jacks  have  aincu  then  Wn  im- 
ported from  Spain.  Henry  Clay  being  one  of  the 
earliest  importers.  Tennessee,  a  noted  mnle-pro- 
ducing  state,  received  its  first  importation  of  jacks 
about  18  JO.  At  the  present  time,  MiRHouri,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee  art*  leading  stalej*  enyagwl  in 
the  mule  trade,  and  there  important  studii  of  tho 
ass  are  to  t)e  found.  Dreedent  in  tbeute  stat4^  are 
making  frequent  importatio^na  from  Spain  and  much 
attention  is  being  directed  to  the  industrv. 

In  1900,  there  were  in  the  United  States  94,1G.^ 
assca  on  farms  and  15.8-17  not  on  farms.  There 
were  on  farms  in  Hawaii  1,438,  and  in  Porto  Rico 
(1899)  1,085.  (Yearbook,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  190fi.) 

Bn€d$  and  dittribution. 

The  wild  ass,  of  two  or  more  species  or  varie- 
tiea,  is  found  at  present  in  varione  parts  of  Africa 
and  Asia. 

1%e  \eild  AfrieaA  am  (Equu»  axinvf,  Linn.)  is 
found  in  northern  Africa  between  the  Nile  and 
the  Red  sea,  and  in  Nubia  and  AhyHsinia.  For 
various  reasons  it  has  been  assumeil  that  tlitt 
domestic  asa  is  descended  from  the  African.  Th't; 
color  and  markings  are  very  like  those  of  the  com- 
mon uas.  Tbe  ears  are  large  and  similar  to  those 


of  the  domeetk  form.  Tbe  common  cry  of  this  spe* 
cies  is  a  bray,  very  tike  that  of  the  domesticated 
one.  Darwin  also  notes  that  tbe  .\frican  ass  much 
dislikes  to  wade  a  stream  uf  water,  a  notable  trait 
of  the  common  ass. 

The  wil'i  A»iatic  Mt  (Equut  hermioniut,  Pallas) 
is  found  moat  commonly  over  a  wide  territory  in 
Asia,  but  especially  on  the  great  plains  in  .Afghan- 
istan. Tibet,  the  Punjab  and  Persia.  White  existing 
naaaHy  in  small  herds,  travelers  occasionally 
report  !*eeing  them  in  large  numbers.  This  species 
has  large  ears,  and  the  color  usually  ranges  from 
reddish  gray  to  a  fawn  or  light  chestnut.  A  dark- 
brown  stripe,  of  variable  width,  sometimes  with  a 


Pic.  30b.    Wild  Ul  'E'tuut  atinm) 


white  margin,  extends  from  the  withers  to  the  tail. 
The  belly  is  of  a  whitish  color.  The  height  varies 
from  three  feet  eight  inches  to  four  f*»ot. 

There  are  two  suli-sjKjcies  or  varieties  of  the 
Asiatic  ass.  These  are  the  Onagrr,  found  in  British 
India,  in  the  Punjab;  and  the  Ktang,  native  to 
Tibet,  The  Onager  has  been  credited  with  great 
speed  am]  wildnes.4,  though  this  has  apparently  been 
exaggerate*!.  The  KiJing  in  native  to  th?  high  uii- 
lanils  of  Tibet,  ttxisting  at  Ifi.CXX)  or  more  feet 
elevatiim,  where  the  winters  are  very  severe. 

The  dunirtfic  asi  is  CoRimonly  known  as  thd 
donkey,  although  the  word  donkoy  is  often  re- 
stricted to  the  small  ass  or  burro.  The  males  are 
termed  jacks  or  jackas.4ea,  and  the  females  are 
known  as  jenneta.  There  .ire  a  number  of  breeds, 
and  Rpecimens  of  th'nm  range  in  siie  from  the  dimin* 
utive  burro,  often  thirty-«ix  inches  high,  to  the 
size  of  a  horse  of  considerablu  height  and  weight. 
BttMiduis  the  characteristics  already  referred  to,  the 
common  ass  has  a  thick,  long  coat  of  hair,  especi- 
ally in  the  cooler  monthj!.  Thecharacter  of  the  hair 
is  very  marked  with  some  breeilfi.  The  standard 
color  in  .\merica  ia  black  or  dark  brown,  with  a 
light  creamy  or  mealy  shade  ubont  the  mnizle  and 
along  the  belly.  Gray  is  occasionally  seen,  but  does 
not  meet  with  favor,  and  is  not  approved  by  the 
.American  Bn'«dL-rs'  Association  of  Jacks  and  Jen- 
nets, the  standard  organization  for  promoting  this 
stock  in  the  United  States. 


A88 


ASS 


277 


The  lnidy  of  the  s»s  is  short,  the  belly  rather 
nfund,  iht>  quartern  tack  thickniwi  cnmparpd  with 
tho  draft  huniu,  ani]  thu  leg»  are  stn)ng  and  im- 
prwB  one  m  heavy  of  bone.  Thu  power  of  yntliir- 
ancu  is  a  not^d  characteristic  of  this  animal,  whilu 
in  temperament  thiH  u  one  of  the  most  Kubmiaaive 
of  beasts.  While  rewiKmsive  Ui  gond  care  and  feed. 
no  animals  "f  the  horse  family  Buhsist  and  main- 
tain fltn-n^th  iin  8uuh  infc>rior  food. 

Scatter«l  over  the  dilferetit  part*  cif  the  wnrld, 
subject  todilFerencuHof  unvirunirieiil,  fixxl,  teiniier- 
ature,  moisture,  and  the  like,  different  brc-L-ils  ur 
varieties  of  the  ass,  in  the  course  of  time,  have 
gradually  taken  on  »pecific  characteristics.  Among 
the  important  brpeiis,  eBpecially  in  applicatidn  to 
Amortca  and  Ettro|H>,  are  the  folhiwinf; : 

(1)  1%c  CataloiiMa  \»  a  Spanish  breed,  es|ie(-ially 
developed  in  t'atatonia,  in  the  iirtrtheasUrn  part  of 
Spain,  adjacent  tu  tYance.  It  ]»  usually  black  or 
brown,  the  former  prevailing,  and  is  mark^-tt  with 
light  points  about  the  mozule,  eyes,  and  belly, 
The  hair  lh  natiirntly  thick  and  short.  Gond  speci- 
mens Ktand  fourteen  and  ime-hjilf  to  fifteen  handn 
high,  and  ocea^ionidly  Hixt^fen.  In  (uimparisun  with 
other  specimens  cif  the  a&s  the  Catalonian  is  an 
aristocrat,  with  beauty,  stylo,  and  action.  The 
head  is  tritn  and  neat,  and  the  ears  well  carried. 
The  bone,  while  rot  especially  large,  is  very  hard 
and  fine  of  texture  ami  free  from  flpAhiness.  It  h  a 
very  tough,  hardy  breed,  and  has  found  more  favor 
in  Americu,  in  muk'-produeing  ilistrii^tw,  cueli  as 
Miasouri.  Tennessee,  and  Kentucky,  than  any  other 
breed.  Mules  sired  hy  these  jacks  have  much  size 
and  quality,  ami  have  been  ranked  as  the  best  in 
the  world.  A  Urge  percentage  of  the  jacks  imported 
to  America  come  from  Catalonia.  Matured  males 
of  this  breed  stand  about  fiftet'n  hands  high. 

(2)  The  Aii'laluniaii  is  native  to  Andalusia,  in 
southern  Spain.  It  is  regardiMl  as  a  very  old  breed. 
The  prevailing  color  i»  gray,  with  black  somewhat 
uncommon.  The  color  Is  objectioniihle  in  America, 
anil  the  breed  han  not  found  much  favor  here, 
although  a  great  favorite  in  southern  Spain.  This 
J8  one  of  the  larger  breeds,  and  stands  fourteen  .ind 
one-half  to  fifteen  and  uui'-half  hands  high.  The 
bone  of  the  leg  is  large  and  of  i^upt-riur  quality. 

(3)  The  Majorca  qm  is  native  to  Majorca,  one  of 
the  Balearic  islands,  in  the  MediU^'rranean  sea.  off 
the  cuftAt  of  .Si)ain.  This  breed  is  of  the  larger 
type,  drafty  in  character,  standing  about  fifteen 
and  one-half  hands  high,  or  a  trifle  morw.  Tlie  heaii 
And  ears  are  rated  a»  rather  larg^*  and  hi-avy.  and 
the  Majorca  has  hardly  the  style  and  action  of 
the  Catalonian.  It  is  usually  black  or  bnjwn.  In 
recent  years  it  is  mwting  with  aome  favor  in 
the  United  States,  although  it  has  not  been  exten- 
sively tried  here.  In  Spain  the  breeil  has  lung  lieen 
bred  with  much  purity  on  its  native  iste,  and  large 
numbers  are  oaod  in  tho  government  artillery  ser- 
Tioe  of  Spain  ond  other  countries.  Many  jacks  of 
thi«  breed  hare  also  been  exported  lo  Sooth 
America 

(4)  Tfu  Pailaa  tu*  has  been  pnKlured  for  pentu- 
riea  in  the  province  of  PoiUiu,  in  southern  France, 
bordering  on  the  buy  of  Biscay.    Thin  is  a  very 


popular  breed  in  France.  It  is  very  drafty  and 
.strong  of  character,  although  far  from  beatitiftil. 
The  head  is  rather  large,  the  ears  long,  the  chest 
broad,  tile  body  deep  and  haavy,  the  (|UarLerK  Bpare 
yet  muscular,  the  legs  short  but  very  powerful, 
with  large  bones  and  feet.  The  height  varioB  from 
thirteen  and  one-half  to  ffteen  hands.  Black  with 
white  points  is  the  prevailing  color,  although  grays 
occur  occasionally,  but  are  ineligible  to  registry  in 
the  French  Jat'k  Studbixik.  A  striking  feature  of 
this  breed  is  iba  extremely  thick,  long  euat  of  hair. 
This  is  rarely  groomed  among  French  breeders,  and 
usually  liecumcs  lllthy  with  manure,  and  thus  very 
nn&ightly.  The  farmers  of  Poitou  breed  a  drafty, 
large,  powerful  class  of  horses,  the  mares  of  which 
are  bred  to  the  jacks  of  the  country,  from  which 
result  mules  of  great  size  and  power,  and  which 
bring  a  comparatively  high  |irice.  Thus  far,  not 
many  jacks  of  thi*  breed  have  iR'en  brought  to 
America,  and  little  is  known  of  their  adaptability 
to  .American  conditions, 

(r»)  The  Maitrxr  rmg  is  native  to  the  island  of 
Malta,  in  the  Merliterranean  sea.  This  is  of  the 
smaller  tyjie,  rarely  exceeding  fourteen  and  one- 
half  bauds  high,  and  h  usually  black  or  brown  in 
color.  The  breed  is  of  excellent  form,  with  well- 
carried  iMire,  and  is  characterised  by  mach  life  and 


Fl(.  307.    A  prUfr-wlaninc  aw.    Antar.  Jr..  tir. 


vigor.  Tho  criticism  of  too  mnch  refinement  and 
finene-ss  of  bone,  and  lack  of  substance,  has  inter- 
fered with  the  introduction  of  this  breed  to 
America 

Uk$. 

A»a  beaxt  (fhurden. — One  parpoM  for  which  the 
asa  has  a  B|n-cial  valuta  i»  as  a  pack-animal  and 
beaat  of  burden.  Uititorically,  the  asa  has  always 
served  as  a  carrier  of  burdens  in  the  hilly  B«mi* 
tropical  regions  of  the  world.  As  a  pack-animal,  a 
small  type  of  the  a.s8,  known  as  the  burro,  is  a 
familiar  sight  to  travelers  in  sonthern  Karope,  in 
Ireland,  in  coal-mining  regions  in  the  easl<>m  part 
of  the  United  State«,  in  northern  Africa,  Asia, South 
America,  and  elsewhen-.  This  animal  i»  extremely 
docile,  will  bear  a  burden  with  much  endurance  and 
stability,  and  is  extremely  sure-footed  in  going  over 
mountain  puses  and  slopw  difficult  for  HorBes.    In 


278 


BEES 


cial-mininK  reRion-i,  either  the  harro  or  a  fimall 
mule  is  ujmm)  exten«ively  to  haul  cars  of  coal  through 
the  K<illt'''i^  '^f  the  niino«  to  the  unloiidinff  hoiBts. 

For  muie-hrfrdijiff.—SaperioT.  wel!-briJ  jacks  arc 
aaed  in  stml-flervice  on  mare  horswsi  to  proiJuw  mules 

a  type  of  draft  animal  very  hi}{hly  raloeil  in  the 
warmer  aectlonn  ■>(  civilizml  countries.  Jui-ki)  of 
Hulficient  merit  for  Buch  brtsodintc  service  command 
very  high  i)rice«,  anil  variouB  cases  are  on  rtcord  in 
which$l,.VK>tCi$5,0CX)  has  been  paid  for  them.  The 
trend  of  valaes  8e«ms  to  l)e  on  the  increaae  rather 
than  otherwise. 

OrganiMtioni  and  rceardi. 

The  American  Breeders'  AsAociation  of  Jacka 
and  JenneU  is  the  official  orxanizatioii  interested 
in  the  development  of  the  aw.  it  was  organized  as 
a  xtock-company  in  1888,  at  Springfteld,  111.  Sis 
volumes  of  Btudbmtks  have  lieen  ifttiQed  to  1907. 
The  Association  hesidqnarters  are  at  Columbia, 
Tenn,  .Another  ancKKiaiion  fur  registering  jacks 
and  jertneta  existfi  in  Franutj. 

Liieratun. 

Plumb. Type*  and  Breeds  of  Karm  Animals;  Riley, 
The  Mule ;  Tcgetmeicr  and  Suthorlanii,  Horaes, 
Asses,  Zebras,  Moles,  and  Mute-breed iog. 

BEES.   Apui  meUiJiea,  Linn.    Apdda.    Pigs.  308- 
328. 

By   W.  K.  Morrimn. 

It  tfl  abundantly  evident  from  the  recordB  of  the 
remote  past  that  be«-keepinc  has  always  U'en  a 
favorite  occnpation  with  civilized  nations.  Egypt, 
Babylon,  Assyria,  Palestine.  Greece,  Rome,  and 
Carthajje  all  had  their  bee-keejiers,  and  probably 
bee-culture  in  Egy]>t  today  differs  but  slightly  from 
what  existed  then:  four  thousand  yeara  ago.  If 
there  is  any  difference,  it  is  likely  for  the  worse. 
In  the  days  of  Aristotle  there  are  said  to  have  ex- 
isted two  or  thre^o  hundred  treatises  on  bees,  so 
that  thi>n,  as  now,  bee-keeping;  waa  a  favorite  topic 
with  authors.  More  bookji  have  appeared  on  bees 
and  bee-cuUnre  than  have  ever  boon  published 
about  any  domestic  animal,  not  excepting  the  horse 
or  the  dog.  Aristotle  wrote  a  spucial  troatiso  on 
bwj>,  but  all  tracts  of  it  havo  been  lost,  and  we  are 
chiefly  dependent  on  Columella  for  a  knowledge  of 
BQciont  apiculture ;  anfl  we  learn  from  him  that 
the  Greeks  were  skilful  and  patmttakin;;  h^^e- 
keepers.  The  fourth  book  of  Vergil's  Georgics  is 
wholly  devoted  to  bees.  It  was  not  until  the  ai*- 
pearance  of  L.  L.  Langstroth's  hive  (1852)  that 
we  of  the  W*«t  may  be  s.iid  to  have  surpassed  the 
Creeks.  In  the  palmy  days  of  Egypt,  when  she 
vt-Ag  at  her  zenith,  floating  apiaries  were  a  feature 
uf  her  apiculture:  floating  apiaries  stUl  exist  on 
the  N'ile.  lacking  a  historian  to  record  thera,  for 
it  It  iidmitte<l  by  our  best  bee-keepers  that  such 
an  apiary  requires  expt»rt  skill  to  manage  it,  and 
American  attempts  of  the  kind  have  ended  in 
failure. 

Like  other  industries,  bee-keeping  began  to  artk- 
alate  ia  the  sixteenth  century.    Various  authors 


in  Knglish.  French  and  German  are  entitled  to 
credit  for  their  efforts  to  create  a  st'ience  of  bee- 
keeping free  from  cbarlataniion ;  but  it  was  not 
till  the  appearance  of  the  work  of  Jan  ^wammer- 
dam,  a  Dutch  naturalist,  that  ^tee-keeping  may  be 
said  to  hare  found  its  place  among  the  ^ienccs. 
He  illustrated  the  anatomy  of  the  bee  in  a  masterly 
way,  anil  Bet  at  rest  a  lot  of  superstitions  notions 
about  bees  and  their  life-hisiyn.'.  Had  he  continued 
as  he  began,  i>wamn:ierdam  would  surely  have  antici- 
pated some  of  the  muiit  imp>ortaRt  discoveries  of 
our  time  by  se^'cral  centuries.  An  English  edition 
of  SwammertLim  appeared  abt>ut  1757. 

The  next  observer  of  note  was  Maraldi.  an  Italian 
astronomer,  followed  by  Ri^aumur,  tbedistingoisbed 
French  investigator.  Keaumur  shed  a  flood  of  new 
lighton  the  habits  of  bees  at  work  in  the  hive;  but  as 
he  nc-giccted  to  state  by  what  moan*  ht  had  obtained 
his  information,  readers  were  slow  t«  believe  him. 
Huber.  a  blind  Swiss  naturalist,  took  up  the  work 
uf  Reaumur  where  he  left  olf,  and  with  the  aid  of 
hi,i  faithful,  clevf.r  wife,  and  an  extrimniinarily 
able  hired  man  named  Burnenii,  proved  Keaumur'g 
work  on  the  habits  of  the  honey-bee  to  bo  correct, 
in  the  main.  Kis  work  is  a  mastc'rptece  in  exjx-ri- 
mentation  ;  and  all  entomologists,  as  welt  as  bee- 
keepers, are  generally  indebted  to  him.  Henceforth, 
empirical  l)ee-keeping  wjli  at  a  discount.  Hulier 
invented  a  leaf-hive  to  enable  liim  belter  to  conduct 
bis  reBenrches,80  that  he  was  the  original  inventor 
of  movable  combs,  the  basis  of  practical  bee-keep- 
ing in  the  Uniteti  States  and  Europe.  Itut  Ruber's 
hive  was  not  practical.  It  was  not  until  the  Rev. 
Lorenzo  Ijorraine  Langstntth,  of  rhilaiielphla,  in- 
ventin]  his  movnble-frame  hive,  in  1852,  that  li»6»J 
keeping  developed  into  something  more  than 
plea-sant  aiLc!  prnlitable  fad. 

It  is  difficult  to  convey  to  the  lay  mind  the  im- 
portance of  the  I^ingstroth  invention,  but  it  is 
comjiiinible  Ui  the  invention  of  the  locomotive  in 
land  transport.  Th*'  whole  science  of  liee-kevpinR  has 
l)eun  recast,  anil  Lani:titroth's  hive  htis  been  adapted 
in  some  form  by  the  llniti'd  States,  ('anada,  Mexico, 
Wtwt  Indies,  South  .\merica,  South  Africa,  Autttra* 
lasia,  England.  France,  Switzerland,  Belgium,  Rus- 
sia.  Sctitland,  Ireland.  Wales,  and  uther  less-known 
countries.  Germany,  .Austria,  Poland,  and  other 
central  Kurojiean  couiitries,  under  the  aiivice  of 
Drienwin.  have  refu-sed  to  adopt  I-angstroth's  inven- 
tion; but  there  can  bo  littlw  doubt  as  to  it«  ultimate 
comjuest  of  these  countries  also.  I'astor  Hxiertikn, 
who  was  bom  in  1811,  three  weeks  after  the  birth 
of  Langstroth.  who  died  in  1906,  at  his  home  in 
Silesia,  Pni.ssia,  had  by  virtue  of  his  ability  exercised 
immense  autocratic  influence  im  Buropean  apicul- 
ture, dut?  to  his  discovery  of  the  law  of  partheno- 
genesis as  applied  to  bees.  Dxierzon  had  not^d  that 
when  a  pure  Italian  queen  was  mated  with  a  Gei^ 
man  drone,  the  females  were  cross-breeds,  while 
the  dnmes  were  pure  Italians  ;  hence,  he  asserted 
that  the  drones  had  no  father.  I'ruf.  Von  Siebold, 
the  brilliant  German  microscopical  anatomist,  at 
once  saw  the  importance  of  Uiierzon's  discovery, 
and  hastened  to  his  assistance  and,  with  cbaracler- 
istic  German  thoroughoees  and  consummate  skill  in 


BEGS 


BEES 


278 


handling  microscopical  mat^riaU,  he  lalmred  until 
thB  law  was  firmly  estabJinlifd.  Of  conrsi*,  a  know!- 
ediff  of  the  workinRs  of  tho  law  of  panhono 
{Ecneitis  is  necessary  to  all  hc-e-brecdtire  with  any 
pretentions  to  scientific  skill. 

Dr.  Von  Planta,  a  f>wis3  unifatit,  now  dcnd,  also 
put  OS  under  abiilinjf  obligations  to  thf  land  of 
Hutwr  by  his  lirilliant  rpsearches  into  th«  cht;raiH- 
try  of  the  beo-hivtj.  In  Dcicntitie,  {tuinHtaking  ulyle 
he  furnished  as  with  an  analyai«  of  the  flower- 
nectar,  honey,  honey-«iew,  royal  jelly,  chylo  food, 
be<?-hread,  wax,  and  the  like.  Wo,  of  America,  are 
much  in  want  of  a  clear  exposition  of  Von  Planta's 
work  in  the  English  Innj^age. 

It  only  remains  for  tin  to  mention  the  work  of 
A.  1.  Root  in  thu  UDite<l  Ktatcs.  The  frieiiil  of  Lung- 
stroth,  he  set  about  the  work  of  impruviR);  our 
hives  and  other  neoMsary  appliances,  and  with  the 
true  Yankee  sense,  succeeded  in  making  American 
apiarian  implements  the  standard  of  the  world ; 
anil  the  present  proud  poi^iti^m  of  our  apiculture  as 
the  model  for  all  ulherH,  iH  in  no  nmall  ]iart  Hat'  to 
the  work  of  Root,  who  took  np  the  work  yf  improv- 
ing crude  and  imperfect  apicultural  tools  until 
America  was  recognized  as  the  land  of  bee-keepers, 
bee-ranchea,  bee-«ppliances.  honey,  and  wax. 

At  the  present  time,  our  a)iiculturista  are  optU 
muitic,  Bclf-reLiant,  and  as  inventive  a't  ever  before, 
and  the  future  is  full  of  prnmise.  In  Europe,  bee- 
keeping is  often  stated  t-o  be  an  idi^-al  occupatioD 
for  peajtants.  With  us.  the  highest  intellicence  is 
required,  and  our  bee-keepers  turn  out  tons  of 
honey,  whereas  they  of  the  old  nations  produce 
hund  red  weigh  tf.  On  reliable  authority.  California 
is  atat«d  to  have  pn»dnc«^  for  extmrt,  in  i^ne  ye."ir, 
five  hundred  carloads  of  fine  honey,  single  apia- 
rists producing  as  much  as  eighty  tons;  and  one 
baking  concern  has  bought  approximately  one  thou- 
sand tons  in  one  lot.  Apiarists  who  can  produce 
twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  honey  per  annum  are  not 
unusual.  Europeans  are  loath  to  believe  of  our  suc- 
cess, but  buth  England  and  Prance  have  frankly 
admitted  our  superiority  by  uflopting  our  methods. 
The  quality  of  our  honey  is  alj>o  higher  than  Kuro- 
pean.  in  general,  due  to  the  far  greater  mobility  of 
qur  hives,  enabling  us  to  keep  the  honey  of  each 
flower  separate  from  any  other  with  the  ^eatest 
ease. 

The  honey  and  wax  Industry  of  the  United  States 
has  an  annual  value  of  between  $20,0(K),000  and 
¥30,O00.OCKJ,  and  this  on  a  capitalization  of  about 
$100,000,000.  There  is  much  room  for  improve- 
ment, as  far  better  results  could  be  secured  with- 
out increasing  the  capitalization.  On  $100,000,000 
of  capital  we  should  secure  at  least  $5O.O00.O'>0  of 
return.  In  many  parts  of  this  country,  bees  are 
still  kept  in  common  boxes  and  hollow  logs,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Southern  states,  where  the  condi- 
tions are  good  for  sucoeufnl  bee-keeping. 

OattiJicatioTi  of  hett. 

Among  insecta  the  bee  is  placed  by  entomolo- 
gists in  the  order  Hymenoptora.  with  ants  and 
other  liiMCts  hs%*ing  four  membranuoua  wings.  It 
belonga  to  the  family  Apid»,  or  long-tongnod  bees ; 


to  the  genus  Apiti  and  the  species  meU\fita.  Lin- 
TussoA  originally  namt'd  the  ordinary  hivo-bee  Apia 
meUiferrt,  meaning  honey-gatherer.  (In  having  the 
fact  pointed  out  that  tho  bee  makes  honey  from 
(Inwer-nectar,  he  changed  the  specific  name  to 
tticUifura,  meaning  hnney-maker.  Attemptjt  have 
rtfcently  been  maj^Ie  to  change  this  latter  name  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  priority  in  sciimtilic 
names,  but  the  name  vttUifictx  is  so  well-chueen. 
and  so  firmly-established  in  bee  literature,  that  it 
would  be  a  sacrilege  to  change  it. 

A  careful  systematic  study  of  the  diiTerent  siieciea 
and  sulis|>ei'ies  or  varieties  of  the  genus  Apis  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  was  pubii.ihed  in  l9(Ki  by 
H.  von  Hettel-Reepen.  The  following  arrangement 
bi  ndapled  from  his  work  (variutiea  of  Apis  dortaia 
and  A.  imiien  omittt'd): 

Apif  dnnaia,  India  and  eastward. 

AjntfioTfa,  India,  Ceylon.  Java. 

Apit  mfUiJiai,  the  cnmmnn    hive-liee  in 

many  subspecies  and  varieties  : 
(a)  Sabspecif-s    melli^m   proper,    with 

varieties  LiptKlitn,  rfmifieg,  Car' 

nira,  Cypria.  Lfhzaii. 
(6)  Subspecies    Indies,    with    varieties 

I'avni,  Sintmif,  Japoniea,  pieea, 

Kofrhnu  ifcwi, 
(c)  Subspecies   vnieohr,  with  varieties 

Adatiioni^    ftuciala,    intermitn, 

Friem,  Syriaec. 
Two  siMJcies  have  not  been  domesticated,  ^dnr- 
*ata,  the  giant  of  the  genus,  amiptrea,  the  dwarf. 
Attempts  have  Iteen  miule  to  reduce  darmla  to  a 
state  'ff  domestication,  but  its  nomadic  habits, 
fii^rce  temper,  and  custom  of  living  out-of-doors 
render  the  task  difficult.  To  introduce  fa»ciafa, 
Attantonii,  xtnimlar  and  tiidim  into  the  United 
States  would  seem  to  be  entirely  feasible  ;  and  such 
a  bee  as  the  Kgj-ptian— beautiful  and  industrious 
—should  find  a  place  in  America,  very  prttbubly  in 
Arixona  and  California. 

We  know  but  little  about  the  bcee  of  China  and 
Japan,  except  that  the  natives  of  those  countries 
have  htt*!  them  domesticated  for  centuries.  We 
know,  also,  that  the  Chineito  bees  are  smaller. 
hence.  American  hives  and  appanitus  are  failures 
with  them.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Ajns  Indiea,  a 
very  useful  bee. 

The  stingless  bees  of  South  America,  Mftipona 
/ny^nti  and  i(.  tatninoma,  have  recently  occupied 
some  attention  with  apicultural  students.  Von 
Ihering,  of  Braxil.  and  Morrison,  of  the  United 
States,  have  devoted  considerable  attention  to 
them,  with  the  result  that  we  are  able  to  get  a 
fair  conception  of  their  value. 

It  is  evident  that  in  .South  America  we  have  to 
do  with  an  Immense  number  of  bee  species,  some 
of  which  are  readily  donumticated  and  have  been 
kept  In  apiaries  for  centuries  by  the  natives.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  natives^,  so  ruthle-ssly 
swept  away  by  the  Spaniards  under  {"iutrro.  were 
good  bee^Mpars.  Captain  Basil  Hall,  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  mentions  stingless-bee  apiaries  in 
Pern.  Koster  also  mentions  them  in  Broxil.  In  so 
large  a  country  as  the  (.'nited  States  a  place  prob- 


L 


"bbes 


Apii  mellifies 


ably  will  be  foiind  for  Uiem.  Honey  -  gathering- 
wasps  are  also  common  in  tropical  South  America. 
There  aru  a  number  of  sutt-apeciM  or  racea  of 
bcea  cultivatcjd  in  this  country  at  the  preaeiit  time, 
all  having  their  partiKang: 

BLickii,  or  G«rR)&n  rso9. 

Italian. 

Albino  (a  variety  of  tb«  Ital- 
ian). 

Cyiiriuii. 

Holy  Land,  or  SyriuL 

Carniolan. 

Banut. 

CsiKra^ian. 

Bybriila,  crow  between  Italian 
and  (ii^imaR. 

Punic. 

Id  general  popalarity.  the  Italians  easily  lead,  and 
justly  80.  The  Cyprians  and  Holy  Lands  have  had 
a  fair  trial  and,  all  thine;!*  considered,  ari^  not  equal 
to  the  Italians.  The  Carniolana  ari>  favorwi  for 
elevated  cool  localitifs  in  the  Morth.  The  only 
American  breed  is  the  Albino,  a  beautiful  sport 
from  Am  eric  an -bred  Italians. 

The  Italian  bee  has  been  »o  carefully  nurtured  in 
thiB  country  that  our  bew-kee[>er8  now  send  queens 
of  this  breed  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  Rraall 
mailing-cages.  Th**y  nave  Heiit  them  rp[«ate»]ly  to 
Italy  to  improve  the  race  thL-n.'.  There  in  aom« 
danjrer  at  the  present  moment  of  the  production  of 
an  American  mongrel  as  a  result  of  the  indif^ennii- 
nate  introduction  of  new  races.  We  control  the 
fertilization  of  queens  po  badly  th;it  it  la  with 
great  dilRciilty  we  can  keep  our  heuft  pure.  Only 
bees  of  vi^ry  cooKiderablt-  disttinrtive  qiiatitieH 
should  be  experimented  with,  or  the  result  in  chaos; 
and  this  stage  haa  already  been  reached  in  some 
plactw. 

The  quren. 

Cattle-breeders  say  the  bull  is  half  the  flock  ; 
with  equal  truth  bee-keepers  can  affirm  that  the 
queen  isi  75  per  cent  of  a  nest  of  bera,  for  the  law 
of  parthenw^eriBsiB  (qH^raleH  ti)  give  gnmter  impor- 
tance to  the  i]Ueen.  The  least  iinpL>rf«L-tiun  in  a 
quwn  is  fatal,  and  some  bee-keepi-Ts  fait  at  this 
very  point.  It  is  frequently  noted  that  a  colony  of 
bees  will  give  a  handHome  return,  while  a  colony 
si  its  side  under  precisely  similar  condition  will 
give  no  retiim  at  all.  Thin  in  simply  due  to  the 
difference  in  the  queens ;  hence,  fiucoesfiful  bee- 
kee]>inK  dejiends  largely  on  paying  the  greatest 
possible  attention  to  the  queens  of  the  apiary. 

The  queen  is  the  onEy  fully  duvL>lo;jed  female  in 
a  hive  of  bees  ;  that  is  to  tiay,  she  has  not  hod  to 
aubmit  to  a  process  of  weaning  on  the  fifth  day  of 
her  existence  (from  the  laying  of  the  egg)  as  is 
the  caue  with  workors.  On  the  contrary,  she  is  fed 
in  the  most  Ulieral  mann«r  on  royal  jelly,  a  pro- 
digested  food  miMle  by  the  nur8o-lMM«  for  the  occa- 
sion. The  workers,  on  the  other  hand,  never  seem 
to  get  enough  food — chyle-food,  a  sort  of  bee  milk 
—and  l)efore  being  closed  np  to  undergo  their 
transformations,  are  fe*l  a  meal  of  an  inferior  fooil. 
The  net  result  ia  a  deficient  devt^lopment  of  tlie 


ovaries,  although,  by  rare  exception,  worker-beoa 
may  appear  which  have  the  power  of  laying  eggs, 
but  the^  workem.  being  unfertilized,  produce  only 
drones. 

The  queen,  on  the  other  band,  has  her  sexual 
organs  fatly  developed,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of 
Lenckart,  a  German  authority,  that  a  good  qoeen 
has  within  her  25.0O0.(KH)  spermatozoa  from  the 
male,  aud  during  her  lifetime  will  lay  1,500,000 
to  2.500.000  eggs.  In  alwiut  a  week  afl«r  emer- 
gence fertilisation  takes  place,  far  from  the  hive, 
and  high  in  the  air,  so  that  the  act  of  copulation 
is  Seldom  Seen— high  up  to  be  clear  of  enemies, 
and  far  away  to  give  unreLitwI  drones  a  chance  to 
find  her,  and  thereby  to  pr»;vunt  iubreediug. 

The  stages  of  a  queen  may  be  expressed  thus : 

(1)  The  egg  hatches  in  three  days. 

(2)  Fed  for   two  days  on  chyle-food  as 

workers  are, 
(3H  Fed  for  thn*  days  on  royal  jelly. 
(4)  Her  cell  cloaeil  np  by  the  bees. 
(t))  Emerges  in  seven  days  (fifteen  days  in 

all),  a  perfect  bee. 

(6)  Uated  in  seven  days  (sometimes  only 

five,  and  sometimes  nine  or  leu 
days)  on  an  average.  The  queen 
mates  only  once. 

(7)  Begins  to  lav  in  about  two  days  usu- 

ally. 
During  their  lifetime  the  qiteemt  and  drones  are 
fed  a  chyle-food  by  the  nurso  bees.  It  will  bo 
apparent  that  the  queen  requires  this,  since  she 
will  frequently  lay  3(KX)  eggs  per  day,  and  jKiwibly 
on  rare  occasiora  5000.  In  other  words,  she  is  a 
Injnng  mncliine-,  and  hint  no  time  for  digesting 
reguliir  tiee-food,  hen[;n  the  nUfKes  save  her  the 
labor.  In  the  fall  of  the  year  in  this  country,  the 
dnmes  are  killLiI  by  the  nurses  withholding  the 
necessary  chyIe-fot»d. 

Partkcnoyeoms. 

It  a  young  qaeen  is  debarred  in  some  manner 
from  mating  with  a  drone,  she  is  not  always  barren, 
aA  would  Ite  sup[Htaed,  but  some  such  queens  lay 
drone  eggs  in  profuHion,  and  the^e  hatch  into  per- 
fect dronea.  It  has  tmen  observed,  also,  that  drone 
egKS  laid  by  a  fertile  queen  have  never  been 
impregnated,  as  female  eggs  always  are.  Hence  it 
is  true  that  drones  require  no  father,  and  always 
resemble  their  mothers.  It  is  important  here  to 
credit  the  skilful  manner  by  which  Dxleraon,  Von 
•Siebuld,  I^-uckart,  .Schiinfeld,  and  others  proved 
this  wonderful  fact  of  parthenogenesis.  Our  bee- 
keepers owe  the  (iermans  a  debt  of  gratitude  for 
the  work  thoy  have  done  in  this  connection. 

Dronef. 

Despite  all  that  has  been  said  hy  many  authors. 
the  queen  i«  by  no  means  the  roost  jt-rfect  in  the 
equipment  of  the  K*es  of  a  hive.  "  The  lazy,  yawn- 
ing drone"  has  more  eyes,  better  wings,  and  proba- 
bly Ivtter  faculties  all  round,  the  better  to  over- 
take and  conquer  the  queen,  flood  bee-keepera  pay 
great  alu-ntion  to  the  quality  of  the  drones  in 
their  apiaries. 


BEES 


BEES 


nt  workert. 

As  tufl  been  already  noted,  the  workers  are 
"weanwl"  or  im[«erfw;tly  <level(>ped  f«mate8 — ama- 
lOM,  Dr.  Wardtir  t«rmi)j  th&m  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  \V*'aninR  haa  nearly  tht;  same  effect  that 
geMint;  has  ou  a  hor^e.  It  also  reUrdii  [icvelopnent, 
ao  that  the  worker  reqairus  twenty-one  days  for 
development  from  the  layinj:;  of  the  egR,  whereas 
the  queen  nt*ds  only  fifteen  days. 

The  6rst  duty  oi  a  Ix^e  in  to  nurse  the  larv»  in 
the  cells,  cap  the  cells  with  wax,  and  8e«ret«  wax 
ready  for  comb-building,  althfmgh  this  can  be  done 
by  older  bw*  when  nH|uirt*d.  In  ten  t«  fuDrteen 
days  they  pnici'Hd  tiut-of-doani  to  collect  honey  and 
pollen  in  the  ticlils.  The  young  boes  are  also,  m 
ShakeR|W!aro  dt-notcd,  "sinKinn  masonti,  building- 
roofs  of  gold,"— i.  e.,  comb-boildors. 

SiMrminff. 

No  satisfactory  reason  has  ever  boon  given  for 
this  [M-ruIiar  phencimenfin.  Maeterlinck  says  that 
it  is  the  "spirit  of  the  hive"  which  onieni  it,  and 
this  exprosRus  it  an  wull  aa  anythicij^.  Our  miKlern 
boe-keepers  dislike  this  instinct,  as  it  frwint-ntly 
upsets  all  their  nicely  laid  plans;  and  it  is  no  exag- 
geration to  say  the  yield  of  honey  from  a  modern 
apiary  could  he  doubled,  and  even  trebled,  if  swarm- 
ing couU  be  checki>(l  without  injury  to  the  stock 
of  bees.  The  lie^t  wu  c^an  ihi  is  to  minimize  its 
effect  and  gently  guide  the  force  we  can  not  con- 
trol completely. 

In  normal  itwarming,  the  colony  of  bees  affected 
reachcH  a  ulage  when  there  is  an  abundance  of 
fwnl  iin  hand,  numerous  young  bees  in  process  of 
gruwtb,  and  all  signs  of  a  vigorous  prosi>i:Tity  ovi- 
dent  un  every  hand  ;  then,  with  a  wild,  pi^nt-np 
energy,  the  ijUftri,  uccompaniBd  by  the  best  [mrt  of 
thcibetis,  fully  ladt-n  with  honey  in  their  sacs,  rnshes 
forth,  and,  after  some  maneuvering  in  the  atmos- 
phere, they  settle  on  some  branch  or  bush  near  by, 
at  the  same  time  sending  oot  scouts  to  hod  a  snita- 
ble  home  in  a  hollow  tfRo  or  other  receptacle.  Then 
the  bee-kt^eper  gives  them  a  hive  to  ti%'e  in  by 
simply  shaking  them  iutci  it,  or  by  shaking  them 


Bbney. 

It  is  supposed  by  the  general  public  that  honey  is 
gathered  by  the  bees  directly  from  the  nectaries  of 
flowers.   On  the  contrary,  honey  is  a  prepared  food 


-gafd 


ft/^y 


..IT"' 


pfi 


An  SmUiIi  aplair;  ud  tU  oU-tuUosM  ibaw  ba*UT«. 


down  in  front  of  an  enlargetl  entrance-hole.  They 
soem  glad  to  find  a  home,  particularly  if  it  is  clt^nn. 
G*'nerally  speaking,  swarms  can  bo  h.indle^l  with 
impunity  without  veils,  gloveii,  or  smoke,  as  the 
bc«e  are  in  great  good  humor,  unleaa  allowed  to 
haog  too  long,  when  hunger  seta  in. 


1^?^  .  '  "-^^ . 

Vi(.  309.    Sttaw  hIvM  In  a  Fiencli  aptaiT- 

digested  by  the  bees  in  anticipation  of  its  l>eing 
used  as  a  food  by  themselves  or  young.  The  nectar 
of  the  flowers,  as  has  Ix-en  proved  by  Dr.  Von  Planta, 
b>  almost  idc-ntic^il  with  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane 
plant,  and  is,  therefore,  a  right-handod  sugar ; 
whereas,  on  the  contrary,  honyy  is  a  it-ft-handed 
sugar  and  belnngs  with  the  grape-sugar  class. 

It  is  dithcult  to  explain  to  a  layman  what  pro- 
cesses the  honflv  undt-rgoes  from  the  time  it  leaves 
the  flower  in  thu  form  of  nectdr.  Usually  the  nec- 
tar is  reducwl  to  a  third  or  a  foijrth  of  il«  original 
bulk,  and  has  bef.n  "  invertwJ.'*  It  also  acquires 
formic  acid  from  the  bees,  and  probably  some  other 
ingredients,  such  as  phtwphoric  acid.  Nectar  runs 
as  freely  as  water,  whereas  honey  la  very  thick, 
and  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature  turns  into 
a  granulateil  condition— gran ulat««,  in  fact,  at  a 
temperature  as  high  as  Gri°  Fahr.  Honey  is  often 
sold  in  Kurope  in  a  solid  state,  and  some  progress 
has  been  m»le  in  familiarizing  the  American  mar- 
ket with  grannlated  huney. 

Wax  Ktretion, 

For  a  long  time  tlni  production  of  wax  was  in- 
volved in  mystery,  not  until  John  Hnnter,  the  Eng- 
lish anatomist,  pointed 
out  that  wax  is  a  svcre- 
tii>n  from  certain  glands 
in  the  abdomen  of  the 
worker  lnx».  was  the  mat- 
ter fairly  settled.  IIut>er 
proved  th.it  l>fte«  could 
m;ikea  lilwral  amount  of 
ix  if  fed  exclusively  on 
:  ugar,  showing  conclu- 
sively that  it  is  a  manu- 
facture. A  high,  steady 
temperature  is  necessary 
for  wax  liecretinn,  so  that 
our  northern  beekeeper*  are  rather  conHumers  than 
producers  of  wax.  In  warm  CMuntries  was  pnnliic- 
tion  is  a  profitable  part  of  apicultun*.  and  l\w  hwe 
produce  it  involuntarily,  even  when  nu  cumb»  are 
being  built.  To  produce  wax  in  large  amount,  the 
bees  hang  themselves  in  feetoons  motionloas  for 


282 


BEES 


BEES 


da^s.  ToDDg  l«G8  do  tbla  work,  although  old  bees 
can  be  u^ed  in  a  strait. 

Himt.   (Figs.  S0«-a20). 

Tha  question  uf  what  'w  the  best  hive  fs  always 
an  int^ivstin^  topic  in  a|)icultural  diecossiona,  hat 
this  in  not  ttii:  place  to  ctiLisr  into  a  conalderatioo 
of  the  relative  nic-rit»  uf  thu  various  hives  now  in 

use  in  the  United 
States.  All  our 
modern  hive8,how- 
evttr,  am  based  on 
the  hive  invtinled 
by  the  Kfv.  h.  L. 
Langstroth  in 
1852.  which  poe- 
aeiflsed  two  strik- 
ing features  dif- 
ferentiating it 
from  all  others: 
First,  a  movable 
conib-framc  hav- 
ing a  bee-«pacc  on 
alt  sides ;  second, 
feattirc!    is   seldam 


Pic  310.     Tbe  LanxEtiotb  hive  u 
fiEUied  by  the  inventor   In  ieS9. 

M<,i\i>IiIk   i-i^irili    (live,   wUh    fnlJ 

cUu'ftmiuiit'iiicni.' 


a  movable  rnof.  The  latter 
refern^d  to,  althouRh,  evt-n  now,  in  Germany  a 
movable  ruof  intttrongly  condemniMi  aaunhyi^ifnic; 
but  onr  bt-e-keoping  industry  would  be  poor  indeed 
with  a  fixed  hive-roof.  Broadly  aiieaking,  then,  all 
our  modem  hives  are  Ijingstroth  hive.'',  with  Hmjill 
improvemRTLtH.  The  original  Langstroth  waa  made 
aa  shown  in  Fig}4.  .tH>,  :ill. 

The  only  improvement  we  have  made  thus  far  i« 
in  the  mode  of  spaeing  the  frames.  In  the  original 
Lnngfltroth  hivu  the  eye  was  trusted  to  space  the 
frames  correctly  one  and  one-half  incht-s  apart 
from  center  to  center.  It  was  found  in  practice, 
however,  that  the  eye  is  a  poor  judge  of  space ; 
besides,  the  frames  slid  about  If  th^e  hive  was 

moved.  The  lat^ 
eat  and  probably 
the  best  means 
ofeelf-spaeingis 
a  tin  projection 
whirh  aatomat- 
ically  apiu^eftthfi 
fnimt's  aav  and 
three-oightha 
inches  opart. 
(Pig.  a  12.)  With 
very  accurate 
spacers  we  can 
place  the  comha 
still  doner,  say 
one  and  one- 
fourth  inches. 
Our  most  com- 
mon hive  is  the 
dove  tailed,  or 
lock -cornered ;  hut  it  is  only  theold  Langstrnth  hive 
improved  by  luck -come  ra,  therefore  simpler,  easier 
to  make,  and  far  stronger.  (Vxr.  SIX.)  It  may  be 
necessary  here  to  point  out  that  a  boe-apaeo  a  one- 
sixth  of  an  inch  or,  if  expreaaed  in  decimals,  .17  of 
an  inch.  Between  two  comlje,  therefore,  one4hird 


rU-  31t-  Ti»  IliTC  u  pictured  by  lut- 
atrotli.     "A  (wriccilip  >tc»  wltti 

tlw  rtirKT  •Ipvalnl.  xi  m  in  mlirrw 
Ihp  wnrkluK  at  il>«  bfva,  Inii^i  lo  lh« 
Rintn   hivp   Mill  th»  Dfipgr    hollfiT- 


%uV'  »f^^ 


Fit.  3it.    9elf-(paciac 
LtncBtroUi  (tames. 


of  an  inch  i«  required  to  provide  sufficient  apace  to 
let  two  hee«  pa6«. 

The  upper  etory  of  a  hive  is  the  same  as  the 
lower,  if  the  apiarist  is  running  for  "strained"  or 
extracted  honey.    Between  the  two  atories,  how- 
ever, a  piece  of  perforated 
metal  ia  placed  to  prevent     ,-«ej-_        T* 
the  queen  gaining  aoun 
to  the  Dpper  chamber  and 
laying  eggs  in  the  combs 
re«H)rved    exclusively  for 
honey.    The  holes  in  tlm 
metal  (zinc)  honey-board 
are  so   perforated    as   to 
allow  the  worken  to  pa^ 
freely,  hat  not  the  queen 
or    drones.       (Fig.    3M- 
316). 

A  hive  intended  to  produce  honey  in  one-iwmnd 
IioxeH  is  entirely  dilferuiit  in  the  upper  chamlx-r, 
and  is  a  triumph  of  Yankt*  ingenuity  and  wood- 
Vforking  skill.  In  the  comb-honey  hive  the  upper 
etory  contains  a  number  of  small  frames  which 
apiarists  term  "sections"  {Fig.  317, 1  These  are 
termet]  sections  twcause  eight  of  them  constitute  a 

fuU-sized  I^ngstroth 
frame.  The  general 
public  naes  the  word 
"  liox"  or  "cap"  to  de- 
nole  the  same  thing. 
To  insure  regularity 
these  "seclions'*  are 
arranged  with  sepa- 
rators or  fencc.i  be- 
tween each  two  rows. 
These  act  as  guWe- 
posL^  or  plnmli-lines  to  the  bees,  thereby  iosuring 
combs  80  regular  in  outline  as  lu  reiwmbleso  many 
preased  bricks.  This  allows  of  the  sections  (Ijoxes) 
1>eing  arranged  in  crates  in  inutliematical  order  and, 
of  course,  are  liked  by  the  retail^jrs  of  honey.  It 
is  easier  to  produce  hon^y  without  fences  being 
used,  and  when  one  sells 
directly  to  the  consum- 
ers there  is  no  nenes- 
sity  furtheae;  in  p^iinl 
of  fact,  some  consum- 
ers prefer  crooked 
combs  as  a  proof  that 
they  were  not  made  by 
some  sort  of  machine. 

The  pniduction  nf  comb-honey  in  ''sections'"  or 
boxes  holding  one  ]>ound,  is  almost  a  busine«a  by 
itself,  rei[uiring  an  expert  knowledge  of  bw«, 
together  with  a  certain  amount  of  refinement  in 
preparing  and  adjusting  the  boxes,  and  also  in 

preparing  them  for 
sale.  The  Euro|iean 
poetR  have  sung  the 
praisfw  of  the  honey 
of  Mt.  Hymuttus  and 
of  Narbonne,  but  we 
arc  safe  in  saying 
PH.  MS.  aailMeb-AUoT  d~n»  that  the  p.H-tfl  never 
tny.  fiaw  honey  that  would 


PIX.  313.    SUnJAid  Amcnutn 

lll*l.      t.:iii|;9tl'<>lh  tjijo. 


Fie.  314.    Harbadi  entunDe. 
tbawini  drone  excluder. 


BEES 


BEES 


283 


Fie.  3ie.  MiLibacb  W1I0 
drDDB-  and  qucen-ex- 
cluitlni  mcUI.  itiiiv 
1isir  uniiiial  itli«. 


Imw  comparison  with  thw  ««ction  comb-honey  of 
America.  To  sec  ten  or  twenty  tuns  of  comb-honey 
in  enow-white  sectiona.  piled  up  in  a  bee-keeper's 
boney-houae>  is  a  beaatiful 
sight. 

Comb-honey  Ja  now  popu- 
lar in  England.  Many 
wealthy  person*  of  Amirrica 
are  not  so  libera!  mimlod. 
and  some  ore  actually  prej- 
udiced. B^icaose  it  is  so 
uniform  in  appearance, 
many  think  it  is  made  by 
meciianica!  means,  and  a  canard  to  that  tfTt-ct 
has  been  very  extensively  circulated  by  the  news- 
paper press,  and  has  even  been  copied  hy  eminent 
authoritiea  on  t<x>i  analysis.  This  cananj  hiw  done 
Ttry  (Treat  <Iam:»ffe  to  this  particular  branch  of 
the  bee  industry.  It  was  thought  by  lxjt;-kefj«eni 
at  one  time  that,  by  offering  honty  in  the  comb  to 
their  customers,  all  fearof  adnlt^-ration  would  pass 
away.  These  hopes  have  been  rudely  dispeUod.  Wo 
are  safe  in  saying  that  alt  comb-honey  is  pnre, 
anadnlterate^   honey;  and  the   more  beautifully 

whiteit  ia.  the  bet- 
ter it  m  in  ta^ite. 
generally  speak- 
ing. 

The  main  princi- 
ple in  comb-honey 
pnjduction  19  to 
have  one's  hivm 
abundant  in  been 
on  the  very  day 
the  honey  cam- 
(Kiign  begins,  and 
to  have  all  fixtnres 
in  readiness.  If 
the  honey  is  to  be 
obta  ined  from 
clover  or  lasKwooJ 
blogsoms.  the  api- 
arist must  be  in  a  position  to  prophesy  fairly  the 
day  the  bloK.wm.t  will  appear.  The  cliiiif  dillicutty 
the  comb-honey  8iK-ciuli»t  has  to  cunt^-nd  with,  is 
the  desire  of  the  hwA  to  swamt ;  fnr  If  a  swarm 
mue$,  that  generally  pnts  an  end  to  the  work  on 
tha  comb-honey  supers.  To  retrieve  theraiwU-es. 
bw-keepers  capture  the  sw.^nll  and  place  the  upper 
chamber  of  the  parent  colony  on  the  swarm  colony. 
To  compel  the  betw  to  begin  wurk  ]ici:tually  at  onoe, 
oor  best  a|>tari:4l«i  ccmfme  the  colony  to  8  small 
brood-compartment,  which  ba«  the  effect  of  causing 
the  bees  to  invade  the  upper 
obamber  at  once ;  once  in 
(here,  they  will  proceed  to 
work  00  the  boxes. 

A  goodly  proportion  of  oar 
spiaristfi  are  turning  to  what 
i«  termed  the  shallow  or  di-     ^       .JLV   v- 
visible  brood -chamber  hives     »'•"«.<■•  *cuoQ-to. 

to  accomplish  thia  result  with  the  least  possible 
labor.  (Fig.  319.)  A  shallow  hive  is  simply  a  hive 
which  in  shallow  in  proportion  to  its  length  and 
breadth,    l^ongslroth's  hive  was  ten  inches  deep. 


Ilg.SlT,  Oii*-i>i«tt  bUBWOOd  GOmtv- 
MCtioDi  oatoldcd.  I.  UwwKr. 
ramnianlr  ■'kIIhI  rtaM^d  lopi  s, 
b«c<r»r  ov«n  i»p  anil  b>>tloin^ 
9,  boTHnvQpvo  uu  (hrr«  sMi.*; 
t,  hpffrar  oprn  on  all  four 
■idnj  J  F.  iilniit.  no  l>rw«a]-<, 
nwtlwlth  fcui-M:  i  M.Kkiu.  iiu 


Divisible  btwd- 
cluunbct.  Uv«  and  tuper. 
ThclifoIotrvrpl'jHcsfor 
«  brood-  nr  h^mlll(l^ 
■•hKmbtr,  upper  one  for 


whereas  a  shallow  hive  is  seven  ami  (mc-hijf 
inches  or  K'3»  in  depth,  say  sis  incheii.  The  reason 
for  reHurting  to  this  kind  of  hive  it*  that  the  bee» 
are  very  loath  to  enter  the  small  compartmtnls, 
holding  no  more  than  a  pound  of  honey,  and  com- 
puUJon  must  be  u-ied  to  some  extent.  To  produce 
L-xtrnctod  or  ntrainixt  honey  is  easier,  as  the  bmod- 
chamber  and  cip[>er  story  are  alike:  and  as  there 
is  plenty  of  room,  there  is  tittle  desire  to  swarm. 
By  robbing  the  hives  oc- 
ca.si{miLily,  the  bee-masti^r 
deprives  them  of  all  sigtis 
of  high  prosperity,  anri 
thi-H  is  suJKcient  tn  hold 
in  chock  the  swarming 
instinct,  which  is,  un- 
doubtedly, the  lianp  of 
snccesaful  liee  -  keeping. 
Swarming  and  honey-pro- 
duction are  not  compaii- 
hle,  and  the  modern  bee- 
keepers would  giveagreiit 
sum  for  a  method  of  ac- 
tion which  would  effectu- 
ally control  it.  There  are  many  minds  at  work  on 
the  prublem. 

Comb  fmtmlation. 

The  invention  of  comb  fmisdiUoii  marked  a  dis- 
tinctadvance  in  American bee^seping.  This  is  the 
midrib,  or  septum,  of  the  comb  alrudy  ptcMred 
by  man  for  the  Ikcs  to  add  cells  to.  It  u  iDwd  by 
subjecting  long  sheets  of  beeswax  to  pressure  in  a 
moW  which  will  yield  impressions  of  a  six-sided 
cell.  The  process  resembles  printing  except  that 
no  color  is  used.  The  first  foundation -machine 
was.  made  by  Mehring,  a  German  highly  skilled 
mechanic.  The  old  process  was  to  dip  thin  boards 
in  melted  wax,  and,  when  cooled  sufficiently,  to 
peel  the  adhering  wax  sheets  from  the  boards. 
The  Weed  pnK'e**  has  largely  displaced  this  practice 
and  is  cormiderahly 
betli't. because  targe 
blocks  of  wax  are 
"laminated"  into 
sheets  very  much  as 
steel  ingots  are 
rolled  into  sheet- 
iron. 

The  skilful  use  of 
fonndation  marks 
the  successful  bee- 
keeper. Houses  full 
sheets  of  foundation  in  the  hroofJ-framea  to  prevent 
the  bees  building  drone-celts,  whkb  they  will  do 
to  the  amount  of  25  per  cent  of  the  space  availa- 
ble. To  allow  80  large  a  proportion  of  a  brood- 
chamber  to  be  occupied  with  worse  than  useless 
drone-comb  is,  obviously,  a  losing  speculation;  still, 
it  is  frequently  done.  Sheets  of  foundation  prop- 
erty placed,  produce  combs  so  straight  and  unifum 
in  outline  as  to  reeemble  so  many  planed  boards. 
As  a  result,  every  comb  in  the  apiary  is  inter- 
changeable with  any  other,  which  repreeents  no 
small  gain.  Attention  to  these  detatle  eoabEee  oor 


A  typ«  of  obi^. . 


tilt. 


-t 


284 


BEES 


BEES 


Fts.  321.    Aunokot. 


be*!-ktteperB  to  attend  to  a  number  of  hivHS  which 
would  s^vm  includible  tc  a  Kuroiwan  liL>L--ni^t(!r. 
Pull  sheets  or  Botntjtimi's  only  ^mail  "stiirtora''  of 
Very  thin  foiindfitinn  also  are  inserted  in  the  sec- 
tion comb-honey  hoses  tn  inquire  rapid  wnrk,  as  the 
hew  naturally  diHlike  sd  ftmall  a  romli-frame  ;  but, 

dtidin;^  fiiunilation    in   it,   they 

wurk  it  Dili. 

Tiu  ho7tnj-<jlracUfr.    (Kig.  322.) 

After  the  appearance  of  this 
tnovahle-comli  hive  of  i>!ing- 
strnth,  varirtH.i  aids  to  hee-fceep- 
ers  sppeanx),  the  first  of  whii;h 
was  Mnjihr  Vmi  Hruachka's  mel- 
extriwtar,  which  mmovt'd  the  hon^y  from  combu 
by  centrifugal  force.  All  .\mi'rieana  are  familiar 
with  thfi  principluf)  involved.  Tha  cappinn  is  firat 
removed  from  thacomb  by  means  of  a  hoin>y-knife, 
then  tbo  combs  are  {Oaceil  in  wire  haakets  insido 
the  extractor,  the  handle  of  the  livtter  i.i  turned 
with  great  rapidity  and  the  honey  ih  thrown  from 
the  comliB  airairiHt  the  side  of  the  extraetur, 

Our  .4meriean  mechanica  liave  greatly  improved 
the  original  luiney -extractor,  until  now  it  i«  alniomt 
a  perfect  inatniment.  Dccaflionally  tho  extractor 
is  turned  by  engine-power.  Centrifugal  extractors 
for  wax  have  also  been  tried,  hut  none  ia  practical. 

Wax-extrador  and  honey-prcf^.    [Pig.  323.) 

The  must  familiar  form  of  wax-extractor  is  the 
"aolar,"  working  by  the  aun'fl  heat.  It  ia  excel- 
lent as  far  aa  it  goes,  but  leaves  toy  much  wax  in 
the  ulurngum,  or  reniduo,  tc  be  temied  effective. 
The  latest  and  by  far  tho  most  useful  wax-extrac- 
tor if*  the  steam  wax-press,  in  which  both  steam- 
and  screw-pressure 
arc  used  to  force 
the  wax  Us  part 
frorn  the  masj^  o[ier- 
atwi  on.  It  costs 
considerable,  but 
this  is  more  than 
counterbalanced  by 
the  osefalnes^.  It 
may  be  used  as  a 
honey -preM  when 
th«  bee-keeper  de- 
sires to  secure  a 
large  prodnction  of 
wax.  Where  the 
Reason?  are  long.  a» 


PiK.  ii2.     A  m»dc(n  type  of  &uto- 
nuUo  bouey-exUactot . 


in  the  South  and  West  Indies,  there  is  nut  Uie  same 
necessity  to  use  comlw  over  again  iw  in  the  North; 
and  as  th«  price  of  wax  i»  gowl.  sume  bee-keepers 
resort  to  the  practice  of  prciwing  out  the  honey  in 
this  preeB,  savini;  themselves  labor  and  securing 
a  larger  production  of  wax.  There  can  bo  little 
doobt  that  this  practice  will  become  popular. 

QtoBen-breeding. 

One  of  the  absorbing  phases  nf  bee-keeping  is  the 
rearing  of  ijueans.  It  has  aiwumed  large  propor- 
tions of  late  years,  and  there  is  really  more  nwni 
for  very  akilful  beekeepers  who  will   undertake 


PI*,  -v.. 
A  wuc-]ite**. 


thw  work  and  do  it  with  scientific  thoroughnew. 
But  it  reiiuire«  very  corsidiTalde  Hkill  and  aeon* 
pktu  knowleiige  of  bee-keeping  in  all  its  hrjuiches- 
to  lie  a  really  nood  queen-bn-eder.  The  remunera- 
tion, however,  is  excellent  for  the  akiiful  man.  lb 
is  almost  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  queen-breeder 
shnnld  loc^ote  in  the  South,  in  a  particularly  early 
locality.  Southern  Texas  takes  the  lead  in  queen- 
breetiing  matters;  but  the  whole  Gulf  cn;i.it  should 
be  equally  goiMJ.  Our  northern  bet-keeiiers  would 
be  greatly  a^sisteil  by  the  producLiim  of  queens 
early  enough  to  put  them  into  coIunieK  which  have 
become  queenless  during  the  winter,  for  these 
require  a  mother  at  the  earlii-st  po,*sibte  moment. 

American  qtieen-breeders  are  famous  the  world 
fiver,  and  our  principal  breeilers  are  constantly 
sending  their  stock  lu  all  parts 
of  the  world,  even  to  Italy,  the 
home  of  our  best  bees. 

The  theory  of  queen-rearing 
is  to  have  a  colony  of  bees  in 
a  condition  bordering  on  mad- 
ness for  want  of  a  queen,  In 
such  a  condition  the  hcfs  will 
accept  alratwl  any  young  larvie 
the  bwvkeeper  may  provide. 
They  will  also  accept  the  arti- 
ficial queen-cell  cups,  and  pro- 
vide fond  in  abundance  for  the. 
young  larva!  which  have  Ireen 
"grafteil"  Ihenein.  The  liee- 
keeper,  on  his  part,  selects 
larvie  two  (Inys  old  from  the  combs  of  the  best  hire 
of  bees  he  can  find,  and  "grafts"  these  into  arti- 
ficial cell-cups  to  suit  his  oinvenience.  Natural 
queen-cells  are  extremely  delicate,  ami  the  slight- 
est squeen?  injures  the  immature  queen,  though  an 
amateur  would  not  perceive  the  defect.  The  defect 
is  generally  in  the  wing-Mtructnre.  There  are  vari- 
ous methods  in  vogue.  There  are  two  Hchools— the 
yMley  and  the  Doolittle— both  of  which  are  good, 
although  the  latter  is  the  more  popular.  We  can 
not  here  enter  into  a  deswriptjon  of  the  practices 
now  iti  use.  A  bulletin  issued  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  .\griculture,  entitled  "Resriiig  of 
Queen-beed"  (Bulletin  No.  Sft,  Bureau  of  Entomol- 
ogy, ly^u),  covers  the  ground  very  fully. 

When  bred  and  rea-fty  for  ubc.  the  queens  are 
sent  in  small  cages  by  mail  almoHt  anywhere,  hnt 
it  is  doubtful  whether  such  queens  are  as  goud  as 
those  never  subjectwl  to  the  jolts  and  jars  of  a 
mailbag.  Some  pernons  now  order  their  queens  wnt 
in  smail  coJoniea  of  tce&,  technically  a  nucleus.  This 
given  the  queen  a  far  better  chance.  One  can  not 
be  too  careful  in  buying  queens  to  see  that  the 
seller  has  something  else  than  the  mere  deaire  to 
sell  queens,  at  it  is  so  easy  to  deceive  any  but  the 
roost  experienced  bee-buyen. 

Beet  tu  Jlovvr-fertUizerr. 

Be«A  are  often  accused  by  fruit-growera  of  beinc 
inimical  to  their  industry,  when,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  they  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  succeae 
of  frnit-culture.  Mueller,  who  is  the  best  authority, 
made  the  atatement  that  bees  pollinate  more  flowers 


BEES 


BEES 


28S 


than  all  other  insect  agencies  pnt  togetlier.  It  hu 
been  proved  repejitetllj*  that,  withuiil  Iw«h,  fruit- 
culture  is  a  precariouj^  liuHJiii-fis  ;  and,  in  Califurnia 
particularly,  btse-kebjiera  haw  httva  askmi  to  return 
to  locallliL-s  whiin  public  opinion  had  compelled 
tht-'tn  to  abandon  the  locality.  It  is  a  case  when 
familiarity  breeds  contempt.  We  are  likely  to  for- 
get that  it  ifl  the  industry  of  the  l»ee  wht<ih  fructi- 
fies the  (lower,  taking  the  event  as  a  matter  uf 
cuurse.  If  any  one  douhte  thin,  let  him  uuvur  up  a 
melon  or  cucumber  plant  so  that  the  booa  can  not 
reach  thu  rtuwer«. 

Enemiet  and  diHOKt, 

Lackily,  the  bee  is  not  greatly  pursued  by  ene- 
mies in  the  United  States,  and  probaldy  the  igno- 
rance and  neglect  of  man  are  thi!  only  i^ourr^BH  of 
trouble.  HuHt  fanners  who  have  kept  bees  and 
failed,  attribute  their  failure  to  the  wax-moth, 
when,  aa  a  matter  uf  fact,  neglect  was  the  real 
caOBB,  Moths  never  attack  vigorous  cidonies  of 
beee;  hence,  the  "secret"  of  ROcx^eHs  lips  in  having 
the  beee  in  prime  condition  to  resist  al]  enemies. 
The  moths  are  tike  vultuivH,  coming  arouni]  when 
the  colony  is  weak.  Very  often  thy  colony  isqueen- 
leaH,  or,  if  not,  locks  food.  The  runiedioa  are 
obviouB. 

Koul  bromi  is  a  real  enemy. and  by  "foul  brood" 
may  be  inclnded  "hiatk  bn«>(i,"  and  "pickled 
brood."  We  are  still  very  much  in  the  dark  as  to 
the  cause  uf  the  so-uaJled  *'  foul  brood."  Chiuhire 
attributed  it  to  a  bacillus,  which  be  namea  Batilhin 
alvei;  bat  later  inveatiKatione  have  overthrown 
this  opinion,  and  it  is  clearly  evident  that  our  infor- 
mation on  the  snhject  is  very  faulty.  It  will  be 
suffitiient  for  ua  to  give  Ihe  cure  (McKvoy  method) 
for  foul  briKHl,  which  is  i^nsily  recognized  by  iln 
stinking,  nuisome  smell,  and  '*ropy"  condition  of 
the  affectfd  brood.  The  McEvoy  method  is  to  taku 
away  the  combe  from  a  colony  and  burn  them.  The 
colony  is  given  a  new  set  of  frames  with  "  starters," 
which  are  allowed  to  «tay  only  four  day.'*,  when  an 
entirely  new  set.  on  full  sheets  of  foundation,  ore 
givtin.  The  new  combs,  miule  in  four  days,  am 
melted  into  bt^ieaH'ax,  and  the  treatment  in  Rnished. 
The  idea  is  to  deprive  the  boes  of  every  atom  of 
honey  (which  conceals  the  germs),  and  give  the 
colony  a  clean,  fresh  atari  in  life. 

itonfy  -  pltintt. 

America  potwe(«ses  a  large  number  of  hiiney- 
yiwlding  pinnts,  that  is  to  ajiy,  planta  which  swrrete 
nectar  in  the  floral  organs,  which  the  bees  gather 
tnd  convert  into  honey.  It  is  necessary  to  mention 
only  the  more  important.  In  New  England,  New 
York  and  Pennsylvania,  olnver,  liaKsw<KKl  and  buck- 
wheat may  be  denominated  leaders ;  btit  in  .<)j)ecial 
localities  some  other  plant  or  tree  may  be  an  im> 
portant  factor,  aa,  for  example,  the  lootiat  on  Long 
Island.  In  some  remote  localities  the  fireweed 
{RpUahiwm)  or  the  wild  raspberry  may  be  impor- 
tant The  culture  of  sainfoin  in  the  Esial  woula  lie 
a  great  boon  for  eastern  bee-keepers ;  but  its  ex- 
tensive introduction  seeni.>«  far  distant,  although  tn 
Earope  it  is  very  valuable.   [Pages  5<j4.  Vol.  II.J 


In  Ohio,  Indiana,  niinojit,  Michigan,  Missouri, 
Wisconsin,  Minnc'Rota  and  Iowa,  clover  and  bai^- 
wood  are  the  leaders.  In  some  parts  of  Michigan, 
fireweed  and  rtusplierry  give  large  yields  of  superior 
honey,  and  in  other  places  golrlenrod  and  a.-iter  give 
liberal  returns;  and  on  the  uverllnwed  lands  uf  the 
Miftsiwiippi,  heartsease  il'erticaria)  is  an  excellent 
beii-flower. 

In  the  bonier  states,  Delawaro,  Maryland.  Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky,  Wt^t  Virginia  and  Arkansas,  in 
addition  to  clover  and  basswood,  thore  are  some 
excellL-nt  honey-producers  not  w^romon  farther 
north  tulip-tree,  peniimmon,  crimson  clover  (in 
Delaware),  bine  thistle,  blat^k  gum,  Judas-tree, 
laurel,  varniflh-tree,  magnolia,  sourwood,  yellow- 
woird,  and  others.  In  North  Carolina,  South  Caro- 
lina, (k-orgia,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas,  honey-bearing  plants  are  abundant,  the 
leaders  being  the  so-called  "  gum  "  trees  (Nytta  and 
I,\rio(ifni{r<in\,  and  cotton,  corn,  sweet  clover  (in 
Alabama),  okra,  sourwoml.  sorrel,  ti-li,  perwim- 
mon,  galliierry,  with  many  minor  plants.  In  Tfsaa, 
similar  plants  exixt;  but  in  Himtbwestem  TijXOh, 
which  ia  a  sort  of  bee-kL-L*pers'  Faradiso,  and  a 
serai-arid  region,  an  untirLdy  different  set  of  bee- 
plants  exists.  Catctuw  and  huajilla  are  probably  the 
chief,  both  being  species  of  Lygia;  also  JAppia  nptrnx, 
certain  labiate  plants,  and,  where  irrigation  ia  fol- 
lowed, alfalfa.  In  tbe  arid  and  semi-arid  states, 
alfalfa  \s  the  favorite;  but  the  Kouky  mountain 
bee-plant  K'lrume  inleg^rifvlt-a)  ia  very  valuable, 
while  the  sweet  clovur  growing  along  the  canal 
courses  and  by  the  fenceKsorners  is  not  despised. 
The  habit  of  cutting  alfalfa  before  blooming  has 
curtailed  the  yield  from  that  source  during  the  last 
few  years  ;  still,  in  Utah  and  Colorado  excellent 
yields  of  very  high-gra<lf!  honey  are  often  refwrted 
from  this  source,  and  the  bee-kwpers  of  the  Rockies 
are  second  to  none  in  ability  and  enterprise. 

Florida  stands  ajtart,  tho  leading  honey-plants 
being  tropical,  namely,  false  mangrove,  palmetto 
and  saw-palmetto,  all  three  iK'ing  excellent  yielders 
of  fine  honey  when  the  conditions  are  proper.  We«t 
Florida  bt  an  ext!(f|)tion,  tujiebi  Iwing  the  main  reli- 
ance of  the  bee-keeuers.  Arizona  and  southern 
California  form  anotnc-r  bee  region,  with  mamca- 
nito,  madrona,  mesquite,  black  sage  and  whit«  saga 
afl  the  leading  honey-plants.  It  is  the  latter  two 
which  have  given  Catiforfiiii  a  world-wide  reputa- 
tion for  honey,  in  both  quality  and  ijuantily.  Lima 
beans  and  alfalfa  have  proved,  howevpr,  to  l>e  more 
reliable  yielders  than  wild  plants.  Fruit-bloom, 
together  with  eucalypti  and  pepiwr-trees,  are  also 
valuable.  ,\ll  thingsconsiderc^l,  northern  California 
is  probably  just  as  good  in  the  long  run.  In  cen- 
tral California,  carpet-grass  (Lipjeia)  and  alfalfa 
are  important  yielders,  with  some  fruit-bloom. 

Ont.irio  and  Quebec  resemble  New  York  and  Ohio 
in  honey-plants,  except  that  thutleH  are  important. 
In  Mexico,  on  the  border  at  least,  in  the  semi-arid 
parti!,  catclaw.  huajilla,  madrona,  manxanito,  and 
century  planta  are  great  yielders.  In  Sonorn.  the 
garranEa  peas  are  very  important,  also  mesquite ; 
while  in  the  far  South,  on  the  bay  of  Campechv, 
the  logwitod  stands  without  a  peer  as  a  honej- 


I 


28G 


BEES 


BEES 


yieldcr,  quality  and  qaantity  botli  conBMered.  The 
tropics  have  niimUTless  hijnpy  ])laRt«. 

Cuba  haft  many  hom^y-plant*,  the  leading  being 
the  celebrated  bellflowe'r  (/jxmura  tidafolia),  jfotaa- 
rosa.  al^irroba,  and  the  royal  paltn.  Id  Porto  Ricn, 
the  leiuJinK  honey-producere  arc  the  rose-apple 
{Eutjtnia  Jam(it«).  royal  palm,  coconut,  coffe*  and 
itd  shade  tree  {Glirigitiint,  and  a  number  of  fruit 
trees.  The  coffee  districts  are  excellent  for  bees, 
although  but  little  htut  lieen  done  in  scientific  api- 
culture. 

Jamaica  produces  a  larii^  amount  of  honey  and 
wax.  Chili  id  a  good  honey-producer,  from  alfalfa 
principally,  and  Argentina  haa  taken  up  the  new 
apiculture  in  earnest.  The  giant  thistle  of  the 
pampiaa  produces  honey.  In  Hawaii,  the  algarroba 
u  a  heavy  yielder. 

It  seeras  probable  that  new  plants,  that  is,  plants 
oew  to  our  be«-keei>ent,  will  be  widely  intrwluced 
in  the  years  to  come.  Nothing  would  give  greater 
satisfaction  to  bee-kocpcrs  than  to  eoe  sainfoin 
clover  widely  introduced  into  the  eastern  stateg. 
In  Arirona  and  sriuthcrn  California,  the  date  prom- 
iaes  to  become  important,  and  the  eucalypti  and 

Kpper-tree  are  gaining  ground  rapidly.  The  carob 
an.  in  the  Sonthwest,  ntAV  become  an  ac<[uisition, 
and  the  garvanwv  pea,  of  Bonora,  wotild  sorely 
flourish  in  many  sectionri  of  the  South.  Soola  clover, 
aUo  a  Spanish  culture,  would  be  a  great  benefit  to 
the  Southern  IwMj-niaster;  but  the  sweet  clovers, 
both  white  and  yellow,  grow  readily  in  the  South 
on  neglecte<l  land,  and  will  probably  impruve  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  liee-keepen),  generally,  object 
to  the  lawn  which  cla^  awuct  clover  a^t  a  weed, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  a  cultivated  plant  in  Europe,  and 
n  valuable  soil-improver. 

The  American  tropic?  possess  a  wonderfully  rich 
beivkeepens'  flora,  and  it  ia  certainly  very  remarka- 
ble that  nearly  all  the  famous  timber  trees  of  the 
tropics  are  honey-prodncers.  Witnesw,  for  example, 
logwood,  mahogany,  rosewood,  mangrove,  divi-divi. 
iignum-vit»,  teak,  greenheart,  balata  ijulla-pcrcha). 
The  great  palms,  also,  such  as  coconut,  date,  Pal- 
myra, Camauba,  Royal  [Armga  saeefLariJcra),  Pal- 
metto, tho  sugar  palm  (Phamix  tyUv»tng),  are  all 
very  good,  and,  in  the  case*  of  tho  date,  extremely 
good.  It  may  be  staled  broadly  that  trees  that  are 
tapiped  for  their  sweet  juice  are  also  good  nectar- 
yiefdem  for  beeti.  Sugar-cane  and  com  produce 
nectar  for  beea  when  conditions  are  favorable,  that 
Is,  when  there  is  plenty  of  moi&t  heat.  The  most 
nmukmble  families  of  plants  to  bee-keepers  in  tho 
tropics  are  the  Verbenacae.  I«giimino«c  Eucalypti, 
and  Proteacs.  practically  all  the  species  of  each 
being  honey-producers. 

The  prrjtut  pmUiart  of  bK-kffping, 

Our  .\merican  apicuHiire  is  in  a  pro^perooastato, 
and  thu  btMfkeepem  arH  enthu-siiuttic  and  hopeful. 
New  inventions  making  for  the  improvement  of  tho 
industry  are  constantly  appearing,  and  dnuhtle^i 
mors  will  follow  :  a  main  ne^il  at  profient  in  that 
the  iubject  be  given  due  attention  in  agricultural 
colleges.  It  is  anfortanate.  indeed,  that  no  aKrit.-ul- 
tnnl  college  is  at  present  providing  a  oomplele 


coarse  in  bee-keeping.    The  industry  is  forcing  H 
attention  nn  the  colleges,  and  sooner  or  later  th^ 
must  respond. 

Ijiitmlure. 

The  literature  of  bee-keeping  is  Ttrj  rich  and 
extensive  in  the  English,  French  and  German  lan- 
guages particularly.  De  Montfort  of  Luxemburg, 
writing  m  1<>46,  enumerated  6U0  apicultural  authors 
previous  to  him,  and,  of  course,  there  has  been  a 
vast  increa^  since  his  day.  Even  tho  American 
literature  in  rather  extensive,  but  is  nevertheless 
of  high  quality,  free  fmm  the  pedantic  tendency 
which  is  likely  to  characterize  European  bee-book 
authors;  and  there  is  but  little  need  of  an  Ameri- 
can student  going  beyond  his  own  literature  of  this 
subject.  Space  permits  mention  of  only  a  few 
references  here.  I).  L.  Adair,  .Annals  of  Bee-keep- 
ing, Lonisville,  Kentucky  (187:it;  Henry  AUey, 
Thirty  Years  Among  the  Bees.  The  author.  Wen- 
ham,  Massac hu:$ettd  (1880);  .^nna  Botsford  Corn- 
stock,  How  to  Keep  Bees.  Doubleday.  Page  &  Co. 
{VJOo) ;  A.  J.  Cook,  Mannal  of  the  Apiary,  or  Bee- 
keeper's Guide,  G.  W.  York  &  C-o.,  Chicago,  Illi- 
nois, twentieth  edition  (1904);  T.  W.  Cowan,  The 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Honey-bee,  Houlston 
&Co.,Iion(Ion.  Kngland  ;  G.  M.  Doolittle,  Queen-reai> 
ing.  Scientific,  G.  W.  York,  Chicago.  Illinois  (1889); 
W.  Z.  Hutchinson,  Advanced  Bee  Culture,  Flint, 
Michigan  (1005);  Harbison.  The  Bee-keepers  Tirec- 
tory,  H.  H.  Bancroft  &  Son,  San  Francisco  (1861); 
.M.  H.  and  H.  A.  King,  The  Bee-keeper's  Text  Book, 
The  Authors,  New  York  City ;  L.  L.  Langstroth, 
The  Hive  and  Honey-bee,  New  York  (1853);  Same, 
Itevised  by  Dadant,  Hamilton,  Illinois  (1906);  C.  C. 
Miller,  Forty  Years  Among  the  Bees,  G.  W.  York 
&  Co.,  Chicago  (1902);  Miner,  The  American  Bee- 
keepers' Manual,  C  M.  Saxton.  fourth  edition 
(1R51);  T.  G.  Newman,  Bees  and  Honey.  The 
Author.  Chicago  (1892):  J.  Phin.  A  Dictionarv  of 
Bee-keepers' Terms.  The  Author,  Xew  York  (li^); 
Moees  Quinby,  The  New  Bee-keeping,  or  The 
Mysteries  of  Bee-keeping  Explained.  Bevised  by  L. 
C.  Root,  New  York  (ll)0;i);  A.  1.  Root,  The  A  B  C 
of  Bee  Culture,  The  A.  I.  Root  Companv.  Medina, 
Ohio  (1907);  G.  L  Tinker,  Bee-ki-eping  for  Profit, 
The  Author,  New  Phila-ielphia.  Ohio  (18.S0):  M.  D. 
Thacher,  Bee-keeping.  Marsh  and  Capen,  Boston 
(18291;  Dr.  H.  and  I'hii  Von  Ihering.  Bulletin  of 
the  Maaeu  Paulista,  Sao  Paulo.  Brazil,  1903,  1904, 
and  \dOr-\,  on  the  bees  of  S'^uth  America  and  the 
honey-gathering  wasps — the  first  real  attempt  to 
gr.-ipple  with  the  lifu-hieturies  of  the  Mctiponia, 
trignna  and  kSraxnua  bees  of  that  continent. 
Among  the  magazinea  devoted  to  bee-keeping  may 
be  m^'iiliuiied  The  American  Bee  Journal  (Chicago); 
Gleanings  in  Bn-e  Culture  (Medina,  Ohio);  The  Bee- 
keeper's Review  (Flint.  Michigan);  Canadian  Bee 
Journal  (Brnntford.  OntariD);  .■^meric'in  Bet-keeper 
(Fort  Pierce,  Florida*.  See  al«i  various  govern- 
mental pnblicatinns.  as  Frank  Benton's  Honey-Rec, 
I'nited  Statoj*  Dppjirtment  of  Agriculturo  (1899); 
Ali»ii  a  valunlile  phamphlet  on  "tiuwen-rearing,"  by 
Phillips;  and  another (m  foul  lirood.  entitled  "Bac- 
teria of  the  Apiary,"  isaue4l  in  1907. 


i 


put*  Vn.    VsTious  fonBS  of  cattala 


BISOK 


BISON 


287 


BISON  AND  CATTALO.   Fi^s.  3^-326.  Plates  I 
and  VII. 

Th«  ^nus  Bison  of  the  bovine  family  includes 
the  American  hiann,  MmmonlycalltMi  "btitralo,"ani3 
the    Kuruiiciti   aurnchn    {ftis»m  tiomimji),  l(>i;elher 
with  c^rbriia  t*xtinct  M|ii?cit!S.     ItimjriK  aiv  iliMtin- 
gnisfanl  frum  diimeatic  caltl«  chiufly  by  llit'ir  Kivat 
■iae,  maaaive  f'jnf-quurtors,  and  eiiaRRy  appearance. 
The  head  is  tiroad  and  carries 
ahort,  stronf;  hiims  that  corve 
upward    and    inward    from  the       -  ^^,  ,  ,  -  -. 
gidesnf  the  forehead.  The  heavy. 
li)W-carripd  head  i.s  Hup[M>rted  by 
Blronp  musclt'ji  attucheil  ti>  spe- 
cial vertebral  proccntwy  that  ns«  !  j 
on  tbe  bock  over  the  «hoalders.    -.  ,-    Hj 

These  muac lea  give  the  nock  ita         y'r. 

hcavintSM.  The  forc-iiuarterBare         ""*" 

higher  than  the  hind-quartera,        •'*•*"■ 

whi<Th  are  comparativirly  light, 

The  tail  is  short.  The  ciint  f«n- 

aiifts  lai^ely  of  Hhurt,  curled, 

crisp   "wwl."    It  ia  Bhairgiost 

about  thti   head   and  shoulders. 

The  face  ia  heavily  covered,  and 

the  eyes  nearly  \mt ;  a  great 

beArd  falls  from  the  thmnt  and       .f.^'f.''^'vy*'-^^ 

chin.  The  heavy  gTHjwth  of  iiiir 

continues  back  nvtr  tht-  Pf  <  '  ,  ,  ' 

shoaldera  and  for  '^f'/-^''%*.  ^" 

ally    in    the    bull  :  i  . 

weifrbta  for  maturo  unini;i[.H  arc 

given  as  l.OOt)  to  ],200  pounds  for  cows  and  1,800 

to  2,000  pounds  in  Imlls.   This  indicatea  that  the 

COW!)  are  much  Icdh  Ena3sivu  than  tbe  bulU. 

Bneding. 

In  ita  wild  atatc.  the  bison  was  gregarious, 
traveling  and  feeding  in  small  cotnpanica.  At  the 
rutting  period,  by  common  con.sent.  great  numWrs 
of  the^  scattered  bands  came  together  in  one  vast 
herd.  The  mating  season  occurre<]  in  July,  August 
and  September,  when  the  herds  were  on  their  summer 
pasture  and  in  the  bust  of  condition.  At  this  time 
tbere  was  a  fierce  straggle  for  suprcmacv  among 
the  bulls,  and  the  breeding  wa»  accompltened  only 
by  the  stronge^tt.  The  period  of  gestation  ia  about 
nine  months,  the  offspring,  usually  a  aingte  calf, 
coming  In  the  spring.  The  American  bixon  will 
breed  in  captivity,  and  i^  fairly  prolific.  &>me  bisnn 
cows  will  produce  a  calf  every  year,  while,  with 
many  otbera,  every  other  year  ia  the  rule. 

BiaoQ.     BitoA   Umtf  Linn.    (Bum   Amerifanitt, 
Gmelin).   BoviAe. 

By  B,  H.  Hnunea. 

At  present,  the  bison  has  his  strongest  hold  on 
tbe  Americao  people  by  reaaon  of  his  historic 
interest.  He  stands  out  in  bold  relief  against  the 
moat  pictureaqoe  background  the  history  of  our 
country  affords.  He  is  associated  with  the  Indians, 
with  the  early  explorers  and  settlers  of  this  conti- 
nent -with  many  poetic  and  many  dramatic  scenes. 


such  as  may  never  he  witnenAed  again.  He  is  and 
always,  must  lie  the  lemling  animal  character  in  the 
story  of  America's  early  days,  and  for  this  fact 
alone  the  still-remaining  remnant  of  his  once 
mighty  racesliould  he  carefully  preserved. 

Of  the  agricultural  value  of  the  bison,  however, 
comparatively  little  ha-s  lieen  said,  probably  becauiw 
VL-ry  little  is  known.  Indeed,  it  is  surprising  that 
ao  little  attention  hm  been  given  to  the  commer- 


'.y^ 


Fic.  il*.     Till!  Aini-iiaui  Blfoa. 


cial  uses  of  an  animal  so  large,  ao  very  clueely 
nliit^  to  our  domestic  cattle,  and  which  is  known 
to  huve  been  for  centurios  the  chief  source  of  food, 
clothing  and  shelter  for  hnndrcds  of  thousands  of 
Indianit.  Information  on  thi.^  snbject  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  writer  is  very  meager,  yet  it  tends 
to  show  that,  in  the  hands  of  intelligent,  pro* 
grpiwive  cattle-men  and  farm«r«,  the  bison  might 
became  of  consiiJenible  agriculturut  value. 

For  roUs  and  umU. 

Undoubtedly  tbe  bison  product  best  known  and 
most  thoroughly  tested  is  the  pelt  or  "robe." 
Twenty-fivo  yi?ar8  ago,  when  the  great  massacres 
had  almost  exterminated  tbe  animal,  there  were 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  these  skins  in  use.  Great 
num))«rH  were  mad^  into  carriage  robcia.  and  a 
few  of  these,  usually  much  worn,  may  still  be  seen. 
The  writer  has  never  met  any  one  who  has  used  a 
bison  robe  who  did  not  speak  warmly  in  its  praise ; 
and  he  has  repeatedly  heen'awured  by  proprietors 
of  li very-stables  and  others  who  have  had  wide 
experience  in  such  matters  that,  since  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  bison  hide  from  the  market,  they 
have  never  m-en  ila  equn!  as  a  winter  carriage 
rol>c.  Perhaps  because  of  its  once  great  popularity, 
it*  name  sur^ivea  in  many  places  where  today  a 
winter  carriage  robe  of  any  kind  is  referred  to  as 
a  "  buffalo. "  The  prices  adied  today  for"bnffHlo 
robes"  in  good  condition,  osaally  range  from  $00  to 
1200.  according  tu  ^ize  and  general  appearance. 

The  uae  of  the  bison  skin  as  a  heavv  winter  over* 


288 


BISON 


BI30K 


coat  wofl  aUo  jmportaDt.  The  writer  ift  acquainted 
with  a  man  who  ift  weariaK  a  t>iKon  abter  aaid  to 
har«  been  In  u»«  every  season  for  twenty  yean. 
Tht;  h»ir  tx  wurn  iitF  in  many  places,  but  its  owner 
dtuutly  ili*clarua  that  there  is  yet  ten  years'  wear 
in  the  garmotit. 

For  meat. 

It  i^  BeMom  that  one  has  an  opportunity  to  teat 
the  quality  nf  birwn  Reith.  but  the  excellence  of  this 
product  haa  been  ttj^tified  to  by  so  many  pereoos 
in  llmea  pa«t  that  thuri)  stK^nu  little  n*a^n  to  donbt 
it.  By  reason  of  tho  peculiar  conformation  of  the 
biaon,  no  doubt  the  cutx  taken  from  the  anterior 

f)art  of  the  b(,>dy  would  average  comparatively 
arger,  and  thont*  from  the  poaterior  part  compara- 
tively smalU«r  than  tiimil^r  cutt;  takitn  frum  clomeK- 
tic  cattl<>.  In  flavor  and  tt'xture,  Iriitoii  m«iit  is  said 
to  be  indtHtintiuishahle  from  onlinary  beef.  Occaa- 
ionully  it  ia  At>(<n  in  ea«t«rni  markt-ts,  and  the  nltra- 
faabionabk-  sometimes  pay  one  to  two  dollars  a 
pound  for  choice  cuts  for  their  holiday  menus. 

For  vsool. 

Attemptfl  were  made  to  ntilizij  biHon  wool,  but 
th«  failure  of  the  supply  of  raw  material  put  an 
enJ  to  experimeiitt!  in  thiit  direction.  Ae  \&  well- 
known,  bison  gmw  a  vnry  heavy  winter  coat,  which 
is  ahinl  in  patches  durijiR  the  following  epring  and 
Hnrnmer.  This  coat  consitttfi  chiflly  itf  brown  wrtni, 
whii-b,  if  profwrly  clippie],  would  probably  prove  a 
valuabla  prwiuct.  In  IftO'i,  tbe  wril«r  cullecled 
suine  of  this  wool,  and  fluhmittud  it  to  several 
woolen  manufacturers,  all  of  whom  were  keenly 
interested.  One  of  them  hait  the  material  thoraQghly 
tented  in  hin  milK  with  the  result  that  he  found  it 
atronger,  griubt  fur  gradi:',  than  Hheop'is  wool,  and 
that  it  felted  beautifully,  which  hi.s  foreman 
hail  aft»ur»d  him  it  would  not  do.  Thin  miintifac- 
turemxpriMwed  thuopinioa  that  if  bi»uu  wool  could 
be  Secured  it  would  firr  a  Limu  demand  a  vmry  high 
price  aaa  novelty,  and  that  afterward,  if  it  proved 
durable,  there  weuld  be  a  gooil  market  for  it,  for 
the  manufacture  of  gloves,  stnckingK  and  other 
articW  not  retiuiring  to  be  dyei)  the  lighter, 
brighter  colors. 

It  is  likely  that  the  be^t  method  of  shearing  a 
bison  would  differ  somewhat  from  the  miiitlKHh  now 
employiM]  in  shearing  Bheep,  but  that  the  o^ieratiun 
would  present  no  Herion»  problems  to  an  a[>-t<Hlate 
cattltr-man,  ia  reaaonabty  certain. 

For  draft. 

That  bison  can  tie  broken  to  the  yoke,  if  taken 
young,  is  a  fact  that  liaa  been  demonstrate*!  fre- 
quently. The  writer  has  a  team  of  bison  oxen, 
which  he  reared  on  cow's  milk  from  the  age  of 
three  weeks,  and  which  now,  at  the  age  of  three 
years,  are  Btill  tractable  in  yoke  nr  harness.  They 
were  not  ito  easy  t«i  break  «a  domestic  steers,  hut 
are  rapabltj  of  much  greater  «pee<l,  and  are  prob- 
ably atnJMger,  weight  for  weight.  Theni  is  no 
doubt  that,  ut  any  work  in  which  the  chief  rmjui- 
aiti."a  are  speed  anil  endurance,  bisyn  would  prove 
niacb  snperior  to  domestic  oxen. 


Rearing. 

The  "artifKial"  rearing  of  bison  calves  b  a  simple 
matter,  if  they  are  taken  from  their  mothers  when 
not  more  than  two  weeks  old.  They  will  siKk  a 
domestic  cow,  er  drink  from  a  bottle,  a  pail,  or  an 
ordinary  calf-feeder.  One  fairly  good  fresh  cow 
will  supply  milk  enongb  for  two  bison  calves. 

Mo^t  ot  the  calves  ar«  bom  in  April  and  May. 
They  are  remarkably  strong  aod  vigorous,  aad 
within  a  few  minute«  are  ready  to  fight  if  inter- 
ferod  with.  They  are  tawny  reddish  in  color,  the 
shade  varying  greatly  in  diferent  individuals.  In 
tbe  coarse  of  a  few  weeks,  dark  brown  hair  is 
seoQ  replacing  the  natal  fur  in  places,  often  on  tbe 
face  and  in  a  line  down  the  middle  of  the  back. 
Ity  the  end  of  the  aummer  all  but  the  lata  calrea 
are  clotbei]  completely  in  tbe  dark  brown  pelage 
of  the  adult  animal. 

On  the  range,  buffalo  calves  snck  their  motheni 
for  the  greater  part  of  a  year.  In  the  Corbin 
Game  IVaserve,  in  New  Hampehire.  tbe  writer  has 
watched  them  nursing  until  Decemlier,  at  which 
time  they  are  separated  and  yarded  for  the  winter. 
It  ifi  not  unlikely  that  thix  accountK,  at  least  in 
part,  for  tha  fact  that  their  mothers  sometimes 
come  in  poor  and  thin  and  purhap«  unfit  for  ser- 
vii^o  the  following  summur.  It  occurred  to  the 
writer  that,  if  tho  calves  were  weaned  as  domestic 
calvefi  are  weaned,  the  cows  would  proluibly  pro- 
duce offspring  practically  every  year,  which  is  not 
tbe  rule  at  present,  although  some  cows  do,  even 
under  exlMting  conditions,  pnxluce  a  calf  every 
spring  for  several  years  in  succettsion. 

Although  so  fond  of  milk,  the  little  fellows 
begin  to  sniff  at  and  nibble  the  grass  bliades  within 
fortj'-eight  hours  after  they  are  born.  They  are 
much  wilder  than  domestic  cilves.  and,  if  weaned, 
care  must  he  taken  that  they  do  not  injure  them- 
selves. One  of  a  number  of  calvea  weaned  by  the 
writer  leaptvl  against  a  fence  ]nist  and  broke  a 
fore-leg.  Such  aueidents  can  Iw  avoided  by  keep- 
ing  the  youngsters  in  pens  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
square  with  solid  board  wulb*,  for  a  few  days  until 
they  get  at^od  to  the  preeenco  of  those  who  are  to 
care  for  them. 

Ah  is  well  known,  the  binnn  can  thrive  with  con- 
ditions undi'r  which  domestic  cattle  would  perish. 
HU  warm  roI»e  as  well  as  his  general  conformation 
enable  him  to  weather  atorma  and  low  tempera- 
tures which  would  bu  fatal  to  range  cattle.  He 
can  also  forage  for  himself  under  very  trying  con- 
ditions, [n  a  climate  like  that  of  New  Hampshire, 
however,  where  the  ground  is  apt  tn  be  covered 
with  deep  snow  from  Ndvember  until  March,  they 
rM]uire  feetling  for  »lx>ut  fiv«  muntlui  in  the  year. 
In  the  Corbin  Preserve,  where,  at  this  writing, 
April  1,  lyOK,  there  id  a  heni  of  137  head,  the  ani- 
mals are  yarded  during  the  winter  and  early 
spring,  and  foil  on  hay.  According  to  William 
Morrison,  who  has  had  charge  of  this  henl  for 
many  years,  a  calf  in  its  firHt  winter  conaumea 
about  half  a  ton  of  hay.  Rach  succeeding  winter, 
he  states,  it  ents  abnut  half  a  t«n  more,  until  a 
maximum  of  three  tiitia  is  reached.  No  other  food 
whatever  ij»  given,  but  ronning  water  tsaoeeasible 


BISOK 


2Bft 


at  all  timeii.  For  full  informution  on  this  subject, 
the  reader  U  refeirei]  to  an  artick  entitle-.!  "  A 
Great  UulTalo  Herd  in  Winter  liuart«r8/'  published 
in  "Suburban  Life,"  Kebruary,  1906. 

BiaoD,  however,  will  &at  almost  anything  that 
domeatic  cattle  are  fond  of.  The  writer  has  tri^ 
them  with  corn  meal,  "mid<[linK»"and  raixed  feed, 
ind  thi^y  not  only  atu  what  wad  f^ivon  them  but 
would  walk  into  the  barn  and  ateal  the  food  at 
every  opportunity. 

Biflon  naturally  are  not  vidoua  animals,  though 
now  and  theti  a  bull  develop?  a  bad  t«mper,  and 
many  of  the  cows  are  very  waspinh  wh,«n  their 
calrcB  are  young.  However,  thoimanda  of  viftitors 
pasB  throutch  the  Corbin  rret^erva  vvury  tiuninier, 
often  close  to  the  herd,  and,  from  first  to  \mt,  hun- 
dreds of  men  bare  been  employed  there,  yet,  with 
one  alight  exception,  no  one  had  ever  been  injured 
by  a  buon.    The  exception  occarrod  some  yeara 


Cattalo. 

The  cattalo  la  a  hybrid  between  tha  native  bison 
and  the  domestic  cow.  The  bison  is  the  one  nativi) 
.American  quadruped  that  gives  promise  of  con- 
tributing any  important  ohnre  to  agriculture  ;  and 
even  thia  noble  animal  ha:*  not  yet  been  donieati- 
rated  or  bred  for  aKricultara)  purjKtses.  He  i^  now 
u  park  animal.  The  moist  pr»mi^ing  attemptH  yet 
made  to  prej!<?rve  the  biiwn  in  any  economic  rela- 
tion is  by  combining  his  btood  with  that  of  domcft- 
tjc  cows.  Even  this  experiment  has  not  yet  gone 
far  enough  to  enable  uh  to  arrive  at  anything  like 
a  conclusion  as  to  the  ultimate  merits  of  the 
hybrid8.  The  exwrimenta  havt>  been  «;cattered, 
mostly  haphazard,  and  all  of  thum  without  real 
scientific  study  and  control.  Under  such  conditions 
It  is  nut  strange  that  there  are  the  most  diverse 
opinions  re«pecting   the   future  of   tht»  race  of 


m\i:<' 


T'\ 


iJ-- 


l 


'«-. 


'if, 


'i^-n. 


■*>.'r^'-^ 


^5s-, 


'■■>; 


Hf .  lis.    CattalM.    One-bait  UaUoitm  on  left,  irllh  h«r  thrae-fiinrths  eM  fn  the  forpcronnd;  tn  lb*  mlddi«,  %  ponllily 
OB^halt  eowi  ABi),  iMrond  M)d  Abore  th«  calf,  k  tbrM-fomihi  torn. 


ago.  {q  the  bison  vards,  when  a  cow,  in  defence  of 
bar  newly-bom  calf,  chased  William  Morrison,  and, 
u  he  was  retreating  «ver  tha  fiance,  pinned  his 
leg  to  the  boards*.  It  should  be  a<lih^  that  this 
nuin  is  in  the  habit  of  taking  unnecessary  risks, 
and  that  the  writer  ha.4  knoMrn  him  to  be  more 
seriously  injured  by  other  kind.'^  of  animals. 

Among  the  goml  points  looked  frir  in  an  adult 
pure-blood  bison  bull,  may  be  mentioned,  great 
neight  of  hump,  massive  frimt,  broad  fort-head 
wUn  deeply -curved  horns,  which  should  l>a  of  great 
diameter  at  the  hasu  and  U^ier  rapidly  to  a  pi^int, 
and  a  short  tjiil.  The  spai-e  betwi^i-n  the  horns 
should  be  filleil  with  long,  hlai^k  hair,  which  will 
sometimes  atmoHt  }ii<le  the  horns  tliemselves.  A 
kaavy  growth  of  similar  hair  un  the  furt^-legs  also 
adds  (greatly  to  his  appearance.  Thu  amount  of 
hair  will  vary  from  year  to  year,  uvL-n  in  the  same 
individual,  but  the  more  there  is  the  handsomer  he 
will  he. 

The  bison  cow  is  not  nearly  so  fine-looking  a» 
the  bull.  Hnr  hump  is  not  so  high,  and  unually 
she  presents  a  much  luss  shaggy  appearance.  Her 
horns  are  mnch  smaller  at  the  base  and  taper  much 
mora  gradually. 

C  19 


animals.  Many  olstaolea  bave  developed  in  the 
breeding  of  thiwe  hybrids,  but  the  diflicullies  wiH 
probably  not  jmive  to  l>e  insurmtmntabiw  when  wb 
once  come  to  study  the  subjuct  carefully,  on  the 
basis  of  well-planned  experiments.  It  will  bo  rather 
an  economic  question,  whether  they  will  be  really 
of  sufficient  Hiii>eriority  tn  commi^n  cattle  in  any 
rosfKact  to  mnke  their  breeding  wnrtH  while. 

The  chief  prospectivo  value  of  the  caltalo  Is  as 
a  range  animal,  nnder  conditions  in  which  common 
cattle  do  not  thrive.  Some  persons  think  tbat,  with 
the  passing  of  the  unfence^  ranges,  the  ui>«fulneM 
of  thocattalo  will  be  small.  Others,  however,  think 
that  the  cattalo  may  compete  with  cuttle  in  con- 
ditions under  which  cattle  thrive,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  ^-alnable  robes  and  of  a  greater  quantity  of 
moat.  U  is  probablij  that  the  animal  will  be  adapt- 
able and  valuable  chiefly  in  inhtrspitaMe  places 
where  cattle  yield  small  returns,  and  in  the  larger 
half-wild  ranching  of  the  West  and  North. 

There  iii  no  recognize*!  or  authoriUitive  spelling 
of  the  won!  that  d«fiignatcs  this  group  of  hybrid 
animals.  Such  combinations  as  cattle,  cattloe, 
catalo,  catalow,  cattalow.  caltelo,  are  more  or  leM 
used.  The  name,  under  any  spelling,  is  yet  unknown 


290 


BISON 


BISOX 


to  the  lexicons  and  enc; doped  ias.  It  is  now  pro- 
powd  to  adopt  the  speltiDg  cattnfn,  ai  being  tiest  in 
form,  most  cnnformable  to  the  twn  wfirriH  from 
which  it  comea<cattle  ami  bulfjiln),  ami  perhajw  more 
euphonious.  This  wonl  is  hitrnuHticI  to  ilesignateall 
hybrids  of  bison  and  cattltr  of  whatever  blood  and 


^v, 


i^^Se^ 


1 


^'  ^^ 


PIC.  32b.    At  top.  A  biMB  bull:   a  Cilloway  cow:  4  diiMt 
bybrld  betweea  «  blMS  bull  uul  t  GaUowat  cow. 

whichever  parental  way  the  cmaa  is  rnudc.    The 
a<:ceTit  tn  on  the  Brat  (tyllablt-,  as  in  huffaK 

There  are  no  rvcoKni/A'd  authoritative-  sources  of 
information  on  the  caltalo.  The  followin;;  fart* 
have  been  gleaned  by  the  Kditor  from  an  ustunaivo 
correspondence  and  inqairy  on  the  subject. 

The  cattiilo  is  characteriuNl  by  large  atse,  being 
heavier  than  either  race  from  which  it  comes, 
Kreat  hardinesa,  and  rather  remarkable  feeding 
qualities.  It  is  alao  aaid  to  be  gentle  »nd  easily 
handled.   Individuals  vary  greatly  in  furm ;  Bqjne  of 


the  half-bredi;  are  Ptraifrht  on  the  back  and  as 
square  as  Shorthorns,  while  perhaps  50  percent 
will  have  half  humps  and  resemble  the  biKon  in 
j^eneral  conformation.  The  c*>lor  dependa  somtwhat 
on  the  parentage.  Cros^d  with  Gallowav  or  Aber- 
deen-Angus cows,  the  hybrids  come  eitter  brown 
after  the  bison,  or  black,  after  the  mother,  more 
commonly  the  latter.  .\  small  percentage  come 
perfectly  brown.  The  "fur"  la  more  dense  than  that 
of  the  biaon.  particularly  on  the  three-fourths  and 
Beven-eightbfl  bison  hybrids ;  and.  instead  of  the 
shaggy  shoulders,  tlie  fur  is  e<iDatly  distributed, 
being  nearly  as  long  on  the  rump  as  on  the 
shoulders.  It  is  a  beautiful  gloasy  coat,  said  by 
aome  persons  to  be  more  handsome  than  the  coat 
of  the  pure-blood  bison.  The  cattalo  has  the  voice 
of  the  bwon. 

The  hardinefis  of  cattatos  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  they  can  livt*  entirely  in  the  open,  winter 
tnd  summer,  with  no  feed  but  grafts.  In  the  winter 
thay  dig  in  the  snow  for  ftiod.  Especially  note- 
worthy is  the  fact  that  they  face  storms  and  bli£> 
zards,  and  nev&r  leave  the  plains  to  seek  shelter ; 
hence,  atorms  will  not  drift  them.  They  can  thrive 
without  water  for  three  days  at  a  time,  so  that 
they  can  herd  at  a  distance  from  atredtma.  They 
hetd  in  droves  instead  of  separating  as  do  domestic 
cattle. 

From  a  very  early  date  it  has  been  known  that 
the  Ameriijan  bison  could  be  dome-sticated.  As 
early  an  1701,  according  to  Ilornaday  (The  Kxter- 
minatiou  of  ihv  .\merican  nison,  Smithsonian  Re- 
port, 18871,  the  Ilugui'imt  sc-ttlers  at  .Manikintown, 
on  the  Jamea  river,  a  few  miles  above  Richmond, 
began  to  domesticate  bi.son.  In  1786,  or  thero- 
abnuts.  bison  were  dome.xticated  and  bred  in  cap- 
tivity in  Virginia,  and  it  i«  said  that  in  st^me  of  the 
northwestern  counlies  the  mixed  breeil  or  hybrid 
va»  C(»mm<m.  In  IKlri,  a  M;rii»i  of  u.\perimentK  in 
croas-breeding  the  biKon  and  domu^tic  cattlu  waa 
begun  by  Robert  Wicklitfcof  Lexington,  Kentucky, 
and  continued  by  him  for  nuarly  thirty  years.  In 
1S77,  S.  L.  Iledson.  of  Stony  Mountain,  Manitoba, 
secured  a  young  bison  hull  and  fmir  heifer  cilven. 
with  which  he  later  iindertmik  t<i  produce  hybrids 
on  difmuBtic  cattle.  In  1S.S0.  Charles  (Uiodninht,  of 
Goodnight,  Te.\as,  rojMsd  foiir  bison  cjilves  from  the 
scattering  wild  herds,  which  he  raised  and  bred  on 
domestic  cattle.  From  this  start  he  now  has  M;venty 
head,  and  during  this  time  he  has  di^)>»)ed  of  about 
twenty-five  or  thirty  head.  In  ISSTi.  he  began 
crosning  bison  bulls  with  Abvrdwn-Angus  cows. 
In  18&5,  C.  J.  Jonett,  of  Topeka,  Kansas,  who  has 
bttin  recognizod  as  a  leader  in  the  eiforts  toeetab- 
lish  the  cattaio,  purchaited  his  first  hybrid  cahes 
in  .Manitoba.  Tfaeae  are  still  alive.  In  1887,  the 
first  hybrid  calved  were  born  In  hiA  herd.  Itoth 
Goixlnight  and  Jonea  have  continued  their  efforu 
to  the  present  time.  The  nuccens  atiain«l  by  thetm 
early  breeders  in  wrtiring  what  seemed  to  be  a 
valuable  hybrid,  leil  many  (xTsum!  tti  take  op  tho 
ex|H-riment,  and  t<Hlay  efFiirtx  aru  being  made  in 
many  pnrtti  of  Canada  and  the  United  I^tates. 


BISON 


BISON 


291 


The  Biatigtici*  of  bifion  and  cattaloa  as  recently 
coin|>]et«<l  by  Dr.  Hornaday  are  as  follows  : 

AuatfAX  BtHtix,  or  Purb  Blck)1>. 


Ctpdm    in    Uw 

United  States  . 
C«ptiT«laCiuiEUJs 

Total  in  America 
CaptivQ  in  BurofM 

Total  in  captivity 

Wild  tiiMi)  (n  Ibe 
UDit«iJ  SUt«s, 
«t(tiinii(4iil    .    . 

Wild  tMHun  in  Can- 
ada, ualimatcd. 

Total  pore- blood 
biaon.  Jan.  I, 
1908        ... 

Number  of  own- 
era  nt  pure- 
bloixt  bison,  in 
America  .  .  . 

Ninnber  of  ^wn- 
«s  nf  pure- 
blood  btflOD,  in 
Emgw. 


MoiM  !f«i»i-.  ji'jjs; 


fi06 
2U 


610 
262 


203 
08 


77* 


MS    I  S2& 


Ti>Ul    M«^,.n„ 
I.  BKW       ^"™ 


1,116 
476 


1,5S2 

180 


1.722 


2,0.17 


45 


1,010 
109 

lim 


19 


BlSCM-DoiaBnC  BYBUDB,  or  CATTALOa 


In  the  IToit^d  Sut«8  .   .   . 

Id  Cuisdii 

la  Kiirop* 

Total  01  JaHU7  1,  1906  . 


Ithxi 


281 


Bretdiny. 

The  object  of  the  breeders  of  caltalos  seems  to 
have  b«en  to  preserve  the  hardiness  and  rustling 
qnalitieaor  the  bistm  inHnanimnl  that  would  eusily 
be  dnneBticattid  amJ  wuuli)  yield  a  lar^e  quantity 
of  good  meat  :  and  .it  thL>  same  tint?  to  secure  a 
TaJuablc  ptlt.  Tliu-re  is  need  fwr  a  domeattc  meat- 
producing  animal  adapted  to  etevat««]  and  cold 
n^ns,  as  in  th«>  Rocky  muiintains  and  .Maska. 
If  a  hri>4;d  of  oattalm  can  l>e  estahliahed,  it  prnm- 
ises  to  meet  the  need. 

The  early  brewlinE  effort*,  and  the  same  is 
true  in  a  measure  of  the  recent  efforts.— were 
attendt-d  with  conijidcTable  loss  and  discouragv 
mont.  The  domestic  bull  will  not  crews  on  the  pure- 
blood  bison  cow.  so  that  the  croas  is  restricted  to 
the  urn*  of  bison  bulls  on  domestic  cows.  It  wu 
dilGcuU  to  f;et  hybrid  caWes,  and  many  domestic 
oows  were  sacrificed  in  the  effort.  IIiefer»  that 
conceived,  died.  Domestic  cows  carrvinj:  a  half- 
hwA  boll  calf,  either  aborted  or  died.  .Mr.  Jones 
tstiinat«8  that  in  bis  early  experiments  he  got  one 
hybrid  to  every  thirty  cowa  bred  to  bison  bulU. 


In  189;t,  he  was  able  to  aeeure  60  per  cent  r)f  the 
calves.  Notwith-itamlinK  these,  «etbn<:kR,  the  ex- 
[H-Tinienl  has  K-en  continufd  until  thw  feai^ibility 
of  pro'lncing  ami  r^'arinR  cattalo  cows  has  been 
established.  These  hybrid  cows  am  more  prolific 
than  bison  cows,  and  breed  equally  well  to  the 
domestic  bull  and  to  the  bt.'«()n  bull.  There  seemK 
to  be  no  evidi*nce  that  fertile  hybrid  bullj^  havo 
ever  been  producwi  in  tht?  first  cross ;  and  vary 
few  infertile  ones  have  liptui  born  and  lived  as  a 
result  of  the  tir«t  cross.  The  reason  asaiKneii  to 
the  inability  of  the  dointatic  cow  to  prodnce  a 
male  bison  calf  in,  that  even  in  the  half-bred  malo 
animal,  the  spinal  proc(«8es  of  the  dorsal  verte- 
brro  are  so  high  that  the  irelvis  of  the  domHstio 
COW  d063  not  aiimit  of  their  [nissaKe  throunb.  It 
is  also  said  that  the  b<K3y  of  the  dumei^tic  cow 
"fills  op  with  wat<ir,"  es]H-'CJally  if  she  ta  fat, 
which  makes  dilRcuIt  parturition.  Ky  ernasing  tho 
half-bred  cows  hack  to  the  pure-blond  bison  boll, 
both  malt-  and  female  calves  are  pniiluced. 

Jameti  i'hilip.  of  Fort  I'ierre,  .S.  !>.,  whn  ha.**  a 
large  herd  of  bison,  says  that  sonje  of  these  %  bulls 
are  fertile,  while  a  very  larjff-  percentane  of  the  5 
bulls  are  fertile,  eilher  I  bi.wn  or  3  domestic.  Mr, 
Jones  st',iUi»  that  the  greatest  amount  of  bison 
blood  hti  has  been  able  to  jjat  in  a  fertile  bull  it*  J. 
He  hnc  not  yet  broil  his  l  and  !»  bisnn  hulls,  and 
is  unable  to  say  whether  they  are  fertile  or  nut. 
He  finds  that  about  one-third  of  the  i  bison  hybrids 
are  bulls,  while  a  liirger  porueiitajfe  arc  males  in 
the  I  \mim  hybrids ;  and  the  6amv  is  true  as  wo 
approach  the  domeatic  bull.  N.  K.  McKifisick,  of 
the  I'nion  Stock  Yards,  South  St.  Haul,  Minn.,  who 
breti  cattalo  fur  James  J.  Hill,  writes  : 

"Hybrids  brcci  among  themselves,  althnngh  they 
are  not  nearly  so  sure  brwders  as  fiilUbloiHlK  or 
hybrids  on  full-blocHls.  liy  crossing  full-blood  bison 
bulls  and  hybrids,  the  results  are  the  same  as  in 
breeding  gr»de  cows  to  a  full-blooded  sire  ;  further 
crot^ing  improves  the  grade.  Kreeding  a  dnmiwtio 
bull  with  a  bison  or  hybrid  cow  is  not  nearly  so 
successful  as  breeding  a  full-bhuxj  bisnn  bull  to 
domestic  cows,  and  it  is  only  a  .><m:ill  percentage  of 
domestic  cows  that  will  brei-d  with  bison.  In  our 
hybrids  we  had  just  about  the  same  pen,\'ntage  uf 
malwi  and  females.  I  used  a  three^uarter  hybrid 
bull  on  Mr.  Hill's  herd,  and  cannot  see  but  that 
I  got  luat  as  good  results  as  I  did  with  a  full- 
blooded  bison  bnll" 

Michael  Pablo,  of  Itonan.  Montana,  also  states 
that  the  hybrids  will  bree<l  among  th4'mReIve«.  He 
has  had  considerable  exjierience  in  handling  bison, 
and  has  delivered  400  head  of  biiwn  to  the  f'ana- 
dian  govt-mment. 

The  Mossora  Boyd  Company.  Bobcaygeon.  On- 
tario, began  a  careful  series  of  exjieriments  in 
crossing  bisitm  and  domestic  cattle,  more  psiiecially 
Aberdeen-AuguB  and  Hereford*,  in  the  year  18D4. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  to  date  wertj  pre- 
sented t-o  the  American  Itreeden^  AawcisUoo,  it 
its  fourth  annual  meeting  in  January.  1908.  The 
following  extract  is  made  from  that  report:  "I 
would  tentatively  list  tho  following  characters  as 
dominant:    The  whole    body -color  of   the  bison; 


2H2 


BISOX 


BLTFAI^ 


the  whitd  face  of  the  HerefM'd ;  the  polled  head 
of  tht}  Au^s :  the  hump  of  the  binon,  dominant 
but  AuTDcwhut  modified  ;  the  width  uf  Ihu  tiJnd- 
quartera  of  the  beof  breeds;  the  width  in  front 
of  the  beef  breeds ;  the  voice  of  the  bigon.  Aa  to 
whether  the  period  of  gttstation  in  the  bison  differs 
in  length  from  that  of  the  domestic  cow.  I  do  not 
know,  but  in  the  case  of  thirty-nine  sQcceHsfal 
hybrid  births,  the  time  varied  from  244  to  277 
day;!,  with  .in  average  of  264  day!),  which  is  an 
ordinary  period  for  th^  domoMtic  Ci^w.  although 
somewhut  shorter  than  the  awrage. 

*' Thirty  calves  of  the  second  (jeneration  com- 
prisiid  twelve  bulla  and  eijfhtwn  furaalfs,  or  40 
par  cunt  bulla,  oa  comparej  with  15J  per  cent  bulls 
in  tlio  first  LTosa.  iSome  of  these  calv<^8  were  aired 
by  domestic  bulls,  and  are  consequently  oni>-fiu.irter 
bison;  others  were  flirw!  by  pure  biaon  bull*,  and 
are  therefore  three-quarti*rii  bison,  Th(^  ontMiuar- 
ter  and  thri'i>-i|U,'irter«  bison  are  mark^^dlydifferent 
from  the  half-bloiHla,  The  onL'-<!iiarti.T  bison  very 
mufh  rusenilile  domestic  cattle,  and  the  three-quar- 
ter Li-soni  are  nearly  like  pare  bison." 

TliL-ru  Lrt  differunce  of  opinion  among  breeders  as 
to  how  long  the  bison  characters  will  hold  when 
the  hybrid  cows  are  bred  to  domestic  bulln.  Mr. 
Pablo  thinkn  thnt  if  the  dom.'iitic  bnll  ii^  OReil  on  the 
third  generation  tho  birttm  character  will  largely 
disappear.  Some  of  Mr.  Gooilnij^ht'it  nnimali^,  with 
Only  untMiiKhth  bison  blmid,  showed  btaun  charac- 
tern.  Othtfrs  tliink  Lluit  four  or  five  crosses  would 
bu  necc«iiary  to  eliminate  thu  binon  chariLcterx. 

Tho  best  results  seem  to  follow  the  use  of  Gallo- 
way nad  Aherduen-Angos  cows  for  crossing  with 
bison  buHs,  Hereford  and  Shorthorn  cows  have 
been  ust'd,  but  with  li'ss  natisfactitry  reKulla.  A 
good  TinHalt  of  chousing  the  solid  black  cows  is  that 
tha  hyhridfl  huve  a  rich  djirk  coat  without  Htreabt. 

Tho  distribution  of  tho  effort  to  breed  cnttaloH 
tH  very  wide.  Tho  lar^iest  number  of  hybrids  are 
to  be  found  in  Mont:m;i,  Texiut,  Arizona,  ('nlifornia, 
South  l>aWota.  Ontario,  Minni>i4uta  and  Oklahoma. 
They  are  reiinwented  by  (jrwater  or  It'fw  num- 
bers in  Iowa,  MiehJKan,  New  York,  North  Dakotfi, 
Allmrta,  Utah.  Wyoming  and  Queboc.  They  are  also 
to  bo  found  in  Enjcland  and  Russia. 

Finding  and  care. 

The  cattalo  requires  little  feeiling  or  attention, 
and  will  make  more  rapid  tfains  on  the  same  food 
than  will  domeotic  cattle.  It  rKquifL's  nu  sht-lLer, 
winter  or  auramur.  Ordinarily,  no  artificial  feedinR 
fs  ncctwsary.  Tli«  eattalo  hna  very  thorouKb  dijit-s- 
tion  ;  m  a  ruault,  the  manure  in  said  to  be  of  tittle 
value.  One  of  the  greatest  diflicalttcd  in  breeding 
cattalos  is  that  they  are  usually  too  fat. 

Ute. 

Far  rohfs. — There  seems  tti  hi'  no  difference  of 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  excellence  of  the  robe 
from  a  eattalo,  eflpectally  when  the  cro&s  has  been 
made  with  a  black  domestic  cow.  The  r*)be  is  rich 
and  glossy,  largo  and  durable,  and  commands  a 


high  price  on  the  market,  perhaps  twice  as  much 
as  a  "buffalo"'  robe.  The  "fur"  or  hair  ia  of  a 
soft  and  pleasing  texture.  The  value  of  the  hidt-f 
varies  from  $75  to  $"200.  and  may  be  more. 

For  mmt.—Thv  meat  from  the  eattalo  is  said  lo 
be  excellent  and  to  resemble  domestic  btn^f  some- 
what closely.  Tho  carcaaa  is  hea^-y,  and  the  oalvGB 
fatten  sery  readily.  The  meat  brinjfs  a  hiith  price, 
sometimes  selling  at  $1.2-')  to  $2  per  pound  by  the 
qn-irter.  Jamefl  Philip  reports  the  sale  of  a  eattalo, 
which  ilrassed  ovur  900  [munds  of  excellent  beef. 

BUFPAtO  or  WATER-BUFFALO.  Jiuhaliu  buha- 
Jif,  Lyd.  [BiiiMihs  baffitlin,  Itlum.  /?i«  buMtu, 
Briiiv.  [itilmhtx  luif,  Watt  {tame  li.|.  liubulus 
ami,  Kwn.  ti  .Shaw  (wild  B.)].  Boruhr.  Ilulwlua 
(Latin),  Bonbalos  (Greek),  Riiffel  (CtL-rman),  BufQa 
(French),  Hhains.  Balnshalmale),  Mhains  (female) 
Arna  (wild  R.  male),  Arni  (wild  K,  female), 
(Hindu),  M>.>onding  (.'^oudan),  Karbo  or  Karbou 
(Malay),  Carabao  (Philippines).  Figa.  327,  328, 
Plate  VH,  VoL  I. 

By  F.  Laiiimn-Scrihner. 

The  buffalo  is  a  draft  animal  of  the  bovine 
family,  also  valued  for  its  milk,  hidi-s  and  horns. 
The  millions  of  Orientals,  whose  chief  and  often 
only  diet  is  rice,  are  largely  depeiidi-nt  on  the 
watHr-liulfalo  in  ratsini?  tht-ir  supply  of  this  cereal. 
In  fact,  this  is  tht*  only  animal  tile  natives  of  tho 
luw  and  }iumid  rtiffions  of  India.  China  and  the 
PhilippinL-»  can  utiu  tucultivatu  the  gri-at  rice-tlelds 
of  those  countries  while  covered  with  water  —  a 
system  almost  nniversnlly  practiced.  Tho  buffalo 
loves  to  wallow  in  mml  and  water,  and  its  home  is 
in  marshy  districts  and  alonj^  'h«  river-bottoms  in 
regions  iif  high  temperature  and  heavy  rainfall ; 
ami  IhiTH  it  is  as  useful  to  the  natives  as  are  the 
dromt<dary  and  came!  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  dry 
and  desert  regions  of  northern  Africa. 

DeJtrription. 

The  water-buffalo  is  the  Largest  of  the  Bovid», 
measuring,  in  the  larger  lin«Hls,  up  to  sii  and  ono- 
balf  fuct  in  height  at  the  aboulder,  and  ten  feet  in 
length  from  tliL>  muzKlu  to  the  base  of  the  tail ; 
body  well  rounded  and  large  of  girth ;  withers 
sharp  and  elevated  ;  shoiilderB  well  formed ;  hind- 
quarters less  Weil  developi'd  ;  thigh.s  thin;  bead 
ciimparativvly  sm.i!! ;  muwltt  large  and  earried  well 
forward ;  limbs  idiort  and  massive ;  horna  large 
and  much  flatt^-'ned,  or  somewhat  triangular  toward 
the  ba«L',  det-|ily  ringed,  directed  backward  or  down- 
ward, finally  curving  upwanl  or  inward  and  bedim- 
ing seimiter-shaped,  usually  very  limg,  sometimes 
attaining  tho  length  of  five  or  six  feet ;  tail  short, 
reaching  to  the  hdcks ;  akin  a  very  dark  b!ui?h  or 
grayish  black,  rarely  browniali  or  dingy  white, 
thinly  covtTL'd  with  coarse  black  hair ;  h.iir  on  the 
forehead  and  knees  more  dense  ;  young  calves  well 
covered  with  brown  hair  all  over.  "The  color  of  the 
water-buffalo  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  elephant, 
and  their  motions  are  similar;  the  rei^mblance  ii 
sn  striking  that  a  ra.'tual  view  of  a  moving  herd  of 
buffalue  suggeatB  a  roving  bund  of  elephanta. 


BTJFFAIfl 


BUFFAI/» 


293 


There  are  ot'hur  8|iwies  of  baETalo  aeide  frnm  the 
uDt;  tbttt  w  aru  now  conciidKring  and  which  is  the 
buffalu  of  hiatnry.  The  l>esl  known  othrr  sjwcio* 
is  the  African  hufTal"  {ituMug  Cq^ir),  which  18 
nnt  diomei*ticat>eci  in  American  territory.  In  Amer- 
ica the  wonl  tiufTiilo  is  curomonl;  but  erroneoasly 
applied  L»  the  bison  (which  tee). 

There  m  no  doubt,  that  tho  domestic  hrceds  origi- 
nated  from  the  wild  butfaln  «f  India,  lint  whun 
damenticAtion  began,  or  at  what  periodtt  thi^ne  ani- 
mals  first  appfjired 
in  thn  countriee 
wherp  they  arfmiw 
common,  is  doubt- 
ful or  unknown.  It 
is  sail)  that  thfv 
were  introduced 
into  Italy   in  the 


r'- 


\---'i 


*^. 


•■  ,f^\ 


1   'i' .V/;3*v"«  ^  ;^ 
Plf .  327.    BttlUlO  UW  Ud  Mil.    PhUlpplii*  iitUudi. 

tixth  ccntnry,  and  into  Egypt  some  time  prior  to 
this  period.  They  wero  in  the  I'hiMppines  when 
thuM  islarula  were  first  vtHJUid  by  thi^  8paniii.rd» ; 
hot  further  than  this,  little  iH  knnwn  of  their 
origin  or  hiKtory. 

Diatribtition, 

From  India,  where  dmall  herds  of  wild  bniFsloa 
arc  still  found  in  the  grrossy  jungiest  along  the  gjcat 
rivers  and  in  the  open  rooidt  prairies  -  the  finest 
occurinu  in  Asflam  and  Burma  —  the  domesticated 
animal  has  .oprv^ad.  in  cmnparatively  recent  timea. 
throutth  flvuthem  China,  the  Straits  Seltlementa. 
Java,  Ceylon.  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  Philippine 
islands.  To  thp  westward,  it  has  extended  to  pouth- 
we.'ftem  (\aia.  Africa,  alontf  «nd  far  up  the  Nile, 
and  t«  the  countries  of  southern  Kurope.  tireat 
noraliers  are  kept  on  th?  bottom  lands  of  the  Dan- 
ube, the  Theiss,  and  the  Drave  in  Anstria-Huncary. 
and  in  Italy,  on  the  ptalna  lying  to  the  north  and 
east  of  Naples.  In  this  last  region,  known  aa 
"Terra  di  Lavoni."  it  ij>  reported  that  there  are 
12,(XK>  buffaloB.  bred  mainly  for  their  milk  for 
cbeese'inakinf;.  The  cbeeu  i^  all  consumed  locally. 
a«  it  U  not  adapted  for  export  Small  importationa 
have  been  made  into  Algeria  and  Cape  Colony.  In 


one  importation  into  .South  .Africa,  it  is  recorded 
that  two  or  three  animalit  of  the  consignment  soon 
died  from  "heflrt-wat*jr,"  adiseast!  induce*!  by  tho 
tortoiwi-shell  tick,  common  in  Cam  Colony. 

Itutfulott,  of  what  appears  to  be  the  Jafarabadi 
variL-ly,  have  been  introduced  into  Trinidad,  South 
America,  whoro  thoy  are  nsedaa  draft  animals  and 
are  worked  entirely  by  Hindu  cooUee.  There  are 
about  thirty  of  these  huffakt*  nn  the  BUgar  estate 
of  Mr.  L.  Bert  de  I^marre,  at  Tacarigua,  and  a 
lonaller  hurrj  at  Chaguiina.  They  are  ted  the  ordi- 
narv  forage  of  tho  country,  with  tht!  addition  of  a 
little  cticonut-mea!  and  molaiiaeB ;  they  brtsed 
freely  on  both  etttatuti ;  thuy  art-  not  troubles! 
hy  ticks  or  other  insects,  and,  while  an  occa- 
sional animal  may  show  dangerous  tendencies, 
aa  a  rule  they  arf  very  docile  and  easily  man- 
aged. They  enjoy  but  do  not  seem  to  require  a 
daily  hath.  [This  information  n-Utivc  to  the  bwf- 
fslo  in  Trinida<l  has  L«en  funiifihiMl  thi;  writer  by 
0.  W.  Barrett,  of  the  United  Status  Department  of 
Agriculture.] 

Br^t  and  types. 

In  India  several  breeds  are  recognised,  but  in 
some  cases  their  charactera  do  not  ap[iear  to  Iw 
defined  very  clearly,  while  in  others  the  recogni- 
tion in  purely  local.  Walt  (Hictionary  Economic 
Products  of  India)  re^^ugnizea  the  following  five 
breeds: 

(1)  .f^^fllrahalii  or  \adhiali.  distinguished  by  the 
n-niarkably  largo  frontal  bones,  short,  broad,  mui.'^h 
Hnttened  horns,  which  are  dint^ted  sharply  back- 
wards and  downwards,  then  abruptly  upwards,  so 
that  the  points  are  turned  inward  (honm  in  the 
maW  Hometirues  eight  inches  bro:id  at  the  buse); 
hotly  very  large  and  wudl  set :  temperament  mild  ; 
cowH  noted  for  their  great  yield  of  milk. 

(2)  fiamt}ard.—Horn»  of  medium  length,  flat- 
tened, directed  backwanla.  curving  inwanla  toward 
the  tips  ;  b(Mly  low,  thick  set  and  deep  chested  ; 
hair  brown  or  dun-colored  ;  cows  giioil  milkers. 
This  is  an  excellent  variety,  Indonging  to  the 
Madra-1  breed,  and  is  found  in  the  district  lying  to 
the  tvuuthea^t  of  Madura  (Wallace). 

(3)  Oujarai,  Tulahta  or  (Uinjn!. — Much  smaller 
than  Jafarabadi  buffalos,  with  compamtively  short 
horns  ;  milk  limited  in  ((uantity  but  richer  than  in 
other  ba^eds. 

(4)  -Vriflpwr.— Horns  remarkably  long,  sweeping 
downwards  and  backwards  and  then  upwards ; 
bodies  low,  massive  and  well  itet ;  hair  black ; 
males  usually  very  large  and  used  for  hauling 
heavy  loads;  cows  excellent  milfcors.  This  bre^vi 
i»  vury  similar  to  the  long-hornefJ  Bombay  buffalo* 
and  is  probably  identical  with  that  breed, 

(5)  /Vjvani.  — Horns  of  medium  length,  dirpcte«l 
backwards,  downwards  and  then  upwards,  nearly 
in  the  form  of  a  half  circle  ;  hair  brown  or  chest- 
nut. This  breed  is  comparatively  .-(mall  and  very 
hardy.   The  cows  are  fairly  good  milkers. 

Kuudi  or  KkninU,  acconling  to  Wallace,  is  a 
namo  applied  to  a  local  breed  that  is  kept  for 
milking  parpoies  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cawnpore. 
It  is  probably  only  b  form  of  the  Jafarabadi  buffulo. 


294 


BUFFALO 


BUFFALO 


The  Madrat  bujfalu  h  a  small,  inferior  variety  i*-ith 
bonwof  medium  lenjjth,  blarle  skin  sim!  light  frrny 
hair.  CiiiifhalrM  huffalos  rc-st*nitile  iht;  Madras  lireed 
and  ar«  even  wnrae  milkura.  The  i'alUi  vnrH'ty, 
from  the  Nari:id  dwtrict,  ist  small  and  rii»t!mltlos 
tho  TaLabda,  but  is  miirB  hardy.  A  local  breed  of 
the  Southern  Maratba  country  is  lliw  Jmmri, 
medium  in  size,  with  ralhL-r  long  hnrns,  Hbin  iinti- 
ally  btnck,  but  sometimes  brywn  or  chestnut,  hair 
PBiially  dun  or  dull  white.  The  Ttida  butTnics  nf 
the  hill  diHtrict  ne-ar  liUikamund  arc  low-set,  mas- 
sivn,  lony-horiUHl  animals  noted  for  their  3U]>eri<tr 
milking  tiualities.  Fairchild  (Bulletin  No.  27, 
Bureau  Plant  Indiwtry,  United  SUt-ps  Department 
of  Agricnltnro)  refers  to  the  excellent  milking 
qnalities  of  the  Mki  buffaloa  frum  Delhi,  India, 
and  the  ShtU  variety  from  Gujarat.  Th«  furmer 
yields  ovfjr  thirty  pounds  of  miik  jier  day.  and 
sella  in  itombny  fur  $oH,  gtild ;  the  latter  yitddrf 
about  twtiiity  pounds  uf  milk  per  day  and  Hidls  at 
$S3  to  $:jg,  Koia. 

The  ditferent  breocia  of  hofTaloa  vary  in  j>ize,  the 
largest,  weighinK  1,K(.K)  to  i!,000  iwundy,  occurring 
in  Assam,  while  the  ainiillest  arc  found  in  Madras, 
where  rjcciiflinnally  theydn  notexceed  thirty  inches 
in  height  when  fnlly  grown,  and  are  correspond- 
ingly light  in  weight.  This  varintiou  isdue  largely 
to  good  cart'  and  sonne  nlttmtiori  to  correct  princi- 
plejs  of  breoding  in  the  one  case,  and  lack  of  all 
care  and  attention  in  the  other.  Envircmraynt  ha.-* 
played  an  important  part,  also,  in  the  developmt^nt 
of  the  hreeils  fw  thpy  exist  today.  The  conditions 
in  .\.HKam  are  evidently  favorable  to  large  growth 
of  bone  and  mu'Mile,  while  the  drier  and  leas  favor- 
able climate  of  Madras  haa  tendwl  toward  the  pro- 
dnction  of  a  race  of  dwarfs.  The  milking  breed.-i 
are  doubtless  the  restilt  of  long  and  careful  selec- 
tion, and  the  enormons  development  of  the  frontal 
bime  in  the  Jafarabiiili  buffalns,  so  ahnnrmally 
increiLi*id  in  some  ciwes  as  completely  to  cover  the 
eyea,  i:*  solely  the  resJult  of  artificial  fwlection  for 
the  puriwse  of  inen-asing  the  strength  of  the  skull, 
in  order  that  they  may  withstand  the  rush  of  com- 
bat. Thoiw  animals  fight  by  butting,  and  owing 
to  their  great  weight  and  enormoii.t  strength,  the 
shock  of  a  well-directed  chnrge  i.'t  terrific.  The 
backward  growth  »nd  ctirvature  of  their  horntt 
reniteni  iheae  attele^  in  thrusting  or  piercing,  and 
buffaloa  depend  an  their  immeni<ie  ramming  power 
to  stun  or  overthrow  an  adversary. 

The  wild  watcr-huffalo  is  genernlly  larger  and 
better  developed  than  the  domesticated' breeds,  with 
longer  homs,anil  isfjir  more  active  in  it*  movements; 
Aome  authors  have  trt\ited  it  n»  a  di.^tinet  .■nfie- 
cieA.  It  \a  one  of  the  mueil  formidable  and  danger- 
oas  of  the  big  game  uf  India,  ijuite  a  match  for  the 
Bengal  tiger,  and  in  a  charge  will  sometimes  over- 
throw an  elephant,  on  which  animal  buffalos  are 
hunted.  This  superiority  of  development  in  the  wild 
breed  ig  due  doubtless  to  nutur.-il  .selection,  the 
largest  and  strongest  malesdriving  awayor  killing 
the  weaker  hulLs  in  the  rutting  seaaon.  and  taking 
full  poiLtei^ion  of  the  cowii  in  their  immediate 
localities.  Wild  bulls  sometimes  invade  domestic 
herds  which  mar  U'  in  the  neighborhood  uf  their 


native  haunts,  and.  appropriating  the  females,  im- 
part their  superior  qualities  to  their  progeny.  This 
has  been  ulTered  as  an  explanation  for  the  excel- 
lence of  the  .'\iMam  buffalos  over  those  breeds  in 
rogions  far  removed  fnim  the  wild  stock.  When 
roused,  the  domeaticatijd  animal,  ordinarily  very 
ihx'ile,  lnjcomes  hardly  leas  dangerous  than  its  wild 
parent  of  the  jungles.  Formerly  th,e  Jafarabadi 
buffakuii  were  bred  to  supply  animals  to  6ght  in  the 
bull-rings  of  the  Indian  rajas. 

En  general,  it  may  be  said  that  very  little  eifort 
or  care  is  taken  to  maintain  distinct  breed*  or  to 
keep  pure  those  that  are  somewhat  clearly  defined, 
and  in  consequence  there  w  more  or  le**  confusion 
in  regard  to  their  characters  and  limitations.  Thin 
b  manifestly  theca.se  in  the  Philippines,  where  the 
bufTalo,  or  carabao,  ati  it  is  called  throughout  the 
islands,  .is  vatUMi  almost  altogether  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  cows  and  bulls  being  everywhere  worked 


FIc.  3ZI.    Cai«lMu  wlU  load  of  ilea  sttsw. 


indiscriminately.  Theru  is  no  evidence  of  any  eifort 
having  U'cn  made  to  improve  the  stock,  or  any 
recognition  of  distinction  in  breeds 

Fetiiing  and  managemenl, 

Tn  bufTalo  countries  stabling  in  little  thought  of 
and  liardly  needed,  the  animals  being  kept  in  the 
0[ien  or  under  the  shelter  of  banil^oou  or  friendly 
tr«.'i.-s,  rari'ly  under  a  root  of  any  kind.  Littlo 
att<:'ntion  is  given  to  their  fecd^  which  usually 
is  limited  to  the  coarser  grasjea  on  which  they  are 
allowed  to  graM,  with  an  occasional  feeding  of 
rice  or  "  paddy**  straw  when  iiaature  is  insufficient 
or  inaccessible.  When  graning  where  there  are 
cultivated  crops,  bulfahw  are  usually  guarded  by 
boys,  and  the  relation  bi>twi«n  tht''  beast  and  tho 
boy  ia  ofU-n  one  of  manifeM  affection,  and  some- 
times evwn  jealciusy  is  nhnwn  on  the  part  of  th« 
animal.  It  L"  acommon  sight  in  thecountry  to  kcb 
boys  sitting  on  the  backs  of  th«  bnlTalos  while  they 
are  quietly  grazing,  and  directing  the  animals  by 
the  nose-strings,  should  Ihoy  att^-nipt  to  pans  not 
of  bound.  KnfTaloR  become  much  attachi*d  to  their 
little  herders,  following  them  alw>ut  like  a  ilog,  and 
befwming  active  protectors  inciute  thny  are  exposed 
to  dangiT. 

Working  animals  are  driven  or^ided  by  a  long 
ro'pe,  that  is  fastened  to  a  ring  ia  the  no«ie.  and 
then  pa-tsed  around  the  horns  to  the  hand  of  the 
driver.  In  some  cases  the  na<)e-ring  is  omitted,  the 


BUFFALO 


BUFFALO 


rope  being  fastened  only  to  the  base  of  the  honw. 
Jerking  on  the  ro^ie,  in  ways  umiwrstood  Ijy  the 
animal,  serves  to  tlirei^t  \w  cuuriHt,  ur  hastt-a  hifi 
motionH.  BuffaltJH  are  usually  driven  single  or  tan- 
dum ;  rarely  are  they  yokExJ  in  pair^. 

In  the  middle  of  the  day.  when  the  weather  U 
hot,  baffat<«  will  lie  for  hniirs  in  pools  or  Btreams 
with  only  their  horns  wnd  faces  ahuve  the  surface. 
When  the  wat«r  ia  not  deep  emmgh  etimpletely  to 
(sivnr  their  bodie*,  they  will  dip  their  ht'ails  bnlciw 
thw  surface,  then  suddenly  raise  them,  causing  a 
stream  of  water  to  flow  over  their  exposed  bockH. 
If  kept  too  long  from  their  accnstomod  water  or 
innd  iiiith,  the  working  anim»lH  become  unmanag- 
able  and  dangemuH,  and  if  near  a  [mm>1  will  hreak 
away  from  iha  driver  and  rui^b  into  it.  If  kept  too 
long  in  the  hot  Min  away  from  watt^r,  death  of  the 
animals  may  result. 

The  bii)fa]o  m  distinctly  the  brown  and  yellow 
man's  beant  of  burden  ;  it  hits  no  friendship  for  the 
Caueusiiin,  and  instancies  are  cit*Hi  when  animals 
that  would  [M'Tmit  a!!  mannir  of  lilierties  fnim 
brown  and  nalf-naktMl  Filipinu  ehildrtn.  would 
become  excittfd  on  the  approaeh  of  a  while  man  tu 
the  point  of  attacking  him  viciuualy.  The  Ameri- 
can or  European  who  altemptit  to  drive  a  cjirabao 
may  quickly  find  the  relations  reveriwd,  and  tie 
fopeed  to  fioek  safety  in  Itight. 

Teiling  tfie  age. 

Hie  age  is  judged  by  the  condition  of  the  incinor 
teeth,  which  is  much  more  reliable  than  by  the 
number  of  ringH  on  the  home.  At  the  age  of  ten 
months  the  young  buffalo  hna  n  full  set  of  eight 
milk  incisors  in  tne  lower  jaw.  In  the  thin!  year 
the  central  pair  is  rnpla<!e<l  by  two  [lerrnaiient 
teeth ;  two  mure  permanent  toetb  appear  in  thu 
fifth  and  two  in  the  sixth  year,  tn  the  seventh 
year,  the  last  nf  the  milk  incisors  disappear,  and 
when  the  animal  in  eight  years  old  the  incisors  are 
permanent,  the  earlier  onet*  lieing  murh  worn.  .\t 
twelve  years,  thu  "uncertain  age"  has  arrivwi,  and 
beyond  this  period  it  is  impossible  to  dutormino  how 
old  the  animal  mar  be. 

UKf. 

Far  miiL;  bitltir  and  cAfyw.— Certain  brfwds  of 
buffalofl  are  mited  for  the  ahundnnee  and  richness 
of  the  milk  that  they  yield,  and  are  kept  almost 
solely  for  dairy  purjHiBes.  Such  are  the  famous 
Jafarabadi  or  Bombay  buffalo,  and  the  Talabda  or 
Gujarat.  When  well  cared  for  thL«(o  animnl.-i  will 
jieW  thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  railk.  making  one  to 
two  pounds  of  butter  [KT  day,  Tn  some  loralitie.'*, 
the  whale  milk  ia  usetl  in  manufartiiring  cheese, 
which  ta  said  to  be  of  fairly  gTKHl  quality.  The 
yield  of  milk  of  the  Italian  buffalo  cow  averages 
fourteen  liters  jk't  day  [a  liter  is  about  one  and 
three-fourths  pints],  whieh,  used  whole,  will  make 
nearly  three  kitwi  of  cheese,  The  milk  has  a  blu- 
ish tint,  and  to  the  Kuntpe.in  or  .\merican  ta.ste 
a  slightly  musky  or  insipid  flavor,  hut  it  is  rich  and 
thv  yield  per  animal  is  nearly  twiee  that  of  the 
eattlo  of  the  same  region.  Ruflahrs  milk  is  remark- 
ably rich  in  butter-fat,  amoonting  to  nearly  twice 


the  percentage  of  that  of  a  gowl  Jersey  cow.  The 
following  are  reewded  aTialyaes  of  the  milk,  the 
fimt  being  from  buffalo  caws  in  Italy,  the  second 
from  cows  in  India  : 

IlHlUn  Inill*)! 

Ppr  (*nl  Tor  «al 

WaUr 82  2  82.05 

Fat 7.95  7.99 

Cwi*in 4.1S  4.00 

ililk-«ugiLr 4.75  5.18 

Salt* 0.97  0.78 


100.00 


100.00 


All  attempts  to  raise  the  milking  breeds  of  cattle 
of  western  Kurope,  or  of  the  United  State.s,  in  the 
tropical  countries  beat  suited  tn  the  buffalo,  ha%-e 
prnwd  to  be  complete  failures.  Attempts  at  cross- 
ing huffalois  with  cattle  huvo  tieen  futile. 

i-hr  &tr)'.— HuffaUi  meat  ia  poor  in  ciualitr  and  has 
a  strong,  unpleasant  taste.    It  is  eaten  only  by  the 

?oorer  classes  and  w mi-civilized  or  savage  tribes. 
he  Latter  sometimes  allow  it  to  become  putrid 
before  consuming  it, 

/■Vf/rn/?.  -While  of  primary  importance  in  the 
cnltivation  of  rice  lands,  and,  in  the  Philippines,  in 
working  the  sugar  plantations,  the  buffalo  is  used 
abto  as  a  draft  animiil  for  hauling  merchandise  and 
farm  products,  and  it^  great  strength  is  utilized  in 
dragging  heavy  timber  from  the  forf'jtts.  Sitme- 
times,  tilthoiigb  rarely,  it  is  harness»il  to  vehicles 
to  carry  the  traveler  over  unfrequetiteil  routes,  an 
exeetsdingly  slow  means  of  eonveyaneo  but  accept- 
able at  times,  and  (|uite  in  keeping  with  the  customs 
of  thu  country. 

For  huhs  and  Aoriw.— The  hides  and  horns  of 
the  water-huffain  are  valuable  in  commerce.  The 
leather  is  comparatively  light, durable  and  imjiervi- 
ouH  to  water.  Rexides  supplying  the  local  demands, 
largi^quantitiesare  annually  export^-d  from  Manila, 
mostly  to  the  Chinese  and  Indian  markets. 

For  haniing. —  Bulls  of  the  larger  hreods  are 
used  in  India  in  hunting  tigem,  for  which  animals 
they  have  no  fear  and  will  even  attack  and  kill 
them  in  single  combat.  In  the  marshi«,  bulTaluB 
are  employee!  by  sportsmen  hunting  water-fowls  and 
other  gamo-birds. 

Prict  <if  bujitlot. 

The  price  of  bwffalos  varies,  like  that  of  other 
stock,  with  the  age  and  usefulnetw  of  the  animal 
and  with  the  demand.  The  pri<'eK  |)aid  under  con- 
tract for  working  animals  by  the  civil  government 
of  the  Philippines,  in  importations  from  China, 
ranged  from  $4(1  to  ?79,  Shanghai  ciirrencv,  the 
greater  number  being  purchased  at  the  latter  price. 
In  .AsAam,  the  average  price  for  males  i«  R«.  45; 
for  iwjieci-illy  fine  animaK  Rs,  SO.  The  value  of 
cows  depemis  on  their  age  and  milking  tjualitiee. 
full-grown  animals  in  breeding  CMidition  ranging 
from  Rs.  70  to  Rs.  100  ;  unusually  excellent  milk- 
era  bring  a  much  higher  price.  In  Bombay,  cows 
are  sold  at  Re.  10  per  ser  (2  Itis.)  of  milk  given  per 
day.  Wallace  cites  nn  instance  of  a  cow  that  gave 
24* Her  daily.  In  Italy  they  an-  valui^  at  6001^900 
francs ;  in  Hungary,  at  $ri()  to  $l(Ht  fA  rnpea 
(.Its)  is  about  4*')  cents ;  a  franc  about  20  cent&J 


296 


BUFFALO 


CAMELS 


Thi<  (lisoaat^is  of  bufTaloei  arv  ihvt  damL>  oa  those 
that  attack  cattle;  the  gymptnins  aro  identical  and 
the  disoasos  are  subject  to  the  Hamc  treatment. 
Veryrarvly  is  any  treatnu-nt  or  remwly  a|ipHed  liy 
the  natives  vr  any  allenijit  ma(Jt>  on  tht^ir  pnrt  to 
Bt^IJarale  di»eiutiecl  fruiii  bi^althy  aniinali^. 

AccordinK  ti>  the  Philiiniinu  (x-nnus,  there  were 
1,172,22;^  buffaloM  in  tht;  iaimulK  in  1902,  valuwi 
at  4&,3iy,7S5  (w^ow  (a  peso  is  ahuut  50  cvntH).  In 
the  same  year  the  loss  from  disease,  chiefly  rinder- 
pest, amoanted  to  over  42  per  cent  of  the  entire 
number ;  in  Home  hicalities  the  mortality  ran  as 
high  as  70  i»er  wnt.  A  part  of  this  loss  is  attrib- 
oted  to  hemorrhaytc  septi«!etnia  (see  pagp  !32), 
Burra  (see  pagi- 140)  and  root-and-mouth  dlwaHH  (see 
pagt  \A'A).  The  caoso  of  hL"mc'rrhai;''i  septicemia 
is  obacure  ;  aarra,  in  some  instances  at  least,  followti 
the  use  of  virulent  hlood  cont^uninfc  the  organi-Hms 
of  this  disease  in  inoculatkma  ajtanist  rindL'rpest; 
f[H}t-aTid-niouth  diHpa.se  is  coinjiion  in  Munila  and 
other  porta,  whtTe  shipments  are  miule  by  steamers 
am)  where  the  animals  are  kept  in  corrals  or  niuch 
mwd  in  the  tttreetii  and  roads.  It  Ls  not  serious 
except  in  complication  with  rinderp^-st. 

The  mortality  amon^  the  huffalos  imi>ort<.'d  into 
the  Philippines  from  i'hina  in  li»03-O4  wna  47.6 
per  oent ;  in  the  ea.*e  af  one  shipment  it  amounted 
to  100  per  c«nt.  Thci^e  animaU  were  regarded  .ts 
healthy  wrfree  from  diiwase  when  accepted,  and  the 
great  mortality  that  almost  immediately  followed 
their  importation  has  never  been  clearly  at-coiinttd 
for.  It  may  have  been  duo,  in  part  at  lea.-(t,  to  the 
inexperience  of  those  in  charRe,  the  uee  of  defective 
semm  and  the  incautious  use  of  virulent  blood  in  the 
simultaneous  in*>cuiation8.  The  whole  endeavor  to 
aid  the  Filipino.'!  by  these  importations  was  exi>eri- 
mental,  and  proved  to  be  a  very  costly  exiH.Tietice. 

The  us©  of  an ti- rinderpest  senim.  hypodermic- 
ally  injected)  in  proper  quantity,  hua  iW-n  found 
eHective  in  the  treatment  of  the  disease  in  the 
Philippines,  affordinp  iranaunity  for  a  period  vary- 
inc  from  one  to  two  months.  Permanent  iramnnity. 
it  ie  said,  is  sectireil  by  the  simulUtneous  method  of 
inocolation,  which  consist  in  injectinKintoone  side 
1  cc,  of  vinilent  bloofl  from  a  siclc  animal  and  30 
cc.  of  serum  at  the  aamo  time  on  the  other  side. 
Animnia  already  diiwaaed  have  been  cured  by  inject- 
ing an ti -rinderpest  serum  directly  into  the  jugular 
vein.  The  simultaneouB  method  of  treatment  can 
not  be  employed  when  other  diseases,  especially 
Burra,  or  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  exist  as  compli- 
cations. The  Directi'r  of  the  Insular  Bureau  of 
Agriculture  Mate**  (Report  for  1900,  p.  177)  that 
under  the  conditions  which  prevail  in  these  islands 
the  serum  method  promises  the  be«t  result*  for 
general  use.  The  simultanooua  metho.1  may  be  used 
to  advantage  where  the  country  is  densely  settled 
and  the  animals  as.oembled  in  large  numl>ers.  pro- 
vided no  complicating  diseases  prevail  at  the  time 
of  inoculation.  The  deferred  method.— inoculation 
with  virulent  blood  followed  in  about  ten  days 
with  serum.— ia  practicable  only  with  small  ht^rds 
of  valuable  animals,  and  when  complications  might 
follow  the  simultaneous  method. 


In  India,  inoculation  has  been  proposed  as  a 
Reneral  panacea  for  all  cattle  diseases,  but  in  gen- 
eral application  it  haii  proved  disappointing.  In 
cases  in  which  the  animals  can  lie  carefully  nursed 
during  the  fever  resniting  from  the  o|»eralion,  it 
might  prove  [lerfectly  BurceA-^fiil.  One  of  the  great 
dillicullies  that  stand  in  the  way  of  its  introduc- 
tion un  a  tarfuce  scale  is  the  fact  that  often  two  or 
three  separate  and  distinct  diseases  have  to  be 
guarded  against. 

Other  diseases  that  affect  the  buffalo  are  guti, 
kachaa,  marki,  haiza  [cholera)  and  matikhowa 
(earth -eatingj.  These  are  local  Indian  or  Hindu 
names. 

/,i(fro(ure. 

Wati.  Dictionary  of  the  Economic  Products  of 
India,  Vol.  V.;  Agricultural  Ij«lger  (Calcutta),  1894, 
No.  14  :  Wallace,  Indian  Agriculture  ;  ShortL,  Man- 
ual of  Indian  CattEe  and  Sheep;  liuchannan,  .Tourney 
from  Mfidras,  Vols.  I..  IT.  and  111.;  .lenhm.  Mam- 
mals of  India  (1874);  Encyclopaedia  Itritannica,  Vol. 
IV.;  Balfour,  EncycU>i«t<lia  India,  Vol.  I.;  New 
International  Kncyclopa?dia.  Vol.  III.;  David  G. 
Fairchild.  Uulietin  No.  27,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
United  Stjitea  Department  of  Agriculture;  Paul  G. 
Woolley,  Bulletin  No.  12,  Bureau  of  Government 
Laljoratories,  Philippine  islands  (liW^K't);  J.W,  Job- 
ling,  Hulletin  No.  4,  Bureau  of  (Jovernmeiit  Labora- 
tories, Philippine  islands ;  Censua  of  Philippine 
islamlis,  IV. ;  .Annual  Keports  of  Philippine  (.'flm- 
mijwion ;  tVinsular  Iteporta  on  Cattle  and  Dairy 
Farming  (1887);  .1.  .1.  Carter,  Veterinary  Journal, 
N.  Series  B  (IW)2).  No.  20;  Natal  Agricultural 
and  Mining  Record,  VII.  (1904);  Analyst,  26  (1901). 
(See  Vol.  I.,  page  131.] 

CAMELS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA.    Cameluf,  (tpp. 
CamdiitiF.   Figs.  8,  9. 

By  C.  A.  Maek, 

According  to  a  writer  in  the  Int«rnational 
Encyclopedia,  North  America  was  the  original 
home  of  the  Camelidie.  The  oldest  form  (Proioty- 
lops),  hardly  larger  than  a  jack-rabbit,  yet  camel- 
like in  many  particulars,  is  found  in  the  upper 
Eocene  rocks.  A  steady  increase  of  siwj  goc« 
through  the  .iscending  formations  of  the  Miocene, 
until  we  reach  Procamelus,  found  in  the  Loup  Fork 
beds  of  Wyoming,  which  was  as  big  as  a  sheep  and 
very  llama-like.  During  the  Miocene,  the  western 
American  plateau  seems  to  have  been  an  arid  dt-sert. 
and  under  such  conditions  were  developed  the  large, 
splayed  feet,  bereft  of  the  useless  side  toes,  the 
great  solt^pads.  and  the  pouched  stomach  that 
characterize  the  race.  At  the  close  of  the  Miocene, 
however,  there  came  about  a  steady  change  toward 
a  warmer,  inoister  climate,  inducing  forest  growth, 
which  put  an  end  to  camel  life  in  North  America. 
Meanwhile  they  had  migrated  into  South  America, 
where  fossil  remains  of  great  size  are  found,  and 
where  the  family  still  survives,  in  the  modihed  and 
perhaps  degenerated  forms  of  the  llamas  (Fig,  11); 
and  northwestward  to  .Stheria.  thence  into  (^«ntral 
Asia,  where  their  remains  are  found  in  the  Pliocene 


CAUELS 


CXUEIS 


297 


ndw  of  India,  but  not  eiirtiur.  There  the  con- 
diUoiu  wert)  favorable,  and  the  modurn  camulfl8«x-m 
to  have  dvveloixMl. 

The  Ecniis  Camc-tns  is  composed  of  two  species, 
the  true  or  Amliian  camel  [Csitm-hiit  drmaahrriugt, 
having  one  lium|i,  and  the  Bnctrian  camel  {CdTJulug 
baelrianu»),  havinij  two  hum|w.  These  humps  are 
st<ireA  of  He^h  and  fat,  and  mity  lie  entirely  »!>- 
ftorbed  in  case  of  famine.  ATter  a  hinj:  journyy 
with  little  or  no  food,  they  ar«  noticeably  smallur, 
KoA  may  even  dutappcar. 

Importation  <if  cameU  to  America. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  introduce  cameU  into 
America  for  trans portutinn  purpofws.  It  is  recorded 
that  camels  were  taken  to  Peru  shortly  beforB  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  almo  that 
a  fev  reached  Jamaica  and  Vir^nia,  but  without 
great  success.  In  anle^Uum  days,  au|)[)ltes  for  the 
military  posta  in  wtwtem  Texaa.  New  Mexico,  and 
.\riw)na  wore  shipped  to  Indianola,  Texas.  Thence 
they  were  conveyed  by  trains  of  wagons,  drawn  by 
oxen  or  mules,  to  points  in  the  interior.  Much  of 
the  territory  traversed  was  a  de.solate  waste,  and 
stretches  of  forty  to  ninety  miles  between  water- 
ing-places were  frequent.  The  trails  were  marked 
by  tJie  bunes  of  countlesji  animala  that  had  died  of 
thirst,  and  even  human  lives  were  sacrificed  to  the 
ceceuity  of  rdlicving,  as  promptly  as  po.<^iblo,  the 
vaota  01  some  lonely  garrison  in  the  wilderness. 

So  Blow,  dangerous  and  costly  was  the  method  of 
transportation  then  in  use,  that  the  War  Depart- 
ment looked  about  for  a  better  way,  and  finally 
suggested  tu  C^^mgretis  the  importation  of  camdn  to 
Serve  as  burden-bearers  in  the  arid  Southwest. 
Just  who  conceivc-d  the  idea  is  not  positively  known. 
The  credit  is  given  to  Major  G.  H.  (.'rosman  and 
Major  Henry  C.  Wayne,  two  military  commanders. 
Jefferson  Davis,  then  in  the  Senate  and  afterward 
Secretarj*  of  War.  took  great  interest  in  the  mat- 
ter, and  worked  for  its  accompliithnient.  Mitny 
others  intereiited  themst-lves  in  the  (tue^tion  and 
an  effort  was  made  in  the  winter  of  lsrh2-rtrS  to 
authorize  the  Secretary  of  War  to  make  an  impor- 
tation of  camels  and  dromedaries.  But  it  was  not 
until  two  years  later  that  the  departmetnt  was 
authorized  and  directe<rl  to  attempt  the  experiment 
by  the  following  rtwolutjon,  approved  March  3. 18.".^>: 
"Thirty-thini  Congress,  Second  Si'saion,  Chiipter 
169,  Section  4.  And  be  it  furlher  enaeifd.  That  th« 
sum  of  $30,000  be,  and  the  same  is  hereliy,  appro- 
priat«d,  to  be  exjwnded  under  the  diri-ction  of  th« 
War  Department  in  the  purchase  of  camels  and  im- 
portation of  dromedaries,  to  be  employed  for  mili- 
tary purposes." 

Pebmary  2, 18.^7,  Congress,  by  resolalion.  called 
on  the  Secretary  for  information  "showing  the 
results  of  the  trial  of  the  cumel  as  a  twast  of  bur- 
den and  for  the  tranniMirtation  of  troofis."  Follow- 
ing is  nn  excerpt  from  Mr.  Davis'  report:  "Under 
the  appropriation  of  $30,000,  seventy-tive  camels 
have  been  im[K)rted.  The  aid  furnished  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Navy  in  the  nw  of  a  store-**hip  return- 
ing froni  the  Mediterranean  greatly  rwluctnl  the 
cost  of  transportation,  enaliled  the  department  lo 


introduce  a  much  greater  numWr  (if  camels  thai 
was  originally  calculatwl,  and  has  3<?ctiri'cl  to  the 
government  the  meant;  of  making  the  experiment 
on  a  scale  which  will  sufficiently  demonstrate  the 
adaptation  of  the  animal  to  the  climate  nnd  circum- 
stances of  our  country  and  its  value  for  military 
purjioHL'S.  The  limited  trial  which  has  Iwen  muda 
h-'is  fully  rejilized  my  exjvpctations  and  has  increa-sed 
my  confidL-nco  in  the  success  of  the  experiment." 

Knjm  the  mass  of  correspondence  accompanying 
the  report,  it  is  learned  that  Major  Henry  C.  Wayne 
was  detailed  to  buy  the  camels.  He  went  first  to 
England,  and  while  there  saw  Prof.  Richard  Owen, 
who  assured  him  that  there  would  be  no  difficulty 
in  acclimating  and  bree<iingthec.imel  in  theUnited 
States.  Wayne  also  visited  the  Zoological  Garden  lo 
study  the  feeding,  care  and  hygiene  of  the  camels 
and  dromedaries  in  that  institntlon.  Further  inv^s- 
tigationd  were  made  in  France  and  the  Crimea.  In 
six  months  spent  in  Egypt  and  neighb-iring  coun- 
tries, he  secured  thirty-three  camels,  including  two 
fine  specimens  pre.sented  to  him  by  Hey  Mohammed 
Pasha.  There  were  Heven  males  in  the  consignment. 
The  average  price  paid  was  about  $250  per  camel. 
Six  Arabs  and  a  Turk  were  employed  to  attend  the 
camels  on  the  ship. 

Embarking  with  his  charges  February  11,  185ti, 
he  arrived  at  Indianola,  May  14.  The  animals  were 
in  Rood  condition,  considering  their  long  confine- 
ment on  shipboard,  and  were,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  boils  and  swelled  legs,  apparently  in  health. 
Major  Wayne  eventually  became  enthusiastic,  and 
requested  permission  to  hire  a  breeding  farm  for  his 
chaises.  The  department  replied  that  the  establish- 
ment of  a  breeding  farm  did  not  enter  into  its  plans, 
its  object  bt-ing  merely  to  ascertain  whether  the 
animal  was  adapted  to  military  service  and  could  be 
economically  and  usefully  employed  therein. 

In  June.  *]S.'^^^  Lieutenant  I).  D.  Porter  was  sent 
after  another  load  of  c;Lme]s.  On  December  13,  he 
wrote  that  he  ex[^ected  to  be  at  New  Orleans  with 
the  store-ship  Supply  and  a  cargo  of  forty-four 
camels  some  time  in  Janaary.  It  was  not.  however, 
until  February  10,  IS'iT,  that  forty-one  camels 
(thr«e  having  died)  were  landed  at  Indianola  from 
the  steamer  Suwanee.  Lieutenant  Porter  has  this 
to  say  regarding  the  animals,  as  he  observed  them 
in  North  Africa ;  "  In  thi?ir  campaigns  against  Al- 
giers, the  French  were  surprised  to  see  their  camels, 
although  r«dDced  to  skeletons,  making  forced 
marches  with  their  loads.  Mules  in  their  condition 
could  not  even  have  carried  their  saddles.  A  camel's 
flesh  is  as  good  as  beef.  You  can  hardly  tell  one 
meat  from  the  other.  Camel's  milk  is  very  good,  as 
I  can  testify,  because  1  used  it  in  my  coffee." 

The  camels  seem  to  have  been  used  with  greater 
or  ]««s  success  for  the  next  few  y<>ars.  I^ite  in 
ISf>7,  I.ieut<<nant  E.  F.  Ileali;  emiibned  camels  in 
a  survey  Ut  o[jen  op  a  wagon  roaif  from  Fort  I'efi* 
ance.  New  Mexico,  to  the  eastern  frontiers  of  Cali- 
fornia. Thu  journuy  occupied  forty-ei^ht  days. 
Lieutenant  lleale  praises  highly  the  service  ren- 
dered by  the  camels  on  this  occasion.  John  B.  Floyd, 
then  Secretary  of  War.  Tnade  repeated  efforts  to 
induce  Congnsse  to  make  another  appropriation  to 


i 


2dB 


CA»Ei5 


CAMELS 


contmae  the  experinient  on  a  larger  pcslfi,  but  to 
no  avail.  KolltiwiiiK  this,  many  of  th(>  carat^ln  were 
held  at  the  varioua  military  \»\»lii  m  Califurnia, 
where  they  rtjcfivedftt-ant  attuntion.  On  September 
9.  ISG'l,  the  War  Dejiartment  ordertHi  tho  L'aniots 
in  Califoritift  to  Ih.>  ?.i>U  at  public  aaotion.  It  is 
thouj^ht  that  many  of  the«e  animals  eventually 
found  thftir  way  into  cirensw,  menageries  and 
zoological  gariii'iij',  and  others  were  ah.ini(t«ne(l. 
Sonit^  of  the  nrmatnilwr  of  (h»>  {Mmt'lii  were  kUU  at 
Camp  Verde,  the  camel  Ktution,  at  th«  t'loriu  of  the 
Civil  war.  Thi»*e  were  likewise  ili&posud  of  at  pub* 
tic  aiiclioD,  and  aome  of  them  were  driven  into 

AlM»ut  IPfil.aftin  Francisco  company  imported 
twenty  Buctrian  camels  fnun  r*'ntral  AFi;i,  more 
than  half  of  whinh  werw  Mmplnyed  in  Nevatia  in 
carrying  salt.  It  h  supposed  that  these  were  aftur- 
wanl  takon  to  .\riEoiia. 

Having  reached  this  point,  the  Btudcnt  of  camel 
history  st4?ps  fnjm  the  solid  ground  of  offioial  rt-cord 
to  Auunder  amid  th«  fantasies  of  the  newspaper 
paragrapher,  supimrteil  only  by  the  rwollcctiona  of 
the  oldest  inhabitant.  Scareh  as  ona  may,  no  fur- 
ther wurd  can  bo  found  in  fiov«rnnient  aruhivBa 
concerning  this  experiment  in  transportation,  nor 
of  th»»  Bubse'iiient  history  of  the  poor  animals  ahan- 
rioneii  to  their  fate  in  a  strange  country.  That  they 
were  so  ii.banduni?il,  there  is  imiiihitahle  evidence, 
though  it  iriay  well  he  douhteil  that  they  were 
turned  loose  in  obedience  to  a  formal  order.  The 
remaining  onsuld  camels,  not  having  pruvud  m 
useful  as  was  anticipated,  wero  scattert-d  in  small 
bands  among  the  dilferent  poats.  Tired  of  caring 
for  the  animal.t.  and  receiving  no  further  instruc- 
tions reg;iniing  them,  it  is  likely  that  the  comman- 
dants of  the  poals  where  they  chanced  to  be,  ttirneil 
them  out,  expecting  them  to  feed  and  remain  in 
the  vicinity,  where  they  could  be  a-captureid  when 
wanted.  They  evidently  did  ni>t  know  that  the  camel 
is  the  most  loeakle  animal  ever  domesticated.  The 
liberated  Ijeasts,  with  one  accord,  whether  intending 
to  takeBhipatlndianiil.1,  or  tof4)(it  it  back  to  Kgypt, 
beaded  Houtbeast.  Ultimately  they  reached  the 
Texan  coast.  If  nay  of  the  ajiimals  remained  in 
Now  Mexico  or  Arituna,  persihteiit  epiaUdary  perse- 
cution of  postmasters,  ami  others  in  thoso  parts, 
has  failed  to  produce  testimony  to  that  effect. 

Regarding  the  camels  that  drifted  to  the  coast, 
much  information  is  obtainable.  Captain  Thomas 
Field,  of  Victoria,  Texas,  supplier  many  interr-sting 
detail's  some  of  whirh  ap]«?Hr  to  fill  in  apparent 
gaps  in  the  official  renurd.  In  ISHT,  I'aplaia  Field, 
then  twelve  years  old,  began  a  long-continued  ac- 
qunintanoL'  with  the  camels.  Some  time  in  that  year, 
he  and  other  boys  in  that  vicinity  followed  for  miles 
a  carjivan  of  camels  that  passed  through  Victoria. 
The  animals,  which  he  saya  had  been  kept  for 
months  at  TndianoiiL  to  recuperate  from  the  elTects 
of  their  ocean  voyage,  were  on  their  way  to  Kl  i'aso, 
in  charge  uf  Arab  attendants  and  a  trtHjp  of  soldiers. 
Captain  Field  thinks  there  were  more  than  one 
handred  camels  in  tho  train.  That,  of  course,  is  a 
too  liberal  view  of  the  matt^T.  It  is  possible  that 
the  drove  brought  u%'er  by  Majur  Wayne  was  held  at 


iBdianola  until  the  arriv.il  of  the  lot  imported  by 
Lieutenant  Purler.  If  that  was  the  case,  the  Caji- 
tain  saw  aoventy-four  adult  camels.  Ha  says  there 
were  camel  colts  — or  is  it  calves?~with  the  cara- 
van ;  but  surely  there  could  not  have  been  enough 
of  them  to  bring  the  total  numW  to  lUO.  After 
having  remained  near  Vict*)ria  a  day  or  so  to  refit 
and  readjust  saddles  and  packs,  the  procewiion  set 
out  for  San  Antonio.  So  far  everything  w;is  satisfac- 
tory, the  first  report  to  Washingt'on  was  favurabie, 
and  the  problem  of  Iram^iKirtation  seemed  to  have 
been  solved.  Ai  San  Antonio  soldiers  and  citizens 
turned  out  to  welcome  the  exiles  from  KgA'pt. 

When  the  line  of  march  was  taken  up  for  Kl  Paso, 
the  rough  rock-rojid  began  to  tell  on  the  camels.  It 
was  soon  found  that  the  jxids  of  their  feet  were 
Wearing  to  the  quick,  while  in  some  cases  stone- 
bruines  ap|ware<l.  Tho  problem  of  shoeinu  adivided 
foot  without  a  hoof  on  it  proved  unsolvabie.  Black- 
smiths made  half  shoes,  hinged  shoes  and  solid 
ahoee,  but  in  the  absence  of  hoofs  to  which  to  nail 
them,  no  way  to  retain  them  in  place  could  l»o 
deviseil.  Then  the  butcher  w:ui  applied  l«  for  a  sup- 
ply of  rawhide,  and  the  feet  of  the  camels  were 
wrappwl  ill  that  material.  The  rawhide  shoes  served 
the  purpose,  but  wore  out  about  as  fast  as  they 
could  be  made. 

.\t  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  Captain  Field  joined 
tht)  Fourth  Texas  ca^-alry,  and  saw  service  in  New 
Mexico.  There,  at  dilferent  forts,  be  came  acro«a 
small  bands  of  camelfi,  "  laid  up  for  repairs."  When 
hi]  returned,  in  lSt)r>,  to  his  home  nejir  the  mouth 
of  the  San  Antonio  river,  in  Refugio  county,  he 
found  his  cameline  friends  had  preceded  him.  As 
the  cimeljn  worked  .'^onthwanl,  piost  of  them  struck 
into  the  country  Iwtwi^en  the  San  Antonio  and 
(iuadaloujw  rivers.  Heing  unable  to  crose  either 
and  apparently  unwilling  to  turn  north  again,  thoy 
found  themselves  stoppetl  at  length  by  the  junction 
of  the  two  rivers.  That  is  in  the  vicinity  of  nines 
bay,  and  therealfouls  the  beasts  remained.  A  few 
that  turned  south  f.arther  wej^t  thiui  the  main 
bunch  were  stopjied  by  the  (tua<la1ou[>u  at  Camp 
Verde,  2(X)  miles  higher  up.  Although  the  camels 
around  Hines  liay  pnn-ed  a  decided  nuisance  to  tho 
Settlers,  no  attempt  was  made  to  capture  them,  nor 
were  they  molested  in  any  way.  The  opinion  pre- 
vailed at  that  time  that  government  property  waa 
best  let  ali'oe.  Some  time  in  lS*iS,  however,  a 
travelingKhowman  nameil  lioln-rtson  juisaed  thrtnigh 
the  county,  and.  learning  of  the  presence  of  the 
camels,  and  the  desire  of  the  neighborhood  to  lie 
rid  of  them,  rounded  up  eleven  head  and  took  them 
away.   What  he  did  with  them  ts  niit  known. 

Enjoying  jierfect  liberty  in  an  almost  semi-trop- 
ical country,  iL  seenui  strange  that  the  herd  should 
not  have  increafled  instead  of  retrograding.  Tap- 
Ijiin  Field  Raw  a  two-year-old  in  1S6C.  Being  notedly 
long-lived  beasts,  it  se«ms  impossible  th.it  all  could 
have  died  of  old  age  within  ten  year*,  Denpite  the 
general  gooi5  treatment  which,  the  captain  says, 
the  animals  receivetl,  it  is  probable  that  the  tastd 
of  camel  steak  was  not  altogether  unknown  in  that 
region.  No  one  attempted  to  make  any  practical  use 
of  the  roaming  animals. 


CAT 


CAT 


299 


lAUraiure. 

Charles  r.  Carroll.  The  Govemment'a  Importa- 
tion of  Camels,  Circnlar  Ko.  53,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  I'liiteil  States  Departmunt  of  A(rriculturtf ; 
G.  A,  Mack,  An  Experiment  in  Transportation, 
ShieM'a  Magazine,  May.  1!XXJ.  Tbis  article*  i^adapted 
from  these  two  soarces.  Wortman.  Hnllotin,  Amer- 
ican Miweom  Natnrai  Hiatory,  X.  New  York.  13i>8. 
i:0Dlain8  noUte  on  tb«  American  fossil  camels. 

CAT.    Ffiu  dome^itirus.    Fr!Iii,F.   PigB.  329,  330. 

The  domestic  cat  has  played  ita  part  in  the 
advancement  of  agricultnr*^,  oa  in  Th(>  pioneer  ^iays 
it  made  livin^f  posisibLi!  in  the  new  country,  with  its 
innumerabJB  host  of  rixlenUi.  fspecially  mict,-,  which 
otherwise  would  have  riddled  the  pioneer's  store  of 
provisions  .'Vnd  today  it  is  found  on  the  farm.  sh.ir- 
inj{  vrith  the  dog  tho  police  duty  of  the  buildings 
and  ground-t.  as  well  .w  satisfying  a  natural  desire 
for  animal  coinpaniouithip. 

The  cat  may  ne  a  nuisance,  however,  unlew  care- 
fully raanaKod  ami  controlled.  BeinK  allowed  free 
access  to  tho  sick  and  the  well,  and  beinc:  herself 
BobJACt  to  germ  diseasi?s,  sho  may  bo  a  carrier  of 
ooatagioQ.  On  the  Pacific  coa.it  she  bivtnld  count- 
less fleas.  It  is  as  a  di-stroyer  of  bird?!,  however, 
that  the  oat  is  a  moRt  aeriouR  menaeo  to  agriculture. 
At  a  time  when  we  are  trying  to  Apre;ut  a  love  of 
birds  and  of  nature,  we  should  see  to  it  that,  in  pro- 
tecting birds,  the  children  are  not  merely  rearing 
more  feed  for  cat«.  Hells  on  cats  may  prevent  their 
catching  mature  birdj*,  but  they  do  not  hinder  them 
from  robbing  nests*  or  taking  young  birds ;  they 
are,  thi;refore_.  not  of  mur-h  use  until  after  the  fledg- 
ling sea.suii  is  over.  Of  all  domestic  animals,  the  cat 
is  the  only  one  that  is  allowed  to  roam  at  will  with- 
uDt  being  regarded  as  a  trespa&uer  or  nuisance.  All 
cats  should  be  confinerl  to  the  bnildings  of  tho 
owner;  or,  if  not  centroKable,  they  should  l>e 
limitixl  by  cages  (or  wire-screen  rooms)  or  allowed 
t'l  run  from  a  wire  Co  whic-h  thtry  are  secured  by  a 
collar  and  cord.  Herein  lies  the  solution  of  the 
problem,  -the  treating  of  all  roaming  cat.s  as  wild 
animals  and  treii{>:uMerA.  It  is  junt  as  much  one's 
duty  to  keep  his  cat«  at  home  aa  to  keep  his  horxvs, 
dogs  and  chicken.^  at  home.  Mice  and  rats  should 
be  destroyed  by  constant  use  of  traps.  Many  of  the 
birds  are  protected  by  law.  and  yet  iK-rsons  who 
think  that  they  respect  the  law  may  allow  their  cats 
to  roam  at  will.  It  may  be  true  that  some  birds 
are  themselves  a  menace  to  agriculture,  but  cats  do 
notdiacriminate:  the  fundamental  point  isthat  cat«, 
as  well  as  other  livo<«tock,  should  be  controlled. 

C«t8  and  their  care. 

By  K.  It.  B.  Ckamphn. 

The  many  varieties  of  cata  known  today  are 
founded  on  l)ut  two  types,  the  lon>f-haired  cat  of 
the  East  and  the  short-haired  cat  of  Europe.  .Show 
cats  of  l>oth  groui«  are  judgwl  by  practically  the 
same  standard  as  to  color  and  conformation.  In 
both  types  the  hrid  should  be  as  large  as  possible, 
round  in  shape,  with  large,  fall  eyes,  small  ears 


set  fir  apart  on  the  skull,  and  a  short,  wide  nose. 
The  ears  and  feet  in  the  long-haired  spwies  should 
be  well  feathered  or  "tufted"  with  long  hair,  aa 
this  is  a  sign  of  high  breeding.  The  ^/.v  should  be 
short  and  compact,  the  tail  short  and  tapering  and 
carriud  low ;  hut  it  should  l>e  of  such  length  that 
it  does  not  touch  the  ground  when  the  cat  is  in 
motion.  Tiie  Iff]'  should  be  thick  and  short.  The 
only  cats  that  differ  in  appearance  from  the  alx)vc 
standard  are  the  Manx,  .Siame-ie  and  Abyssinian. 
These  varieties  are  very  rare  in  this  country.  The 
eoat  of  a  loog-baired  cat  is  soft  and  silky,  hanging 
in  wavy  masses,  whilst  that  of  the  shtirt-Kain-d  cat 
is  harsh,  short  and  baa  an  even  glossy  appearance. 
The  color  of  the  epet  differs  with  each  variety ;  for 
example,  a  white  cat  should  have  blae  or  orange 
oyes ;  a  blue  cat,  either  long-  or  short-haired, 
should  have  orange  eyes,  as  should  also  a  black, 
tabby,  smoke,  cream,  orange,  or  tortoispsheH  ;  the 
chinchilla  and  shaded  silver  should  have  eyes  of  a 
deep  blue-grceB.  sometimea  called  "can  lie  nil," 

BrredA  and  fsffies. 

As  has  lnjen  said,  c^ta  are  commonly  divided 
into  two  grnupa  nr  types,  tho  long-haired  and  the 
short-hairwi.  Within  these  groufw.  color  and  con- 
formation, more  especially  the  former,  are  the 
marks  of  distinction,  and  the  varieties  are  bred  for 
these  features.  We  have  chiefly  the  self-colored 
and  the  tabby  typeji.  A  aelf-colored  cat  is  of  OQe 
uniformshaddor 


^\ 


** 


Roltd  color,  as 
black,  white, 
orange  and  blue. 
The  varieties  of 
tabby  and  the 
combinations  of 
color  are  Several 
— blue,  orange, 
brown,  silver 
(Fig.  329),  gray 
and  tortoise- 
shell. 

bing  -  haired 
tiats  have  long 
b^-ei)  known  in 
India,  Prance, 
China  and  Per- 
sia. Formerly 
the  Several  va- 
rieties  were 
more  or  lesa  dis- 
tinct and  were  sub-divided  into  Angora,  Persian 
and  other  classea.  These  varieties  have  been  so 
interbred  for  years  that  it  tuis  been  considered 
advisable  to  aeeignate  them  all  us  "  long-haired 
cata,"  aa  it  would  oe  impoesible  to  disttnguLih  any 
one  characteristic  breed  in  the  present  day. 

Colors  known  solely  to  the  long-haired  cat  are 
the  ehiiictiitla,  thadtd  >\ltfr,  and  Klf-orangt.  The 
flrst  named  is  the  rarest  of  all,  and  tt  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  secure  a  fine  specimen.  The  coat  shouk]  be 
of  a  pale  silrer-gray.  almo<3t  white  at  the  roota. 
There  should  be  no  tabby  markings,  and  it  is  this 
elimination  of  stripes  that  makes  it  such  a  task  to 


riK.  329.  A  iriie-wlaolDK.  long-lulTad 
•liver  tabby.  ImiXy  Vpn-.ln  V'orv. 
vriniivr  of  cijtbloeiL  prIcM  Id  Eitf 
tuMi  *nd  Amcrl<w. 


800 


CAT 


CAT 


bropd  a  fins  Fpocimen.  The shaditd  idivir  phouM  be 
silvtT  uviiiily  tippwl  with  dark  6liadinj;8  on  fact-, 
back  and  lef^s.  It  i^  a  very  tiandaome  cat.  Like  tha 
chinchilla,  it  shnuld  have  green  eyes  and  be  free 
from  tabby  markings.  The  aelf-orange,  sa  it»  name 
impliefi,  is  ot  one  uniform  shade  of  orange,  free 
from  tabby  marking,  and  with  deep  orange  evif-jt. 

Tabtiiiv  should  have  a  pure  gronnd  color  with 
broad,  black  raarkinKs  ;  for  exampiv,  a  brown  tabby 
iK  practically  sable  or  tawny  colonel,  tnarkL-d  with 
dense  black  stripes.  The  orange  tabby  is  marki'd 
with  a  deeper  shade  of  orange  instead  of  black,  and 
in  this  particular  diifers  from  otht-r  tabbies.  It  has 
been  the  stnndfird  for  many  years  that  nil  tabbies 
should  havB  deep,  orangtMiolorud  eyes,  but  there  ui 
mm-  a  movemunt  ainoiij^  brwders  to  inLro^luce 
grwen  or  amtTald  eyes  fur  the  BJlver  tabby. 

Tkt  creajfi-cvlorcil  cat  is  very  raru  in  the  ehort- 
baired  variutii's,  although  i\ivT\s  ara  many  long- 
haired  specimeni*.  The  color  should  be  clear  biacuit 
or  fawn,  and  the  eyes  n range-colored. 

Th-  nmtikr  enl^  known  to  both  long-haired  and 
shnrt-haired  varietiei*,  is,  in  the  latter,  nn  app.ir- 
enlly  black  cut,  but  the  fur  at  the  hkiIh  is  pale, 
clear  silver.  In  tht!  lung-hairwl  variety,  the  silver 
undurcolor  breaks  through,  forming  a  patu  silver 
ruff  around  the  face,  and  pale  silver  far  un  the 
underside  of  the  body  and  tail ;  no  trace  of  tabby 
markiuK  is  allowable. 

Vir  tortotJiakeH  eat,  both  a  long-  and  a  short- 
haired  tyjie,  is  of  thret;  distinct  r«lnr«,  red,  yellow 
anil  black,  evenly  diittributed  over  the  liiHJy,  face, 
ieRn  and  tail  in  patches.  No  tickiof;  or  tabby  mark- 
ing is  desirable,  (-'uriooaly  enough,  cats  of  this 
color  are  alwayn  females. 

The  Siti.mf*f-  cat.  is  a  distinct  variety  of  short- 
haired  cat,  [M-culiar  t«  Sijun.  as  its  name  denotes, 
where  it  is  highly  prized,  and  propaKat^i  under 
Royal  supervision.  The  color  of  a  "Itoyal  Sijimeae," 
OH  it  is  termed,  is  a  clear  fawn  or  dun,  with  ex- 
tremeties — viz,  nose,  ears  and  fwjt  -of  deep  choco- 
late or  even  black.  The  tail  is  shorter  than  in  the 
ordinary  short-haired  cat  and  should  be  shaded 
with  the  dark  chocolate  color.  The  coat  is  partic- 
ularly short,  cbwe,  and  of  an  even  velvety  texture, 
and  the  eyes  should  be  an  intense  blue.  Some 
authorities  contend  that  the  Siamese  should  have 
a  "kinked"  tail,  but  many  pursons  consider  this 
eccentricity  due  to  the  inbceedini?  which  undoubt- 
edly exists  among  these  cats  in  Siam.  Inbreeding, 
if  practiced  t«  ii  very  great  extent,  will  prodnce 
mjiny  deformities,  and  seems  especially  to  affect 
the  spine.  The  SiameHe  is  the  hardest  variety  of  cat 
to  raise;  it  sevms  very  susceptible  to  colrl  and  damp, 
and  also  to  a  form  of  brain  trouble.  The  shape  of 
the  heJid,  both  in  Siamese  and  in  Abyssinian  cat«, 
differs  from  other  varieties,  being  more  like  that 
of  the  original  wild  cat,  that  i.s,  wedg<v«hapcd. 

The  Ai^snininn  cat  resembles  in  its  coloring  the 
Belgian  hare  rabbit.  The  fur  is  (jf  a  rnfus-red  color, 
ticked  evenly  with  black,  with  a  black  striate  down 
the  spine,  continning  to  the  extremity  of  the  tall. 
This  cat  resembles  in  size  the  domestic  or  short- 
haire^l  cat.  The  coat  should  be  close  and  soft,  and 
the  brighUjr  in  color  the  better.    The  writer  has 


never  Been  specimens  of  this  variety  in  America^ 
but  they  are  bred  in  Kn}{land,  where  there  is  a 
"^ijM'cialty  Club  "  to  encourage  thwir  propagation. 

The  Mam  eat  (Fig.  33<:>)  is  native  to  the  Isle  of 
Man.  It  is  noticeable  primarily  for  its  absence  of 
caudal  ap)>endage,  and  for  the  length  of  the  lower 
joints  of  its  hind  lega.  whit^h  gives  it,  when  Id 
motion,  t^nmewhat  the  action  of  a  rabbit.  Theaa 


^', 


Y 


rU.  SM.    A  Mux  Mt. 


cats  are  very  rare  in  this  country.  For  exhibition 
purposes  they  should  show  no  trace  of  tail  and 
should  also  have  the  characteristic  action  of  tho 
true  Manx  cat.  In  colors  they  correspond  with  the 
varieties  known  as  short-haiitsd  domestic  cats. 

Brttding. 

In  breeding  cats,  it  should  be  remenibered  that 
they  are  carnivorous  animals,  and  therefore  it  is 
not  advisable  to  start  brt-eiling  on  such  an  exten- 
sive scale  that  it  is  impiiM^ible  to  feed  them  in  & 
natural  way.  Breeders  should  limit  their  opera- 
tions Ui  raising  a  few  certain  colors.  Cats  are 
prolific  breeders,  and,  if  allowed  to  do  so.  will  raise 
three  to  four  families  in  one  year.  If  they  are 
desired  for  exhibition,  however,  only  one  litUr  a 
year  should  he  attemptetJ,  as  much  finer  spi'cimens 
will  thus  t>e  secured  and  they  will  be  less  likely  to 
contract  diseases. 

Breeding  cats  should  be  chosen  for  their  pedi- 
gree and  conformation.  To  attain  the  best  resalts* 
one  should  not  cross  different  colors  or  varieties. 
but  breed  bbie  to  blue,  black  to  black,  and  ho  on. 
In  striving  to  secure  a  type  of  cat  as  near  jierfec- 
tion  as  jKissible,  a  certain  amount  of  inbrut'^ling  is 
necessary.  This  is  true  in  breeding  all  animala, 
and  although  show  specimens  can  be,  aid  are 
secured  without  it,  it  will  be  found  that  the  good 
{mints  of  parents  will  not  be  reproduced  in  the  off- 
spring iinle-ss  inbreeding  is  resijrted  to  in  order  to 
fix  the  type. 

If  one  is  breeding  self-coloni,  as  black,  white,  or 
blue,  sjiecial  attention  muFit  be  paid  to  the  sound- 
ness of  the  color  ;  whites  must  be  free  from  creami- 
ncBS :  blacks  mast  be  coal-black,  with  no  whit« 
hairs  and  no  shading  of  the  color  toward  the  roota 
of  ihi.-  fur  ;  the  blue  cat  should  l>e  a  nniforra  shade 
of  blue  throughout. 

In  breeding  L:tbbies,  either  long-hairvd  or  short- 
haired,  the  principal  point  is  dbttinctneus  and  depth 
of  markings,  with  purity  of  ground  color.  As  the 
best  known  variety  of  tabby  is  the  brown,  thia 
will  serve  to  illustrate  what  we  mean.  In  thta 
variety,  the  ground  color  must  be  as  clear  a  sable 


CAT 


CATTLE 


301 


"flFwwny  culor  as  po.wible.  not  ticked  with  black, 
and  the  markinfpi,  to  tie  perfect,  must  bn  ii  deep. 
dvnae  black,  not  ticke<l  with  the  bmwn  nf  the 
ground  cyloT.  The  lalfby  marking  should  furre- 
apond  QU  both  sidus  of  the  cut,  and  should  rurm 
distinct  lines  or  nocklaces  about  the  throat  nnd 
chest.  The  tail  also  must  be  tabbied. 

Feeding  and  care. 

In  raining  cat«,  mp-at  should  be  tbe  staple  diet. 
Thitf  may  be  mixed  with  gntrn  veg'ctable?,  but 
farimiceuua  and  starchy  fyixls.  such  a8  ric«,  oal^ 
meal  and  jw)tatoei.  should  be  strictly  avoided : 
wattT  sht>u!(t  liL-  ^ven  to  drink,  and  no  milk.  Tbe 
latter  ia  peculiarly  indijieatiblo  to  cats. 

Cats  should  bo  kept  excessively  clean,  both  aa  to 
the  fre*-<lom  of  their  coiita  from  all  vermin,  and 
also  in  regard  to  their  quartern.  They  are  natu- 
rally very  clean  in  their  habit'!,  (f  properly  treated, 
they  are  gentle  and  docile  in  diitposition. 

Diaeates. 

Cats  are  very  susceptible  to  dampnesa.  While 
they  will  flourish  in  a  dry,  clear,  cold,  and  require  no 
heat  in  such  a  climiite,  dampnes.<!  will  bring  un  many 
ills,  such  as  pneumonia,  opthiilmia  and  difltemper. 
The  ]<rincipal  cfluaes  of  mortality  in  kittens  are 
indigestion  anil  distemper.  By  strict  attention  to 
cleanliness  and  diet,  the  former  may  be  avoided  to 
a  great  extent.  The  latter,  an  infectious  diseaw, 
la  frequently  contracted  through  nndue  exposure, 
or  more  commonly  from  infected  cats.  The  princi- 
pal remedies  for  indigestion  are  cub-nitrate  of 
biitmuth  and  pL'p.sin.  Fur  dbttemper,  there  is  no 
known  cure.  It  is  a  diaeaae  rarely  contracted  by 
animal*  over  one  year  old.  The  best  treatment  \9 
warmth,  nourishment  and  tonic.  Quinine  in  very 
small  doses  is  beneficial.  The  most  common  remedies 
used  in  opthalraia  are  boracic  acid  and  sulfate  of 
line  lotton«,  and  the  oxtd«  of  mercnry.  both  yel- 
low and  red.  in  very  severe  cosqis.  In  fjivinjf  medi- 
cine and  applying  external  lotions  to  cats,  it  ta 
well  to  remember  that  preparations  of  carbolic  acid 
or  coal-tar  are  peculiarly  poiaonous  to  cats,  as  is 
also  any  preparation  of  opium. 

Orgaa-imtiotui  and  record*. 

Some  of  the  principal  organ Ezatioos  for  improv- 
ioK  the  condition  of  the  cat  in  this  country  are. 
Tho  Ber(<sford  Cat  Club,  of  Chicaco,  The  Atlantic 
Cat  Club.  The  Ivockehaven  Cat  Club,  The  Short- 
hairwi  Cat  Society,  The  Buffalo  Cat  Club  and  Tho 
Wwhington  Cat  Club,  among  many  others.  There 
are  also  two  as.wciation»uf  breeders  formed  for 
tbe  parpose  of  maintaining  proper  registration  of 
pedigrees,  making  abov  rales  and  regulations  and 
similar  work.  These  are  the  American  Cat  Associ- 
ation, with  headquarters  in  Chicago,  and  tho  Cat 
Fanciers'  .^asociation,  with  its  Becretary  in  Buffalo. 
There  are  many  foreign  organizations,  notably  in 
Great  Britain. 

The  fin«t  registry  of  wtJi  to  be  founded  in  America 
was  the  Ik-rt'sford  Cat  ('lub  StudlnHik  in  Chicago. 
In  Great  Britain  there  are  the  National  and  the 
Cat  Club  sladbooka  (the  latter  now  diaoontinued). 


r*iterfl/u.rr. 

Much  has  been  written  about  catii.  The  follow- 
ing references  will  auggoat  other  aources  of  infor- 
mation :  .John  Jennings,  Domestic  and  Kancy  Cats; 
Frances  Simpson,  Tbe  Book  of  the  Cat ;  G.  .Stables, 
(.'ats :  Handbook  to  Their  Classificjition,  DlBeasea 
and  Training  ;  H.  Weir,  Our  Cats,  VariotieB,  Habita 
and  Miimigement. 

CATTLE.    Boa  taunts,  Linn,  and  B.  Inditrat,  Linn. 

Hovida.   l-^gs.  331-8G4;  also  Figs.  14-lli,  35-38, 
45-19.  131,  132,  liTO;  also  Pig.  1. 

Cattle  are  the  most  important  domestic  animals 
of  tho  Engli-sh-siKtaking  peoples.  They  are  boasts 
of  labor,  and  tbey  afford  me.it,  hides,  and  milk ; 
and  from  the  milk  are  madfl  cheisse  and  butt*r  and 
miiny  prgduclH  of  lewer  im|iorlanc«.  Cattle  are 
animals  for  poor  and  rich  alike.  With  a  very  few 
acrt'S  of  land,  a  few  fowls  and  a  cow,  a  family  can- 
not starve.  In  great  htrds  of  many  highly  developed 
and  elaborately  recorded  breeds,  cattle  aff(*rd  enWr- 
tainment  for  the  wealthy.  In  all  regions  of  men 
between  these  two  extremes,  cattle  are  sources  of 
sutxjistence  and  satisfaction. 

Cattle  have  reapondt^d  remark-ibiy  to  tho  needs 
of  man  by  varying  tinder  hi.'i  care,  and  dt'veloplng 
into  many  forms.  There  are  no  cattle  so  dwarf  as 
are  the  smallest  poniea  among  horses,  although  the 
Kerry  is  very  small,  bnt  diminutive  races  would 
undoubtedly  have  developed  if  there  had  been,  any 
utility  in  preserving  them :  yet  there  are  great 
ranges  of  size  and  shape  and  temperament.  Color 
ranges  from  clean  white  to  jet-black,  through 
roana,  grays,  bays,  and  various  grades  of  brown- 
reds,  and  with  many  brindled  and  parti -colored 
kinds.  The  first  great  development  of  cattle  was 
for  labor.  With  the  increasing  use  of  the  horse 
and  of  machinery,  this  utility  of  cattle  has  fallen 
away.  Perhaps  fashion  and  the  mere  desire  to 
move  quickly  have  had  something  to  do  with  this 
disuse ;  it  is  probable  that  work  cxen  can  be 
economically  used  at  the  present  time  in  American 
agricultare  to  a  greater  extent  than  thev  are  now 
employed.  The  second  great  evolution  o/ domestic 
cattle  was  into  breeds  that  are  specially  adapted 
for  the  producing  of  beef.  The  third  stage  is  the 
special  development  of  the  d.airy  cow,  coincident 
with  the  growth  of  cities,  and  the  demand  for  more 
of  the  amenities  of  living.  There  has  arisen  a 
strong  divergence  in  form  of  body  and  in  consti- 
tution between  tho  beef  tx-pe  and  the  dairy  type. 
This  divergence  has  emphasized  the  departure  from 
the  older  un|)edigTeed  cattle,  so  much  so  that  we 
now  often  speak  of  animals  that  are  profitabte  in 
production  of  both  beef  and  milk  as  "dual-purpose 
cattle." 

With  the  developmi>nt  of  understanding  of  the 
physiological  laws  of  ft-eding,  caltlv-farming  has 
taken  on  a  new  significance  and  impetus.  New 
interests  have  centered  about  it.  To  this  interest 
\s  now  to  be  added  a  rational  practice  In  stable 
construction  and  in  general  care,  and  a  new  reall- 
Kation  of  what  ts  meant  by  cleanliness.  Breeding 
is  taking  new  direction.  In  tbe  meantime,  the 


302 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


general  agricultural  economy  has  undergone  great 
change,  calling  for  new  adaptations  in  the  cattle. 
According  to  theYearbook  for  1906,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  number  of  cattle  in. 
America  was  as  follows : 


1    YMtr 

Totkl 

72,534,000 
1,616,422 

18 
102,908 
260,225 

Dairy  cows 

Unitku  States: 

Contiguons — 
On  farms      .   .   . 
Not  on  f  anna  .  . 

NoncontiinioQB : 
Alaska  (on  farms) 
Hawaii  (on  farms) 
Porto  Rico  .  .   . 

1907 
1900 

1900 
1900 
1899 

1905 
1906 
1906 
1906 
.1906 
1901 

20,968.000 
973,033 

13 

4,028 

73372 

Total  United  StateB(ex- 
oept  Philippine  Is.) . 

Canada: 

New  Bninswick  .   . 

Saskatchewan  .  .   . 
Alberta 

74,513,573 

230,000 
2,963.618 
521,112 
472354 
950,632 
2,123,932 

22,018,446 

111,084 
1,129,047 
170,143 
112,618 
101,245 

Other    

1,033,295 

Total  Canada   .... 

7.262,148 

2,657,432 

The  same  Yearbook  gives  the  number  and  value 
of  milch  cows  and  other  cattle  in  the  United  States: 


Index  to  Cattle  Articles 

Pnir* 

Origin  of  Domestic  Cattle 302 

Selection  and  Management  of  the  Dairy  Herd     .    .    .  303 

The  Production  of  Milk 309 

Feeding  Dairy  Cattle 313 

Feeding  Beef  Cattle :    .    .  317 

Determining  the  Age  of  Cattle 321 

Common  Ailments  of  Cattle 321 

Aberdeen-AngOB  Cattle ^130 

Ayrshire  Cattle 333 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle 337 

Devon  Cattle 339 

Dutch  Belted  Cattle 341 

French-Canadian  Cattle 343 

Galloway  Cattle 345 

Guemsey  Cattle 348 

Hereford  and  Donble-Standard  Polled  Hereford  Cattle  351 

Holatein-Friesian  Cattle 355 

Jersey  Cattle 361 

Oxen 366 

Red  Polled  Cattle 367 

Shorthorn  and  Polled  Durham  Cattle 369 

Sussex  Cattle 376 

Some  of  the  Lesser  Known  Breeds  of  Cattle   ....  377 

Origin  of  Domestic  Cattle. 

By  Frederick  B.  Mumford. 

Domestic  cattle  have  been  derived  from  at  least 
three  distinct  prehistoric  species,  Bot  primigenitUf 
B.  longifront;  and  B,  frontom*.  The  first,  B. 
primigenius,  also  called  Urus,  was  the  species  do- 
mesticated by  the  Swiss  lake-dwellers,  and  existed 


Milrh   rowi 

1              Oihcr  catile 

Number 

Prk« 
per  head 

Fatid  value 

^'-'■"       1    po^V.7.d 

Farm  raloe 

January  1, 1867 

January  1, 1907 

8.348.773 
20,968,265 

$28  74 
31  00 

$239,946,612 
645,496,980 

1                                                            1 

'    11,730,952        $15  79 
51,566,731          17  10 

$185,263,850 
881,667398 

The  Canada  Yearbook  for  1905  gives  the  value 
of  milch  cows  in  Canada  in  1901  as  $69,237,- 
970,  and  of  other  horned  cattle,  $54,197,341.  The 
number  of  milch  cows  in  Canada  in  1871  is  given  as 
1,251,209,  and  in  1901  as  2,408,677 ;  the  number 
of  other  homed  cattle  in  1871  is  given  as  1,373,081, 
and  in  1901  as  3,167,774. 

Litero/urc. 

The  literature  on  the  types  and  breeds  of  cattle 
is  scant,  and  for  the  most  part  is  combined  with 
discussions  of  the  other  common  farm  stock.  There 
are  few  monographs.  Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of 
Farm  Animals,  Ginn  &  Co,  (1906);  Shaw.  The  Study 
of  Breeds,  Orange  Judd  Co.  (1905);  Wallace,  Farm 
Live-stock  of  Great  Britain,  Orange  Judd  Co. 
(1908);  Allen,  American  Cattle.  New  York  (1890); 
Flint,  Milch  (^ws  and  Dairy  Fanning,  Boston 
(1889);  Housman,  Cattle:  Breeds  and  Management, 
London  (1897);  (Consular  Report,  Cattle  and  Dairy 
Farming, Washington  (1887);  Youatt,  Cattle:  Their 
Breeds,  Management  and  Diseases,  London  (1835); 
Brooks,  Agriculture, Vol.  Ill;  Craig,  Judging  Live- 
stock ;  Sanders,  Breeds  of  Live-stock.  See  special 
references  given  under  the  several  breeds. 


in  considerable  numbers  down  to  historic  times  in 
the  forests  of  Europe.  Caesar  mentions  this  animal 
as  having  been  seen  in  large  numbers  in  the  Her- 
cynian  forest,  and  describes  it  as  being  little 
smaller  than  an  elephant,  hut  with  the  form  and 
character  of  a  bull. 

The  Friesland  cattle  of  continental  Europe  and 
the  Pembroke  cattle  of  Wales  are  supposed  to 
have  descended  from  the  Urus.  Degenerate  exam- 
ples of  this  species  exist  at  the  present  time  in  the 
parks  of  Great  Britain,  Cadzow  forest  and  Chilling- 
ham  park  containing  the  purest  specimens  of  these 
animals.  They  are  white  with  reddish  ears,  and 
become  fierce  and  dangerous  when  angered.  The  B. 
longifrons,  or  Celtic  ox,  formerly  wild  in  Sweden, 
was  also  bred  by  the  ancient  lake-dwellers.  It  is 
smaller  than  our  modern  breeds.  Owens  regards 
this  species  as  the  original  of  the  Welsh  and  fligh- 
land  breeds  of  cattle,  and  later  of  the  Shorthorn. 
B.  frontoxus  was  large:  than  B.  longifront,  bnt 
existed  with  it  in  Scandinavia.  The  mountain 
cattle  of  Norway  are  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  this  species. 

The  domesticated  cattle  of  the  world  are  now 
thrown  into  two  species:  the  Bos  iaurut,  or  common 


CATTLK 


CATTLE 


303 


cattle  of  Europe  an<]  America,  and  the  D.  Iiidica/. 
the  bamped  cattle  of  India,  aUo  called  zebus.  The 
humped  zebus  were  domesticated  in  E^ypt  2,000 
jrears  before  the  i.'hristian  era.  Th«.v  are  ditstiti- 
^iabed  from  common  cattle  principally  by  an 
tnuneose  hitmp  of  fat  over  the  shoulder  and  a  loo^e 
and  very  iar{^  dewlap,  drooping  ean«,  ahort  horn» 
snd  thin,  sloping  bip9  and  rumps.  They  are  exten- 
sively employed  as  beasts  of  burden  and  are  often 
used  as  saddle  animals.  They  have  an  eafsy  trot  or 
gallop,  with  ((reat  powers  of  endurance,  being  able 
to  cover  sixty  or  seventy  milts  in  a  day.  The 
appearance  of  a  male  albino  among  the  herds  is 
hailed  with  great  jny,  and  tbio  animal  becomes  the 
sacred  bull  of  India  and  plays  a  very  important 
part  in  certain  religious  festivals.  The  zebus  enjoy 
a  dry,  warm  climate  and  avoid  water.  [Tliic  Zubus, 
also  known  a;^  Ilrabmin  or  Sacred  cattle,  are  diis- 
cuased  at  length  on  page«  378,  379.] 

The  prevailing  type  of  cattle  common  to  Europe 
and  .\merica  belongs  to  the  species  It.  taurut. 
From  this  anim,i1  all  the  various  racea  and  breeds 
have  deecendeil.  This  form  early  reached  a  high 
degree  of  develo]Hnent  in  Europe,  and  from  this 
center  has  been  widely  dcspiTsed  to  every  civiliied 
country  on  the  globe.  The  first  attempts  at  selec- 
tion were  very  crude,  and  little  progresfl  was  made 
toward  the  present-day  highly  specialized  form*. 
The  systematic  improvement  of  cattle  by  man  be- 
ma  about  the  clo^e  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  greatest  progress  was  made  in  Groat  Itritain, 
and  to  Robert  Bakewell  (1725-1795).  of  L^icvster- 
shire,  England,  must  be  given  the  credit  of  produc- 
ing such  markedly  superior  animal  types  as  juittly 
to  have  entitM  hini  to  the  dihtinclion  of  bt;ing 
called  the  father  of  the  science  and  art  of  modern 
cattle-breeding. 

The  domefltic  races  of  cattle  which  exhibit 
enouKh  fixity  of  type  to  be  calk-d  distinct  breads 
are  very  numerous.  A  general  cja^isilication  divides 
existing  breedd.  into  beef  and  dairy  cattle.  Xo 
sharp  line  of  distinction  exists  between  the  two, 
although  there  is  a  wide  difference  betwwn  the 
extreme  developmr-nt  of  these  two  types.  The  most 
conmon  special  iK-ef  breeds  in  America  are  Short- 
horn, Hereford,  Aberdw-n-Angus,  Galloway,  Sussex, 
Polled  Durham  and  Polled  Hereford.  The  extreme 
dairy  types  are  represented  by  the  Jersey,  Ilolstein- 
Friesian,  Ayrahire.  Guernsey,  Dutch  Belied.  French- 
Canadian  and  the  Kerry.  Several  existing  breeds 
an  ralaed  for  both  mitk  and  beef,  and  are  called 
dnal-purpoee  cattle.  The  breeds  belonging  to  this 
claas  are  the  Red  Polled.  Frown  Swiss,  Devon  and 
some  families  among  Shorthorns.  At  a  recent 
meeting  of  the  .\merican  Brown  Swiss  Cattle 
Breeders'  Assooiation,  huwever,  a  resolution  was 
ODaniroously  adopted  to  bree<l  the  Ttrown  Swiss  only 
for  the  distinct  diiiry  type-.  Mi«ceHaneous  other 
brsede  are  represented  in  America  in  small  num- 
ben.  [Some  of  these  lesser  known  breeds  are 
discussed  on  pages  ,^77--3Jt2.] 

For  further  discuftsiona  of  the  zocilogical  relations 
of  cattle,  see  the  standani  zoiitogies ;  ivvdekkcr, 
Wild  Oxen,  Sheep  and  Goats :  Robert  Wallace, 
Parni  LtT^^tock  of  Great  Britain. 


Selection  and  Management  of  the  Dairy  Herd. 

Kig«.  3.?l-n;tV 

By   ./.    .V.    Trurmun. 

In  selecting  a  dairy  herd  )t  is  necessary  to  have 
clearly  in  mind  the  type  that  is  best  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk.  It  is  not  lo  be  expected  thiit  the 
animal  that  |xjs.^!ises  theability  to  use  food  econom- 
ically for  the  pnxluctioo  of  meat  will  also  be-  able 
to  use  it  economically  in  the  production  of  milk. 
The  giving  of  milk  is  a  different  function  from 
the  production  of  meat  Those  animals  that  give 
large  qu-intities  of  milk  for  the  sustenance  of  their 
young  are  likely  to  become  thin  during  the  milking 
period.  The  production  by  a  cow  of  thirty,  forty, 
or  fifty  pounds  of  milk  per  day  calls  for  the  use  of 
food-materials  in  suchquantities  33  to  make  it  neces- 
sary for  all  the  energies  of  thti  body  to  be  devoted 
to  that  one  object.  Furthermore,  the  ability  to  pro- 
duce milk  in  large  quantities  at  the  expense  of 
laying  up  body  fat  becomes  so  characteristic  of 
the  good  cow  that  she  remains  comparatively  thin, 
even  when  well-ft-d  and  not  milking.  It  is  true  that 
individuals  are  found  that  are  f.iirly  large  milkers, 
and  yet  show  a  beef  type;  these  cows  are  rare, 
however,  and  it  has  not  been  proved  that  they  are 
economical  producers  of  both  beef  and  milk. 

The.  generul-purpoae  owr.    (Pigs.  49,  385.) 

Many  breeders  have  tried  to  establish  a  breed  of 
cows  that  would  be  fine  milkers,  and  whose  off- 
spring wonld  at  the  same  time  be  valuable  as  feed- 
ers for  the  butcher.  They  have  failed  to  produce 
a  general-purpose  or  dual-purpose  Ctiw  of  much 
merit,  and  must  continue  to  fail  to  the  end  of  time, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  a  high  development  of 
either  function  must  always  be  at  the  expense  of 
the  other.  The  cow  that  will  use  her  food  for  the 
production  of  8.000  pounds  of  milk  per  year  wilt 
not  transmit  to  her  offspring  the  ability  to  pro- 
duce a  fine  carcass  of  beef. 

The  dairy  coir.   (Riga.  331,  332.) 

The  cows  that  should  be  selected  for  a  dairy  herd 
are  charactc-riziHl  by  sparenesa  of  form,  good  heart 
and  lung  development,  and  large  digestive  appara- 
tus. A  spare  form,  accompanied  by  gooil  appetite 
and  vigorous  health,  indicates  that  the  food  is  used 
for  the  production  of  milk.  Lung  and  heart  power 
are  shown  bv  di-plh  and  width  of  chest,  and  thick- 
ness through  the  girth.  The  ribs  should  bo  well 
sprung.  The  Itoor  of  the  chest  should  be  wide, 
without  a  coarse,  heavy  brutket  as  in  beef  cattle. 
The  skin  should  be  soft  and  pliable,  indicating  good 
circulation.  Good  appetite  and  great  digestive 
powers  are  shown  by  a  general  vigorous  appearance, 
large  muzile  and  large  abdomen.  In  viewing  the  side 
of  the  cow.  the  ruar  h.'ilf  wf  the  body  should  show 
deeper  and  heavier  than  the  front,  the  back  line 
and  belly  line  should  diverge  from  front  to  back, 
showing  a  large  development  of  abdomen  and 
udder.  This  divergence  must  not  be  secured  by 
lack  of  depth  in  the  front  of  the  body,  but  by  extra 
depth  in  the  rear  half. 

The  tendency  to  use  food  for  the  production  of 


aai 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


<^U 


milk,  or  the  dairy  temperament  as  it  is  called,  is 

xhown    by  tack  of  fullness  and   roundness  in  the 

nuf^lM  all  ovvr  the  body.  The  thi^h  is  thin  aod 

in-curvvd.  The  shoalder  is  bony  and  the  vitben 

thin  and  wedg&Hihapud.  Thv  healthy  cow  shoald 

havt-  a  general  appearance  of  vigor 

and  alertne«.H.  ant)  at  the  same  time 

ahow  a  bony  framework,  not  too 

prominent  and   not  coarse.   The 

best  tyjM  iH  Rhown  in  Figs.  3-11, 

332,  in  which  i^  seen  a  strong,  vie- 

orogs  body,  without  any  tunduncy 

to  Beshiness.  The  reverse  of  this 

type  is  seen  in  Fig.  333,  in  which 

we  have  the  tendency  to  lay  on 

tietib.  and  the  small  udder  that  be* 

longs  to  the  beef  tvpti.  [See  pages 

50,  310.] 

The  be«t  dairy  cows  poesees, 
besides  the  proper  form,  a  typical 
disposition.  They  arc  quiet,  docile, 
motherly  cows,  that  are  able  to 
prutluce  large  quantities  of  milk 
for  their  offspring,  and  yft  per- 
fectly willing  to  give  the  milk  to 
the  milker  instead  of  to  tho  calf ; 
cows  that  are  not  too  timid  and 
nervous,  and  yet  of  a  Ran  quality 
and  even  t«mper.im(;nt  that  apprty 
ciate  good  treatment  and  comfortable  quarters. 

Tht  dairfi  (mil.   (Pig.  XU.) 

Thd  bull  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  herd. 
It  is  not  posjtibte  to  say  di'flnit^ly  from  his  appear- 
ance whether  or  not  his  gut  will  have  dairy  merit. 
The  beist  that  can  bo  done  is  to  st'loct  for  dairy 
form  a.t  closely  as  pissible,  and  to  pay  close  atten- 
tion to  the  breeding  and  constitution.  The  boll 
lihould  be  a  "pure-bred."  He  should  have  a  recorded 
pedigree  that  shows  the  performance  of  his  ances- 


i^ 


f\ 


iJ' 


teS: 


^5. 


L^ 


^'<4- 


•-^l^/.'' 


tors.  A  ball  that  has  a  good  pedigree,  and  shows  a 
vigorous,  well-formed  body  without  l>eing  beefy  ts 
the  one  to  bay.  The  t^-pe  is  illostrated  ia  Fig. 
3;tl.  Here  wo  have  a  fine,  vigorous,  alert,  sym- 
metrkat  animal,  that  shows  do  indications  of  heavi- 


ji; 


:^f 


rU.  331.    CtuuDvtoD  HnlitellB-PrliMUii  raw,  CvloaUu  4Ui*c  JobAoiu.    AAt.  R.  Mo.  U40. 


Wg.  S31.    Cow  «(  dalTT  tj^e-     Rot*- 

Bett  or  ooarsenees.  It  is  not  necessary  to  look  for 
extreme  fineness  of  bone,  or  slendemees  of  form  in 
the  hull,  for  it  mast  be  renieml>ert>d  that  the  male 
above  all  things  should  be  strung  and  vigorous.  On 
the  other  hand,  undue  coarseness  of  bone  and  heavi- 
no^  of  shoulder  should  be  avoided. 

The  indiscriminate  use  of  scrub  bulls  cannot  be 
too  severely  condemned  as  a  business  proposition. 
It  has  been  well  ef^tahliAherl  that  careful  breeding 
and  selection  of  bulls  giren  them  preiHit«ncy,  or 
the  ability  to  get  aniformly  a  lielter  class  of  calves 

than  the  scrub. 
This  is  just  as 
true  of  the  cow 
as  of  the  bull. 
Pure  blood 
may  not  be 
good  blood  in 
some  cases.  It 
may  be  weak- 
ened  by  bad 
breeding  methods  and 
careless    selection.    R  n  t 
good  pure-bloods, — and 
the»e  I'Mn  ntwara  l>e  se- 
curwl, — art!   far  superior 
tu  the  avera^'L*  grades  that 
are  to  be  hiid,  and  very 
mnich    better  than    most 
crosses.     In    selecting  a 
dairy  heni,  get  the  tieAt 
available  money 
in  the  balls  first, 
■-» "        anil  then  in  cows.  On  this 
foundation.  snccesR  may 
ht!  expected. 


.  I  dairy  hent 

■    '  )■/ y^'  h!<«.H  then 

^  ^^—     ,  I  -  (   ,L.'      :,. 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


305 


st^ 


ly 


V- 


^^i?^ 


It  is  important  to  noto  that  it  t9  necessary  to 
study  indi^'iiiualH  in  selecting  a  dairy  herd.  No 
bra;*]  oniformly  pnnawsHy*  dairy  mprit.  Some  breeds 
poaamwpfl  it  in  t;rt'»ter  nuniWrs  than  othen),  but 
theiiiiility  to  use  tmA  ei^unumi* 
cally  fur  thtf  [trodut-tion  of  milk 
18  an  individual  charactt-Ttstit.- 
and  not  a  brwd  trait.  Cows  pos- 
aeesint;  this  dairy  teiT)|K'rainL-nt 
may  be  fonnd  in  all  hrei'idtt.  htit 
cannot  be  found  invariably  in  all 
the  individuaJi*  of  any  rine  hrptHl. 
Of  coarse  they  are  found  in  larg- 
eat  numbt^ra  in  tho  dairy  brt-i-dtt; 
80  much  80  that  tt  wuuld  be  folly 
to  attempt  to  select  a  dairy  ht-rd 
from  anything  except  a  dairy 
breed.  The  particular  breed  to 
select  from  will  depfnd  entirely 
on  the  preference  tif  thu  dairy- 
man ,  and  the  conditions  in  which 
he  is  placvd.  It  will  ^'nerally 
be  better  to  confino  attention  to 
one  bro^  in  each  herd,  rather 
than  to  mix  several  breo<)9'.  In 
many  caecfl,  by  adhering  to  one  breed,  a  working 
dairy  may  be  bred  up  to  such  an  extent  aft  to  make 
the  sale  of  hiirh-brw!  Kradvs  ur  of  pure-blood  ani- 
mals more  profitable  than  the  production  of  milk. 
Under  proper  manaKeraont  these  two  products  may 
well  be  developed  together,  and  enhance  greatly 
the  monoy«raaking  power  of  the  herd.  It  may  be 
well,  however,  t'l  emphiwiz'.'  "prop^-r  management." 
as  tht;  average  dairyman  will  Itnd  it  a  difficult  mat- 
ter tfl  handle  the  production  and  sale  of  high-pric«?d 
stock  succc'sxfijlly. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  aurmit*cd  that  the 
best  way  to  get  a  good  dairy  herd  is  to  breed  one. 
Such  a  conclnnion  in  nndoubtedly  correct.  It  is  not 
easy  to  find  iinimaUuf  the  right 
quality  on  the  market.  If  found 
at  all,  they  must  t>e  picked  up 
here  and  thtTc  at  high  prJco*. 
In  general,  then,  it  i»  best  to 
breeid  ap  a  herd  rather  than  to 
try  to  keep  it  up  by  buying. 
Having  decided  to  follow  this 
melhod,  the  beat  start  pottsibte 
should  he  made.  The  cow?  to 
start  witb  should  be  of  the  beft 
type  and  performance  to  be  had. 
■nd  shonfd  be  bred  to  the  best 
pure-bred  bull  that  the  available 
money  will  buy.  If  the  record 
of  the  cow's  performance  is  at 
hand,  it  should  »how  ii  yearly 
production  of  at  least  6,(K)C) 
pounds  of  milk,  and  250  pounds 
of  butter-fat.  That  is  not  a  high 
record,  but  itt  fair  U^  start  w-itb. 
If  8.000-pound  cows  can  be  had  with  300  pounds  of 
bnlter-fat,  so  moch  the  better.  Do  not  use  a  cow 
that  will  not  produce  more  than  4,000  pounds  of 
3.5  per  cent  milk  in  a  year.  Four  thoound  ponndi 

C20 


would  not  be  ao  bad  if  it  testM  6  per  cent  of  but- 
ter-fat, thus  giving  2-10  pounds  of  fat. 

Tlie  caTt  of  young  rtoek. 
Having  selected  the  foundation  of  a  herd,  the 


/    \ 


•-"?-■ 


.'?^-^ 


Plf .   SU.     Cow  Dot  Ol  tX^  dAlty  tn«. 

next  imjiortant  point  is  the  selection  of  the  calves 
that  are  to  be  reared.  This  Li  not  an  easy  propo- 
sition. T>Le  beat  we  can  do  is  to  raise  the  well- 
developed  heifer-caives  from  the  Ixyst  cows.  Only 
th'»e  that  are  plainly  deficient  need  be  killed  at 
birth.  The  majority  of  the  heifers  will  be  healthy 
and  vigorous,  and  can  lie  given  a  trial.  M<Mt  of  the 
bull-c«l%"ea  shnnld  bt-  killed  at  once  or  sold  to  men 
who  will  fatten  them  for  veal.  It  wili  seldom  pay 
the  dairyman  to  use  six  weeks'  milk  to  fatten  a 
dairy  calf  for  veal. 

The  heifer*  rftould  Iwi  fed  on  skimmed  milk  and 
quickly  taught  to  eat  meal  and  hay  or  grass.  The 
feeding  of  whole  milk  is  not  necessary  for  any 


n\ 


». 


■^4 


%S^ 


-^^^^^^m^ 


FII.3M.    Twvywr-atd  letNjr  bun. 

length  of  time.    What  is  wanted  is  a  (^wing 
healthy  animal  with  a  good   appetite,  and  not  a 
pampered  f&tling. 
The  beUers  shoald  be  bred  at  about  twenty-ona 


2r#; 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


'jif  tk<«  »eixAi.  If  urz4  uwj  ivrnii;.  hrv^izs;  at 
«ifl[jEt<tMi  3Mr.*J»  vi^I  t*/,  BA  harm ;  tf  iackw^ri,  h 

TIm;  £nt  (f^M  'if  lATUti^A  will  i^re  a  fair  'Aa 
'4  Um  caforyi^iSi^  '/f  tiK  J'fi^ff  ov.  It  u  at  the 
«l)ij  of  tAtsi  £rft  ii«n/;d  tkat  Tif^ffr^nM  weeding;  oat 
xb^/iM  tak«  p'm-j:.  ^'~*^.  ^^'^  ^^^  l>^  faiM  to 
irikw  ff/y.*!  m'iU',T.z  1-ulitMfl,  and  a  nnrfm^  XatAtitcj 
Ut  iim  fi^  IhUf  milfc,  aivl  tA  coatin'K  it  notil 
vitbin  at  bsut  )>:z  w^o^lu  or  tvo  months  of  the 
writ  nzh'inx  t'lrM.nhtn)^  b«  ducaHol 

A  bAif«fr  w'/ijM  V«e  calM  pr'^ffniaing  if  ^k  pra- 
thvj^  2(^f  Vi  2i/t  prjandM  of  Wtter-fat  vitbin  a 
r«ar  aft«r  «ir</ffpinK  h«r  tSrnt  calf.  A  heifer  foiling 
Wl//ir  ^^j  ptflin^x  of  fat  w^nld  be  rf^gaHed  with 
WQUfkUia, and  ^horil'j  hnduKariinA,  anlau  tb«;re were 
Mrm«  nyift:iA\  rt^ajftn  for  giving  her  another  trial 
TfaM  i*  the  i*eRt  time  U^  tarn  the  p^^or  heifers  into 
l)««f,  and  that  in  their  only  dextinr.  If  not  good 
dairy  i>erfonnent,  they  are  likely  lit  Sit:  in  fair  ^h, 
and  an  they  are  yoang  and  tender  the  batcher  will 

By  mw«  for  them  now  than  at  any  other  time, 
ey  will  generally  bring  a  price  that  will  pay  the 
coat  of  raining  th';m,  and  iK>metimef)  a  little  more. 
If  they  are  kept  for  Heveral  years,  however,  they 
are  cvniitantly  adding  to  their  &«i  and  becoming 
ponrer  \m:1.  A  more  rigid  weeding  oat  ohoiild  take 
plaM  again  at  the  end  of  the  necond  period  of  lac- 
tation. Th'W!  heififra  that  were  given  a  necfjnd  trial 
ihouM  >)e  dropp(^,  unletut  they  have  materially  im- 
prnverl  on  tlw;  fimt  yi:af»  rvcttri.  It  is  a  poor  prac- 
tice to  kM!)i  any  cow  that  it*  not  doing  well.  Every 
animal  in  the  dairy  herd  should  be  an  economical 
pr(]duc4!r. 

The  length  of  the  milking  jieriod  haa  a  great  deal 
t**  do  with  the  amount  of  milk  prodaced  in  a  year. 
It  in  im[KirtnnL  Unit  the  heifer  8hali  milk  persist- 
ently. This  hnliit  mtiy  t>c  encouraged  in  the  yoang 
c<iw  by  delftying  her  wwjond  pregnancy.  Do  not 
bribed  the  Sf-cond  time  until  at  least  six  months 
after  dropping  the  fifHtciiif.  This  lenvcH  her  free 
to  devoUt  her  energies  to  the  production  of  milk. 
It  must  Im  nimembered  that  the  heifer  is  still  grow- 
ing, and  net-ds  to  develop  a  vigorous  bcxly.  The  first 
pregnnnry  nnd  the  l(u;tation  period  following  tend 
to  iisLaltlish  the  milking  habit,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  develop  duiry  tcmjwrament.  The  giving  of  milk, 
well  started,  mny  be  continued  for  some  months 
without  Hubjcctirig  the  young  cow  to  the  strain  of 
rnUing  two  (-hIvc-h  within  a  short  period.  If  she 
does  not  ri-n|iiirid  to  this  management,  but  "goes 
dry"  in  six  or  eight  months,  she  had  better  be 
tumwl  ovur  to  the  butcher  at  once. 

The  time  of  year  nt  which  the  calves  shall  be 
dropjM'd  is  worth  rtmHidoring.  The  prices  of  dairy 
pnxlucts  are  invariably  much  higher  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter  than  in  the  spring  and  early  summer. 
For  this  n-.-tHiiii,  it  is  g(i(Kl  busincHS  policy  to  have 
n  Inrgu  flow  of  milk  in  tlie  fall.  This  is  iu'complished 
by  having  n  majority  of  the  cows  freshen  in  the 
fall ;  local  conditions  will  determine  just  how  many. 
One  of  thu  great  luWantnguH  of  dairying  us  a  busv 


warn  »  li^  faes  uas  vat  isefoat  x  ox^sntxa. 

aad  barr^uti.  vc  zjit  nxxrx  anan  a.  <sKa  w-iek 
*x  wfMSk.  f'x  u3i  namtoL,  aZ  latt  oymt  atxui  aoc 
calrt  dzris^  s^t^ik  maairAL.  **s.  itixc  iarmi  CAe 
but  msltj  wZ  b^  4c«afibM  ^jsnaiis^tik^  3ia;4riCT 
of  tbe  eaf  T«c  ir-j^^^gi  ^  zat  fiZ.  tai  Uie  r>saiaief 
dtstribouii  trtsij  ia.  ziut  fxhgr  m^mu. 

Tie  art  ^  lie  t«2. 

The  age  of  the  boll  I^x  ^9e  fi  tbt  berd  b  impor- 
taat.  It  has  been  the  rsstijm.  ia  us  consirj  to  use 
very  ywmg  bells.  T1i».  3  haelt  ta  j  boc  be  a  bad 
practice,  provided  the  jwa^  tMimal  is  boc  used  too 
much ;  but  to  dispose  of  a  bcH  as  soon  as  be  is  two 
yean  cdd,  witboot  ksowisg  vbecfer  or  not  his 
ealres  will  be  great  prodacefs.  is  csww.  He  may 
be  of  great  valae.  and  sfaocM  be  k^  long  eooogh 
to  demonstrate  his  wwth. 

If  not  properiy  haodkd.  a  boll  is  liable  to  become 
cross  and  dangeroos.  Ue  sbooid  always  be  given 
snfficient  exercise,  and  never  leased.  He  shonkl 
never  be  given  an  opportaniiT  to  do  damage.  Eeep 
bim  in  a  well-fenced  yard,  ud  do  not  let  him  nm 
with  other  cattle.  He  ehonld  be  fed  liberally  on  a 
well-balanced  ration — that  ts^  one  not  too  fatten- 
ing.  By  firm  and  kind  treatment.  mo»t  bulls  will 
remain  perfectly  safe  to  handle  until  they  are  too 
old  for  service.  A  ball  sboold  be  at  hi^  beiit  at  five 
to  ten  years  of  age,  and  yet  comparatively  few  are 
kept  after  they  are  three. 

The  care  of  the  herd. 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  managing  the 
feeding  and  stabling  of  a  dairy  herd.  The  first  is 
the  one  more  commonly  used,  in  which  the  cows 
are  pastured  daring  the  entire  grazing  season,  and 
stabled  dnring  the  winter,  and  the  second  in  which 
they  are  kept  more  or  less  closely  confined  during 
the  entire  year,  and  furnished  with  green  crops  as 
much  of  the  time  as  possible.  This  method  is  called 
the  soiling  system,  and  is  not  in  very  general  use, 
though  it  has  some  advantages  over  pasturing. 
More  cows  can  be  fed  on  a  given  number  of  acres, 
and  more  of  the  manure  can  be  saved.  The  labor 
is  much  greater,  however,  and  it  is  a  serious 
disadvantage.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  extra 
retams  per  acre  pay  for  the  increased  cost  in  hand- 
ling the  green  crops.  Furthermore,  it  is  somewhat 
easier  to  keep  cows  in  a  vigorous,  healthy  condi- 
tion when  ranging  free  on  pasture.  [See  Vol.  II, 
pages  569-574.] 

A  compromise  between  the  two  systems  has  of 
late  given  excellent  resnlte.  This  consists  in  put- 
ting up  an  extra  amount  of  silage  that  may  be  fed 
during  the  late  summer  months,  as  the  pastures 
dry  up.  Nothing  ia  better  than  the  fresh  pastures 
of  spring  and  early  summer,  and  a  larger  number  of 
cows  may  l)e  pastured  per  acre  early  in  the  season 
than  would  be  possible  if  the  pastures  were  to  be 
depended  on  for  the  entire  summer's  feed.  As  the 
grass  begins  to  get  short  and  dry  in  August,  or 
possibly  in  July,  it  is  supplemented  with  silage. 
This  makes  an  agreeable  substitute  to  the  cows, 
and  they  will  eat  it  heartily,  and  keep  up  in  milk 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


307 


^VV 


A' 


flow.  Siltge  is  also  a  pooi  food  for  the  cows  that 
are  soon  to  freshen,  anj  will  put  them  in  good  c^jd- 
dition  for  parturition,  and  for  heavy  mitkinK>  It 
may  be  fed  advantageously  in  the  stable  in  connec- 
tion with  a  grain  ration.  It  h  generally  aUvisabk- 
to  lue  grain  in  the  ru,tion.  even  when  on  pasture, 
anlesa  the  grass  jg  wry  rich  and  abundant.  It 
cannot  W  too  strongly  impressed  on  the  mind  of 
the  dairyman  that  the  cow  must  be  supplied  liber- 
ally with  food  of  good  quality,  and  with  pure  water 
in  atmndance.  If  phe  is  to  do  her  best. 

Stahtittg. 

Over  a  large  part  of  this  country,  it  is  important 
that  the  cows  be  provided  with  shelter  from  the 
son  in  summer  weath&r.  The  heat  and  tlies  com- 
bine to  make  them  do  uncomfortable  that  doing 
anything  like  their  best 
becomeu  impossible. 

Over  a  large  part  of 
the  United  State*,  dairy 
cattle  must  be  housed 
several  months  in  a  year. 
The  barn  should  he  light, 
well  ventilated  and 
warm  enough  to  prevent 
wat^r  freezing  in  the 
coldest  weather.  The 
cowg  mnrt  be  kept  in  the 
barn,  at  least  in  tbu 
northern  two-thirds  of 
the  country,  for  thrt- e  to 
six  months.  It  ia  impor- 
tant that  they  be  kept 
comfortableand  healthy, 
and  maintain  good  ap* 
petites.  In  order  to  do 
Fo,  they  must  not  be 
kept  tw»  closely  hou.>icd. 
Freah  air  and  a  limited 
amount  of  exercise  in 
the  open  are  both  con- 
ducive to  making  the 
cow  enjoy  life,  and  keep- 
ing    lier     in     vigorous 

health.  The  cow  shnuM  he  made  to  enjoy  living 
every  hour  of  evury  day.  rio.se  atabling  for  days* 
at  a  time  withont  any  opportunity  to  move  away 
from  tho  stall  ia  not  good  managi'ment.  For 
this  reason  it  ia  not  well  to  depend  loo  much  on 
aystenu  of  watering  whila  thu  cow  ia  fltanding  in 
the  fttall.  Bh&  needti  tho  change  and  the  exercise  to 
to  be  derive<l  by  going  out  of  tho  atable  to  drink. 
That  does  not  mean  that  she  should  go  out  in  the 
cold  and  drink  ice-wat«r.  A  tiheltt>re<l  drinking- 
tank  in  which  the  water  U  not  allowed  to  liecmne 
freezing  cold  should  bu  iumXy  accesBiblo  to  the  herd. 

It  has  often  been  Miid  that  all  tho  oxorcim;  a  cow 
takes  and  alt  the  aniiniil  heat  that  is  used  up  in 
being  turned  out  in  tho  cold  is  at  the  expense  of 
food  that  ghould  have  Iwen  saved  or  D.sed  for  pro- 
duction. iSuch  a  statement  fails  to  note  the  fact 
that  it  require)*  heiilLhy,  vignrmiH  iMidieH  to  tnuke  a 
good  OM'  of  foiid,  and  that  the  gain  in  vigdr  and 
appetite  from  exercise  in  fresh  air  more  than  off- 


sets thi}  loss  in  food.  The  ideal  metho<I  ofatablioff 
i&  to  furnish  each  cow  with  a  box-etall.  Thitu  ia  not 
practicable  with  the  general  herd.  It  may  be  done 
when  breeding  high-priced  piire-breds*.  The  com- 
mon method  ia  to  iio  by  tho  neck  in  atanthiona  or 
by  a  atrap.  If  the  stanchion  is  used,  it  should  be  a 
swinging  ore,  fastened  by  a  short  chain  nt  each 
end.  A  gf«Ml  stanchion  of  this  style  will  give  the 
cow  considerable  freedom,  and  yet  keep  her  within 
bounds.  The  old  rigid  stanchion  should  not  he  uned. 
If  the  cow»  are  kept  properly  gruomed  and  bodded, 
they  will  be  comfortable,  tied  in  the  swing  aUncb* 
ion  and  standing  on  a  platform  of  wood  or  cement. 
Probably  the  moot  comfortnbte  stall  next  to  the 
roomy  box-atall  is  one  of  the  Bidwell  or  Drown  type, 
in  which  the  cow  is  not  tied,  but  ts  kept  in  her 
place  by  a  chain  fastened  behind  her. 


FSLJJ 


ifl.jL-i 


'^* 


■-52^ 


- '-™.' 


■^•c;^ 


;-V*>r; 


m^i^^ 


y»1ViV.,.,.,n'''.. 


a 


Tic.  335.    A  nutbod  ol  BUble  nuaaEsmont,— the  vcnrntA  taciiTaTd. 

A  number  of  successful  dairymen  have  adopted 
the  method  of  tying  the  cows  only  while  milking 
and  allowing  them  to  run  loose  in  a  large  room  the 
remninder  of  the  time.  This  room  or  bam.  without 
stalling,  is  supplied  with  fevd-rackit  and  an  ample 
watoring-tn)ugli.  Here  the  cows  can  move  about 
at  will  and  lie  down  in  a  porft-ctly  natural  position. 
Thoy  will  lie  more  comfortable  than  in  any  other 
way  of  stabling.  This  is  well  illustratvd  in  Fig.  335, 
They  should  all  Iwdehonied.or  the  "b(»tfi"  c<>w8may 
injure  thomHhat  are  more  timid.  IX^horning  iseood 
practice,  no  matter  how  the  herd  is  (lUibled.  [See 
page  IfiO.J  The  length  of  time  the  cows  are  turned 
looai!  may  he  deu^rrainfd  by  each  dairyman.  Some 
will  find  it  convenient  to  kt<ep  them  in  the  stalls 
during  the  day  and  turn  them  looiK  at  night,  .ind 
others  will  keep  them  tied  only  long  enmigh  to  milk 
and  fee<l  some  gniin.  Silage  may  either  lie  fi>d  in 
the  miingpr,  while  the  cows  are  lieil  in  stiilU,  or  be 
put  in  thi5  racks.    It  is  probably  a  l>elter  iiractiee 


808 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


to  feed  the  silage  tn  connection  with  the  jfrain 
nitioti  in  Lhii  inangerti.  K:ich  cnw  can  hn  Kivf^n  the 
[►rofmr  amuiint  in  this  way.  and  ther«  will  ha  no 
dariRLT  of  the  stronger  ones  eating  too  much  and 
thu  timid  giittinp  too  Littla. 

This  method  of  handling  the  herd  snves  the 
manure  in  ffnod  condition.  The  Uoor,  which  may  be 
of  wntf-nt  or  of  dirt,  should  lie  kept  covered  with 
straw,  or  noma  other  alisorlient.  This  need  not  he 
cleuneci  out  for  several  ilaj-s,  or  even  weeks.  The 
conAtunt  tniinpliiiK  of  the  cattle  makex  a  compact 
mans  of  manure  that  is  in  exccdlent  conditiuii  to  pre- 
vent los3  of  fertility.  It  may  htj  hauled  out  at  any 
convenient  time.  The  building  should  lie  providc-d 
with  large  doors,  so  that  the  manure-spreader  may 
be  driven  inside  and  loaded. 

In  conniderinjc  methotls  of  gtabHnK,  it  should  he 
rememl)nred  that  the  dairy  cow  needs  to  he  kept 
clean.  Milk  is  used  for  food,  and  it  ahauld  iiw  pro- 
daced  in  &»  clean  a  way  it»  possible.  Thin  ia  more 
easily  accoraplij»hed  by  keeping  the  cows  Io*)»e 
than  in  any  other  way,  provided  plenty  of  bedding 
material  is  ui^ed.  The  cow»  should  be  regularly 
groomed  —not  only  for  cleanlinej«,  but  because  it 
improves  the  health  and  incren^ieH  the  comfort  of 
the  cows,  a»  well  us  increasing  their  etPiciency. 
tSee  pagea  147,  148.] 

FtedinQ  the  rfatry  emu. 

In  feeding  the  dairy  cow,  those  foods  should 
be  chosen  that  will  produce  a  vigorous  mascular 
growth.  In  general,  the  dry  matter  of  the  ration 
ebould  consist  of  one-third  concentrated  food,  or 
grains,  and  two-thirds  ronghace.  The  average  cow 
will  raaku  good  use  of  seven  to  ten  pounds  of  grain 
per  day.  and  lifteon  to  twenty  pounds  of  hay  and 
corn-fodder,  or  forty  pounds  of  silage  and  five  to 
ten  poiinrU  of  hay.  Peed  a  variety  whenever  possi- 
ble. Do  not  make  variety  by  feeding  one  or  two 
grainij  for  a  few  weeks  and  then  changing  to 
another  mixture,  but  put  as  many  varieties  as  pos- 
sible, or  M  is  economical,  into  one  mixture,  and 
feed  that  steadily  for  months. 

The  great  point  to  be  considered  in  feeding  ia  to 
lieep  up  an  even  flow  of  milk.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished only  by  regularity  in  feeding,  and  by  furnish- 
ing  good  food  in  abundance.  Just  as  the  young 
heifers  must  be  encouraged  to  milk  out  a  full  lacta- 
tion period  of  eleven  months,  or  more,  so  the  muture 
cow  should  be  kept  up  to  a  large  How  as  long  as 

Eosaible.   It  u  the  perai-ttent  milker  that  makes  the 
ig  yearly  record,  and  yearly  records  are  what  is 
wanted. 

In  feeding  the  calves  and  young  beif'ers.  good 
growth  must  be  the  object  in  view.  Whole  milk 
need  not  be  given  the  calves  for  more  than  a  few 
days.  Skimmed  milk,  with  some  cooked  com  meal 
or  linaeed  meal  in  small  quantities,  will  give  rapid 
and  vigorous  growth,  and  [trodure  &.^  good  a  dairy 
cow.  or  oven  better  than  one  that  is  fed  whole 
milk  and  fattened  from  the  time  of  H»  birth.  Some 
dairymen  contend  that  the  young  heifer  may  be 
fattened  without  any  harmful  result.  They  assert 
that  if  she  ha.i  the  dairy  temperament  the  fat  will 
800n  disappear  when  she  begin**  to  milk.    Poasibjy 


that  is  true,  hut  she  ia  more  tikely  to  have  dairy 
tt>m|)eruinent  if  the  habit  of  using  food  tu  lay  up 
liudy-fut  has  never  been  adjuired.  Feeil  thu  heifer 
for  good  btidy  development.  This  is  accomplished 
by  Dsing  nitrogenous  grains  and  a  fair  pm[M)rtion 
of  roughage,  (For  a  full  discunsinn  of  feeding,  sea 
pages  58-118 ;  also,  pages  aia-317.1 

Feeding  tim  dairy  buil. 

Tile  bull  should  lie  wt^ll  fed  and  given  daily  exer- 
cise. Keep  bim  vigorous,  not  fat  and  laKV.  Put 
him  in  a  troad-mill  and  make  him  walk  for  two  or 
three  hours  per  day,  Feed  him  ground  oaU,  wheat 
bran,  gluten  meal,  oil-meal,  silnge  and  clover  hay ; 
do  not  make  hJs  grain  ration  too  heavy,  not  more 
thnn  five  or  six  pounds  per  day  for  a  lOOO-pound 
animal. 

Milking, 

One  of  the  problemn  that  gives  lr«>uble  to  everj 
dairyman  who  keeps  many  cows  Is  how  tn  get  them 
milked.  Hand-milking  is  the  universal  cualom,  and 
a  careful  milker  cannot  be  equaled  by  any  machine 
that  ha.?  yet  been  devised.  It  is  almost  impossible, 
howev*^r,  to  serure  careful  milkers  at  ;in>1-hing  like 
common  farm  wages,  and  In  many  places  they  can- 
not be  secured  at  any  wage.  In  this  dilemma,  the 
dairyman  is  almost  forced  out  of  business.  A  num- 
ber of  milking-machines  are  on  the  market,  and 
their  ultimate  success  may  be  considered  assured. 
[For  a  fuller  discussion  of  milking  see  pages  S12, 
313.] 

Value  of  the  imlividtiaL 

In  the  management  of  a  dairy  herd  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  value  of  each  individual  be  ascer- 
tained. I'erhaps  nowhere  elie  does  the  custom  of 
judging  results  by  totals  cause  the  farmer  greater 
loss.  There  are  thousands  of  cows  that  do  not  pay 
for  the  feed  they  oat  each  year,  to  say  notbing  of 
making  a  profit.  These  cows  are  kept  at  work 
because  their  deficiencies  are  hidden  by  the  good 
work  of  other  cows.  The  fanner  is  fairly  well 
satisfied  if  his  dairy  herd  shows  a  profit  of  a  few 
hundred  dollars  per  year,  hut  he  fails  many  times 
to  realize  that  his  profit  would  have  been  jnrt  as 
largeur  Larger  with  only  half  as  many  cows.  If  thorn 
cows  that  are  nnt  profitable,  or  are  actually  being 
kept  at  a  lojw,  were  weeded  out  of  the  herd,  the  total 
profits!  would  be  increaaad.  An  account  with  each 
cow  is  easily  kepL  [i>ee  page  181.]  It  necessitates  the 
weighing  and  testing  of  a  certain  number  of  milk- 
ings.  The  amount  of  buttor-fat  given  in  a  year  is 
the  be»t  measure  of  a  cow's  value.  Fortunately,  tha 
Babcock  milk  test  furnishes  a  cheap,  simple,  speedy 
and  accurate  method  for  determining  tlie  percent- 
age of  fat.  The  milk  should  be  weighed  from  each 
cow  three  consecutive  days  in  each  month.  The 
average  for  the  three  days  is  multiplied  by  the 
days  in  the  month,  and  the  result  will  Iw  the  num- 
ber of  pounds  given  [>er  mouth.  A  composite 
sample  should  l)e  taken  of  theMi  six  milkings  and 
tested  for  fat.  Thi-  percentage  of  fat  secored. 
multiplied  by  the  pounds  of  milk  per  month,  will 
show  the  poQQds  of  fat  per  month.   In  this  way  it 


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CATTLE 


S09 


IK  aiMm  [kCHttiililip  tn  l^iH(•^^vc^  whitther  or  not  any  par- 
ticular cuw  ifi  iirufititLilti.  Not  only  iloeo  it  nhnw  the 
value  of  the  cow  as  a  milker,  Iiut  it  ttiven  the  best 
of  information  on  which  to  base  opurattoDS  of 
breeding. 

Literature. 

W.  A.  Henry,  The  Feeding  and  Manaf^cniont  of 
Cuttle,  pulilished  in  gpe^ial  report  on  Uiseasta  of 
Cattle  an<i  Cattle  Feeding,  Unite<j  Stutes  ['epart- 
ment  of  Ai^riculture,  Kuroau  of  Animnl  Industry 
(1H92) :  H.  B.  Alvonl,  Th«  Dairy  Her<I,  Us  Forma- 
tion and  Manajp-'ment,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  56, 
United  Statt-a  Depart mi-nt  of  Agricoltare  ;  W.  A. 
Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding,  <.'hapter  XXVIl!,  Madi- 
eon,  Wisconsin  ;  The  Creamery  I'atron's  Handbook, 
pul»ltshe<i  by  The  Natirmiil  D:iiry  Union,  ir>4  Lake 
Street,  Chicagn;  Farringtim  iind  Wull,  Testing  Milk 
and  Its  PrudueLs.  The  arliclfi*  in  dairy  papers  and 
WportB  of  dairy  aaaociationjt  are  innumerable. 

The  ProducUon  of  Milk.   Figs.  336-a39. 
By  H.  H.  Witiff. 

Dairy  husbandry  may  be  defined  as  including 
those  branches  uf  agriculture  that  have  to  do  with 
tbe  production  of  milk  and  it»  manufacture  into 
butter  and  cheese  and  thu  variouB  other  products 
that  may  be  made  from  it.  It  aUo  includes  the 
marketing  of  miik  to  b«  coTigumed  in  ita  originaE 
form  or  in  the  various  allied  prodocts,  such  as 
crt'am,  buttermilk,  and  the  like. 

Man  has  used  the  milk  of  animaht  ti»  a  part  of 
his  food  from  the  very  earliest  times,  and  early 
learned  to  manufactore  both  butter  and  cbee-se,  but 
the  development  of  dairy  hujibandry  an  a  special 
branch  of  industry  is  comparatively  modern,  and  it 
if!  only  within  vvry  recent  times  that  the  arts  con- 
nected with  this  industry  have  been  brought  to 
their  pres^ent  state  of  perfection. 

At  various  time>i>  and  in  various  countries  the 
nflk  of  a  con.<iiderabIe  number  of  different  animals 
has  been  us^d  for  purposes  of  food  or  manufacture. 
Of  thew  animaU,  besides  the  cow,  may  l>e  mentioned 
tbe  goat,  the  mare,  the  ass,  and  the  ewe  -  but,  with 
tbe  poMible  exception  of  the  goat,  the  cow  is  the 
only  animal  that  has  been  bred  and  developed  to 
give  milk  in  excess  of  that  demanded  by  the  young, 
and  cows'  milk  ie  the  chief  milk  used  at  the  present 
time  in  clvili£e<:l  countries  for  purposes  of  food  or 
muufacture.  The  amount  of  goats',  mares',  and 
•wee*  milk  utilized  is  so  small  as  to  be  entirely  in- 
iigniticant.  In  all  discussions  pertaining  to  dairy 
hiub&ndry.  cows'  milk,  and  cows'  milk  alone,  is  un- 
derstood. Recently,  in  the  United  States,  there  haa 
been  an  effort  to  introduce  the  milch  goat,  more 
particularly  for  furnishing  milk  to  be  consumed 
u  BOch  that  is  «(tip[Mwed  to  have  certain  advan- 
tBge«  over  cows'  milk.  The  attempt,  however,  is 
still  in  the  experimental  stage.  [See  Goat*:  aUo 
the  article  on  Buffalo.} 

Dairy  hnsbandry,  as  a  profitable  farm  industry. 
depends  very  largely  on  the  economical  production 
of  nilk,  and  that  dairyman  iii  the  mo^t  successful 
vbo  producce  the  largest  amount  of  milk  from  a 


minimam  number  of  animals  and  at  a  minimum 
c»jnt  for  fwHl  and  labor.  Cows  with  a  capacity  to 
secrete  large  quantities  of  milk  for  long  i>erii)dB  of 
time  are  the  fuundation  uf  asucceaMful  dairy  enter- 
prise, and  it  mutters  little  how  much  care  and  skill 
are  used  in  the  processes  of  manufacture;  if  tha 
cows  aro  not  good  and  satisfactory  producers  to 
begin  with,  there  can  be  little  profit. 

The  function  of  milk  profluction  is  closely  con- 
nected with  maternity,  and  the  production  of  a  calf 
is  thi;  comoKtn  and  pnictt<'Hlly  indiHpen.table  incen- 
tivu  to  secretion ;  but  Ihu  modern  dairy  cow  has 
been  bred  and  devcloiied  to  give  milk  so  far  in  ex- 
cess of  the  demands  of  the  calf,  and  for  so  much 
longer  period  of  time,  that,  once  the  secretion  has 
been  induced,  we  may  look  on  it.'*  continuation  as 
depending  entirely  on  the  individual  cap.icity  of 
the  animal  and  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  food 
furnished  to  her. 

HritrHy  speaking,  then,  the  secretion  of  milk 
depends  on  the  individual  capacity  of  the  cow  an<) 
the  amount  and  kind  of  food-supply.  .Nothing  is 
better  understood  by  dairymen  than  that  the  varia- 
tion in  natural  capacity  to  secrete  milk  is  very  great 
in  individual  animals,  and  that,  in  order  to  secure  a 
satisfactory  flow  yf  milk,  animalu  must  be  selected 
that  have  thi«  natural  capacity.  A  large  number  nf 
individuals,  even  amung  those  breeds  that  have 
been  especially  selected,  bred  and  developed  to 
secrete  milk,  fail  to  produce  in  a  eatisfactory 
way. 

'The  average  production  per  animal  In  the  United 
States  is  scarcely  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  food 
and  labor,  to  say  nothing  of  interest  or  profit  on 
the  investment.  According  to  the  United  States 
census  reports  of  1900.  the  average  annual  produc- 
tion per  cow  was  3.(X)0  pounds  of  milk,  equivalent 
to  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  butter. 
This,  at  SL25  per  hundred  weight  for  the  milk,  or 
25  cents  a  pound  for  the  butter,  would  yield  W5 
or  $37.50  per  cow,  respectively.  The  cost  of  fi>od 
may  be  reckoned  at  not  less  than  $40  per  cow  per 
year.  It  would  seera  that  a  cow  must  produce 
a  considerable  amount  in  excess  of  the  average, 
Itefore  the  owner  can  expect  any  satisfactory  return 
for  his  labor  or  investment. 

The  tendency  or  capacity  to  give  milk  is  con- 
ceded to  be  subject  to  heredity,  and  very  much 
progres!<  has  been  madu  in  thu  last  half  century  in 
developing  breeds  of  cows  that  not  only  are  large 
producers  of  milk  themselves,  but  that  transmit  the 
tendency  and  capacity  to  give  milk  to  their  descen- 
dants in  both  the  male  and  the  female  line.  In  this 
way  there  have  been  develof»ed  several  breeds 
of  cattle,  the  Jersey,  the  Ouern.sey,  the  Uolstcin- 
Frieflian,  the  .^vrshire  and  others,  chiefly  distin- 
guished for  the  liigh  average  production  of  the  indi- 
viduals compoeing  them ;  while  a  few  individuals 
in  various  breeds  have  distinguished  themselves  by 
the  production  of  an  amount  of  either  milk  or  bat- 
ter-fat so  far  in  excess  of  the  average  as  to  entitle 
them  to  the  rank  of  phenomenal  animals.  In  the 
United  States,  the  highest  accredited  yield  of  milk 
for  a  year  is  ;J0.318.5  pounds,  made  by  the  Hol.it*in- 
Friesian  cow,  Pietertje  2d,  from  February  24, 1887» 


310 


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CATTLE 


to  FeUninry  23,  18SS.  The  Largest  production  of 
buttor-fat  for  the  samt.-  Itii;<th  of  time  i»  998.256 
pQUmU,  and  was  maik'  tiy  the  HoUtein-t->ii^ian  cow, 
CoUiitha4th'H  Johanna,  for  the  jear  ending  Decem- 
lier  22,  U«T7.  The  highest  weekly  production  of 
butter-fat  ta  2S.I7(i  ivninda,  made  from  Februarys 
to  13,  1907,  by  the  Hc>lKt«in-PriesiaD  cow.Colanths 
4th'.>i  Johannu  (Pig.  Ii:i2).  A  daily  milk  yield  of 
more  than  lOQ  poanda  has  freriuenilr  beeo  made. 
A  yearly  production  of  8.I.KI0  poanda  of  milk,  or 
300  pounds  of  butter-fat,  cqnivak-nt  to  350  pounds 
of  butter,  wonld  indicate  a  profitable  dairy  cow, 
and  with  care  in  breeding  and  selection  it  is  not 
at  all  difficult  t^  secure  an  animal  that  will  pro- 
duce this  amount ;  and  a  dairyman  oatiKfit^  with  a 
len  production  than  this  could  banlly  bo  colled 
eoterf^rutinj;  or  8ucce«8fal. 

The  dairy  tgpe. 

It  has  long  been  recogniied  that  there  is  a 
greater  w  less  d«grw  of  correlation  betn-e«n  the 
Seneral  foiro  and  outward  charact^riatic*  of  the 
animal  and  ber  capacity  to  secret«  milk.  This  enb- 
Ject  has  been  stndted  with  a  great  deal  of  care,  and 
tbe  so-called  typical  dairy  form  has  been  described 
by  many  writers  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of 
particularity.  As  la  t€  be  expected,  the  supposed 
correlations  between  form  and  fanction  have  given 
rise  to  many  theories  that  have  not  found  firm 
foundation  in  fact.  Nevertheless,  the  leading  char- 
acteristics of  the  w-called  typical  dairy  form  are 
well  recognised.  They  inclade,  first,  the  wedges 
shaped  form,  that  is.  a  greater  development  of  the 
skewton  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  animal,  so  that 
in  outline,  particularly  as  viewed  from  the  side, 
tba  animal  has  a  wed^shaped  appearance,  caowd 
by  the  top  and  bottom  lines  diverging  from  before 
backward  ;  second,  the  angularity  caused  by  the 
prominence  of  the  bonea  of  the  shoulder,  back,  hips 
and  pelvix,  and  by  the  lack  of  mui>cnlar  develop- 
mi^nt,  which  gives  to  the  beef-animat  its  character- 
iiHtic  smoothn^s  and  roundnt-sf  of  form  ;  third,  the 
abnndance  of  fatty  secretions  in  the  skin,  particu- 
larly inside  the  ears  and  thighs,  and  along  the 
back-bone,  and  at  the  root  of  the  tail ;  fi^urth, 
the  large  deveEopment  of  the  mammary  gland,  or 
udder,  and  the  large  size  of  the  blood -vesaels 
connected  with  it,  particularly  the  exterior  veina 
extending  along  the  abdomen,  osnally  called  milk 
veins.   [See  pages  50,  303.] 

The  characteristics  of  the  dairy  form  are  com- 
monly studitrd  by  means  of  a  score-card  or  scale  of 
points,  in  which  the  various  characteristics  are 
described  more  or  less  minutely.  The  scales  of 
points  used  by  the  varioas  breeders'  associations 
and  educational  institutions  differ  somewhat,  bat 
in  the  main  they  agree  very  closely.  [For  a  dis- 
cussion of  score-cards,  the  reader  should  consult 
pageji  44-55.] 

It  shoald  be  home  In  mind  that  the  correlations 
between  form  and  function  in  the  dairy  cow  are 
not  as  yet  reduced  to  so  great  a  degree  of  accuracy 
that  the  form  is  to  Iw  taken  as  a  bettor  indication  of 
the  murit^  of  the  animal  than  her  known  capacity 
for  secretion.    lu  other  wunU,  an  authentic  reconi 


of  the  production  of  a  dairy  cow  is  by  far  the  beet 
indication  of  her  pruductiva  capacity,  l^is  is  so 
well  recognixed  that  the  best  breeden  nd  the  more 
i^ntvrprisinfr  breeders'  aasociations  ar«  s[>vnding 
large  amoants  of  money,  time  and  effort  in  secor* 
iag  authentic  records  of  production  of  their  animals 
to  be  used  as  a  baHi.4  for  .lelection  in  tbe  improve- 
ment of  future  generations. 

Importanet  tf  proper  ftedin<i. 

The  care  of  the  animal,  and  especially  the  food 
supplied  to  ber,  have  a  not  less  important  bearing 
on  tbe  profitable  and  economical  production  of  mile 
than  the  selection  and  brirvding  of  tbe  animaL 
Much  attentioo  has  been  given  to  the  qoestion  of 
intelligent  and  rational  stock-feeding,  particDlarly 
along  the  lines  of  dairy  production,  and  it  is  not 
proposed  to  enter  into  detail  here  further  than  to 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  unsjit  is  factory  pro- 
duction of  milk  is  due  to  an  insufficient  food  sappljr 
much  oftener  than  has  been  supposi-d.  While  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  there  are  many  animals  that 
can  not  be  made  to  increase  their  production,  no 
matter  how  abundantly  or  skilfully  they  are  fed,  it 
is  still  true  that  there  are  many  animals  whose 
production  would  be  materially  increased,  and  that 
from  being  entirely  unprofitable  could  l>e  made 
profitable  merely  by  more  liberal  feeding.  A  demon- 
stration of  this  sort,  made  at  the  Cornell  Univer- 
sity .A.gricultural  Experiment  Station  several  yeara 
ago.  showed  that  tbe  milk  supply  could  be  nearly 
doubled  in  the  same  animaU  in  a  single  year  merely 
by  more  abundant  food.  [See  pages  308, 313-3170 

\fiU:  aefrction. 

The  manufacture  and  quality  of  dairy  products 
depends  in  large  degree  on  the  character  of  the 
milk.  Hence,  a  knowledge  of  the  nature,  compo- 
sition, and  quality  of  milk  is  of  importance  to  those 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  products  from  it. 

Milk  may  be  defined  as  an  emulsion  of  fats  in 
a  w.itery  solution  of  milk-sugar,  proteids,  and  salts. 
It  is  an  opaque,  yellowish  white  fluid,  with  a  faint 
alkaline  reaction,  and  a  slightly  sweetish  taste.  It 
is  a  true  animal  secretion,  formed  in  the  mammary 
gland,  partly  by  transudation  or  osmosis  directly 
from  the  circulation  of  the  animal,  and  partly  by 
metabolism  taking  place  in  thv  cells  composing  the 
tissue  of  the  gland  itself,  the  exact  manner  of  tbe 
formation  of  its  various  constituent))  Iwing  more 
or  less  uncertain.  [See  HUk  at  a  Afarkei  Produtt^ 
pages  17G  187.] 

Tbe  mammary  gland,  or  udder  (Figs.  336.  337), 
is  a  itpongy  mass  of  tissue  situated  without  the 
body  cavity  and  held  in  place  in  a  fold  of  the  »kin 
by  a  network  of  fibrous  baTid?.  It  is  a  double  organ, 
and  in  tbe  cow  each  gland  is  partially  subdivided 
into  two  parts,  called  quartern,  each  furnished  with 
a  single  orifice  or  teat.  The  essential  parts  of  the 
gland  are  a  sj'stem  of  canals  or  ducts,  originating 
at  or  near  the  orifice  and  extending  by  BuMivision 
all  through  the  mass  of  udder  and  ending  in  a  group 
of  secreting  follicles  or  acini.  The  whole  structure 
is  abundantly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  nerves^ 
and  lymphatics,  and  is  bound  together  with  a  mass 


CATTfJA 


CATTLE 


Sll 


of  connective  tissue  in  which  there  is  depoaited 
more  or  less  fat. 

Tbo  prime,  but  by  no  means  indispensable  incen- 
tive to  the  secretion  of  milk,  va  the  birth  of  >™ng 
by  the  animal.  Casett  are  not  uncommon  in  which 
milk  has  be«n  secroti-d   by  virgin  animals,  and 


Fit.  ^M-    A  weD-lvjBBt  odder. 


Fls.  337. 
A  poorly  loimai  tiddai. 


instances  are  on  recon)  in  which  it  hai^  even  been 
secreted  fp)m  the  niJimeutary  glands  of  the  male. 
For  some  time  before  the  birth  of  the  younff,  the 
odder  takes  on  a  gra(iiul  enlart^ement,  which 
increues  rapidly  for  a  few  hours,  or  occasionally 
a  day  or  two  before  birth,  In  case  of  the  cow.  milk 
nsually  appears  in  the  udder  before  the  birth  of  the 
calf,  but  not  often  to  any  very  ureal  extent. 

Immediately  after  birth,  there  can  usually  be 
drawn  from  the  nddcr.  sercrjil  quarts  of  milk, 
which  is,  however,  quite  distinct  in  character  from 
that  secreted  later.  This  first  milk  is  known  as 
colostrum.  It  is  thicker,  denser  and  more  vl*coii.i 
and  higher  colored  than  normal  milk.  It  is  charac- 
teriied  by  a  much  leaa  content  of  water,  by  the 
fact  that  the  fat  is  variable  and  sometimes  much 
higher,  bnt  often  considerably  lower  than  that  of 
normal  milk :  but  chiefly  by  the  character  of  the 
proteids.  Colostrum  milk  contains  large  amounts 
of  albumin  and  comparatively  small  ameunts  of 
casein.  It  aUo  conCaind  a  greater  or  less  number 
of  microscopic  bodies  known  as  colostrum  corpus- 
cles, which  are  auppoaed  to  represent  the 
contents  of  the  recently  broken  down  iLtsue, 
and  in  some  cases  the  colostrum  contains 
more  or  less  of  tissue  debris.  Colostrum  has 
a  more  pronounced  odor  and  flavor  than  the 
normal  milk,  and  is  considered  unfit  for  con- 
STunptioQ  or  mannfacture.  It  cannot,  how. 
ever,  be  considered  in  any  sense  injurious, 
and  it  has  i  laxative  elTect  which  makes  it 
particularly  useful  for  the  young  animal.  It 
is  unfit  for  manufacture  into  butt«r  and 
cheese  mainly  l«C3u.4e  of  the  mechanical 
difRcuitiea  interpoaed  by  the  presence  of  the 
large  amount  of  albumin.  As  the  flow  of 
milk  becomes  established,  the  milk  gradti- 
ally  loses  its  colostrum  character,  and  in  the 
coaree  of  a  few  days  takes  on  its  normal 
characteristics.  The  proportion  of  albumin 
in  coloRtnim  is  sufficient  to  coagulate  the 
whole  mass  if  it  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  180*  Fahr.  When  the  {iroportiun  of  albumin 
is  reduced  to  auch  an  amount  that  the  milk  no 
longer  thickens  when  it  is  boiled,  it  is  ordinarily 
taken  to  have  changed  from  colostrum  to  normal 


milk.  This  may  occur  aa  quickly  ax  the  third  milk- 
ing after  parturition  and  is  seldom  delayed  beyond 
the  eighth  or  ninth,  unless  there  is  serious  inflam- 
mation of  the  udder  or  some  otber  constitutional 
disturbance  of  the  animal. 
Of  the  various  constituenta  of  milk,  the  water, 
librin,  albumin  and  salts  are  tran.tuded 
directly  from  the  blood-veasels  in  the 
walls  of  the  secreting  folliclevi  into  the 
cavity  of  the  follicle,  and  so  find  their" 
way  into  the  milk-ducts  and  finally  to 
the  orifice.  Casein,  fat,  and  sugar  are 
not  found  in  the  blood,  and  they  are  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  metabolic  prod- 
nets  formed  from  the  constituents  of  the 
blood  throuiih  the  metabolic  activity  in 
the  cells  making  up  the  tissues  of  the 
follicles.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  in  the 
fonnation  of  these  substances,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  there  should  be  a  rapid  cell  growth 
and  destruction  in  the  tissue  of  the  gland.  Whether 
this  is  necessary  or  not,  the  secretion  of  the  milk 
is  undoubtedly  accompanied  by  great  cell  activity. 
For  a  short  time  after  calving,  the  amount  of 
milk  secreted  increases  until  a  maximum  amount 
b  reached,  which  is  usually  within  a  month  of 
calving.  tVom  this  time  on,  the  flow  of  milk  is 
maintained  with  a  good  decree  of  rei^larity  for 
several  months,  and  in  exceptional  cases  may  con- 
tinue without  material  falling  olf  for  a  year  or 
more.  The  continuation  of  the  ttow  depends  on  sev- 
eral conditions.  In  the  Srvt  place,  there  is  a  natural 
tendency  for  the  Sow  to  decrea^s  due  to  the  shrink- 
ing of  the  blood-vessels  in  the  udder,  and  a  conse- 
quent less  flow  of  blood  in  this  direction.  This 
tendency  is  increased  after  the  cow  has  again 
become  pregnant,  and  in  many  cases  a  noticeable 
falling  olT  in  the  flow  of  milk  occurs  about  this 
time.  The  character  of  the  footl  and  the  regularity 
and  thoroughness  of  milking  are  also  important 
factors  in  maintaining  the  flow  of  milk.   In  order 


bh  Amtrtca,  aitii:«i!ui  m  Kiy  West.  When tUiplctan  wu  taken. 


to  maintain  the  (low  of  milk  wilhtmt  shrinking,  it 
is  not  only  necessary  that  the  animal  be  abundantly 
fed,  but  the  character  of  the  fnnd  is  also  an  im- 
portant factor.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
cows  that  drop  their  calvea  in  the  spring,  for  as 


312 


CAirr^ 


CATTLE 


the  gnuwea  grow  hanier,  an<i  the  pattturefl  less 
ftbnnrfunt  in  late  ftammer,  the  tendency  to  tthrink 
fnini  tiiia  cause  occura  at  iihout  the  same  timo  that 
the  cow  Of^nin  [jecMimea  [irvipiftiit,  and  the  milk-flow 
nutahly  ditniniflhiiH.  SuccalenL,  easily  dige-tted  fiKxl, 
particularly  aftur  tho  fourth  or  fifth  month  of  lac- 
tation, is  a  great  aid  in  maiDtaiuing  thu  fluvr  of 
milk. 

Milking. 

The  secretion  of  milk  is  alao  influenced  fey  the 
milker  ami  the  attitude  of  the  animal  toward  him. 
The  mitk-ducta  in  the  udd4.>r  are  provided  at  various 
points  with  more  or  less  wifll-develwfied  sphincter 
muiiclea,  or  valves,  that  are  connect«d  with  the 
moscular  syetem  of  the  animal,  and  are  marc  or  leaa 
under  her  control.  Any  friuht  or  disturbance  of 
the  animal  at  or  near  the  time  of  milkint;  in  likely 
to  be  followed  by  contractiun  of  these  muscles,  and 
the  animal  "hold;^  up  her  milk."  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  milker  \b  kind  and  jientle,  in  many 
ca«e«  the  cow  se»*ms  to  trarwfer  to  him  gome  of  the 
affection  she  would  naturally  bestow  on  her  ofF- 
sprine,  and  the  milk  ia  not  only  given  down  freely, 
but  there  is  reason  to  snppoBo  its  secretion  may 
even  be  stimulated.  Experiments  have  shown  that 
certain  persons  are  able  to  secure  more  milk  from 
certain  cows  than  others,  merely  through  the  per- 
sonality of  the  milker,  and  not  becauae  of  any 
superior  skill. 

ttegnlarity  of  milking  is  also  an  important  fac- 
tor in  maintaining  the  flow.    If  the  milking  is 


i^ 


FU.  339.    XUUnK  mochlM  !■  pliM. 

irregular,  so  that  the  udder  becomes  over-distended 
with  milk,  this  caoses  an  irritation  that  results  in 
B  marked  shrinkage  of  secretion. 

The  quantity  of  milk  secrt-ted  is  aUo  to  some  ex- 
tent determined  by  fre«^uency  of  milking,  and  cows 
will  give  more  when  they  are  milked  at  frequent 
intervals.  Thisfactoractsonly  within  narrow  limit*), 
and  the  point  is  soon  reach^  when  increased  fre- 
quency of  milking  is  not  followed  by  increased  pro- 


duction. While  there  is  little  experimental  evidence 
at  hand  on  this  point,  the  opinion  of  careful  dairy- 
men ia  that  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk  is  secured 
when  the  interii-al  of  milking  is  so  timed  that  the 
udder  l>ecome8  moderately  di-'ftended  between  each 
two  milkingS'.  Must  cuw^  will  give  rather  more 
milk  if  milked  three  time-D  a  day  than  they  will 
if  milked  only  twice,  and  in  cown  secreting  large 
amounts — eighty  pounda  or  more— there  is  ao  in- 
crease in  production  if  the  cows  are  milked  four 
times  rather  than  three  times  a  day.  The  common 
practice,  of  courw,  is  to  milk  only  twice  a  day, 
and  it  IB  better  if  the  intervals  are  timed  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  twelve  hours  apart. 

The  frequency  of  milking  also  has  a  certain 
effect  on  the  quality  of  the  milk,  notably  the  per- 
centage of  fat.  and  it  is  noted  that  there  is  a  tend- 
<jncy  for  the  percentage  of  fat  to  rise  when  the 
cows  are  milked  frequently.  Like  the  amonnt  of 
milk,  thiji  etfect  does  not  continue  when  the  milk- 
ings  are  verv  frequent.  The  most  notable  case  of 
thi.1  sort  is  tiiat  when  the  cows  are  milke<i  twice  a 
day  at  cne^^ual  intervals  in  the 'great  majority  of 
cases  the  percentase  of  fat  is  decidedly  higher  at 
the  milking  following  the  shorter  period.  Even 
this  is  not  universally  true.  It  iii  the  common 
opinion  that  the  secretion  goes  on  more  rapidly 
while  the  animal  is  being  milked,  and  the  condi- 
tions most  favorable  to  a  large  cecretion  favor 
milking  as  rapidly  ok  possible,  without  diocomfort 
to  the  animal,  and  with  a  more  or  lesd  stroking 
motion  on  the  tidder.  especially  toward  the  last. 

The  operation  of  milking  gives  opportun- 
ity for  considerable  skill,  and  a  rapid,  care- 
ful, skilful  milker  will  do  very  much  toward 
increaii'ing  the  amount  of  milk  that  an  animal 
will  give  during  the  period  of  her  lactation. 
Milking,  however,  is  laborious,  and,  to  many, 
irksome:  so  that  in  large  dairies  it  is  often 
diflicult  to  secure  skilful  milkers.  This  hue 
given  rise  to  the  attempt  to  devise  machines 
for  removing  milk.  While  many  apparataoe* 
have  been  deviled  for  thiii  purpose,  none  baa 
been  at  all  successful  until  very  recently. 

MUking  mmhiiiet  (Kig.  :W9). 

The  only  milking  machine  in  .America  that 
can  be  said  to  bo  at  all  successful  at  the  pres- 
ent time  is  the  Burrell -Lawrence-Kennedy.  It 
operates  by  an  intermittent  exhaust  on  the  teats  of 
the  cow.  Its  BUCces.'^ful  operation  requires  a  power. 
through  vapor  or  ateam  engine,  or  otherwise,  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  a  vacuum  pressure  of  aomewhat 
less  than  twenty  pounds  to  the  squaro  inch,  a  system 
of  pipe?  leading  to  all  parts  of  the  stable,  with  an 
outlet  between  each  two  cows,  and  the  milking 
machines  them.xelves  with  their  tuheft  and  connec- 
tions. The  milking  machine  con.4ists  of  a  pail,  on 
which  is  titted,  air-tight,  a  lid  on  which  is  the 
"polsator."  It  is  furnished  with  rubber  connections 
on  the  one  hand  to  the  exhaust  pipe,  and  on  the 
other  to  the  cow's  teatc  through  the  medium  of 
cart^fully  fitted  "teat  cups."  The  pulsator  is  an 
ingeninuit  arrangement  of  cylinders  and  valvee  by 
means  of  which  the  vacuum  pressure  on  the  pail  is 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


313 


intermittently  ani]  AUtumaticHHy  increnfied  and 
dwnsused.  This  chanKe  of  [inwaure  traiisnntt*!ti 
through  ibo  tubes  to  thu  teat  cupH  aiinuLatea  the 
sucking  action  of  tho  catfs  mouth  on  the  teate, 
and  so  serres  to  draw  the  milk  frrini  the  udder  into 
the  pail.  Rach  machine  ih  fitted  with  ciinnectinns 
fur  two  cowA,  and  a  single  opi-nitDr  can  managti 
two  or  three  mwhineti  at  tht;  aiime  time,  thus  milk- 
'me  foar  or  «ix  cows  at  imce.  Thu  time  rwiuired  to 
draw  the  milk  from  a  cow  is,  littlu  if  any  leas  than 
is  required  to  draw  it  tiy  hand.  These  machines 
have  been  in  operation  now  for  soveral  years  in  a 
more  or  teiw  exjierimenUI  way,  and  their  present 
Btalofi  ia  about  a»  folUjWH  :  The  ex[i«nse  of  equip- 
ment with  an  outfit  uf  three  mac'hineH  is  nut  les.4 
than  $iJOC,  no  that  their  use  is  not  eeonomlc-al  in  a 
dairy  of  \kas  than  thirty  eowa.  The  raoL'hanical 
parts  of  the  machine  are  fairly  perfect  and  durable, 
and  work  with  a  good  degree  of  reliability  ;  never- 
thelrsA,  Aome  little  merhanical  ale  ill  in  denirnble  in 
the  0[)eratar.  The  machine  will  draw  the  milk  uni- 
formly and  comid<!t<Oy  frnm  the  (id>nL  majority  of 
cows.  An  occiutietial  cow  cannot  he  milked,  and 
freqoently  more  or  less  milk  is  left  in  the  udder. 
Most  oners  of  milking  machines  prtictice  hand- 
etripping  afterward.  Some  users  complain  thiit 
their  cuws  tend  to  ^i  ilry  smmer  when  milking 
machines  are  used.  The  efficacy  of  the  milkin;^ 
machine  depends  to  a  k"'**I  def^m*  on  adjusting 
the  teat  cup  carefully  to  the  size  of  the  teat. 
Several  sises  of  teat  ciipe  are  provi<k<d,  and  either 
the  cows  most  be  arranged  in  the  stablos  according 
to  the  flize  of  the  tent,  or  the  teat  cups  must  lie 
;:hangeil  freriuently.  The  milk  is  drawn  into  a  cov- 
ered puil  and  is  not  expimed  to  the  air  of  the  nta- 
hle,  which  is  a  factor  of  considendile  importance 
in  securing  clean  milk.  The  milking  machine  is 
equipped  with  numerous  closed  rubber  tubes  and 
oUier  jiarts  that  are  not  easily  kept  clean  without 
constant  care  and  attention.  It  is  siiid,  however, 
that  by  the  use  of  aiitise])tic  solutiona  the  difB- 
calty  in  keeping  the  machine  clean  ia  not  great 

Litnvlurr. 

For  literature  concerning  the  physiology  of  milk 
Becretion,  see  R.  Meade  Smith,  Oimparative  I'hysi- 
olwgy  of  Domestic  .Animals;  .Aikman.  Milk:  Its 
Nature  am]  TikmiHisition;  M.vtiny,  Die  Milch;  Kirch* 
ner.  MilchwirttiBchaft;  Wing,  Milk  and  Its  l^oduct«. 

FeedlDff  0*ii7  Cattle.    Figs.  340-342. 

By  F.  W.  WoU. 

The  feeding  of  dairy  cattle  in  its  relation  to  milk 
pHxIuction  ha.H  received  considerable  study,  hut 
much  remains  to  be  lejirned.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
this  article  to  «et  forth  in  u  brief  way  only  a  few 
of  the  important  facts  that  have  been  gleaned. 
Pahlications  devoted  especially  to  the  subject 
should  be  ramsult^'d  for  fnller  details.  [See  rrfer- 
oncea  to  literature  at  end  of  article,] 

The  dairy  calf. 

In  the  feeding  and  the  dfvclnpment  of  the  dairy 
calf,  feeds  of  a  fattening  t«ndency  are  to  be  avoided. 


and  only  such  fed  as  tend  to  develop  a,  vigorous 
muftcular  syHtem.  With  this  end  in  view,  the  feed- 
ing of  full  milk  to  the  dairy  calf  is  discontinued 
after  a  few  daj-a,  especially  in  case  of  milk  ri^ch 
in  butter-fat,  and  sepnrjitor  skimmed  milk  is  fed 
in  its  p!ru;i',  the  change  fnim  one  fewl  to  another 
lieing  made  gnulually,  ho  as  nut  to  give  risL>  to 
digestive  dlsonlers.  A  aniall  quantity  of  some  con- 
centrated feed,  as  shortft,  linseed  meal  or  tlaxtieed 
meal  boiled  into  a  jelly  with  water  (one  part  meal 
to  six  of  water),  is  fed  daily  with  the  skimmed 
milk.  If  the  milk  is  not  fresh  from  the  wparator, 
it  must  always  he  heated  to  blood-heat  before  being 
fed  to  the  iralf.    If,  however,  a  practice  of  feeding 


Pit.  3*0-     tOUaK'StixJc  (UMe.     Siiuwing  arrntiK«tnoDl  of 
ulnni'hlnns  nnil  ninii4[«n  In  m  dklrT'likm. 

cold  milk  is  followed,  and  the  milk  is  always  co]d» 
but  not  ic(w;old,  no  injurious  resulU  will  follow, 
providwl,  of  counw,  the  change  has  been  gradual 
from  the  warm  mother's  milk.  It  must  be  kept  in 
clean  pails.  Cleanliness  is,  in  general,  a  most  im- 
portant  factor  in  calf-feeding. 

The  amount  of  meal  added  to  the  skimmed  milk 
Lt  gradually  increased  in  the  tlrsl  three  weeks  to 
ab(»ut  one  (HHind  a  day.  At  six  ur  eight  weeks  old, 
other  feeds  are  given,  preferibly  oats,  wheat  mid- 
dlingM,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  and  at  about  three 
months  old  these  feeds  should  gradually  replace  the 
more  expensive  ooncentratca  for  the  sake  of  econ- 
omy. Some  feeders  report  gtHid  results  from  feeding 
farm  grains  with  skimmefl  milk  after  the  first  we(>k. 
The  cjilves  will  gnwlually  learn  to  eat  hay,  if  it  be 
placeil  before  them  ;  a  ilne  quality  of  clover  hay  or 
tarly-cut  hay  is  generally  reser\'ed  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  object  in  view  throughout  the  first  year 
should  lie  to  keep  the  cilves  in  a  healthy  growing 
condition,  and  to  feed  only  easily  digestible  feeds 
that  will  cause  a  rapid,  normnl  growth  without 
deposition  of  nnneceasary  boijy  fat.  Otherdesirable 
foods  for  older  calves  than  those  mi-ntione'l  are 
mil!  feeds,  oil-menl.  small  grains,  especially  barley, 
brewers'  and  distillers'  grains,  matt -sprouts,  and 
the  like.  Cottonseed  meal,  on  the  other  hamj.  should 
be  fed  only  sparingly  or  nut  at  all. 

Fall  calTca,  as  a  rule,  are  to  he  preferred  to 
spring  calves  on  dairy-farms,  both  W-caose  they 
can  receive  better  care  and  attention  during  the 
winter  montha  ttuu  in  sommer,  aod  because  they 


314 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


will  go  on  pasture  in  the  spring  at  an  a^  when 
their  dijtfstive  nppariitus  h  cii'veliij>e<J  .so  that  the 
green  grasH  miiy  form  their  main  fn<td,supplH?inented 
with  some  trrains  wht-n  panturos  are  acaiit.  The 
time  of  calving  of  cows  in  a  dairy  herd,  however, 
must  be  distributed  over  the  year  tc  sime  extent, 
so  OS  to  indure  a  fairly  Qniform  milk  sup[>ly 
throBghoiit  the  year. 

The  dairy  httfer. 

The  practice  of  good  dairy-farmers  as  to  time  of 
breeiiiJig  heifers  dilFers  constderalfly.  The  bent 
XMoJtfl,  however,  may  be  expected  hy  breeding  30 
tluit  the  heifer  will  come  in  at  about  two  yearn  of 
age.  A  persistent  mitliinR  habit  is  favored  by  con- 
tJnaing  to  milk  the  heifer  for  about  ten  months 
daring  the  first  lactatifin  peririd,  if  possible.  .\s  the 
time  uf  parturition  approaches,  the  feeding  of  the 
heifer  should  be  plain,  without  stimulating  foods 
that  may  have  a  deleteriouH  infloence  on  the  fcBtiie 
and  oausti  abortion,  oa  fermented  or  decayed  feeds. 
Good,  clean  hay  from  clover  or  mixed  grasses,  corn 
fodder,  com  silage  (made  from  well-matored  corn, 
and  fed  in  small  or  medium  quantities,  not  to  exceed 
twenty-live  to  thirty  pounds  a  day)  or  roots  should 
form  the  main  reliance ;  preferably  both  dry  and 
succulent  ruughage  is  fed.  and,  in  addition,  small 
amounts  of  ground  oat^,  bran,  shorts,  gluten  feed 
or  corn,  the  last  feed  being  given  only  when  the 
heifer  is  in  poor  flesh.  Shortly  before  calving,  the 
feeding  of  all  grain  feeds,  except  perhaps  a  couple 
of  pounds  of  bran,  is  discontinued,  and  dry  roughage 
and  roots  (or  a  little  good  silage)  are  fed  till  the 
cow  fnahens.  Directly  after  calving,  a  warm,  thin 
«lop  of  oat-meal,  bran,  or  shorts,  is  given,  or  warm 
water  only;  for  a  few  days  until  the  danger  of  fever 
is  over,  the  amount  of  feed  should  bo  very  light. 
and  gradually  increased  for  two  to  three  weeks, 
when  the  cow  may  be  put  on  full  feed.  By  this 
time,  or  before,  the  maximum  production  of  butter- 
fat,  and  generally  also  of  milk,  will  be  reached. 

A  hieifer  with  her  first  calf  should  receive  spe- 
cial care  and  be  fed  liberally,  since  she  is  growing 
and  producing  milk  at  the  ?ame  time.  A  good  scp- 
ply  of  protein  feeds  must  be  fumtshod  in  her 
ration  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  body  for 
nitrogenous  food  components.  Com  meal  is  espe- 
cially valuable  at  this  time  for  heifers  that  ahow 
a  tendency  to  "milk  their  fleuh  off."  Thia  heavy 
feeding  should  be  continued  up  to  drying-off  prior 
to  the  second  calving.  Further  details  as  to  meth- 
ods of  feeding  will  be  found  below,  after  a  more 
general  discussion  of  problems  conaectdd  with  the 
feeding  of  dairy  cows. 

Tilt  dairy  eow. 

Before  explaining  the  method  of  feeding  dairy 
eows,  some  general  principles  connecti^d  with  the 
Bobject  should  rw:eive  attention,  in  ord«r  that  we 
may  more  clearly  understand  the  special  problems 
that  preaent  themselves  under  the  varying  condi- 
tions of  the  different  sections  of  our  country. 

Feeding  ftandardt. — The  Htudie«  of  the  princi- 
ples underlying  the  nntrition  of  farm  animala 
which  were  made,  especially  by  G«rmati  acientiste, 


daring  the  middle  and  the  latter  part  of  the  last 
century,  cry«talljied  into  so-called  "feeding  stand- 
ards'* that  show  the  quantities  of  total  dry  matter 
and  of  digestible  food  components  required  daily 
by  farm  animals  under  different  conditions  as  to 
age.  weight  or  production.  Of  theae,  the  standards 
proporti.'d  by  the  German  investigator,  Emil  V. 
Wolff,  have  become  best  known  in  this  country. 
and  arc  generally  referred  to  as  the  Wolff  or 
simply  the  "German  feeding  standards."  The 
Wolff  standard  for  dairy  cows  provided  for  24.5 
pounds  of  total  dry  matter  in  the  daily  feed  of  a 
dairy  cow,  and  for  a  content  of  2.b  pounds  of 
digestible  protein.  12.5  pounds  digestible  carbohy- 
drates, .4  pound  digestible  fat ;  nutritive  ratio, 
1:M. 

Up  to  within  recent  years  it  waa  generally 
thought  that  this  standard  was  equally  applicable  Uy 
ail  milch  cows,  and  to  conditions  in  the  new  world, 
as  well  aa  in  the  old.  as  was  the  case  with  those 
proposed  by  the  same  scientist  for  other  classes  of 
farm  animals.  It  was  tlrst  shown  by  investigations 
made  in  this  country  in  the  early  nineties  that  the 
rations  fed  by  practical  American  dairymen  in 
different  parts  of  our  country  contained,  as  a  rule, 
considerably  more  atarchy  components  than  called 
for  by  the  Wolff  standard,  and  were,  therefore,  of 
a  wider  nutritive  ratio  than  tbi«  standard.  During 
the  past  dozen  years,  evidence  furnished  by  both 
careful  investigations  and  practical  experience 
has  gradually  nccumulated.  showing  that  the  exact 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  of  a  dairy  cow,  or  the 
amount  of  digestible  protein  which  it  must  con- 
tain. IS  not  a  matter  of  the  great  importance  it 
wa.'t  long  held  to  be,  provided  a  g(MK]  supply  of 
total  digestible  matter  and  a  certain  minimum  of 
digestible  protein  be  supplied  in  the  food  of  the 
cows.  The  amount  of  the  production  of  dairy  cowa 
is  the  controlling  factor  as  to  the  quantity  of 
digestible  food  materials  they  re<iuire,  and  large 
producers  must  receive  considerably  heavier 
rations  than  cowa  that  are  nearly  dry,  or  than 
poor  milch  cows.  The  rations  fed  cows  of  differ- 
ent productive  capacity,  or  tfl  the  name  cow  at 
different  stages  of  its  period  of  lactation,  there- 
fore, must  differ  radically  as  to  qaantitien,  but  not 
necessarily,  or  to  the  same  extent,  as  to  quality. 

As  regards  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  rations,  it 
may  vary  from  1:5  to  1:9  without  greatly  in- 
fluencing the  quantity  or  the  quality  of  the  produc- 
tion of  the  cows ;  ordinarily,  however,  fiomewhai 
better  results  are  obtained,  under  otherwise  simi- 
lar conditions,  by  feeding  rather  narrow  rations 
than  wider  ones.  Such  ratios  will  favor  the  pro- 
duction of  a  maximum  milk  yield,  of  the  best 
quality  that  the  cow  is  capable  of  producing,  but 
the  effect  of  the  character  of  the  ration  on  the 
fat  content  of  the  milk  is  not  very  marked. 

The  fact  that  the  manurial  value  of  nitrogenous 
stuffs  is  higher  than  that  of  starchy  feeds,  furtber- 
more,  adds  to  the  value  of  ration*  of  relative 
narrow  nutritive  ratios,  as  it  renders  the  manure 
from  cows  fed  such  rations  more  valuable  than  in 
the  case  of  low-protein  rations.  The  market  prices 
of  the  different  claasw  of  feeding-itsffs  are  the 


CATTIJ^ 


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815 


matn^tors  that  vjll  decide  hnw  narrow  nutritive 
ntiod  cBTi  be  profitably  fed  in  ^lifferent  Ii>[ra!itie«  ; 
where  nitmcfn  fHtnis  an'^  n'lativfly  cht^ap,  they  can 
enLer  more  largely  inti>  the  niakt'-i)[j  of  the  ratiuna 
tban  wharc  thu  op[iowil«  coniJitionJi  obtain. 

We  may  say,  in  Kt.-iii'ral,  that  a  Rood  dairy  cow 
in  full  flow  of  mitk  shimld  receive  twenty-five 
pounds  of  dry  mattur,  fifteen  to  eighteen  [M>unds  nf 
digestible  matter,  and  at  least  two  pounds  of  dipw- 
tible  protein.  Cav/s  iif  large  jinHltictive  capacity 
may  he  fed  to  advantaf,^  cun&iderahly  lart^er  ({uaii- 
tities  of  fDud  materials  than  thoMe  eivun,  while  low 
prodncors,  or  dry  cows,  re(|Qtre  much  less.  For  dry 
oowg,  rations  containing  less  than  twenty  pounds 
of  dry  matter,  twelve  poands  of  digestible  matter 
and  one  and  ime-half  puundii  of  digestible  protein 
are  onlinarily  Bufficifiil  to  mainlain  h^Hly  weight 
and  iii>iure  a  normal  deviilujiDmnt  of  tlm  fuitua,  if 
they  are  in  calf. 

In  diacusiting  tho  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  we  may 
conveniently  consider  aeparatety  the  summer 
period  when  the  cowa  nro  pantared  or  fed  eoiling 
crops,  and  the  wtnUir  i»eriiid,  when  they  are  fed 
winter  rations  in  the  Htal>lp. 

(1)  Siimnu^r-fvalinn  of  Jairjf  eo}pg. — The  favor- 
able influence  of  early  summer  paaturage  on  the 
Milk  secret  ion  of  cows,  both  as  reganla  yit-ld  and 
quality,  and  more  eapccially  its  fat  content,  has 
been  known  to  observing  dairy- fnrniers  as  long  as 
milk  reconlfi  have  lieen  kept  cir  tests  nf  milk  have 
been  made.  Arnjile  pastiir.igf>  in  i>ne  of  the  ettsen- 
ttola  of  successful  dairy-farming  wh^re  the  aoiling 
Bystem  has  not  been  tntruduced.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  tho  cows,  as  a  rule,  will  find  a 
euflicient  fniKl  supply  on  tho  pasture  alone ;  but, 
later  in  the  se-asnn,  it  will  often  he  necessary  to 
snpplem^^ntr  the  pristure  with  Roiling  crops  or 
summer  silage,  or,  if  neither  is  available,  to  feed 
grain  foedH.  Triala  at  a  numlier  uf  e^^penmenb 
fltationa  have  shown  that  the  feeding  of  grain  tu 


vie.  141  ■    Truck  med  la  bindlinc  imicb  f««<l  uid  scale  for 
wcimiL&K  Mine. 

cowg  oD  paKtaro  is  proiitahle  only  when  there  ia  a 
•oarcity  of  pasturage.  In  the  caae  uf  heavy  milk- 
era,  however,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  feed  at 
leaat  a  few  pounds  of  wh(>at  bran,  or  wheat  bran 
and  oatM,  throughout  the  season,  in  order  to  insure 
a  maximum  production. 

Soiiing.—The  use  of  soiling  crops  or  summer 
Bilage  on  dairy-farms  is  an  important  feature  of 
intensive  dairy- fanning,  as  two  to  three  times  as 


much  green  forage  may  be  secured  per  arre  by 
thiti  system  as  by  pasturing,  and  it  enables  the 
farmer  to  maintain,  ao  far  as  piistible,  the  milk 
prodiietion  of  his  herd  during  tho  trying  "fly 
time,"  when  hot  weather  and  flies  combine  to 
reduce  the  production  of  the  cows,  both  for  the 
time  being  and  for  the  remaindetr  of  the  lactation 


J^ 


:x.^^. 


PlK.  i*2.    Tiuelc  ud  teilM  uted  In  weliblDC  tttta  (Ndi. 

period.  A  variety  of  soiling  crops  is  fed  in  different 
sections:  com.  alfalfa,  peas  and  oats,  rye,  rape 
ami  the  like.  Some  uf  thetie  croiM,  as  rve,  rape  and 
oats,  should  !«  fed  with  care,  in  small  ijuantitiea 
at  the  Htart.  and  always  after  milking,  so  that  they 
will  not  give  rise  to  ba<l  flavors  in  the  milk  or  the 
products  made  therefrom.  [See  SffUing,  Vol.  II,  p. 
569.] 

Summer  iri/n^e  is  a  highly-prized  feed  on  many 
.A.merican  dairy-farms.  (Jenerally  a  small,  separata 
silo  is  fdleil  in  the  fall  for  the  purpose  of  feeding 
the  Milage  in  iale  summer,  when  drought  and  hot 
weather  are  likely  to  cause  serious  damage  to  pas- 
turea.  The  more  common  silage  cropfl  are  com.  red 
or  other  clover,  and  alfalfa,  corn  being  of  mtwt 
importance  in  the  greater  part  of  agricultural 
America.  Thirty  pounds  of  soiling  crops  or  silaga 
is  an  average  allowance  for  dairy  eows  on  poor  pa*- 
ture^  and  as  much  as  sixty  pounds  of  soiling  crops 
or  forty  pounds  of  silage  may  he  fed  in  the  case  of 
large  cows,  during  seasons  of  dnnight  when  pastures 
are  scant. 

(2)  Winirr-frtding  of  dairp  oaurs.  —  The  cows 
are  fwl  in  the  stable  during  one-half  of  the  year  or 
more,  and  as  the  system  of  feeding  during  this 
period  is  neces.<<ni'ily  meet  expensive,  the  pro5t  of 
the  dairy  will  depend  to  !^  large  extt^nt  on  the 
economy  of  the  winter-feeding.  Economical  feed- 
ing in  Citses  of  good  d»iry  cows  does  not  mean 
scant  supplies,  !nit  the  kind  of  feeds  and  feed  cotn- 
binations  that  will  U>  likely  to  produce  beet  resulta 
for  the  least  money.  Only  cows  that  respond  to 
liberal  feeding  and  are  fed  liberally  will  prove 
profitable  dairy  animals. 

No  detailed  discussion  of  feeding-stuffs  adapted 
to  the  feeding  of  caws  will  be  given  in  this  article, 
sinc«  the  characteristics  of  thE- dilTerent  kinda  of 
feeding-etuffs  and    ae|mrate    feeds   are   diflcivned 


S16 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


fllMwlMre.  ^ee  pag«8  58-118.]  A  few  gcn^rS 
nffeestlons,  however,  may  prove  helpful. 

SuccuUni  fftds,  whenever  jiottsible,  should  be  pro- 
vided for  dairy  cowa  daring  their  entire  lactation 
period;  silage  and  rooU  are  the  main  availiiWa  fee^Js 
of  this  character  during  the  winter  period,  and  in 
corn-growing  aections,  at  leaxt,  thtj  former  hmi 
been  found  to  yiold  the  largest  and  cheapest  qaan- 
tities  of  food  materials  per  nnit  of  area.  Roota, 
however,  are  valnablesubstitntes  when  there  is  no 
silo  01  the  farm:  they  are  fed  especially  in  Canada 
and  by  fanners  who  adhere  m'^re  or  less  to  Euro- 
]iean  methods  of  agricultorc.  In  the  case  of  heavy 
producera  and  cows  "out  of  condition,"  roots  are 
often  fed,  becaose  of  their  dietetic  eS'ect.  as  appeti- 
zers, and  hecauae  of  their  favorable  influence  on  the 
digeHion  of  antmaU. 

Corn  *p7aj;e.— The  ailo  enaWoa  dairy-farmers  to 
utilize  thf  large  supply  of  food  material  in  the 
com  plant  with  the  least  possible  loss  and  expense. 
For  this  reaflon,  and  because  of  the  advantage  of 
having  a  palatable,  highly  natritious  and  reliahed 
succulent  feed  conveniently  at  hand  throughout 
the  8ea)»on,  the  silo  is  now  generally  regarded  as 
next  to  a  necesiity  on  dairy-farmg.  at  least  in 
corn-growing  sections.  The  whole  corn  plant,  ears 
and  all,  as  a  role,  is  run  through  a  feed-cutter, 
this  having  boon  found  the  moat  economical  method 
of  handling  the  crop.  The  corn  is  harvested  when 
nea.rly  ripe,  and  cut  into  one-half-  to  three-fourth- 
inch  lengths  in  filling  the  silo. 

Silage  is  proatly  relished  by  cows  and  can  be  fed 
in  large  quaiilitiea  if  made  from  well-matared  corn. 
Ontimirily,  the  best  resfulLs  are  obtained  when  not 
ov«r  forty  prjunds  of  corn  silage  i»  fed  per  head 
daily,  and  it  is  always  ivA  withaome  dry  roughage, 
either  hay  or  corn  fodder.  Since  the  com  plant  is 
rich  in  carlKi  hydra  ten,  protein  feeds,  aa  clover  hay, 
wheat  bran  or  oil-meal,  should  always  be  fed  with 
corn  silage  or  corn  fodder.  Clover  silage,  alfalfa 
ailage,  and  the  like,  are  fed  in  somewhat  smaller 
((uantitiea  than  com  silage.  [See  Sitage-Croppiag, 
Vol.  II.  page  DOf).] 

Drtf  rifuiikaffr.— Il.iy  from  the  graaaea  or  legume? 
is  a  common  coarse  cnw  feed  m  thia  and  other 
dairy  countries.  Early  cat  hay  ia  more  valuable, 
tun  for  ton,  than  late  cut,  but  the  yield  obtained 
will  be  somewhat  lower  in  the  former  case.  Clover 
hay,  or  hay  of  other  legnmeK,  stands  lir»t  in  value 
as  dry  ronghage  for  dairy  cows.  It  is  preferably 
fed  long.  Pure  timothy  hay  is  a  poor  cow  fewl, 
efl{>ectally  if  late  cut;  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay 
ifi  the  room  valuable  fur  cowa  the  le«s  timothy 
there  U  in  it.  Among  otlmr  kinds  of  bay  that  are 
fed  and  relishwl  by  dairy  stock  are  millet,  oat, 
sorghum,  alfulfa  and  peji. 

Corn  stovL'r  (corn-stalks,  corn  fodder)  la  fed  on 
the  best  American  famw  whole  or  cut,  after  hav- 
ing been  shocked  in  the  field.  Ry  the  primitivA 
method  of  fetvting  c<>ni-at<ilki!4,  in  which  the  stalka 
are  left  standing  in  the  field  and  the  cows  are  sent 
out  to  nibbk'  off  the  loaves  and  stalks  during  the 
fall  and  winter,  le^  than  one-half  the  food  value 
in  the  stalks  \»  utilized.  Rven  when  the  shocks 
are  left  in  the  field,  exposed  to  rain  and  weather 


for  only  a  couple  of  montha,  not  leiv  than  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  of  the  original  food  material  in 
the  stalks  is  lost.  This  loss  can  be  partially 
avoided  by  placing  the  cured  fodder  under  ."iheUer 
and  feeding  it  cut,  but  the  most  convenient  and 
economical  method  of  utilizing  the  corn  crop  on 
moxb  Ameriran  dairy-farms,  doubtless,  is  to  plac« 
it  in  a  silo  and  feed  it  as  silage. 

Straw  of  the  small  grains  is  not  often  fed  to 
dairy  cows  in  this  country,  as  we  have  an  abun- 
dant and  cheap  supply  of  roughage  in  corn-stalka. 
When  a  quantity  of  fine,  bright  oat-straw  is  avail- 
able, it  is  well  worth  feeding  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties, not  to  exceed  one-half  the  weight  of  total 
dry  roughage  fed.  The  different  kinda  of  straw  are 
valued  for  feeding  purposes  in  the  following  order; 
oat-,  barley-,  wheat-  and  rye-straws. 

Con'xntrakd  fadt  ("covccntratfi"). —  The  com- 
mon concentrated  feeds  used  on  American  dairy- 
farms  are  the  cereals  and  mill  refuse,  starch  or 
glucose  factory  refuse,  brewery  and  distillery  feeds 
and  oil-meals,  napecially  Unseed  and  cottonseed 
meals.  The  amounts  of  these  feeds  that  can  be  fed 
to  dairy  cowa  with  profit  will  depend  on  the  price 
of  the  feeds,  the  production  of  the  cowa,  and  the 
prices  obtained  for  the  products  sold.  In  general, 
the  carbohydrate?  of  feed  rations  are  supplied  by 
farm-grown  crops,  while  nitrogenous  feeds  are 
largely  purchased,  except  when  leguminous  crop* 
as  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  peas,  beans,  and  the  liki^,  are 
grown.  By  the  culture  of  crops  of  the  latter  class, 
the  amount  of  protein  foods  that  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  purchase  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimato. 
Aran  m.iy  be  partially  replaced,  nearly  ton  for  ton, 
by  carefully  cured  alfalfa  hay,  or  by  five  to  six 
tons  of  pea-vine  silage.  Roughly  Sfwaking.  the 
cereals  may  be  considered  of  ef^ual  food  value  for 
dairy  cows,  and  of  about  simitar  value  as  bran  or 
shorts,  in  the  rations  ordinarily  fed.  Cottonseed 
meal,  gluten  meal  and  oil-meal  likewise  possess 
nearly  etjual  food  value,  with  the  first  two  feeds 
occvionally  ahead.  The  comparative  value  of 
different  feeding-stuffii,  however,  depends,  to  a 
large  extent,  on  the  combination  in  which  they  are 
fed,  a  starchy  feed  being  of  greater  value  to  a 
farmt-T  having  a  good  supply  of  protein  feeds,  than 
to  one  who  has  mainly  atarchy  feeda  to  select 
from. 

The  quantities  of  grain  feeds  fed  by  American 
dairy-farmers  vary  comtiderably,  from  .-i  few 
pounds  to  as  much  aa  eighteen  pounds  per  head 
daily.  Only  exceptionally  large  producers  will  give 
economical  returns  for  mure  than  six  or  eight 
pounds  of  grain  fowl  daily,  with  abundant  roogb* 
age  of  good  quality  at  hand.  It  is  a  good  rule 
to  feed  as  many  pounds  of  grain  fceids  a  day 
per  head  as  the  cow  produces  pounds  of  butter-fat 
during  the  week,  and  to  feed  as  much  roughage  in 
addition  as  thi-  cow  will  eat  up  clean. 

Itationt  /t  dairtf  cfncr. — It  ij*  important  in  mak- 
ing up  rations  for  dairy  cows,  :i«  for  other  claaaes 
of  farm  animals,  to  Bee  to  it  that  a  lilieral  amount 
of  easily  digostible  snbatanoes  is  supplied  ;  nearly 
one-half  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  ration  should  be 
supplied  in  the  form  of  concentrated  feeda  io  caee 


CATTIJC 


CAITLE 


317 


of  milch  cowa,  the  amoant  M  buing  governed  pri- 
marily by  the  pruiluction  of  the  cttWA.  No  mnltly 
or  decayt-il  feeds  ehouM  \m  M,  and,  in  th^  caan  of 
wet  feeds,  portictilar  altcnticm  muwt  he  phvn  to 
kwping  cle-iin  thfi  mangtini  and  thu  jirt-miscK  nitoiit 
thd  fltjilil«.  A  varit-ty  of  fouds  ja  aUays  fed  tu 
^dairy  ciiws,  »ft«ii  an  many  aa  half  a  dnzim  dilTerL-nt 
fei.'dn,  8u  as  to  etimulutt)  t1io  ai>i)L'litLtH  uf  tho 
animaU.  The  modern  dairy  cow  is  the  prodiiirt  of 
spocifli-purpow}  breeding  and  high  feeding,  and  un- 
\en»  special  \minii  arn  tnken  to  cuter  Ut  her  want^, 
nhe  will  not  Im  ahli)  to  reach  and  maintain  the  high 
fltanilani  of  |iroduL'tion  which  nmy  moHonably  be 
expected  of  her. 

The  time  uf  feeding  is.  aiso  important.  The  feed- 
ing should  ha  as  regular  as  the  milking.  Many 
farmers  feed  either  hay  or  grain  directly  before  nr 
during  milking,  bat  as  a  rule,  thi.s  is  not  to  be 
recom mended,  both  tiecaii.'fe  of  the  tenileney  it  h«s 
ii}  interfere  with  the  U-tting-fhiwn  of  the  milk  and 
the  danger  of  conlaminaLion  of  thw  milk  with  duat 
and  bacteria  that  it  involvas,  6a|Joeially  when  hay 
is  fed  that  way.  A  goiMi  order  of  the  day's  work 
in  the  dairy-bam  during  the  winter  is  as  follows  : 
First,  in  the  morning,  milking,  then  feeding  grain, 
feeding  silage,  cleaning  glitters,  watering,  fei^ling 
hay.  grniiming.  ttirning  oat  in  the  yard  (on  pleasant 
days  for  one  nr  two  hours  in  the  early  afternoon), 
watering,  cleaning  stable,  feeding  grain,  milking, 
feeding  silage,  and  arranging  bedding. 

The  following  twelve  rations  for  milcli  cows  are 
given  as  samples  of  the  systems  of  feeding  to  be 
recommended  in  different  parta  of  the  conntry  (for 
furtherdiscusaiona  of  rations,  aee  referenceabelowj: 

(1>  Hay,  20  lbs.;  oats,  3  lb«.;  c<irn-aiid-cub  meal, 
3  lbs.;  oil-meal,  2  Um. 

{2)  Hay,  10  lbs.;  corn-atalks,  ad  lib.;  wheat  bran, 
3  Ih*i.;  corn  meal.  2  lbs.;  cottonseed  mual.  2  lbs. 

{3>  Roots,  60  lbs.;  stover,  ad  lib.;  oats,  3  lbs.; 
bnn,  3  Ibe.;  gluten  feed,  3  lbs. 

(4>  Corn  fodder,  ad  lib.:  corn  silage.  40  Ibe.; 
«horl9,  2  lbs.;  dry  brewera'  grains,  2  11m.;  oil- 
meal,  2  I  tin. 

(5>  Silage,  -HO  lbs.;  hay,  ad  lib.;  bran,  4  lbs.; 
oats,  2  lb«.;  gluten  meal.  2  Ibit. 

(6)  Com  silage, 4S  lbs,;  hay.  ad  lil].;oBt».  4  tba.; 
oit-mcal.  2  lbs.;  cottonseed  meal,  1  lb. 

(7)  Com  silage,  3a  Iha.;  clover  hay,  ail  lib.;  braa, 
oata  and  com  meal,  2  lbs.  each. 

(8)  Cloverailage,  25  tlw.;  hay,  rt  lbs.;  cnrn-Btalka 
ad  lib.;  oats,  3  lbs.;  corn  meal  and  oil-meal,  2  lbs. 
oaeb. 

(9)  Clover  or  alfalfa  silage,  30  Iha.;  hay,  ad 
lib.;  bran,  4  lbs.;  middlings,  3  lbs.;  oil-meal,  1  lb, 

(10)  Alfalfa  hnv.  21)  lbs.;  oats,4lb8.;  corn  meal, 
2lbH. 

(U)  Hay  20  lbs.;  cottonseed  hulls.  10  Iba.;  cot- 
tonaeed  meal,  4  Ibit.:  wheat  bran.  2  Ibt^. 

(12)  Com  silage,  :W  11m.;  cottonseed  holla,  12 
IbH.:  bran.  6  lbs.;  cottonseed  meal,  3  lbs. 

Thr.  Hairy  hull. 

The  bull  at  the  head  of  a  dairy  herd  ahoald 
receive  a  large  share  of  his  food  in  the  forai  of 
dry  ronghagv,  hay  from  grasaM  or  legumes,  corn- 


stalks, and  thci  tike,  with  only  iiniited  amounts  of 
conc^t-nt rated  feeds.  Of  the  latter,  wheat  bran, 
shorts,  oats  and  a  little  corn  meal  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred. k(H)ti  are  gmid  as  a  relish,  while  cnrn 
ailage  and  other  kinds  of  silage  Khoidd  be  fed  very 
sparingly  to  brt^eding  bulls.  Fattening  foods  and 
cKcessivo  gmia-fewiing  should  be  avoided,  bo  that 
the  animal  may  bo  kept  in  a  vigorous  active  condi- 
tion. All  corn  and  other  fattening  feeds  for  this 
reason  are  to  be  fed  with  care ;  high  feeding  and  a 
lack  of  exercise  are  cnmmon  caases  of  impotency 
in  bulls ;  a  wrong  aystem  of  feeding  management 
haK  iH-en  the  cause  of  shortening  the  period  of  use- 
fulness of  many  bullx. 

Literature. 

Jordan,  Feeding  of  Animals,  pp.  204-323, 
32X-33i  ;  Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding,  pp.  401-479; 
Connecticut  (Storrs)  Experiment  Station  Reports. 
1H93-UK)1  ;  Georgia  F.xperiment  .Station  Bnlletin 
No.  49 ;  Kansnin  Kxperiment  Station  Bulletin  No, 
81;  Maryland  Kxperiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  84; 
Michigan  iCxperirnent  Station  Bulletin  No.  149,  and 
Dairymen's  Report.  lSi>9,  p.  127 ;  Missi^-^aippi 
Experiment  Station  Bcilletin  No.  70;  Missouri 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins  Nos.  53-i>8 ;  New 
Jersey  Dairj-  Commissioner's  Report.  IS97.  pp. 
23-34;  Pe-nnaylvania  Stat^j  tSoard  of  AKricuHure 
Bulletin  No.  16  ;  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station 
Bulletin  No.  77 ;  South  Carolina  Exi»eriment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  No.  67 ;  Tennessee  Exia;riment 
Station,  I*reaa  Bulletin.  VM¥^^,  Wiaconsin  Kxpen- 
ment  Station  Bulletins  Noe.  33,  38,  116, 117. 

Feeding  Beef  CatUe.   Figs.  .^43-^5. 

By  llnimrd  (i.  Smith. 

In  the  production  of  beef  tn  America  there  are 
two  systems  in  practice:  tl>  breeding  and  fatten- 
ing cattle  in  the  farming  or  grain-growingsections; 
(2)  breeding  and  growing  cuttle  in  thegraitng  dis- 
tricts, and  transporting  thum  later  to  those  parts 
of  the  conntry  devoted  to  tho  growing  of  grain, 
where  they  are  fattened  for  market.  Extending 
from  north  to  south  through  the  western  part  of 
North  .■Vmerica,  adjoining  and  including  the  moun- 
tain ranges,  is  a  wide  stretch  of  country  unfit  for 
farming  purposes,  because  of  it^  physiography  and. 
particularly,  its  lack  of  rainfall.  While  much  of 
thia  land  has  little  or  no  market  value,  it  produces 
nutritious  grasses,  which  will  furnish  miste^nance 
to  a  limited  number  of  cattle,  sheep,  or  hontes. 
animals  that  are  adapted  to  travel  over  a  con- 
siderable area  to  gain  access  to  water  and  sparse 
vegetation.  The  conditions  which  prevail  in  this 
so-called  range  country  are  such  as  to  make  the 
cost  of  feeding  an  animal  one  year  a  matter  of 
small  expense,  and  it  is  because  of  this  that  cattle- 
men on  the  plains  keep  the  offspring  of  their  herds 
until  fairly  mature  in  fmme  though  thin  in  fle^h. 
It  will  also  t>e  understood,  that  when  cattle  thus 
reared  are  purchased  by  farmers  at  the  ranches 
where  grown,  or  at  stock  markets,  they  should  be 
fed  and  handle]  in  a  manner  somewhat  different 
from  thoM  brvd  on  farms. 


I 


318 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


The  fanner  ii;  not  jutttifitHl  in  ](ee[>inK  caltle  of 
ht»  own  rawing  until  they  arc  tKrws  or  four  years 
old,  a*  is  dimt;  liy  ranchmen.  The  price  of  farminR 
]an(l»  would  nut  w:irrant  «ijt;li  a  ijn>cL«i3nni,  It  is  a 
wt.>llH.-fitablitthLnl  fact  that  thu  oUc-r  and  larger  an 
animiil  hticoniijy.,  thomort;  fomt  igrequirerl  for  hody 
maintenance,— for  body  heat,  heart  action,  lung 


^1 


~M 


ptc.  343,  PiSTD'grOKa  lwo-jreat-«ld  tteen,  leMloit  In  wiatcr. 

exiianeion,and  Other  functitiaalat;tiviti«t,^andeon- 
siHiut'ntly  an  increasing  amount  of  food  is  required 
foragivt-ngain.  In  ageneral  way,thetwt»-year-o!d 
8fc&tjr  will  require  ap]>roxini8teIy  one-third  more  foixl 
for  a  given  gain  than  wil!  the  yearling,  and  the  three- 
yt'.ir-()td  ont^lhird  nmn;  than  the  two-year-old. 
Thia  is  also  true  with  caltla  on  the  range,  hut  there 
the  extra  fund  rLHjuirud  in  laU?r  yuara  ia  ulTiiu't  by 
the  smallor  (jercfntage  of  cilKl-s  produced  fnim  a 
range  herd  of  cows  compared  with  a  herd  on  the 
fiirm.  Moreover,  farm  cows  are  kept  primarily  for 
milk  and  aecnndarily  for  calves,  and  it  is  to  the 
interest  of  the  farmer  to  keep  more  cows  and 
correapondingly  fewer  steers.  Farm-grown  Htcx-k, 
therefore,  should  bo  fattened  as  baby  •beeves,  year- 
lings, or  twos. 

Bahy-beevea  are  cattlo  that  are  finished  for 
market  at  the  age  of  ten  to  sixteen  montha.  Thia 
industry  ih  now  mmle  pxiaslblij  hy  the  fju^t  that.we 
have  tyjies  of  ciittlu  that  can  be  ni:iile  fat  at  that 
early  age.  It  in  &ho  eiiuouniged  by  the  packtng- 
honae  buyerfl  through  their  wili- 
iDgn«68  to  [Mjy  as  much  per  hundred 
weight  for  young  fat  cattle  as  for 
older  ones  in  the  same  flesh.  Feed* 
ing  for  bahy-heef  is  mi  doiiht  moHt 
practicable  on  farms  that  are 
partly  devoteil  to  the  ktHiptng  of 
cows,  or  breeding  ewea,  aniniaU 
which  utilize  the  surplus  roughagu 
onlinarily  grown  on  farms.  Baby- 
beeves  rw]uirc  heavy  grain-feeding 
from  start  to  finiah.  and  it  is  evi- 
dent thiit  this  form  of  beef  produc- 
tion would  be  leas  profitable  if 
grain  were  scarce  and  high  in  price 
and  ruugh  feed  a  drug  on  the  market.  It  reqtiirea 
beef-bred  bulls  of  low  and  compact  build  to  produce 
calves  ituitable  for  bahy-beef.  There  is  a  larger 
proportion  of  individuahi  of  that  t^^w  among  Aber- 


deen-Angus and  Herefords  than  other  breeds,  and 
the^e  are  al^o  early  maturing. 

Calves  that  have  had  an  abundance  of  milk  from 
tho  dam,  and  liberal  rations  of  grain  t>oth  before 
and  after  weaning,  can  be  made-  into  prime  baby- 
Ifeef  as  early  as  ten  months  of  age,  though  it  is 
customary  to  feed  a  few  months  longer  than  this. 
The  object  is  to  hold  the  milk  flesh  and  put  oil 
more  Inssides.  Corn  is  to  \m  larg»'ly  de^ieniled  on, 
both  hbcausu  of  its  eheapnens  and  because  of  ita 
fattening  character,  rieh  u»  it  is  in  starch  and  oils. 
It  gives  bast  results,  however,  when  fed  with  somo 
food  rich  in  protein,  as,  for  example,  oil-meal  or 
gluten  feed.  Whenever  the  market  price  of  oats  la 
on  a  par  with  corn  per  hundnnl,  it  is  well  te  make 
the  grain  ration  aliout  nne-foitrth  oats  hy  weight. 
This  grain,  because  of  its  bulk,  serves  to  make  a 
heavy  feeij  of  corn  moro  [Mirmeabie  to  digeativo 
juices,  and  \(ian  likely  to  cause  founder.  In  fact, 
one  could  afford  to  pay  perhajw  ten  cents  per  hun- 
dred more  for  oats  than  for  corn,  for  the  a&ke  of 
having  a  small  quantity  to  mix  with  corn.  If  bran 
is  fell,  oats  can  be  disjienfied  with.  Furthermore, 
bran  will  funtish  mure  protein  than  oata,  but  its 
price  is  often  such  as  to  make  it  a  more  expensive 
source  of  protein  than  oil-meal,  the  latter  being 
three  times  ns  effective  as  bran  for  that  purpose. 

A  calf  intended  for  early  babv-lieef.  given  all  the 
grain  he  wants,  and  weighing  400  toSOOponnds  at 
six  months,  will  ciinsume  per  day  approximately 
five  pounds  of  com,  two  pounds  of  oats,  and  one- 
half  pound  of  oil-meal,  and  such  a  ration  with  plenty 
of  good  clovor  or  alfalfa  hay  should  give  eiccellent 
results,  if  supplied  regutiirly.  With  roughage  other 
than  the  legumes, — clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpeas, — 
the  oil-meal  should  he  increased  to  nne  pound  per 
day.  The  same  weight  of  bran  could  be  suKititnted 
for  the  two  pounds  of  oats  and  the  one-half  pound 
of  oil-meal,  if  mure  available.  The  market  does  not 
countenance  poorly  finished  baby-beeves,  and  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  increase  the  daily  ration  as 
fast  as  it  will  be  consumed  by  the  calves,  although 
it  13  never  desirable  ti)  put  in  the  feeding  bunks 
more  than  will  fie  cleane<l  up  l)etween  the  two 
feeds,  morning  and  late  ufternmm.  Corn  silage  is 
pmving  popular  for  calves,  Itecauae  of  its  aucca- 


Tig.  944.    AtMtdten-Anmie  cal«n  nwilnc. 

lence  and  it3  tendency  to  prevent  digfietive  die- 
orders  resulting  from  heavy  grain-feeding.  Tho 
feeding  can  be  made  lighter  early,  if  the  calres  are 
nut  to  be  finished  until  sixteen  months  of  afo. 


CATTLB 


CATTLE 


319 


Sbmmed-milk  calves,  although  thinD«r  at  wean- 
iuff  time,  are  somctimea  sold  as  baby-lit-ef  if  wtll  fed 
until  sixteen  or  eight^eti  months  of  af^c.  Uoifer 
calves  are  preferred  because  they  seem  to  take  on 
flesh  earlier  than  do  male  calves.  In  fact,  the  use 
of  heifers  for  baby-bt-ef  producticm  is  the  best  solu- 
tion of  the  heifer  problem,  becaustj  young  heifers 
are  discounted  at  the  markets  much  le&jt  than  are 
older  heifers  often  well  along  in  prcfftiancy. 

Fattening  Inn^  yearlings, —  cattle  eiBht*en  to 
twenty-three  tnunths  old,— promises  to  be  a  popu- 
lar method  of  pruducin^  beef  on  farnui  having  an 
abnnd&nce  of  pood  summer  pasture.  It  i^  a  metb4>d 
less  to  the  extreme  than  baby-beef  proiiuotinn, 
yet  having:  ti^  sonic  degree  the  same  advantagett, 
Botsbty,  larger  gains  per  food  consnmi-d  and 
quicker  returns  than  are  made  by  keeping  cattle 
ontil  older.  It  i»  ahead  of  bsby-Wf  production  in 
that  more  beef  is  made  from  hiiy  and  gmss  and 
the  final  weight  represents  a  relatively  smaller 
consumption  of  (^in. 

Taking  it  for  granted  that  the  calveit  are  (torn 
in  the  spring,  they  are  given  little  or  no  grain 
before  or  after  weaning  from  the  pail  or  the  cow, 
as  the  case  may  be.  A  luxuriant  growth  of  grass 
ifl  depended  on  for  the  fall  months,  and  nvhen 
winter  Beta  in  the  calvpfl  are  siippIitHl  with  a  small 
allowance  of  grain  in  lulditiim  to  a  liberal  feed  of 
bay.  It  is  intended  that  such  calvcit  shall  he  given 
pasture  without  grain  the  following  summer  and  a 
full  feed  of  grain  the  next  fall  and  winter.  With 
inch  a  course  mapped  out  for  tht-m,  it  would  si-um 
that  the  winter  ration  shtruM  \»i  »vich  as  to  malte 
their  going  on  pasture  the  fojlnwing  Hummi>r  a 
pleasare  rathtir  than  a  hardship.  This  would  not 
be  accomplishes]  were  a  heavy  winter  grain  ration 
dropped  when  thL-  c^ittlo  go  on  gra&;. 

In  this  connection,  the  results  of  a  tet^t  made  at 
the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  nith  rifty  grailu 
Hereford  cjilve«  averaging  Til!)!)  jfourds  eat^h,  are  of 
intereflt.  One  lot  w:is  fed  lilnTally  on  hay,  mostly 
alfalfa,  and  no  grain;  another  lot,  the  same  kimL  of 
hay,  though  less  of  it,  and  thrt'e  pounds  of  grain 
each  per  day;  whilo  a  third  lot  was  given  still  less 
of  the  same  kind  of  hay  and  si.\  pounds  uf  grain 
each  per  day.  The  last-named  Eut  moile  the  largest 
and  moat  economical  gains  during  the  wintt;r,  but 
the  discontinuance  of  grain  on  paetnre  the  follow- 
ing summer  told  on  their  Kiimmf  r  growth,  and  they 
finished  the  year  with  gains  costing  $.'^.4(i  per  hnn- 
dred  companf^  with  $3.14  for  thostj  which  ha«J 
received  three  pounds  each,  and  J;^.!?  for  tlione 
which  had  received  no  grain,  hay  being  worth  at 
Uie  lime  $€  per  Um  and  ^ain  %\  per  hundred 
poonda.  No  doubt  the  "  no  grain  "  calvea  consumed 
more  grass,  wbirh  w;i«  not  accounted  for  in  the 
experiment,  but  which  would  have  ma^le  the  reflulta 
still  more  in  favor  of  a  light  grain  ration  rather 
than  no  grain  in  winter.  Cured  gra^;  is  tiut  the 
equal  of  fri4<h  gras^i,  and  a  little  grain  with  it  is 
ao  adrantagn:  hnt  care  should  lie  taken  that  not 
aaoDgh  grain  Ih'  supplied  to  make  the  winter  ration 
nperior  to  graiu  itltme  which  is  to  follow  it. 


As  to  the  character  of  the  ration,  it  may  be  said 
that  if  the  roughage  is  in  large  ]>art  alfalfa,  clover 
or  coK'pea  bay,  the  small  grain  ration  may  consif^t 
of  corn  alone ;  but  if  roughago  other  than  thwe 
legumes  is  fed.  then  the  corn  should  lie  supftk- 
mented  with  an  equal  weight  of  bran,  or  on(^-third 
to  one-half  of  that  weight  of  oil-meal.  Well-bedded 
banu  or  shed.4  cloiwd  on  all  sides,  hut  with  windows 
and  doors  always  opt'n  and  with  a  wetl-draine^l 
yard  adjoining,  will  give  the  most  approved  ijuar- 
ters  for  wintering  s^uch  calvea. 

After  a  summer  of  pasture,  they  may  be  fed, 
while  yet  on  gra-is.  foddiT  com  which  baa  been 


■^^^\:^ 


J\k.  345.    PeedlDC  twcf  catves,  iJioirlitK  fwd-ims  md  niito'- 

drawn  Cftl.      !S    M.  S.  rAiirb.  Stamrunl.  Tuih>. 

planter]  rather  thi[;k  to  mjike  the  ears  smaller  in 
size  and  easier  fur  yearlings  to  matiticate.  When 
placed  in  the  yards,  this  same  fixldur  corn  may  U-- 
fed  in  rat-iks  in  tho  morning,  the  remaining  half  of 
the  full  WkA  to  be  supplied  as  shelled  corn  fed  in 
open  bunks  during  late  afternoon,  with  a  tiber.il 
feed  of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea  hay  given  at  the 
same  time  of  day.  With  any  rough  feed  other  than 
these  tegtinies,  as  mrghum  or  millet,  the  grain  fed 
at  night  should  Ki  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  oil-meal, 
gluten  or  cottons^ied  meal.  In  otbur  wonis,  if  tht5se 
yearlings,  whun  once  on  a  fall  grain  feed  which  has 
been  brought  about  by  a  gradual  increase  during 
a  period  of  four  to  six  weeks,  are  each  consuming 
per  day  eight  ptninds  of  corn  on  the  stalk  and 
wight  jHiiinds  fif  grain  at  night,  one  anrl  om-half 
to  two  pounds  (tf  that  grain  should  he  oil-meal, 
gluten  meal  or  euttoEsei-d  meal,  and  the  renminder 
shelled  com.  It  is  assumed  that  there  is  one  pig 
for  each  steer,  to  consume  corn  in  the  droppings. 
Feeding  in  this  manner  throughout  the  winter  will 
put  the  cattle  in  goixl  finish  by  spring,  when  they 
should  weigh  1,100  tii  1,20()  poumis  at  twenty- 
three  montlm  anil  will  uommand  a  good  price. 

Sfiori  lipn-yfar-olHt. 

Finishing  short  two-year-otds  by  feeding  grain 
in  connection  with  spring  and  summer  pasture 
accomplishes  a  still  greater  saving  of  grain  than 
the  methiKl  just  de^^'Hlied,  iK'cause,  with  thts 
system,  u  light  grain  ration  is  fed  the  first  winter 
and  something  Ivtts  than  a  half  feed  of  grain  the 
second  winter.  When  curn  is  high  in  price  and  hay 
und  grass  are  abundant,  this  method  is  very  satis- 
factory. By  it  one  takes  advantage  of  the  fact 
that  a  full  feed  of  grain  on  grass  is  not  more  than 


320 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


two-tbirds  of  a  full  feed  with  hay  ;  and  even  larger 
gaiiiii  flre  to  tw  expuctwl  ulii^ii  fulUfed  un  j/^rnss. 
Here  again  we  are  conrrunted  with  the  fuot  that 
frosh  gram  will  go  farther  in  bet<f  jiroduction  thuii 
will  dri«d  crass  in  winter.  Soakod  sht-lled  corn 
seoms  to  be  moet  effective  for  fipring  and  summer 
feeding,  and  nolhing  eli^  is  necdtMi  anlej«  the  grass 
is  timothy  or  prairie,  when  additional  protein 
shoald  be  snppHed  by  the  aae  of  coarsely  jiround 
oil-cake  or  s«me  other  pn>t4>in  food.  Summer-fed 
cattle  should  be  marlceted  in  July.  Cattle  would 
better  be  kept  from  ttrass  entiruly  tf  tn  earlier 
market  h  pought,  iH-cansie  the  first  f<*w  we«ks  on 
grass  prodaces  a  shrink.  On  the  other  hand,  cattle 
should  not  b«  held  much  Iat«r  than  Jaly,  because 
of  the  hot  weather  and  flies. 

Fall-feed  in ff  two-year- oltU, 

Fall-feeding  two-year-olda  with  com  fodder  (com 
on  the  Rlalk)  on  pasture  is  a  most  excellent  prac- 
tice on  farms  situated  for  it.  Corn  may  be  fed  as 
soon  -dSi  it  is  suiTieiently  ripe  to  go  in  the  shock  :  in 
other  words,  after  the  ears  harden  and  the  husk 
turns  brown,  yet  w-hiie  many  of  the  stalk  leaves 
are  green.  Immature  com  should  not  be  cut  and 
fed  to  fattening  cattle  because  it  invariablv  causes 
shrinkage  at  the  start,  due,  no  doubt,  to  its  laxative 
character.  In  an  average  season,  the  feeding  of 
corn  fodder  may  begin  about  Septem!>er  IS  and  be 
continued  in  the  fivlA  for  a  period  of  three  months, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  two-year-old  steera  on 
good  pi^tture  will  bo  sufficiently  fat  to  market. 
Thu  method  has  several  advantafjes  :  (1)  Corn  fod- 
der furnishes  a  cheap  but  effective  combination  of 
(jrain  and  roughage,  lower  in  price  than  either  fed 
aeparately.  (2)  It  can  be  hauled  from  the  ahock 
and  Bcattered  on  the  sod  or  on  ground  which  is  to 
be  plowed  in  the  spring  at  a  low  cost  for  lahor.  C^) 
The  manure  is  scattered  in  thv  fields  without  addi- 
tional expense.  (4)  The  feeding  is  done  at  a  season 
when  the  weather  is  mcMt  favorable. 

In  feeding  corn  fodder,  it  is  well  to  supply  a 
quantity  which  will  furnish  each  steer  about  three 

Cods  of  corn  the  first  day.  If  the  fodder  is  in 
dies,  this  can  easilv  be  esiimate<t  ami  the  mate- 
rial increased  gradually  until  at  the  end  of  four 
weeks  the  cattle  are  receiving  all  the  com  they 
will  consume.  When  on  a  fall  feed  of  torn,  there 
will  be  a  considerable  waiite  of  stalks,  much  of 
which  can  be  avoided  by  feeding  some  huskeii, 
snapped,  or  shelled  corn  in  addition.  A  mixture  of 
three  pounds  of  bran  and  one  pound  of  oil-mf«al  or 
cottonseed  m^,  supplied  to  each  steer  per  day,  will 
increase  trains  materially,  and  will  thus  bring  the 
cittle  to  an  earlier  finish. 

WinUr-fieding  rattge  tipo-year-old*. 

Winter- feeding  range  two-year-olds  or  farm- 
grown  cattW  which  hiive  had  no  gruin  during  sum- 
mer and  fait  in  the  mfthotl  most  commnnly  prac- 
ticed in  the  West,  when-  com  is  left  standing  in 
tbo  field  usually  until  November.  Not  many  range 
cattle  roach  the  markets  until  late  in  Otitober  or 
November,  and  the  fattening  period  frenuently  ex- 
tends to  May.    Snapped  com  (ear  within  the  husk) 


is  most  in  favor  during  the  early  part  of  the  feed- 
ing, and  this  with  alfalfa  or  clover  gives  excellent 
reaults.    Recent  t««ts,  however,  have  shown  that 
the  use  cff  field-cured  stalks  with  alfalfa  gives  just 
as  large  gains  and  at  less  expense.  In  fact,  the 
most  profitable  rations  of  all  those  teiited  at  the 
Nebraska  Experiment  Station  daring  a  period  of 
four  years  were  corabinatioDs  of  com.  ilfalfa.  and 
com^tover  (stalks),  with  the  ration  containing 
com  attached  to  the  stalk  (com  fodder)  slightly  in 
the  lead  of  other  rations  containing  the  same  foods., 
Aft«r  cattle  have  l)een  fed  snapjied  com  for  six 
eight  weeks,  it  is  well  to   begin   gradually  with 
sluiHed  com,  the  same  to  replace  entirely  or  in 
targe  part  the  snapped  com  at  the  end  of  another' 
month.   If  snapped  corn  is  suddenly  dtscoattouedl 
and  shelled  com  substituted,  cattle  wilt  immedi-j 
ately  "scour,"  and  shrink  in  conse<iuence.    A  littli 
snapped,  or,  preferably,  cmi=>hed  snapped  com  fedj 
with  shelled  corn  to  the  very  cloee  of  the  peric " 
insures  better  digestion  and  lessens  the  danger  oi 
founder,  because  the  presence  uf  the  cob  and  huskl 
makes  the  heavy  grain  ration  less  compact  in  thai 
?tomsch.    A  little  com-and-cob  meal  will  serve  thsl 
same  purpose.    If,  however,  all  the  com  is  fed 
com-and-cob  meal,  the  extra  gains  made  will  not] 
be  great  enough  to  compensate   for  the  cl 
regularly  allowed  for  grinding  corn  to  the 
degree  of  fineness,    (iriuding  might  pay  in  tt 
East,  where  com  is  higher  in  price  and  the  cost 
labor  on  a  par,  but  it  will  not  pay  in  the  West. 
unless  hogs  for   consuming  waste  com  are  not 
available,  and  frequently  not  even  then. 

Alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea  hay  are  more  profit- 
able than  some  other  forma  of  roughage  which 
reiiuire  a  supplementary  protein  food  in  addition. 
With  these  leguminous  hay  plants  we  are  able  to 
aecure  go^Kl  gains  by  using  nothing  but  com  as 
grain.  But.  without  the  legumes,  it  has  been  shown 
conclusively  that  the  use  of  bran,  oil-meal,  gluten 
meal,  or  cottonseed  meal  as  food.t  supplemeDtary 
to  com,  will  not  only  make  larger  gains,  bat  will 
also  make  them  more  profitably  unless  these  pro- 
tein fixids  are  much  above  average  prices,  two 
pounds  of  one  of  these  concentrated  foods  per  day 
to  each  animal  is  i|Gite  enough,  increasing  this 
quantity  itlightly  if  low  in  price  or  if  com  is  high, 
and  diminisbing  it  if  the  commercial  food.':  are  high 
and  corn  is  low.  Two-year-olds  on  full  feed  will 
take  20  to  25  pounds  of  grain  i>er  day,  but  less  if 
deprive^l  of  the  necessary  protein  f«>d,  which  no 
doubt  partly  accounts  for  smaller  gains  made  when 
thus  fed.  All  the  roughage  that  will  be  eaten 
should  be  supplied.  This  netd  not  be  weighed,  but 
will  amount  to  5  to  10  pounds  per  day  to  each  ani- 
mal when  on  a  full  grain  feed. 

Knnge  thrve-'tffar-M'h. 

Itange  three-year-olds,  weighing  as  feeders  1,100 
pounds  or  thereaboolB.  are  preferred  by  some 
farmerH,  becJiuse  they  take  on  fat  fastt^r  and  can 
thus  hif  marketed  that  much  earlier.  \\'hile  cattle 
of  this  age  re«|uire  more  food  for  a  given  gain,  that 
item  may  be  olfset  by  the  fact  that  the  same 
advance  in  selling  price  over  coit  price  on  older 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


821 


r 


cattle  will  yield  an  incivased  profit,  due  to  the 
larger  initial  weight  nf  the  older  animnls.  In  other 
wtmifi,  $l,f>0  ailvaiice  »n  a  l,l(M>-itoi]nd  fewler 
mtjana  $HJ.r>0  tu  start  with,  cmnimreil  with  $1*2.00 
on  thu  SOO-pound  f«4?dL'r.  Ranj^L"  thrtie-yt-ar-olilB 
SM-'m  to  require  a  BomQwhat  HinalltT  pruporiioii  of 
the  prutein  foods,  bnt,  on  the  other  hand,  they  con- 
Bume  a  larger  proportion  of  griiin  to  hay.  Whether 
it  i.-^  best  to  purclia.se  range  two-yejir-olds  or  three- 
yeaiM^Ws  d^iiendn  entirely  on  relative  prices  anfl 
cunditionH  uxJHting  on  the  farm  of  the  pruKpective 
buy&r.  Thare  Bemaa  to  be  a  ^irowing  tendeucy  to 
favor  the  younger  cattle. 

Liter  aturf.. 

Smith.  Profitahle  Stock  Feeding,  second  edition, 
the  author.  Lincoln,  Nebraska  (IJKMi)  ;  Armshy, 
Manual  of  Tattle  Pi^edinji,  New  York,  John  Wiley 
&  Sons  (IB80( ;  Henry,  Feetln  and  Feeding,  sixth 
e^lition,  the  author,  Madison,  Wiat'ocflin  (1900) ; 
Jordan,  The  Feeiling  of  Animals,  Nt'w  York,  Mao- 
millan  Company  (ISO!) ;  Stewart,  Feeding  Animals, 
third  edition,  Lake  Vit'w,  New  York,  (188G);  Shaw, 
The  Feeding  and  Manrigement  of  Live  Stfick,  St, 
Anthony  Park.  Minn^-HtJta  (1902);  WolfT-Couwina, 
Farm  Fo()d.t.  Much  information  can  be  hail  from 
state  experiment  station  bullt^tinB,  thoee  published 
by  the  United  Staters  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  the  files  of  the  Mreeders"  Gazette. 

DeteimUung  the  Age  of  Cattle. 

By  H.  H.  Wing. 

The  teeth  of  the  ox  nerve  to  help  in  the  determin- 
ation of  its  age.  although  not  so  ai-ciirately  nor  to 
no  great  an  extent  as  in  the  horse.  Under  ordinary 
circumatancef),  the  incisors  are  the  only  teeth  that 
are  used  in  the  determination  of  age.  Of  these,  the 
ox  has  eight,  or  four  pairs,  and  on  the  lower  jaw 
only.  There  are  two  seta,  the  temporary  or  milk 
leeth.  and  the  permanent  teeth,  tha  tatter  differing 
from  the  former  mainly  in  their  greater  size  and 
width. 

The  c-alf  is  horn  with  the  two  central  pairs  of 
milk  teeth  fully  np,  and  the  remaining  pairs  ap[«ar 
within  the  first  month  after  birth.  When  the  ani- 
mal reaches  the  age  of  about  eighteen  months,  the 
middle  pair  of  milk  teeth  are  replaced  by  pt.'rraanent 
ones  that  are  fuly  twice  oa  broad  aa  tho  milk  teeth. 
The  interval  betwc-L'n  the  appearance  of  the  aucceed- 
ing  pairs  is  rather  variable,  depending  on  the 
precocity  or  early  maturity  of  the  individual  and 
also  on  the  breeil  and  the  way  in  whi>('h  the  animal 
haA  beeD  kept.  Young  cuttle  that  have  l><«n  ill- 
kept,  and  whoee  general  development  has  lieen 
delayed,  will  have  their  dentition  (ivlayed,  and  will 
ahow  a  young  mouth  fnr  their  ag^-.  The  interval 
between  the  appearance  of  each  two  pairs  of  teeth 
is  seldom  leKs  than  nine  months,  so  that  the  age  of 
the  animal  at  the  time  each  pair  is  up  and  in  full 
wear  may  bo  reckoned  as  follows : 

Pint,  cr  middle  piiir 18  montlu 

Sftcood,  or  am  ml«Ttnediat«  pair  .  .  27  montlia 
Third,  or  «c«and  intemuidEsta  pair  .  >t6  munthit 
Fuvrtb,  or  outer  pvr 4G  montha 

C  21 


If  there  is  any  variation  from  the  above,  the 
animal  is  likely  to  lie  older  rather  than  younger 
than  the  teeth  inilicate.  After  the  teeth  are  up  and 
in  full  Wear,  there  is  comparatively  little  change 
in  their  appearance  for  eevoral  years.  The  tteth 
are  bnuul,  tlat  and  white  in  color,  and  their  edges 
shoald  almoBt  or  quite  meet.  They  are  never  firmly 
fixed  in  the  jaw,  as  in  the  case  of  the  horse,  bnt 
rather  UmhwIv  imbedded  in  n  think  cartilaginous 
p.vl  or  guma.  The  looseneaa  of  the  teeth  should 
nut  therefore  be  taken  by  the  novice  aa  an  indica- 
tion of  unaomidoess  or  of  advancing  age. 

.^fter  the  animal  has  ruacbeid  an  age  of  eight  or 
nine  years,  the  teeth  beconws  narrower  throngh 
wear.  They  shrink  away  from  each  other  and  often 
become  more  or  less  discolored  and  finally  drop  out 
one  by  one.  K  vigorous  old  cow  will  ofl«'n  lie  very 
well,  osiM-eially  if  fed  lilierally  on  grain  and  »uccu- 
lent  food,  aft*T  the  lost  incisor  tooth  has  diiiaft- 
punred.  And  so  long  as  the  teeth  are  aO  present 
and  reasonably  close  together,  the  Animal  is  said 
to  have  a  good  mouth.  This  condition  may  remain 
up  to  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age,  and  occasionally 
even  longer. 

The  horns  also  affonl  a  meann  for  estimating  the 
age  of  cattle,  especially  of  cows.  During  the  first 
two  years,  the  horns  grow  rapidly  and  the  greater 
part  of  tho  total  growth  is  made  in  this  time.  After- 
ward, the  growth  is  slow  from  year  to  year,  and 
each  year's  growth  is  marked  by  a  more  or  less  dis- 
tinct ring.  The  Rrst  ring  appears  when  the  animal 
is  about  three  years  old,  and  the  age  may  be  reck- 
oned by  adding  two  to  the  number  of  rings  present. 

Common  AllmuiU  of  C«ttl«.   Figs.  346-359. 
By  John  fi.  Mnhier  and  Gcorgi;  H.  tlaH. 

Most  serious  ailmenta  of  Iive-i<tock  should  receive 
the  attention  of  a  skilled  veterinarian.  Failure  to 
observe  all  conditions  and  direcrttons  carefully 
may  result  fatally,  whereas  a  skilled  veterinarian 
would  havesavL'd  the  animal.  Frequently,  however, 
it  may  be  impo3!*ible  to  secure  the  veterinarian 
just  when  needed,  and  it  is  well  for  the  fanner  to 
know  what  to  do  in  the  emergency.  Then,  there 
are  many  ailments  that  can  be  treated  by  a  care- 
ful farmer.  It  is  the  purpose  of  thus  dincusHion  to 
give  brief  practical  information  for  such  cases. 
[The  infectious  diseases  of  animals  are  discussed  at 
length  by  V.  A.  M(»ore,  on  pages  121-146.] 

Before  discussing  some  of  the  common  ailments 
and  diseases  that  affect  cattle,  it  may  lie  well  to 
mention  the  various  methods  of  administering 
raedifines  to  live-stock  and  to  compart'  thecommon 
mviuvs  of  measuring  medicines,  with  tholr  valuea  in 
the  apothecary  system. 

Mdhodi  ((f  adminietfring  medicines. 

Medicines  are  usually  given  by  the  month, 
although  at  times  other  methods,  us  per  rectum, 
intravenously  Onb)  a  vein),  or  dulwutant'ously 
(under  the  skin),  are  more  certain,  and  in  s'>me 
caws  most  of  necessity  be  employeil.  Medicines 
may  also  he  applied  externally  by  massagt^  They 
are  given  in  the  form  of  fluid,  powder,  pill,  hall, 


322 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


drench  and  paflta.  When  given  intraventmaly  or  »tib- 
culaneounly,  tliey  niu^t  Ik)  in  flui<l  fiirm  anH  be 
given  with  a  h.v|Kidermic  syrinKt.  (Fir.  34(j.) 
^luls  are  sometimca,  although  rarely,  given  ty  ihe 
rectum. 

Filh  are  small  qoantities  of  medicine  rolled  into 
a  solid  sphericitl  muHS.  They  have  limited  use  for 
the-  ilnmeHtic  animnlK  iiHifle  fnim  tli4?  dog  and  cat. 

BnUf  are  IwrgiT  miuuttrs  of  drugs,  given  prin- 
cipally to  UiL-  horse.  They  Bhuuld  lie  s[ihKrii:ai, 
soft  tD  coDBiBtcQcy  and  covered  with  oil   before 


S.S. 


^i\ 


.>-'■ 


Fil.  346.     TbD  UM  gl  Ui«  bypodctmic  •ninm  Id  vaccEiuitliiK- 

they  are  admin istertHi.  After  administering,  h 
drink  of  watt-r  should  he  "ffered.  The  giving  of  a 
ball  rei)nire.>«  »ome  .ikill,  and  ix  HUoee^ful  unly  after 
conttidenible  i>x(M(rii?in:i«.  The  ball  should  bo  held 
in  the  right  hand  between  the  thumb  and  first 
three  flngera.  The  t<ingno  is  drawn  out  from  the 
side  of  the  mouth  with  the  )cft  hand,  and  the 
mouth  kept  wide  open  by  pressing  against  it«  nnf 
with  the  left  thumb.  The  right  hand,  holding  the 
ball,  is  passed  bach  Iwtwcen  the  molar  t«*th  aa  far 
an  pwwible.  Then,  with  a  audden  thrust  back  into 
the  throat,  the  ball  is  deposited,  the  band  with- 
drawn and  the  tongue  immediately  released  so  that 
when  the  animal  drawa  the  t'lngtie  back  into  the 
mouth  the  base  of  the  organ  will  puah  the  ball  back 
into  the  throat  far  enoHKh  tti  prevent  its  bi'ing 
brought  bark  into  the  mouth  and  ohewed  up,  att  so 
often  fellows  tbi^  alt<>mpts  of  lieginnera. 

Paties  OTfitrtHiirifuHvv  8oft,  semi-soHd  maaseii  «i 
medicine  mixed  up  with  honey  or  roolnases  and 
spread  over  the  tongue  and  teeth,  with  the  idea 
tnat  they  will  be  slowly  dissolved  and  swallowed. 
They  are  principally  used  in  inflammations  of  the 
throat  (larj-ngiti-i  and  pharyngitis). 

Drcnchc*  are  large  quantitie-S  of  fluid  medicines 
gii'en  at  one  time,  as  of  oil  and  salU^.  In  admin- 
istering a  drench  to  the  horse,  the  head  should  be 
raiMd  until  the  face  and  now  are  horizont-al,  and 
be  held  in  place  by  means  of  &  rope  passed  through 
or  tied  around  the  nose  piece  of  the  halter  and  ran 
over  an  overhead  beam,  with  an  assistant  holding 


the  free  end.  The  drench  flhoald  be  in  a  fairly 
litng-ntfcked  bottle.  When  the  animal'ti  head  ia  in 
puHition,  tbfj  nuck  of  tbe  bottle  is  [iuH»ed  into  the 
mouth  at  the  comer  of  th«  lips  and  the  drench 
slowly  poured  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue 
as  far  back  in  tbe  month  as  possible.  In  case  the 
animat  coughs  or  shows  signs  of  di.scomfort,  the 
hea*l  should  lie  Inweretl  slightly  by  lo(»ening  tbe 
ropt?  until  relief  is  obtained,  when  it  may  be  drawn 
up  again.  In  cattle,  drenched  may  easily  be  given 
by  grasping  the  nuatrila  with  one  hand  and  holding 
the  head  up  while  the  other  hand  manipnlatea  the 
bottle  containing  the  medicine.  In  the  dog,  it  is 
well  to  draw  out  the  side  of  the  cheek,  leaving  the 
te«!th  cloBe^f.  and  peur  the  medicine  slowly  into  the 
cavity  thiih  formetl.  Innll  rlrenehing,  taking  plenty 
of  time  h  the  keynote  of  success. 

Commoa  meant  of  mfomring  mttticineM,  wUh  their 
values  in  the  apoifiecory  tystftn. 

Ti^fwpoon  contains  about  1  dram  li  os.) 
Llt.-K^t'rU{ic>on  runtalns  about  2  drahiui  (}  oi.) 
Tulile!<!prton  cantainfl  about  4  druna  [')  at.) 
Ui!U[iini;  t;itila4[i<i<in  nf  powilnr  ci>nlatnaaboat  1  ooiea. 
Tea-cap  halda  about  o  ounoea. 

Wminds  and  their  treatmeni, 

A  wound  is  an  injury  to  any  part  of  the  body, 
causing  disruption  of  the  affected  parts  with  or 
without  laceration  of  the  skin,  and  produced  by 
external  violence,  .\ccording  tii  the  method  of 
Ijrtiduction  we  have  incised,  punctured,  contused, 
ioeeratt-d  and  gun-nhot  wounds. 

The  first  objtTt  to  be  sought  in  all  serious 
wounds  is  the  cheeking  of  the  iow  of  blood.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  several  methotls,  such  as 
comprefwe.'*,  bandagi'S,  torsion,  hut  iron  and  liga- 
turew.  The  heat  from  the  hot  iron,  which  shuuld  be 
u«yd  at  n  red  heat,  will  cause  the  immediate  clot- 
ting of  the  blood  in  the  vessels,  which  is  further 
supported  by  the  production  of  a  firm  scab.  The 
hot  iron  shonld  Im  used  with  care  and  applied  only 
to  the  blt^eiling  puints.  Cold  water  and  ice-bags 
(juickly  stop  small  hemorrhages  when  thi;  bhicid 
ovma  from  thy  cut  surfact*.  Somv  druKS,  called 
8ty[itic^,  poftfli-ss  the  power  of  contracting  the 
btood-vessL-l  walls  and  al^o  of  clotting  the  blood. 
As  examples  of  such  drugs  may  be  mentioned 
chlorid  of  iron,  tannic  acid,  filcohol  and  oil  of 
turiwntine.  A  pure  snlntion  uf  the  tincture  of  the 
chlorid  of  iron  placed  directly  on  a  wound  or 
applied  by  aaturating  i^otton  will  produce  a  rapid 
and  hard  clot.  It  is  followed  by  a  great  deal  of 
sloughing  (cjisting  off  of  tissue)  and  therefore 
should  he  sparingly  used  over  large  surfaces.  To 
check  bleeding  from  large  vewwla,  eompreaaion 
mu.Ht  be  ado;iU^l.  When  rapid  ami  dangerous  and 
from  an  arterj-  (coming  Jn  spurts),  the  finger  may 
be  used  for  pressing  on  the  vessel  between  the 
wound  and  the  heart :  but  if  from  a  vein  (flowing 
regularly)  the  prL-ssore  should  be  exerted  on  the 
other  side  of  the  wound,  away  from  the  heart. 
Compression  may  also  Iki  uwil  by  passing  a  strap 
around  the  part  and  tightening,  after  placing 
H  rawed  pail  over  the  point  of  hemorrhage.   Tarn- 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


323 


pons  of  cotton,  tnw  or  oakum  mny  he  pncked 
iJKhtly  intu  II  wound  arwJ  hekl  in  place  by  biindagk'-rt 
for  twenty-fomr  to  ffrty-tfiKht  hours. 

Ligation,  when  priurticaMy,  it  an  excottdinfcly 
BBoeeBsful  method  of  .■ttopping  hcmorrha^o.  Itcon* 
sirts  in  grasptiig  the  bleeding  vesMl  with  the  for- 
cep»  and  tying  .icIlohti  cord  or  string  tightly  around 
it  aliuut  oTi^hnlf  inch  from  the  end,  OHing  ;U1  the 
antiwptic  precuatii^nd  given  below,  if  the  reasel 
cannot  b«  picked  up  alone  it  may  Iw  necessary  to 
pau  the  thread  around  a  mait!i  of  ti^^ue,  including 
the  bleeding  vc-aael,  to  arre.-it  the  blood  flow. 

Mrdicinai  treatment  i>f  troMnr/jt. —  Whenever  an 
anima!  in  a  public  place  receives  a  wound,  there  Is 
usually  some  one  present  who  ha«  a  remedy  of 
wonderful  curative  power  for  juat  that  condi- 
tion. Many  of  Ihe^e  quack  mixtures  are  harmful. 
Among  these  injurious  agents  may  be  mentioned 
cobwebs,  wood  ashes,  tobacco.  hor8«  manure  and 
x'arioua  preparationa  of  alcohol,  turpentine,  irrita- 
ting oils,  and  in  some  cases  the  direct  application  of 
pure  spiritH  iif  salts  (liydrochlnric  acid)  or  other  of 
the  mineral  acids. 

Irli-ery  wound,  after  the  hemorrhage  haa  been 
arrested,  should  have  the  hair  in  the  immediat* 
vicinity  of  the  edges  trimmed  away  and  all  foreign 
b»idiea  and  dirt  particles  carefully  removed  with 
clean  fingers  or  forceps.  It  shniild  then  be  wa»hed 
with  some  antlt^eptic  solution,  as  5  per  cent  car- 
bolic acid  or  lywol.  or  nt'rn  bichlorid  of  mercury 
applied  with  a  sponge  or  eyringe.  When  neces-ary, 
the  edges  of  tho  wound  should  bo  sewed  together, 
fntlowing  which,  in  fresh,  an  complicated  wounds, 
a  drying  astringent  antiseptic  powder,  as  tannic 
acid,  boric  acid  or  iodoform,  may  be  dusted  over 
it.  However,  when  it  m  badly  lacerated  nod  is 
befouled  with  dirt,  as  a  kick  wound,  or  when  it  is 
old  and  bacteria  have  gained  entrance,  producing 
mipparalion  and  the  discharge  of  tins,  it  will  be 
better  to  leave  the  wound  open  and  treat  it  with 
antiseptic  solutions  or  by  continuous  irrigation 
until  the  discharge  of  poa  ceases,  when  the  drying 
astringent  powders  may  be  applied.  [For  Wound 
infections,  see  page  \2'j.] 

J/ammi/w  (MaMUir),  jfargrt  or  caked-iag. 

Mammitts  is  an  Inflammation  of  th»  udder  ap- 
pearing in  two  forms,  simple  and  infectious.  The 
simple  form  is  really  an  infection,  generally  enter- 
ing through  the  milk  canals,  but  ordinarily  it  does 
not  spread  from  one  animal  to  another.  This  form, 
which  alone  will  be  discussed  in  this  article,  osually 
occun*  right  after  calving  and  may  involve  part 
or  all  oi"  the  udder.  (Pig.  ^47.)  As  cause*  of  simple 
mammitU  may  he  mentioned  lying  on  damp  floors, 
great  distention  of  the  udder  during  the  latter 
part  of  pregnancy,  rough  milking,  nursing  of  large 
calves,  irrvgiilar  milking,  or  congestion  of  the 
udder  from  internal  causes.  [Infectious  Mastitis, 
pages  125.  126.] 

The  symptoms  of  the  non-infectious  form  are  as 
follows :  One  quarter,  a  side  or  even  all  four  quar- 
ters become  enlarged  and  firm.  It  may  start  with 
only  a  small  area,  and  gradually  spread  until  a 
whole  quarter  or  the  entire  udder  is  infected.  The 


animals  are  depressed  and  there  may  be  a  slight 
rise  of  body  temperature.  The  lw-a\  temperature 
of  the  udder  is  always  increased  and  the  gland  is 
sensitive  to  preaaare.  The  flow  of  milk  is  lessened, 
and  what  milk  is  aecretcd  in  watery  and  may  con- 
tain pus  cells  or  be  tinged  with  blood. 

TrfiUmrnt.  —  r.ive  sparingly  of  milk-producing 
for>d.s,  ail  activity  of  the  udder  is  to  be  avoided. 
The  udder  should  be  well  ma»*aged  with  the  hand, 
and  camphorated  oil  or  tincture  uf  iodine  one  part, 
alcohol  eight  parts,  applied  and  rubbed  in  we!L  Then 
very  severe  warmth  should  l>e  applif-d  by  means  of 
sponges  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and  held  against 
the  udder  until  cool.  In  ca.se  abscess  formation  is 
threatennl,  bean  or  flaxseed  poultices  may  be  ap- 
(I'lied  until  good  tluctuatiOTi  Is  present,  when  the 
abscei^  should  be  opened  and  the  pus  allowed  to 
ej4c&pe.  If  gangrene  develops,  strong  antiseptics, 
as  5  [KT  cent  carbolic  acid  or  tjA™  bichlorid  of 
mercury,  should  iw  applied  externally.  Injections 
of  antiseptics  into  the  udder  through  the  teat  ducts 
is  indicated  In  aggravat^vl  cases.  Among  the  beat 
HolDtions  for  this  purpose  may  be  mtiuttoned  H  per 
cent  carbolic  acid  or  ly8ol,4  per  cent  boric  acid,  or 


^•*V 


t.a. 


.6  MM. 


-l.p. 


% 


C- 


PU-  347.  SectloD  ol  cow's  adder.  0.  R.  M..  IrmvTt  xUuil  of 
□ililnr:  /,.  p..  Irin|>hntlrii  of  )ilv'tt|<i*rl<-r  l  /..  a..  I>iii- 
|ilitiU<-s  lit    riin>-ijMiirtiT :    /.,    A'.,    lyiiiiilmllrx    [vavinK    th« 

nddcr  1  J .  il-.  Hi&miDiirr  artery  :  V,  if.,  nukramary  votn  : 
¥.  Ma..  Mitrrlnr  mjimmarr -r'ln :  C.  iriin«»#r»c  lnt»r- 
iniunDiiuT»i>Dtuin.    (AftDT  MaOMU.) 

.5  [)er  cent  permanganate  of  potash.  Refore  tho 
injtfCtions  are  made,  however,  the  e.xtemal  surface 
of  the  adder  ahonld  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the 
syringe  used  for  tho  injection  should  be  boiled. 

Chapped  Ualt. 

This  affection  is  common  among  cattlo  during 
the  periotl  of  lictation,  and  may  cause  great  difli- 
culty  in  milking.  One  of  thu  commonest  causes  is 
the  sucking  and  biting  of  a  Keveral-week.s-old  calf : 
also  turning  a  cow  out  in  »  ciild  wind  while  the 
teats  are  still  w«t  from  tlie  calf  sucking,  or  from 
milking  with  a  wet  hand.  Lying  down  in  the 
stable  with  the  teats  coming  in  contact  with 
manure  or  urine  may  likewise  he  a  cause.  The 
animal  will  not  stand  quietly  to  he  milked,  and 
may  kick. 

7Vea/mni(.— In  fresh  cows,  the  calf  ahiiutd  be 
weaned  as  soon  as  possible.    C^re  should  be  taken 


324 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


to  see  that  the  teats  ara  dry  before  tiirninp  the 
J^niiiial  out  uf  ihe  stalili;  in  wel  wealh(>r.  llland 
antiat-ptic  ointment,  a«  a  10  jiur  c^nt  ointment  iif 
calomel  in  potrolatum.  should  ba  apjjIitMl  aftur 
milking.  Yelluw  oxld  of  murcury  in  a  5  iner  cent 
ointment  is  alsn  good.  Care  must  be  exercised  to 
prevent  the  milk  becoming  contaminated  with 
these  ointments.  In  vpry  bad  cases,  the  milk  should 
be  withdrawn  for  »  few  milkingB  with  the  milking- 
tube,  acKUftiiianifid  by  inassaKe  of  Ihw  udder.  U  is 
imimrative  tbiit  Ui«  end  of  thv  teat  be  dieinfei'twl 
and  the  milking-tutiu  sterilized  before  it  is  iiuierted. 
Astringent  appHcationB,  aa  leiid  walc-r  with  laude- 
nam  or  tannic  acid  ointment,  arfi  gw>d  whun  them 
15  comtidernble  discharge  frnra  the  aores. 

Thi»  is  a  serioiiB  dinonler  afTectinu  weU-nnnriflhei], 
fat,  huavy-milking  animals  ut  the  miHtt  active 
period  of  lift),  and  is  charactoriswd  by  sudden 
onstaiight,  complete  paralysis  of  the  animal  with 
the  lo68  of  senRation,  and  by  following  closely  on 
the  act  of  calving  and  terminating  rapidly  in 
recovery  or  death.  The  princijTtil  pred iHposing 
«aiiiieK  are  great  activity  of  the  udder,  and  a  ple- 
thoric condition  (excess  of  nutrition  in  blood-vea- 
«ebiand  organs)  of  the  body  resulting  from  excessive 
feeding  and  tack  of  exercise  before  calving.  As 
to  the  direct  caiiRe  of  the  diHease,  various  theories 
have  been  a»3v,-inoed,  the  most  generally  arrepted 
of  whiph  is,  that  it  is  a  pitiHoning  of  the  bmly  due 
to  the  aliKorptJon  of  toxic  Huhfitam^ea  frnai  the 
tidiler.  Thi:^  Llieory  was  considered  to  have  settled 
the  discussion,  until  within  the  last  two  yiinrs, 
when  good  roBults  were  secured  by  the  injoctioii  of 
ordinarj-  atmowpheric  air,  ainpe  which  time  the 
exact  caitHH  of  the  diseaM>  hati  been  in  rltmbt. 

The  attack  usually  ctimea  un  within  two  days 
afUfr  calving.  The  animal  ia  nvstleas,  tn-aids  with 
the  hind  feet,  switches  the  tail,  gtarL^s  anxiously 
around  the  stall  or  walks  abnat  uneasily.  Thesw 
Bymptomn  are  rarely  recognizwl  by  the  owner,  but 
are  rapidly  followeil  by  beginning])anilysia,  noticed 
by  a  staggering  gait,  esiiecially  in  the  hind-lego, 
and  weakening  of  the  kneta  and  fetloeka  in  fmnt. 
This  increases  until  the  animal  goes  down  and  is  no 
longer  able  to  rise.  The  paralysia  becomes  general, 

tho  calf  is  un- 
noticed, and  the 
cow  lies  perfect- 
ly quiet  and  in- 
aensi  ble,  not 
even  winking 
when  tho  finger 
ia  placed  on  tho 
oyebalL  ftTiile 
down,  a  very 
charspteristic 
piinitidn  h  m- 
sumwl,  wliieh  is 
of  great  aid  in  diagnosis.  The  head  is  turnwl  around 
to  the  side,  nflually  to  the  left,  and  it  rents  against 
the  chent,  canning  a  peculiar  arching  of  the  nofk. 
(Fig.  ;i4K.)  If  the  head  is  drawn  out  straight,  it 
imnicdiatoly  flops  around  to  the  sido  again  on  being 


^^     -^ 


FtK- 3«B.  Cow  witli  milk- torer,  (how 
IBK  rbaracterislic  patUi'm. 


released.   There  fe  paralyns  of  the  mnscleft  of  the 
throat,  so  that  awaHowi&f;  is  dilTicnlt. 

Treatment. —  Because  of  the  paralysis  of  the 
thnmt,  great  care  ehoald  ho  taken  in  the  admin- 
istration of  medicines  by  the  mouth,  as  they  are 
likely  to  pass  into  the  wind-pipe,  and  aet  ap 
traumatic  i)neiimi>nia,  which  is  inx'ariably  fol- 
Inwed  by  death.  The  patient  iihould  he  kept  In. 
the  upright  position  on  the  breast^bone,  and  not 
on  her  side.  Hags  of  chaff  or  straw  ma,"  be 
uaed  to  keep  her  propped  up.  The  feeble  pnliw 
calls  for  the  administration  of  stimulants,  such 
as  subcutaneous  injcctionx  of  strychnine  sulfate, 
one  grain  three  timea  daily. 
Although  this  treatment 
will  Bi^siift  in  t'uring  tlie 
patient,  it  is  merely  ac- 
ctj8s,ory,  and  can  be  of  very 
little  value  without  the  in- 
jection into  the  udder  of 
atmospheric  air.  The  appli- 
cation of  this  treatment 
rwfuires  the  use  of  an  ap- 
paraluSHuch  as  iti  shown  in 
Fig.  ;M9.  The  metal  cylin- 
der is  filled  with  dry  cotton, 
which  filters  the  air  as  it 
passes  through.  The  udder 
fhould  be  thorougfalv 
cEeanse*]  and  washed  with 
a  5  i>er  cent  Holution  of 
carbolic  acid.  The  entire  in- 
strument should  be  boiled 
before  using,  the  water 
forced  out  of  it,  and  pro- 
tected from  dirt,  so  as  not 
to  contaminate  the  milk 
duets  and  cause  garget. 
Fresh  clean  dry  cotton 
must  be  inserted  In  the  metal  chamber  before  each 
using,  and  it  muft  be  kept  clean  and  dry.  After  the 
udder  in  cleaned,  the  milklng-tube  is  inserted  into 
the  four  teats  in  succession,  ihe  rubber  bulbs  are 
scjiieezed,  and  the  air.  sterilized  by  filtration  through 
the  dry  cotton  in  the  metal  chamber,  b  forced 
into  the  udder  until  the  latter  is  well  distended  and 
tense.  After  the  milking-tnbe  is  withdrawn,  the 
teats  shnuld  be  tieil  with  briwd  tapes  to  prevent 
the  escape  of  the  air.  In  caau  the  air  Itecomus  ab- 
Horiied  and  no  improvement  is  noticed  within  five 
hours,  a  repetition  of  tho  injection  should  be  made, 
using  the  sauie  antiseptic  precautions  as  at  first. 
Tho  tapes  should  not  be  kept  in  place  t<io  long,  aa 
they  may  cause  swelling  of  the  teats  from  shutting 
off  the  blood  supply,  Since  the  adoption  of  this 
methott  [if  treatment,  the  death  rate  has  been  re- 
duced to  aliout  3  per  cent  as  against  a  mortality  of 
40  per  cent.  (Adapted  from  Farmers*  Bult.  Xo.  205.) 

Retained  oflerhiHh. 

This  is  a  common  ailment  on  all  cattle-breeding 
and  dairy-farms.  It  may  result  from  several  caiiites, 
chief  of  which  may  l>e  mentioned  alwrtien,  in  which 
case  the  normal  fatty  change  which  leosi^ns  the 
plnceala  at  the  end  of  pregmuicy  had  nut  occurred. 


Pig.  349.  AppaialM  for 
ln}«ctin£  AlT  ictd  the 
Uddei.  A  dnncfTima 
iDBiTiitnMit  lu  the 
bandi  Ot  lit*  wiwIms. 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


325 


DHl>iltty  of  th&  animal  may  be  a  cause,  all  the  mus- 
cular  atrenRth  of  the  uterus  having  been  expended 
in  expelling  the  fcetua.  Too  rapid  closure  f>f  the 
uterine  neck  may  imprison  the  yet  uniliecbarged 
membraned  in  the  womb. 

The  aymptoma  are  very  obvious.  The  membraneg 
are  Mtislly  w!on  protruding  from  the  vnlva.  Their 
blood  8Upi>ly  living  cut  off,  thoy  rapidly  undergo 
decompasition,  become  very  foal  and  scent  the 
entire  bniMing.  The  anlmnl  nttually  continues  to 
strain,  do<3«  not  eat  well,  and  does  not  come  up  to 
her  normal  How  of  milk.  The  abaorption  of  the 
decomponinj;  Huhittanre.4  by  the  uterine  walls  causbit 
a  Klight  riite  of  tumperatunt. 

Tnatnunt. — This  lias  for  it«  object  the  removal 
of  the  membnintis,  when  the  other  symptoms  will 
gubsidi).  A  reasonable  timo  should  be  allowed  aftor 
the  birth  of  tho  calf  for  the  animal  to  expel  the 
mL-mhranea  unamisUMl,  during  which  time  one  or 
two  one-half-otince  dcwefi  of  fluid  extract  of  ergot 
may  be  given.  In  no  cavi:*,  however,  Hhonld  manual 
lUUiiKtance  be  witlilicid  longur  than  twenty-four 
hount.  Manual  nrmoval  may  aometimeti  be  accom* 
plialied  by  wnippitifj  the  extruded  meml>raneB 
around  two  sticks  and  producing  gradual  traction, 
and  wrapping  the  loosent'd  part  until  finally  it  all 
comes  out.  When  the  membriine  has  decomposed, 
it  is  very  likely  to  tear  when  tniction  ia  made.  In 
But^h  case,  other  meanK  w  employed.  This  consiHta 
in  potwin^;  the  hand  and  arm  iip  into  tho  nterino 
cavity  ami  puuliiiK  out  (^ai-li  individual  feUil  pla- 
centa from  the  enclosing  button  (cutyliKlon).  The 
most  anterior  ones  may  be  out  of  reach,  in  which 
case  slight  traction  on  the  m^ombrane  will  draw  the 
uterine  walls  within  reach  of  the  lingers.  In  under- 
taking this  proceilnre,  the  arm  shnuld  be  bjired  to 
the  ithoDlder  and  thoroughly  wiu^hiil  in  snap  iirid 
water,  foUowiNl  by  -S  to  5  per  cent  creolin  solution. 
After  tho  placenta  and  membranes  are  removetl.  if 
thera  is  any  fluid  in  thi?  nterinu  cavity  it  may  be 
removed  by  waMhing  out  the  uterus  with  a  1  per 
cent  crcAtlin  solution  through  s  rubber  tube. 

UycolK  ttomatUit  [sort  tongufi.   [See  page  139.J 

This  ia  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  mouth,  which  quickly  develiijw  into  ulcers.  It 
is  caused  by  eating  forage  containing  irritant  fungi 
or  molds.   Other  names  that  have  been  applied  to 

thisdi.**eaae  are  sporadic  aphthae,  and  non-infectious 

^^K  fiiol-and -mouth  disea.'te.    .Among  the  lirst  symptoms 

^^f  ()b.s«rved  are  inability  to  eat,  fre^pient  mn^'ementa 

P  of  thi)  lips  with  the  formation  of  fmlh  on  their  mar- 

L  Kins,  and  in  sume  canes  a  dribbling  of  saliva  from 

^^K  the   mouth.    There   is   a   de»ire  to  eat,  and    fre- 

^^m  quent  attempts  to  take  food  are  made,  but  the 
^^H  mouth  is  so  sore  that  eating  is  very  diflicult.  The 
^^H  ulcers  are  found  most  frequently  on  the  gums 
^^B  around  the  teeth,  inside  the  lips  and  on  the  tip  of 
^^M  the  tongue.  The  murale  becomes  dry  and  parched, 

^^H  and  cnists  and  .'«cabs  form  over  (he  partx,  which 

^^f  peel  olf.  Tile  thin  skin  in  the  clefts  tietween  the 

^^  claws  may  become  fuwnired  and  eroded,  caoaing  a 

L  Blight  swelling  with  pain.   As  a  re«alt  of  these  feet 

^^K  leaions.  the  animal  may  a.'<i(iimt>  a  position  with  ita 

^^^^  back  arched  and  the  limbs  propped  under  the  body. 


:'^f^f: 


Wli 


'A: 


^?} 


lEiM 


riK.  aw.   Cow  wttb  myaaac  ■tmiatlUt. 


and  will  manifest  considerable  lameness  in  walking. 
(Fig.  300.)  A  similar  tendency  toward  the  forma- 
tion of  fisaurea  and  ucabs  on  the  skin  of  the  neck, 
shoulder,  and  udder  has  been  observed  in  uotae  in- 
stances. Owing  to  the  inability  to  eat,  the  animal 
loses  flesh  very 
rapidly  and  be- 
comes greatly 
emaciated  in  the 
later  stages  of 
the  disease. 

Titatment.  — 
The  treatment  of 
mycotic  sttjma- 
titiit  should  con- 
sist in  first  re- 
moving tho  herd 
of  cattle  from 
the  pasture  in 
which  they  have 
been  nmning. 
If  it  is  ptJKsible, 
the  alTei^twl  animals  should  be  bruught  to  the  barn 
or  corral  and  fed  on  soft,  nulritiouH  food,  »uch  as 
bran  masher,  ground  feed  and  gruels.  A  bucket  of 
clear,  cool  water  should  be  kept  cons^tantly  in  the 
manger,  so  that  the  animal  may  drink  or  riiise  the 
mouth  at  il«  pleasure:  and  it  will  K-  found  beneficial 
to  dissolve  two  heaping  tablespoon fuls  of  borax  or 
one  tablfciHpnonful  of  (Hftasflium  chlorate  in  each  of 
the  first  two  bucki'la  of  wiiLer  taken  during  theday. 
Astringents,  such  a«  one-half  tablespoonful  of  alum, 
borax  or  chlorate  of  potash  should  be  placed  on  the 
tongue.  The  lesions  nf  the  feel  may  be  treated  with 
a  2  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  of  creolin, 
while  the  fissures  and  other  lesions  of  the  skin  will 
be  benefited  by  the  application  of  carboliEed  vase- 
line er  zinc  ointment.  (Rureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
('in-ular  No.  f»l.) 

Indiffejttion,  or  acuU  gattro-initttinat  catarrh. 

This  is  an  acute  catarrhal  inilammation  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  attimnch  and  intestines. 
Debility  from  any  cause  predisposes  to  this  dis- 
order. In  all  acute  febrile  diseases  there  is  a  mild 
CJltarrh  of  the  digestive  tra<'t.  As  causes  of  the 
more  severe  forma  of  this  disorder  may  be  men- 
tioned irregularities  of  diet,  as  eating  frown  food 
or  decomposing  food,  over-eating,  or  changinjc 
suddenly  from  dry  to  green  foods.  Drinking  large 
quantities  of  ice-«old  water,  as  seen  in  stabled 
animals  in  the  winter  season  when  they  are  tumeti 
out  once  daily  to  drink  from  a  rnnning  stream  or 
trough,  'lA  another  cause.  Kumetimea  it  is  mn-n  in 
cows  that  have  enttin  their  afterbirth,  whicb 
undergoi'S  decomposition  in  the  stomach. 

The  symptoms  will  depend  on  the  part  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  tract  which  ia  the  seat  of  the 
disease.  When  the  stomach  and  small  intestine 
are  affected,  there  is  u.sually  loss  nf  ap|)etile  and 
rumination,  cnated  t<mgue  and  emaciation.  Consti- 
pation ia  uaual,  although  diarrhea  may  be  preaenL 
If  the  fecal  matter  ia  examined,  it  will  usually  be 
found  tocnntain  particles  of  imperfectly  digests 
food,  and  more  or  less  mucus,  which  is  intimately 


336 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


■ixad  with  Uk6  fvcoL  Vilwa  Utt  Urge  intirttaB  » 
iBToIwd.  the  qipectte  luj  not  be  af  «rted.  Dttrrfau 
b  aarfced.  and  the  droppis^  an  eortni  with  a 
eeatio^oC  auicaa.  No  aadigeitcd  food  will  be  pn*- 
ttttf  aa  difBitioo  ia  ouialr  omipleted  bjr  tbe  time 
tta  food  reachtt  the  Urge  toteetiiie.  The  eatin 
intwrtnul  tract  ma^  be  einmltaneoBsly  affected, 
howerer,  and  the  animal  w-jlJ  rspidljr  loae  flath  and 
beooiae  Udebooad  with  a  8UrT7  ooai.  Thi_-  londi- 
tica  May  faaeoott  aum  ourfced  and  paw  into  a 
gartn-eateritiB  aod  raaalt  Catalljr.  Od  the  other 
uad.  it  may  reaaain  statMnary  ud  aierge  into  a 
chroaie  eatarrii.  or,  as  ia  the  majorit/  of  eaaes 
which  rBceive  pro^r  care,  it  naj  atd  io  reoovery. 
Trratmtut. — For  this  to  be  saeceasfal.  it  ia  neo 
eaaarjr  to  reoioTe  the  caurn.  If  ooiutUpation  is 
praaeat,  or  there  is  irritating  ingesta  in  the  digeet- 
m  tract,  a  noa-irritatiDg  purgative,  as  one  quart 
of  oaator-oOt  iho«U  be  given.  The  ftxjd  ghuuM  be 
gtrea  in  smalt  qaantities,  and  Rhoald  he  easily 
digestible  and  nutritioaa.  Green  food  in  preferable 
in  BOch  caaes  when  it  can  be  bad.  If  not  at  hand, 
hot  bran  mashes  are  adrisable  for  a  few  days,  with 
very  small  sraounti  of  good  ewuet  bay.  When 
tberH  it  itiarrbea  and  fLTnii;ntatioD,  a  mixture  of 
binnath  subnitrate  one  dram,  and  creosote  one-half 
draai,  ahaken  up  with  milk  ajid  pvea  as  a  drench 
twice  daily  for  two  or  three  days,  will  prore  bene- 
ficial. After  the  acate  attack  is  over,  if  the  animal 
is  mn-dowtt  and  emaciated,  a  tonic  powder  consist- 
ing of  powdered  ana  vomica  one  dram,  reduced  iron 
one-half  dram,  powdered  gentian  rout  one  oan-e, 
ebould  be  given  in  the  fe«d  two  or  three  times 
daily  for  a  few  weeks. 

Hovtn,  Hoatijig  or  gaatom  dittention  ijftke  paunek. 

This  ia  a  saddenly  developing  diKorder  of  cattle, 
caused  by  dictt^lic  irregularities  and  characterized 
by  over.disteotiaa  of  the  paonch  with  gases  of  fer- 
mentation. The  cansos  are  more  or  k-as  varied. 
The  most  common  a  probably  the  turning  of  cattle 
Into  young  green  pastures,  especially  clover,  In  the 
Hpring  after  they  have  become  accustomed  to  solid 
drj-  stable  food.  These  pastures  are  more  danger- 
ous if  they  are  covered  with  frost  or  a  heavy  dew. 
Frozen  foods  or  foods  that  have  been  frozen,  and 
decomposed  foods,  are  also  likely  to  produce  the 
disorder.  Ravenous  ingestion  of  large  qusntities  of 
■rnsaal  foods  may  be  a  cause,  as  seen  in  animals 
that  break  into  feed  rooms  containing  com  meal. 
potatoes,  or  into  fteldn  containing  young  growing 
com  or  other  grains.  The  onset  l^  often  expliutive 
in  character,  and  the  owner*;)  attention  ui  tin<t 
called  to  the  disorder  by  seeing  one  or  more  of  the 
animaifi  dropping  dead  in  the  field.  In  such  cases, 
death  is  due  to  a  combination  of  shock,  asphyxia 
and  congestion  of  the  brain.  In  the  less  severe 
oaaes  the  animal  is  sevn  to  be  restless,  stops  eating 
and  ruminating  and  Bhown  evidence  of  great  dia- 
treoi.  Tlie  abdomen  i.t  greatlydi«tended,  especially 
on  the  left  side,  and  the  left  hollow  of  the  flank  U 
nblitvrated  by  the  distended  rumen.  Breathing  is 
greatly  ■•mbarra'tsd.  Thu  anas  bulge<«  nut,  but 
constipation  is  usualty  present.  On  tapping  the 
left  flank  lightly  with  the  closed  fist  a  sensation 


similar  to  that  pradneed  by  striking  a  dntm  is 
imparted  to  the  hand.  The  ri^  aide  Bay  also  be 
distended,  and  vhaa  this  oecoza  then  m  duger  of 
the  aninal  dmppias  at  a«jr  mammaiL  TW  nsnalljr 
remain  staadii^  ontS  the  last,  drop  swBttly  aad 
die  la  a  few  miaatM. 

JVett/svaL— TUa  wmaL  be  pn^t,  aad  in  acrrers 
canea  the  first  proeedare  is  torewmnethe  gas  wfatd 
ia  mechanically  caoKngthnsynpfaxna.  ThisisdaQe 
by  |lmiging  a  trocar  into  tlie  left  flank  at  a  point 
equdistaai  fran  tha  banKh,  last  rib  and  transreree 
protMsa  of  the  himbar  veftcbna.  The  stilet  ia 
then  withdrawn,  leavii^  the  holbnr  eanola  in  pboe 
throBgh  which  the  gas  eecapea.  la  teas  severe  caaee. 
or  when  a  trocar  as  not  at  band,  dadiiag  cold 
water  over  the  ahdonwn  or  brisk  maaaage  of  the 
left  flank  may  be  tried.  Placing  a  rope  or  piece  of 
wood  throQgh  the  nooth  aad  aaeariag  it  there  by 
tieing  it  aroond  the  head,  will  eaoae  ibe  animal  to 
masticate,  chum  op  the  saliva  and  excite  swallow- 
ing, which  tends  to  open  the  esophagus  and  allow 
the  gas  bo  escape  in  this  manner.  Passing  a  probang 
into  the  stomach  is  also  sneeeBfnl  and  fen  dan^ner- 
OBS  than  puncturing  the  Aaak  in  moderately  severe 
caaee.  Whvn  the  moat  dtstreaeing  syntptana  are 
relieved,  drugs  to  prevent  fermentation  are  indi- 
cated, as  creosote,  two  or  three  teaapooofub  in  a 
pint  of  milk,  or  hyposolfite  of  soda  in  one  otmm 
doses  in  water. 

Choking. 

Prom  their  normal  habit  of  swallowing  food  with 
Utile  mastication,  cattle  are  particularly  liable  to 
this  tronble  if  they  have  access  to  whole  apples^ 
tnmipg,  potatoes  and  like  foods.  Foreign  bodies 
picked  up  and  swallowed  during  eating  of  food  are 
aL<K)  causes  of  chtiking.  The  maas  may  lodge  in  the 
pharynx,  or  in  the  cervical  or  thoracic  parts  of 
the  esophagus. 

If  the  ofastraction  b  in  the  pbar>-ox  there  may 
be  considemble  obstnictioa  to  breathing,  while  if 
in  the  eerrtcal  part  of  the  esophagus  a  tumor  may 
be  seen  and  palpated  on  the  left  side  of  the  nock. 
If  within  the  eeophsgus  in  either  the  cervical  or 
thoracic  parts,  there  tt>  likely  to  be  distention  of  the 
rumen,  becau.<ie  gsfieB  formed  there  are  unable  to 
e^ape.  Other  symptoms  more  or  leas  comitant,  no 
matter  at  what  point  the  body  lodges,  are  champiDj^ 
of  the  jaw«,  dribbling  of  ftaliva.  ceasing  to  chew  the 
"cud,"  wTetching  or  choking  movements,  head  ex- 
tended, eyes  bulging,  and  inability  to  swallow  ;  if 
the  body  is  in  the  thoracic  part  of  the  tube,  a  few 
mouthful.t  of  food  in.iy  be  swallowed,  bat  it  is  »non 
returned  through  the  month  and  noetrita. 

TVra/incnf.— When  the  offending  itubsiance  is  in 
the  pharynx,  a  block  of  wood  shonid  be  placed  in 
the  mouth  between  the  back  teeth  of  the  animal  to 
keep  the  mouth  open,  and  by  passing  the  hand  back 
into  the  phar>*nx  the  foreign  body  can  usually  be 
graaped  and  removed.  If  in  the  gollet,  however, 
this  is  impossible.  In  such  cases  a  small  amount 
of  ulive-«)ii  should  be  given  at  fre()uent  intervals. 
which  may  lubricate  the  caophagus  .inSicicntly  for 
the  foreign  body  to  pass  into  the  stomach  by  the 
animal's  own  efforts.    If  this  fails,  the  probang. 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


38T 


wkich  ii  a  long,  hollow,  flexible  tube,  or  ROme  make- 
Ait%  U  B  carriage  whip,  may  be  u^cd.  It  is  oiled 
and  iha  mouth  is  opened  liy  a  wfjodien  fipfculum  or 
blfwk  containing  a  itmall  round  }iu]i>  in  the  tunter, 
through  wbicti  thu  prniMint;  t»  paKsed  into  the 
eaophoKua  until  it  atrikta  the  foreign  body.  By 
fTuotlu  m.ini[iulatLun  and  pretwuro  the  body  ia  then 
gradually  forced  into  the  stomach. 

Oiugh  {branckitit),  or  aeule  bronchial  txtiajrh. 

This  is  an  ailment  of  cattle  resulting  from 
exposure  and  debility,  charrLc:tt>rizt>d  by  an  inft»m- 
m&tion  of  the  mncouH  membrane  lining;  the  brun- 
ch iu)  tubes,  and  oc^vompunied  with  fevor  andcou^'h. 
Pndisposmg  caujues  are  confinoniont  in  poorly 
TdBtilated  damp  or  dark  stables,  poor  quality  or 
iiutuflicient  quantity  of  food,  previous  attacks  of 
bninchitis,  and  the  pre-ience  of  other  diseiuwH.  The 
principal  exciting  ciiuse  h  ex|90Aure  to  cold,  as 
lying  on  cold  gruttnd,  drafts  of  air,  ur  being  out  in 
a  atorm  ofvt  night. 

Tile  diseas«  is  ushered  in  with  chilly  sonaations 
or  a  distinct  chill.  This  is  followed  by  a  rise  of 
tempentnre  to  103°  to  100°  Fahr.,  impairment  or 
loss  of  appetite  and  rnmination,  dry  muzzle,  consti- 
pation, increased  rapidity  of  pnlse  und  respiration. 
The  cough  is  a  very  marked  and  im[HirLarLt  symptom. 
It  is  at  first  dry,  h.irsh  and  |iutnful ;  later,  when 
the  catarrhal  exudate  is  poured  out  on  the  inflamed 
mucoua  membrane  covering  the  bronchial  tubes, 
the  congh  becomes  moij^t,  and  thtrti  is  usually  a 
nasal  discharge.  Physical  signs  are  present  on 
examination  of  the  chest,  hut  require  an  experi- 
enced ear  to  Iw  recognized  and  interpreted.  In-ordi- 
nary  ca.<4es  recovery  l,K^MirB  in  fonr  U*  nine  days. 
In  neglected  cuse.H  the  inliammiitiun  ext4?nd»<  down 
Into  the  air-cells,  giving  rise  to  a  pneumonia ;  or 
the  acute  bronchitis  may  gmdcally  merge  into  the 
chronic  form  of  the  disease,  and  the  cough  be  con- 
tinued for  several  months  or  even  longer. 

Trralmmt. — The  animal  should  he  placed  in  a 
large,  comfnrtalde,  light  stall,  {ireferably  a  Ihix- 
stall.  It  should  have  plenty  of  clear,  cold  water  to 
drink.  The  bowels  Hhould  be  frt^ely  opened  with 
one  pound  of  Glaulier*a  salts.  The  food  should  con- 
sist of  green,  succulent  materials,  when  such  can 
lie  had.  In  the  winter  season,  bran  mashes,  and 
small  quantities  of  hay,  siirinklod  with  w-iter  to 
allay  the  dust,  are  valuable.  Meilicinally,  an  elec- 
tuary (see  pag*^  ^32),  consisting  of  extract  of  bella- 
donna leaves  five  grains,  morphine  sulfate  three 
grains,  [wwdered  licoricu-root  four  drams,  and  suf- 
ficient simple  syrup  to  make  nn  electuary,  should 
be  given  on  the  tongue  four  times  daily.  This  will 
leoaen  thesecretion  and  coagh.  and  hasten  the  retuv 
lulion  of  the  proce.'*9.  If  the  cough  persists  after 
the  secretion  ceoaes,  and  remains  hard  and  noii- 
prodactlve,  a  mixture  consisting  of  ammonium 
chlorid  one  dram,  in  one-half  ounce  of  hrowr  mix- 
ture, should  be  given  fonr  or  five  times  dully. 

TVaKflu/tc  perieanliii*. 

This  nanw  is  applied  to  foreign  bodies  in  the  heart 
sac.  or  injury  to  the  heart  by  foreign  bodies.  It  is  a 
fatal  aitmoDt  of  cattle  resulting  from  the  swallowing 


of  foreign  bodies,  which  penetrate  the  stomach  wall 
and  paas  through  the  diaphragm,  finally  pancturing 
the  pericartlium  and  even  thit  heart  muscle.  Cattle 
are  the  only  dumentic  animals,  except  pOMiihIy  the 
goat,  which  are  subject  to  this  disorder.  This  i&  due 
to  several  factors.  The  mucous  membrane  lining 
the  mouth  cavity  of  the  bovine  species  is  very  thick 
and  not  very  sensitive.  Cattle  also  take  their  food 
in  large  mouthfuls  and  swallow  it  with  very  little 
masticatinn.  They  sweep  their  food  into  the  mouth 
with  the  prehensile  tongut;,  which  favors  the  pick- 
ing up  of  foreign  bodies.  Ouch  the  foreign  tiody 
gains  entrance  to  iho  mouth,  the  large  bolus  of 
food,  together  with  the  slight  mastication  and  in- 
sensitive mucous  membrane,  allows  it  to  be  swal- 
lowed without  being  noticed  by  the  animal.  The 
foreign  bodies  that  have  been  found  in  the  stomach 
of  the  ox  comprise  a  great  variety  nf  substances, 
but  pinH,  nails,  pieces  of  wire,  hair-pins,  and  other 
»harp  puintw]  objects  are  the  most  serious. 

In  the  early  stages  the  symptoms  are  very  indef- 
inite. Later,  however,  the  animal  moves  about 
carefully  and  will  not  turn  around  in  a  small  circle. 
Sudden  movement  causes  pain,  as  evidenced  by  a 
grunting  sound,  The  back  is  arched,  respiration 
and  pulse  are  rapiii,  and  rumination  ceases.  Con- 
stipation \s  present,  and  emptying  the  bowels  is 
painful.  Later,  an  edematous  [dropsical)  swelling 


V1 


may  appear  under  the  jaws,  between  the  fore-legs 
and  in  the  dewlap.   (Fig.  S-'JI.) 

TWa/ment. — Itrnge  are  useless.  A  very  few  cases 
have  been  cured  by  surgical  treatment.  As  soon  as 
the  cinditinn  is  ascertuiiUHl  the  animal  should  be 
slaughtered  before  the  pathological  chaiig**  become 
80  exten-sive  as  to  [irevent  the  flesh  being  used  for 
food.  In  the  preventive  treatment,  care  should  be 
used  to  pre%'cnt  sharp-pointed  metallic  substances 
from  getting  into  the  feed  or  troughs  of  bovine 
animals. 

Warti, 

Warls  are  grayish  or  grayirii-red  projections  of 
the  ifkin  or  mucoiu  membrane,  resulting  from  the 


32S 


CATTLE 


CATTLfi 


exoearire  erowth  of  localized  areas  of  tbe  lisnie. 
Thoe  growtlM  are  alw  callt^l  *' angle-berries"  and 
may  aBsmne  a  Yariety  uf  funns.    (Fig.  352.)    A 


»v 


Ptf.  352.    Cnr  with  as  ezceMlve  nainber  e4  warta. 

favorite  locaUoa  for  warts  is  the  odder  and  teata, 
the  lodfl*  of  tlie  bead  and  Deck,  aod  oa  the  legs  and 
belly. 

Tnaimett — Warts  may  be  remored  «ith  the 
aeiaiori  or  twisted  off  vith  the  finf^i-r^,  or  lif^aturtd 
by  meajui  of  a  rubber  band  or  hoT?«  hair.  Their 
roots  sbouM  then  be  caateriz^d  with  tiacture  of 
iron,  glacial  acetic  acid  or  luoar  caostic.  Acids 
sboidd  aerer  lie  aaed  ia  remonng  warlt  about  tJie 
eyes  or  in  the  mouth.  In  caM  warts  are  foond  in 
large  nnmben  on  an  animal,  arwnic  in  th«  form  of 
Fowler's  eolation  sbould  be  to^ea  in  one  tcaspoooful 
dowa  twice  a  day  for  a  ux-months-old  calf. 

Uange. 

Tbifl  is  a  coDtagioQS  skio  disease  that  affects  all 
domestic  animaK  and  is  raas«d  by  a  pmall  para- 
sitic mite.  Three  forms,  each  caowd  by  a  specific 
mito,  are  distingaished,  aamely,  sarooptic,  psorop- 
lic.  and  symbiotic  Mange  is  most  common  in  the 
dog  and  sheep,  is  fairly  common  in  the  horse  and 
ox.  and  is  bat  rarely  aem  in  tbe  cat  and  pig. 

Mange  is  ner^r  dt;veloped  except  by  contagi<Ml. 
The  period  of  incnhation  (the  period  which  elapses 
between  the  deposit  of  acari  on  the  skin,  and  the 
appearance  of  skin  altenitiooa)  varive  from  two  to 
four  or  six  weeks.    Infection  may  take  place  by 


ns.  iO.    Wmmwb  la  sa  advasoM  mii. 


direct  contact,  or  by  interned  iarv  agents,  sneb  as 
blankets,  baroeas,  bedding,  and  tan  like.  Animals 
that  bare  not  rec«tved  proper  attention  to  tbe  skio, 
or  that  are  weak  and  emaciated,  are  parUcolarly 


subject  to  ounget  Tbe  first  synqrtoois  noticed  are 
points  of  radaea^  ptmptes,  naicles,  and  formation 
of  acabsL  Aa  soon  aa  tbey  appear,  tbeee  kaioM  ara 
accompanied  by  an  inteaee  itcbing,  wfaieb  beooawa 
mbeanble  at  nigfat  in  hot  stabka,  or  dnrmg  tbe 
day,  when  the  animals  are  exposed  to  the  hot  son. 
The  animals  scratch,  mb,  and  bite  theauelres  on  tbe 
affected  regtone,  tbe  hair  faUa  oat,  and  tbe  skin  is 
bloody.  When  tbe  disease  reacbee  its  beigbt»  we 
find  tbe  skin  moist  and  bloody,  nloented,  se^by^ 
thickened  and  wriaUed.  (Fig.  353.) 

As  a  rale,  tbe  ceana  of  Ua  diaaaBs  is  chronic 
While  the  rymbtotes  perasitee  remaiD  stationed  in 
a  very  limited  area  of  tbe  skin,  tbe  peoroptcs  and 
tbe  Bcarcopt«8  often  invade  tbe  whole  surface  of 
tbe  body.  The  symptoraB  are  always  more  intense 
in  the  trammer.  Hie  dtagncsis  of  mange  may  be 
made  fmm  the  sympUmu  already  m>^Dliuned.  by  its 
spreading  from  one  animal  to  anotbi^r  in  a  stable 
or  kennei,  and  by  finding  the  parasite.  Thifl  may 
be  done  by  scraping  some  of  tbe  scab  from  a 
mange  mspect  and  examining  it  ander  a  magnify- 
ing glass, 

7Vra^m/ni.~.\nimal3  affected  with  mange  never 
recover  spontanenosly.  The  only  core  is  in  the  nse 
of  drags  that  will  kill  the  pan«tes,  sod  in  tb^ 
constant  and  regular  application.  Among  such 
sgenta  nay  be  mentioned  salfate  of  soda,  dilate 
ammonia,  nifor.  and  either  6  per  cent  solotinn  of 
carbolic  acid,  or  creolin.  Variooi  snlfar  prepora- 


Pic.  K*.    Diypiac-t^ak  for  mttitt. 

tiong  are  pomibly  the  mnet  widely  nsed  of  all 
remedies  for  this  trmble.  X  good  combination  that 
may  be  applied  by  hand  ia  as  follows : 

Plovers  of  mlfv 1  oonre 

Vasctine  (or  lard) 10  aoncca 

By  far  the  nuMt  rational  nod  satisfactory,  as 
well  as  the  chea|H«t  methc-l  for  curing  mange  la  a 
large  herd  of  affected  cattle  is  by  dipping  in  a  rat 
containing  tbe  following  flnid : 

Flowers  of  sslfnr 21  panda 

Unslaked  lima 12  poandi 

Water 100  ssUoos 

AninuiU  that  have  been  exposed  sfaeold  be  dip- 
ped as  well  as  those  that  show  evideaeea  of  toe 
disease.  After  an  interval  of  ten  days,  or  two 
weeks,  the  animals  shoald  be  subjected  to  a  secamt 
dipping,  in  order  that  parasites  hatched  from  the 
egga  left  on  the  animals  after  the  first  treatment 
may  be  destroyed.  A  mcdiam-siied  vat  with  speci- 
fications is    shown    in   Fig.   Soi,  adapted    from 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


329 


Fariwr'd  Bulktin  No.  152.  UniUsI  States  Draart- 
tnentof  Af:ncu]tur«.  A  lar^edtppint^-rat  Usnown 
in  Fig.  355. 

Jiing-tporm. 

Ring-worm  ia  an  affection  of  the  ekin  dtie  to  a 
vegetable  parasite.  It  affects  the  hair  and  the  skin 


o 


< 


FlE.3Se. 

CiDdk  £Qd  notch  tot  uu 
Is  t  Attic -4ipiiliig. 


Pit.  15S.    Lam  dipplDi-vat  in  nH. 

and  iH  highly  coTita};i<)UH,  ^lein^  reailiiy  Irinsmitted 
friimone  animal  Lo  anuthur.  TKl- cliM-osi!  btH-<>mt4i 
manifeat  by  the  formation  of  eircular  [jatch^ja  on 
the  skin,  which  soon  become  dunuclLirt  of  hair.  (Ki^. 
358.)  Thti  outer  layer  of  ekin  is  slightly  inflamwi 
and  veiiicles  form  which  exiule  a  tr"n"fy  licjoid. 
This  is  foUowed  tiy  the  formation  of  Rcaly,  brittle 
crusts.  The  patchtw  apfwar  silver-gray  when 
enLTUstecl.  As  a  rule,  tht»)e  rinK-^'orm  [MiUtheH 
apjwar  mainly  on  the  head 
and  DL-ck.  The  dii^ase  is 
modt  common  on  young  cat^ 
tie  in  the  winter  and  t^pring, 
Very  early  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fialches  the 
hair  becomua  brittle,  Rpitla  and  breaki)  off  ciuse  to 
tlie  akin.  This  ^laj^e  is  attended  with  more  or  litss 
itching.  King-worm  may  bo  due  to  either  of  two 
vegetable  parasitea,  and  both  forms  may  bo  trans- 
mittod  to  man. 

TrmJmeni.-  Remove  all  crusts  by  u-a»hing  with 
snap  and  waiter,  then  apply  at-etic  acid  (vinegar), 
10  per  cent  utilfur  uintment,  tinettire  of  iodine,  or 
Bitraltt  of  mercury  uintment  once  daily.  Cleanse 

the  stable  and 
whitewash  it  to 
destroy  the  sporee 
RCattered  hy  tbo 
cnists. 

Lier. 

While  theae 
parasitM  do  not 
caose  aoy  specific 
disL'Sj^r.  they  at- 
tack nearly  all  of 
our  domestic  ani- 
nala  and  man.  Their  prewnce  causes  great  di^ 
comfort  to  their  host,  and  in  most  cases  they  cause 
some  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  aoimal  on 


1 

i 

C>— ' 

=         C>— " 

MM.*  ■•  in. 

=        tuinnM  •«B|' 

m 

FU-  U'.    DnJalus-peai  Itn  oatU« 
«n«i  dlppiaa. 


which  they  make  their  home.  They  fix  their  eggf 
(nits)  on  the  hair  of  the  animal  alfected  with  them, 
and  thus  constantly  repro<luce  new  generationa  oD 
the  same  host.  (rig.  ;i50.)  The  horae,  ox,  pig, 
goat  and  dog  are  each  alFected  with  a  distinct  8pe> 
cies.  and  only  in  rare  instances  la  the  louse  pecu- 
liar to  one  species  of  animal  foimd  on  aay  member 
of  another  species.  In  general,  lice  become  eaFily 
and  rapidly  developed  on  poorly  fijd,  weak  and 
debilitated  animals.  Their  presence  Uan  indication 
of  insufficient  care  of  the  Blcin,  They  produce  itch- 
ing, falling  of  the  hair  and  desquamation  of  the 
outer  layer  of  the  skin. 

Tnaimcnl.  Many  lotions  have  been  used  against 
lice.  Probably  the  easiest  to  prepare  and  the  moet 
snccefisful  Is  an  infusion  of  tobacco  stems,  one 
pound  of  the 
stems  to  two 
gal  Ions  of  water. 
Allow  the  dtemi 
1 0  soak  over 
night  and  then 
heat  the  mix- 
ture to  the  boil- 
ing point.  Allow 
to  cool  and  then 
apply  with  a 
sponge  to  the 
region?  infested 
with  the  inaectB, 
Repeat  the  treat- 
ment in  five  or  six  days  to  destroy  the  nits  that 
have  been  hatched  and  before  they  lay  eggs. 

It  may  be  well  to  point  out  the  error  of  herds- 
men in  the  treatment  of  certain  popular,  although 
imaginary  diAcas**!)  of  animals,  which  either  do  not 
reiilly  esiKl  or  are  merudy  symptoms  of  some  other 
disonler.  Aniiong  these  are  hooks-in-t he-eyes,  hol- 
low-horn, loss  of  end  and  wolf-in-t he-tail. 

Houkt'in-lke-fyet. — This  is  a  condition  in  which 
the  nictitans  memWane  protrudes  from  the  inner 


nc.sM.  Bun  witb  luc-wotm 

ImIou. 


Pis.  U9.  Sbort-oond  ox  Idum.  .4.  Umalvi  b,  roclramj  r. 
Tcniral  «arfiu-»  at  tliu  liial  aPKni'nU  uf  nalvi  rf,  muim  of 
frinKlii ;  t,  Fit ;  I,  *ur(arc  iif  lame  craally  enlarcx). 
(Atiat  OtiMrn  ) 

corner  of  the  eye  and  appeara  as  a  reddish  colored 
membrane  partly  covertog  theeyebnll.  Thi*  pro- 
trusion is  due  to  congfistioD  or  a  itiight  enlargement 
of  the  membraoe.  It  Lb  a  conmon  practice  in  soma 


390 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


localities  to  dii^nioae  the  conditiot]  "hooks-in-ibe- 
ttyes,'*  and  immediately  to  cut  or  bum  oat  the  mem- 
brane, which  is  both  annecessvy  and  barbarous. 
The  condition  reqatres  no  treatment,  as  it  will 
□ever  int*;rf«re  with  the  health  of  the  animal  and 
will  tumully  dbappear  of  its  own  accord. 

HoUuir-harn  la  a  t^rm  applied  to  oumeroos  difr- 
orders  in  cattle  of  a  raried  character.  A  herdsman 
notices  that  hii  cow  is  not  in  perfect  health  and 
considers  the  condition  a  case  of  hollow-born.  He 
then  proceeds  to  bore  a  hole  in  the  horn  and  con- 
firms his  dia^osia  by  finding  the  horn  hollow,  and 
treats  the  condition  by  pouring  int>>  the  born  core 
turpentine  or  some  other  irritant  nubstance.  It  is 
a  perfectly  normal  condition  in  cattle  to  find  the 
horn  hollow,  as  the  examination  of  a  healthy  horn 
will  prove,  and  the  use  of  turpentine  in  these  con- 
dittons  is  cmel  and  not  of  the  slightest  value. 

Imu  of  cud.  —In  all  severe  febrile  dL»easeB  of 
cattle,  one  of  the  most  common  symptoms  is  the 
stoppageof  chewing  the  cod.  It  is  therefore  merely 
a  symptom  present  in  a  great  many  diseases,  and 
the  adminl'^ratio'n  of  ham  fat,  lard,  fish,  and  the 
like,  ha^t  not  the  slightest  value  in  restoring  the 
cad.  The  animal  should  be  carefully  examiniod  to 
find  tht'  actual  abnormal  condition  or  disease  that 
causes  the  soi^penjion  of  ruminatioD.  and  then  the 
treatment  applied  for  the  disease  that  exists. 

Hoi/^-iit-tAe-ZaiV.— Almost  any  disease  of  cattle  in 
different  localities  may  be  diagnosed  "  wolf-in-the- 
tatl."  An  incision  is  made  into  the  tail  and  salt  is 
packed  into  the  opening,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
a  curative  effect.  In  case  recovery  occurs,  the  owner 
thinks  the  animal's  life  was  saved  by  the  treatment. 
In  reality  th«re  is  no  each  thing  as  "wolf-in-the-tailr" 
and  the  disorder  will  always  be  fonnd  to  have  its  seat 
elsewhere.  What  has  been  termed  "wolf-in-the-tail" 
of  cattle  has  been  called  "worm-in-the-tail"  of  doga. 

LUeraiurt. 

There  is  considerable  published  information  con- 
cerning the  common  ailokents  of  cattle,  some  of 
which  is  referrod  to  on  pagM  124-14G.  Reference 
is  lure  made  to  the  following:  Special  Report  on 
Diseases  of  Cattle,  Revised  I-^ition,  I'nited  States 
Department  of  Agricaltore,  Run-.iu  of  Animal 
Industry  (1901);  MotiK.<4uandnollar,  Diseases  of  Cat- 
tle, Sheep,  (?oaUi  and  Swine  (191)5);  James  Law, 
Textbook  of  Wturinary  Medicine,  five  volumes 
(ld03);  Leblanc,  Diseases  of  the  Mammary  Gland 
(1904);  Priedberger  and  Prohner. Veterinary  Path- 
ology, Vol.  II,  translated  by  Captain  Hayea  (1906); 
Cadiot-Almy,  Surgical  Therapeutim  of  Domestic 
AntraaU,  transtatetl  by  liaut^  (190G). 

Aberdeen-An^8  Cattle.  Figs.  360,  36L 

By  John  S.  Guodwia. 

The  Aberdeen-Angus  is  a  breed  of  cattle  main- 
taised  primarily  for  beef-production.  It  is  a  horn- 
less or  maley  type. 

Dacription. 

Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  are  distinKiiiBhed  by  the 
following  breed  character tstica :  block  color,  polled 


beads,  rotand  compact  type,  smoothness  of  con* 
formation,  short  legs,  evenness  of  flesh  when  fat, 
and  deep,  fall  hind-quarters.  Tbey  are  nniform  in 
type,  taao  on  flesh  evenly,  dtess  a  large  percentage 
of  high-class  beef,  and  as  a  rule,  reach  in  the 
bands  of  experienced  feeders  a  degree  of  prime- 
mau  rarely  equaled.  The  marbling  of  their  flash, 
i.  e.,  its  proportion  and  blending  of  lean  meat  and 
fat,  (s  also  a  characteristic  In  slaughter  tests 
they  have  been  uniformly  successful  in  oompetition 
with  other  cattle,  their  fineness  of  bone  and  high 
percentage  <tf  moscle  or  lean  meat  giving  them 
dressing  scores  which  average  above  those  of 
competitors.  In  hardiness  and  prolificacy  they  do 
not  differ  materially  from  other  breeds.  The 
females,  asnally  good  average  milkers,  are  always 
capable  of  raising  their  own  offspring. 

The  subjoined  standanf  of  excellence  for  bulls 
was  adopted  by  the  American  .Aberdeen-.\rigQS 
Breeders'  Association,  Nov.  20,  1890.  The  same 
standard  applies  to  cows  with  very  little  alteration. 

Scale  or  Polits  roa  Abbidesk-Ahcds 

CAm*'  pvrfM 

1.  Color.— Black.  White  Is  objectjoaable,  eieept 

OS  the  nader-liae  behind  the  lunl,  aiid  tbers 
tm\f  to  a  iBoderst«  rxt^nt ;  a  white  scrotvu  is 
roost  uadesirablv 3 

2.  Bead. — Poreliead  broad ;  face  slightly  prominent, 

snd  tsperinc  toward  the  soee ;  anmle  fine ; 
DOStrils  wide  and  o[)ca ;  dirianco  from  nyee  to 
iMstriU  of  mod«rst«  l«B2t)i;  ey«a  mild,  fall, 
and  exproscirv,  indicntirtt  of  good  dicpoeitioD  ; 
care  of  good  nedram  lite,  well  set  ssd  wsU 
covervd  with  h«r ;  poll  wdl  dafaed,  nd  wiUi- 
oot  any  ipp«anince  of  horns  or  scan ;  jsws 
clean 10 

3.  Throst. — Ckaa.  «ithoat   any  developswot   of 

loom  flr^h  andemMtti 3 

4.  Ifeck. — Of  nwdium  li*n;[th,  raoacDUr,  with  nod- 

erate  cre«t  Iwhicb  increu^^  with  net),  sprvad- 
iflfT  not  to  moct  th«  sboaMcm,  with  fall  nock 

vcict 3 

ft.  Sboolders.— Moderately  oblique,  well  corsrod  on 
tiut  blades  and  tnii :  with  -nneixn  or  bu-k- 
boaa  slightly  ab<>v«  the  Murala  or  nhoalder- 
blades,  whicK  Bboold  be  modentalj  broad  .    .      6 

6.  Chest.— Wtd*  and  deep  :  ileo  raUDd  and  fall  Just 

b»ck  of  elbowv 10 

7.  Brisket. — Deep  xnd  moderately  projecting:  fn>m 

between  the  legs,  and  proportionately  eav«r«d 
with  tlviA  and  fat 4 

8.  Ribs.— Well  uprong  from  the  back-booe.  arched 

and  dtwp,  neatly  joiaed  to  the  crops  and  loiiu  .      8 

9.  Back.  — Broad  and  straigkt  from  crops  to  books : 

knns  atrong ;  hook-bflMi  isoderstt  in  width,  not 
prandnsat,  and  well  cohered:  rape  tone,  full, 
level,  and  roonded  neatly  Into  fafaid-quart«ni    .    10 

'^wre  (s  difference  of  opinion  among  animal-breeideni 
regardins  tbo  value  of  the  ui>e  of  a  ocore-card  for  Jidgine 
atoek.  Hoet  Fittlk'-br>-«itrrH'  (bwociutionn  bare  adoptea 
Mc«lrt  of  pointa  for  judKisg  porpOMS.  whereas  tbe  hone- 
breedem*  aaaoctatkras  hare  not.  The  wean-cwria  are 
introduced  in  this  volvme  for  tbur  leforeooe  value,  and 
as  indicating  tbe  ideal  ^i^ea  as  bsM  by  tkaae  asBOcialioBa 
eodorflinc  th«  Kore-cardc.  Tbey  are  entered  as  a  matter 
of  rerord.  The  (Alitor  doee  not  tbtrfrb;y  stean  to  exprtaa 
an  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  the  (oonhcsrd  idea. 


CATTU: 


CATTLE 


331 


{KTS  FOR  AHERt^eiiK-AMCtja  CaTTIX, 

oonlinuei)  Pi-rtt^i 

10.  HiQd-<|iiart«r5.     [Jeep  and  full :  thicha  thick  mi 

tirist  Ailed  not  well  in  itt;  "se-im,"  Boastafortn 

an  «v«n,  wiila  plain  b«twi^>:-ii  thigtut S 

11.  Tail. — Fine,  cothiiik  n«'atly  out  of  Uin  bndy  on  a 

line  vith  tho  bock  and  hjinKini;  at  right  sngles 
l«  il 3 

12.  Ouder-Iine. — ^Strai^^ht    m   nearly    lu   pi»rib]«; 

tlitnk  (li'fp  und  full 4 

13.  LegH.     Shiirt.  strni;?lit,  iind  nqunrely  placed,  hind- 

iept  eli^'htlj'  iDclined  forward  Iwk^w  th«  hocks  : 
forvann  muiwuiar:  bon«tt  tinp  and  cl>pan  ...      4 

14.  Fleah.— Even  and  without  patchinew 4 

Ifi.  Skin.— Of  mnderatethiirkTK'iWBnd  inf>llnw  tanrh, 

aliundantly  covered  with  thick,  soft  hair.  (Much 
of  the  thrlftiin^flA,  feedini;  [frupiirtiep,  and  vuluo 
of  the  animal  depftodii  on  thi«  qnnlity,  which  is 
of  gruot  wvi^ht  in  the  gruxier'K  iiiid  luU'hi-r'u 
jndiiCiiieiit.  At;ood  "touch "  will  compeniiat©  for 
some  delicienci^  of  fumi.  Nothing  ciici  cam- 
pensatA  for  n  ikia  hard  and  stiff.  In  raising 
the  Ekin  from  thu  body  it  should  huvo  a  huIk 
vtantlal,  Mift,  floxihh'  fttelinj;,  nnd  when  l>pneatb 
the  outspread  band  it  aliould  muve  ttotily  ajs 
tiufiiah  rottinf!  on  a  tuift,  ci-llular  aatwlance, 
wUcn,  howewr,  bfrcomea  firmer  aa  the  animal 
ripetu.   A  thin,  pa|irry  8kin  ie  ohjevtiunnMc, 

e0|>t!ciall>'  in  a  cold  cliinal«.) lO 

16.  Gtaeial  appearance.— }-:iiq;iint,  well  bred,  and 
mascaltne.  The  walk  square,  the  step  ijajck, 
and  the  hvad  up 10 

Perfection lOO 

When  bollfi  are  exhibited  with  their  prnf(en>  in  a  aepa- 
nte  olaas.  add  25  pointx  for  progony. 

In  the  eaxly  daya  of  th«  breed  there  was  not  so 
much  attention  paid  to  what  are  now  known  as  the 
fine  points,  bat  all  of  the  care  was  directed  to  the 
iodividuaE  merit.  Color  wa^  a  secondary  consider- 
ation, and.  while  the  great  majority  of  the  cattle 
were  black,  yet  many  good  ones  were  marked  with 
ft  duD-colored  stripe  down  the  back,  while  others 
were  brindled,  and  still  others  were  black  and 
white,  and  not  infre<iDent!y  calves  came  of  a 
peculiar  pale  red  color  cacsed  by  the  absence  of  the 
black  pigment,  which  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
breed,  It  was  Hugh  Watson  of  Keillor  who  first 
determin<j(i  on  the  desirability  of  a  uniform  color 
in  the  breed,  and  who  declared  bini««lf  for  the 
"  DIack  and  all  black  ;  the  Angus  Doddie,  and  no 
Surrender ! " 

Not  BO  much  care  was  escrcised  then  a»  now  in 
the  choicv  of  the  sire^.  and  in  some  ca»es  animals 
vere  lued  that  had  rudimentary  honu  called  scum. 
These  are  omall  horn-like  excreiiccnces.  that  are 
not  attached  to  th^  skull,  and  have  no  horn  core. 
This  condition  is  nut  cfinsidered  to  represent  any 
imparitr  of  the  f»l.»d.  but  simply  ia  a  harking 
back  to  a  time  when  the  prO|^*nitoni  of  thuM  cattle 
were  homed,  Scurs  are  extremely  objectionable 
from  the  present  standpoint,  and  male?  so  marked 
are  debarred  from  registration.  The  fa-ihion  in 
color  alno  demands  that  no  white  ithoulU  appear 
abore  the  under-line,  but  a  white  udder  ia  naid  to 
be  fta  indication  of  a  good  milch  cow.  The  demind 


for  solid  black  color  is  carried,  perhaps,  beyond 
the  pro)H>r  puint.  Tliere  hiive  bei-n  a  number  of 
attempta  to  g«t  together  the  rwWolored  fpmale-s 
and  to  eatablinh  that  color,  but  with  only  limited 
success,  the  otrapring  born  of  red  parents  cominfi 
true  too  freiiuently  to  the  characteristic  black 
color. 

Hi.»tory. 

Homleiu  cattle  hare  existed  for  many  oentnriea. 
Diwregarding  tha  uncertain,  although  probable,  ref- 
erences of  four  to  five  thousand  years  ago,  such 
cattle  are  delinitely  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  the 
Roman  historian.  Henls  of  hornless  cattle,  at  dif- 
ferent time.s  have  come  into  existence  in  various 
parta  of  tho  wnrld.  One  of  the  largest  of  these  io 
found  in  South  .\merica;  another  has  grown  up  in 
Austria,  and,  within  the  last  few  years,  hornU-fW 
cattle  have  been  devc-loped  among  the  well-estab- 
lished homed  bret-ds,  such  as  tho  Hereford,  Jersey 
and  Shorthorn,  with  which  the  wearing  of  horns 
seemed  to  3>e  a  fixed  truit.  Many  woniw  have  been 
u.sed  to  expres.1  thia  hurnlesfl  condition  in  cattle, 
and  they  are  known  variuusly  a»  iiumblies  (hum- 
lie:?),  muleyit,  doddie«,  hornless  and  polled.  The 
latter  term  has  become  most  gvnerolly  in  use  to 
designate  the  Scotch  hornless  c^ittte.  All  of  thefle 
words  simply  mt'an  "lacking  horns," 

In  Scotland,  two  breeds  of  snch  cattle  have  ex- 
isted 90  long  that  hiHtT)ry  docw  not  record  their 
origins.  These  are  the  Galloway,  whose  habitat  is 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Scotland,  and  the  Aber- 
deen-Angus, which  had  itj*  origin  in  the  northeast- 
ern part  of  Scotland.  It  is  somewhat  difGcalt  to 
describe  these  breeds  so  that  representatives  of 
each  may  bo  readily  distinguished  ;  both  are  hom- 
le«s,  both  black  and  both  come  frnrn  Scotland. 
Generally  speaking,  the  Galloways  are  much  longer- 
haired,  iarger-honed,  more  Kjuare  -  framed  and 
somewhat  slower-maturing,  while  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus  are  sleek-haired,  small-boned,  round  in  the 
barrel  and  hind-quarters  and  early-maturing. 

Tho  earliest  attempt  to  improve  the  polled  cattle 
of  the  northeast  of  Scotland  begun  in  Angunshire, 
which  is  now  a  part  of  Forfarshire,  and  was  under- 
taken by  the  late  Ungh  Watson  of  Keillor.  His 
ancei^toni  had  been  breeding  thes«  cattle  on  the 
Keillor  farm  for  more  than  two  hundred  years 
when  Hugh  Watson  began  in  1805.  Not  many 
years  later,  cattle-breeders  in  Aberdeenshire  began 
improving  the  same  kind  of  cattle,  and  a  consider- 
able rivalry  sprang  up  between  the  different  locali- 
ties. According  t-o  the  location,  the  cattle  were 
known  as  the  Angua  Doddie  and  as  Uucban  Ilumb- 
liea,  and  yet  again  as  Polled  Aberdeens.  The  word 
polled  was  used  to  indicate  the  hornless  Aberdeen- 
shire cattle  and  thia  to  distinguish  them  from 
another  breed,  now  almost  extinct,  which  inhabited 
the  same  shire  and  had  horns. 

At  a  still  later  time  the  breeders  of  these  horn- 
less cattle  in  the  various  part)  of  northeastern 
Scotland  came  together,  and,  deciding  that  the 
cattle  were  all  of  one  breed,  proceeded  to  choose  a 
suitable  name.  To  please  the  partisans  of  tho  two 
districts  in  which  most  of  theee  cattlo  were  iheo 


332 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


to  be  foQD<3,  the  name  adopted  was  Polled  Aber- 
deen-or-Anpis  cattle.  This  name  became  shortened 
by  dropping  out  the  word  "or"  and  putting  a  hy- 
phen in  its  place.  It  has  been  further  aHreviate'tl, 
because  of  the  passiog  of  the  horned  breed,  to 
Aberdeen-Anga:?,  the  word  polled  being  now  deemed 
anneceasary.  Thitt  idea  bus  been  adopted  ahn 
by  the  Polled  [jalluvray  breeders,  so  that  their 
breed  in  now  known  as  Ualloway  cattJe.  Both 
in  Scotland  aid  America,  even  the  name  of 
Aberdeen-AnpTis  haa  bevn  shortened,  and  in 
Scotland  the  cattle  are  generally  referred  to 
as  the  Polled  cattle,  while  in  America  they  are 
called  the  Anj^s  cattle. 

These  Aberdeen- A nip^o  cattle  hare  been  gre&i 
favorites  in  Scotland  for  more  than  a  century,  but 
unf fortunately  on  two  occaaiona  diseaaes  attacked 
the  cattly  in  that  country  and  decimated  the  herds. 
Later,  when  tht-  Hovfrnment  had  stamped  out  these 
diMasea,  the  cattle  again  began  multiplying,  and 
ROOD  oflBumed  an  important  place  among  the 
domestic  animals  of  the  kincdom.  The  World's 
Fair  held  at  Paris,  France,  in  1878,  gave  the  breed 
an  opportunity  todc^nionstrattfits  cjeat  merit,  and, 
with  itiily  fifteen  repreitwntativ*^,  it  won  the  cham- 
pion-herd prire  aKainst  nearly  two  thousand  other 
cattlu  of  varioiu  breedsi  shown  in  competition, 
every  animal  of  the  .\bcrdeen- Angus  breed  receiv- 
ing either  a  prize  or  an  honorable  mention.  About 
this  time  the  breed  waj?  introduced  into  England, 
and  a  little  later  into  Ireland. 

In  America. — The  Paris  kuccckhiw  Iwl  srrniB  a( 
the  former  breeder*  of  thuse  cattle,  then  in  America, 
to  bring  over  a  few  of  their  early  favorites  in 
1978,  and  from  that  time  this  breed  of  cattlu  has 
grown  rapidly  in  public  favor  until  it  is  now  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  princit>a!  l>eff  brveds  of  thi-i 
country.  In  1S72.  two  biillfl  were  ftt^nt  to  western 
Kansas,  but  no  females  ac(.'oni|iuri[ied  that  impor- 
tation. It  was  the  marketing  of  Ihv  aUivn  from 
Iheaa  two  animals  that  first  attracted  attention  to 
this  breed  in  Kansas  City.  Other  importationa  were 


opposition.  When  breeders  and  feeders  bvgan  to 
consider  this  feature,  its  decided  advantage  «o 
appealed  to  them  that  a  perfect  furor  of  dehorning' 
swept  ox'er  the  country.  Horns  were  sawed  off 
from  aged  animals,  and  horn-cores  were  goaged 
out  or  burnt  off  of  calves,  until  dehorned  market 


Fit.  »l.    Abeideca-Aneu*  DOW.    Jlii  inui. 

made  as  follows  :  In  1876,  two  bulls  and  a  cow,  by 
the  Ontmria  Aj^icoltaral  College  ;  in  1878,  one  bull 
and  fire  cows,  by  Anderson  &  Findlav.  Lake  For- 
est, niinoia;  in  1879.  by  F.  B.  ReOfield.  ItHtavia,  New 
Yorit ;  in  1880,  by  George  Whitfield.  Uongemont, 
Province  of  Quebec.  Since  that  time  many  importa- 
tions have  be«)  made. 

The  lack  of  horns  waa  80ch  an  nnnsoal  condition 
that  it  excited  much  comment  and  not  a   little 


PiK.  360.    Abcntcea-AQcni  bvU.     llMiher  Uonk. 

cattle  became  the  rule  instead  of  the  exception. 
The  .Aberdeen  -  .-^ngus  bull  has  become  a  prime 
favorite  as  a  dehorner.  froased  with  the  onlinary 
native  cow,  abont  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  offspring 
are  black  in  color  and  hornle-ss,  .although  occasion- 
ally Bciirs  appear,  which,  howerer,  are  no  detriment 
from  thf!  fet>der's  point  of  view. 

The  Abenleen-Angun  cattle  rapidly  nise  in  pub- 
lic favor,  fvalejt  wt-re  held  at  various  pointd,  and 
the  cattlu  wt?ro  scattered  over  a  large  territory. 
PerhaiM  then.'  is  no  other  instance  in  which  a  new 
ami  practically  unknown  breed  has  sprung  at  onc« 
into  such  prominence  and  ha,s  maintained  so  high 
a  position. 

IH^frilmtian. 

Cattle  of  this  breed  are  found  in  fvCoUand,  EU**^ 

land,  Ireland,  (lermany,  France,  Denmark.  Sand- 
wich Islands,  New  JUtaland,  South  America,  t'anada, 
and  the  United  States.  In  America  the  breed  is 
represented  in  not  less  than  forty-two  states  and 
territoTiea.  Esi>ecialty  adapted  to  the  rich  prairie 
lands  of  the  Middle  Wf^t,  Alwrdeen-Angus  cattle 
for  years  have  bfi'n  most  numwnua  in  the  stnteH  of 
Iowa,  Illinois,  Mistwuri,  Indiana,  Kan^^a^.  Ohio,  und 
Nebraska,  in  the  onler  given.  However,  they  are 
wiiJfly  distributwl.  and  in  recent  years  have  in- 
creased substantially  in  popular  favor  in  the  Sontb- 
wcat.  West  and  Northwest.    Preeminently  a  fe«l- 

■Ther«  19  not  full  aKieenent  u  to  the  ward  dikem, 
some  pers^nri  holding  It  to  bo  etjmologically  Inconwt. 
anil  preft^rriiiK  dMom  on  the  niwaniptioti  thatdesbeuU 
not  be  prefixed  to  a  iit«in  bei^nning  with  k  fnllnwed  by  a 
vowot.  There  ia  abundAnt  ]>rvi>ilHn(  Tur  dekom.  howaver, 
in  Buch  words  u  dtkort.  4thiipnofit<.  JfkUcf,  H*k)firaU, 
dtkuA,  nnd  Kthvrv;  iind  dc  \»  i>vrliai»  pref«rable  when 
th«  idea  is  U>  denote  Ibe  taking  away  of  one  or  two 
Bmulbr  thinfp!  from  lorgDr  or  room  permanent  thingCt 
wbi>iva>  diM  Reemj  to  imply  the  diBpenion  of  things  fran 
each  oth«r.  In  tbb  coontry,  th«  word  dthorn  tietmt  to  be 
HO  wril  <uitabllihed  ««  to  give  amtrance  of  pennaneaoe^ 
whalev«r  it«  etynoiogica]  itaCw. 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


'Ctii  IWQStf  the  ASerdMn-Aneus  nut  onty  \a  hi);hly 
pHmd  by  borf-proilnwrs  in  the  corn-ht-It,  but  gra- 
ziers and  rancnmvn  of  the  plziins  rt-fjion  of  tho 
West,  Southwest  aaA  Xorthwest  lind  it  a  giroRtahle 
breed  for  their  conditinnB.  It  In  in  the  surjvhis  corn 
stales,  however.  th»t  Abt'rdi^t>n-Anguft  cattle  appear 
t<i  rnach  tht^ir  highiist  cxcelleRce. 

For  milk. — The  breed  hoa  not  been  developed 

jiartieularly  for  milk-production,  but  in  some  herds 
attention  has  betin  ^vc-n  to  tliJH  (jnnlily  with  tliu 
result  thal,mor*'  particniarly  In  New  Zealand,  entire 
dairies  are  now  rompoBed  of  Aberdeen-Angus  cows  ; 
and  in  IHitii,  an  AbKnieen-Angiw  row  w;i3  the 
champiiin  at  the  Dairy  Show  held  in  Loiidim. 

Fur  brij'.  —  l\\y  cviLtlu  and  thfir  p-adtJ-s  are  more 
eai)ecialiy  noled  for  the  wealth  of  Rt-sh  carried  on 
v«ry  abort  legs,  and  are  easy  koeptira  and  early 
maturing.  For  the  past  twenty  years  this  breed 
has  uniformly  topped  the  Chicago  market  each  year 
with  one  exeeptictn,  and  in  that  year  the  Pittsburg 
market  paid  a  higbi-r  prire  than  any  other,  find  the 
Aberdeen-AngUH  topped  that  market.  Their  win- 
nings in  the  International  Live-atoek  Exposition 
are  matters  of  current  history,  and  they  have  never 
failed  of  repreflentstion  among  the*  prize-winners, 
both  as  single  aoimals  and  in  carload  lots. 

Ftir  rrojwfnp  nr  ffrnditiff,  the  Alienleen-Angiis  fs 
in  the  fnint  rank,  tm  common  stuck,  the  bull.')  get 
market  cattle  of  lii;;h  merit.  As  dehorners,  the 
balls  uf  this  brued  are  unexcelled.  A  wider  use  of 
these  bulls  in  grading  would  be  beneficial. 

Orffttnizatimf  and  record/. 

The  two  leading  organizations  concerned  with 
the  advancement  of  the  interests  of  Aberdeen- 
Angus  cattle  are  the  Polled  Cattle  Society  of  Scot- 
land, organiwd  in  \H1\3,  and  the  .'Vmeric-an  Alier- 
deen-Angus  Breeders'  Afwociation, organiied  in IS^?, 
with  headquarters  in  the  Live-stock  Kecord  Build- 
ing, Chicago.  Thirty-one  volumes  of  the  l'oIle<J 
Cattle  Herdhook  have  been  issued  since  1862. 
When  the  Po]|«i]  Cattle  HerdlwKik  was  first  estab- 
lished in  Scotland,  (lalloway  cattle  were  rworded 
in  it  as  Well  (in  first  four  volumes),  but  all  animals 
of  that  breed  y-'^re  designated  by  an  aalerink  placed 
in  front  of  their  names,  and  no  animals  were 
accepted  that  were  a  cross  bi-twei'n  the  AWrdoen- 
AngUB  and  the  Galloway,  hut  l*oth  breeds  were  kept 
disiinct.  Since  1S8G.  the  American  association  has 
pobliahed  sixteen  volumes  of  its  herdbook.  Over 
100,000  Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  have  been  regis- 
tered in  the  American  herdbwk,  but  of  course  a 
considerable  proportion  of  tht>*e  were  the  founda- 
tion animals  whose  pedigrees  were  taken  from  the 
Scotch  herdbook  *,  about  15  per  cent  of  the  annual 
produce  of  par»>br«d  herds  is  not  recorded.  There 
are  now  aboat  one  thousand  members  in  the  Ameri- 
can aaaociation. 

There  are  altm  several  state  organ iutions.  as  the 
Indiana,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska  Aberdeen -Angus 
Breeders'  Associotions.  Those  have  membewhips  of 
seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  persons,  hold 
regular  annual  meetings,  appropriate  money  for 


special  prizes  at  the  8tst«  fairs,  and  In  other  ways 
suuk  u>  promote  the  tntereeta  of  the  bre«d. 

Liiteralure. 

Aberdeen- Angus ,  The  Br»^ed  Ihnt  RentH  the 
Record,  Detroit  llHHti) ;  .lames  MacdoDald  ami 
James  Sinclair.  History  of  Foiled  Aberdeen  or 
Angus  Cattle.  Fdinburgh  (1882);  A  History  of 
the  Heatherton  Hi^rd,  Chicago  ^1907).  (For  further 
references,  si*  page  302.] 

Ayrshire  CatUe.     PigF.  302,  3G3. 
By  Harry  Hayward. 

The  .Ayrshire  i.s  one  of  the  princtpal  breeds  of 

dairy  c-attte  in  America. 

DeKTiplion. 

The  individual  Ayrshire  is  an  animal  of  meditina 
siie,  the  standard  weight  for  mature  cows  being 
one  thousand  pounds,  while  bulls  should  weigh  fif- 
teen hundred  pound;;  or  more.  In  general  confor- 
mation it  is,  perhaps,  a  little  smoother  than  the 
Jersey  and  Holstein,  yet  it  is  not  sg  smooth  as  to 
conceat  the  wedge  nhajie  of  the  body  when  viewed 
from  Whind.  A  littlu  [n'culiarity  frwiaently  seen 
in  the  Ayrshire  is  that  the  ti[)s  of  the  ears  are 
notched,  The  horns  are  white,  with  black  tips,  and 
cur%-e  outward  and  upward.  They  may  attain  large 
sixe.  The  body  is  large  and  deep  and  the  ribs  well 
sprung  :  the  rump  is  broad  and  long,  and  is  usually 
Hut  high.  The  hind -quarter  is  frujuently  heavy 
The  udder  in  a  good  dairy  ty|>e  ahows  high 
development  of  form  and  settinjt.  Thin  character 
is  rather  uniform  in  the  breed.  The  color  is  vari- 
able, through  red,  white  and  brown.  The  prevail- 
ing color  in  .\merica  is  red  and  white  patches,  with 
a  tendency  toward  a  pr^'dominance  f^i  white.  In 
din;K)sition  the  Aynhire  Is  mild  and  kind,  yet  alert, 
active  and  energetic.  The  evidence  she  gives  of 
being  full  uf  reserve  force  ia  one  of  her  strongest 
character  i.'ttics. 

The  following  scale  of  points,  adopted  by  the 
American  .Ayrshire  Breeders'  Association  and  the 
Canadian  .Ayrshire  llreedera'  A-ssociation,  in  190G, 
shows  what  is  desired  in  the  breed. 

Scale  of  Poikt.-)  poh  AmsaiBB  Cattlr 

For  eotct  p.rf— . 

1.  Head  (101  ^™ 

Forehead.— Broad  and  ct«*rlydefln«l .   ...  I 

Honia. — Wide  net  an  and  innlininc  u|iwrani  .  .  1 
Face. — Of  m«diuin  length,  slightly  diohvd,  clean 

cut,  Hluiwing  v»-inH 2 

Miiiil«.^Bro)id  and  xtrong  without  coarseaeaa ; 

awtrilH  \iirgv 1 

Jswa.     Wide  at  the  bmie  and  atronn 1 

EytM. — Pull  und  liright,  with  plurid  KXiimwion  .  S 

Eara,  -<>f  medium  alzo  snd  6n^,  carried  iilert  .  1 

2.  Neck. — Pine  throughavt;   throat  L-tpan;  noatlj' 

joinl^d  to  head  and  ahoDldcni,  of  |cood  length, 
mod6rat«Sy  thin,  nearly  free  from  k>^e  «kin, 
elegnnt  in  bfaring S 

3.  Fote-quarteni  (lOl 

.Shiiiililnm. — Ught,  good  distance  Lhroagh  from 
point  lo  point  bnttlinrp  at  withers,  vmootbl^ 
bleodiag  into  body 2 


334 


CATTIX 


CATTLE 


Rtals  or  Fui!fT8  FOK  ArKSHiBB  Cattlb,  contiDocd 

Fbr  eoKt  PfHtft 

Cbcst. — Low,  de«p  and  full  iHtw&en  and  back 
of  forv-ti-^  .  .  6 

Brisket.— LigM 1 

Legs  uikI  ttyvL — Leg»  Btratght  nnd  shurt,  well 

apart ;  nhanka  fine  and  ninnirith,  jointA  firm  ; 

fi-L-t  mirdJum  siDe,  ruucd  solid  and  deep  ...       1 

4.  Body  .i:^J 

Back. — Strong  uid  ntnught,  cbint>  hut,  nhurp 

and  Dpen-jinnUid 4 

Loin. — Brou,  atronK  and  level 2 

R)b». — Long,bru;uJ,«nd«ii{k-irlnndwcll8pniiig  .  3 
Abdomen. — Capariooa,  iiKp,  flnuly  h^ld  Op  with 

etning  muM-uliirdvvi'lifpnii'nt 3 

FKink.— Thin  nnri  arching 1 

5.  Hind-qturters  (111 

Rump.— Willi",  Icii'l  and  long  from  hi>»k«  to  pin- 
bones,  a  reaaoDable  pelvic  arrh  aJlnwed    .   .      .1 
Ilookii. — WMe  «part  and  not  projecting  »\Mvt 
back  nor  undalj-  overl&id  with  fsL     ....      2 

Pin-boDM. — H!)^h  nnd  wMo  apart 1 

Tlugha.— ^Thin,  long  and  wide  apart 2 

Tail. — LoD^.  lini.'.  8i.*t  un  u  W\vl  wiih  the  hack  .       I 
LegH  and  ft^t. — Ixga  strong,  short,  itraight 
when  vivwud  from  behind  and  set  wt^l]  upart ; 
shanks  &ae  and  smooth,  ji'vinta  Arm ;  feet  tne- 
dium  eiie,  roan<J,  sold  and  deep 2 

6.  Dddcr.^Long,  wid^,  dcfip,  but  not  ptrndulnvH  nor 

fleehjr ;  finnly  attached  to  the  body,  extending 
well  up  Whind  and  fur  forward ;  quart«T>i  oven; 
aola  nearly  hval  and  not  indented  between 
l«at«:  Dddttr  vvina  well  dwulopMl  and  pluinly 
riaible 22 

7.  TMits. — Evenly  placed,  dialance  apart  from  side 

tfl  aide  equal  to  half  the  breadth  o/  udder,  frflin 
butk  to  (roBt  equal  to  one-t.hird  the  ieDgtll ; 
length  2^  to  l^i  in^hoai,  thioVneM  In  kcfiping 
with  len^h,  hanging  perpendicular  and  not 
t:i[M'ri(iK 8 

8.  Uammary  velni. — Large,  long,  tortui;>ua  braoch- 

in^  !irid  Hnttrinn  liirRe  urifirvM 5 

9.  Escutcheon.— Ui^lincily  delined.  spreading  owr 

Uiighu  and  extending  well  upwurd 2 

10.  Color, — Red  of  any  shadv,  brown,  or  th«M  with 

whllv ;  icahugany  and  white,  or  wliitL> ;  euch 
color  distinctly  d«flncd.  (Briadle  mirkinga 
■llowcd  batnoldcisirable.} 2 

11.  Coreriog  (6) 

Sk{o.---Of  medium  thickneaa,  mellow  and  elas- 

tic 3 

Hair.— Soft  and  fine    ... 2 

Si-cretiiins— Oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color  ,      1 

12.  Style.— Alert,  rigoroiu.  showing  strong  chiu-ac- 

t«r.  t«inpenimeot  inclined  to  nervousneas  bat 
Rtill  docile 4 

13.  Welgbt  at  matorily  not  te#s  than  t>ne  thousaed 

pounds 4 

Perfection 100 

For  bitUi  p— #—1 

1.  Head  m  *^tSS 

Piin-hiMid.— Bioad  and  clearly  deliDed  ....  2 
Homs.-'StroDg  at  b&Me.  vet  wide  apart,  indin* 

ing  upward 1 

Face.  -Of  mediam  length,  cleu  cat,  showing 

facial  veins 2 

Monle.— Broad  and  utrong  without  coarseneas,       ! 

Noatrlta. — Large  and  a|>en      2 

Jaws.— Wide  at  the  haw-  and  Rtrong  ....  1 
Eysa,— Moderately  large,  full  and  bright    .  .      3 


Scale  op  Points  n>R  .Avmuus  Cattlc,  continued 

/Vr  1>UIU  PrrtM 

Elan.— Of  mediniii  stie  and  ftne,  carried  alert  .      1 

BxprMfiiun. — Full  of  vigor,  roaolutioa  and  m»' 

cultnity 3 

,L  Neck. — Of  medium  length,  aomewhal  arched, 
large  and  Btrong  in  the  mosclea  on  top,  in- 
clined to  flatness  on  sides,  enlarging  eym- 
motrically  towards   the  ahonldera;    thrmt 

cLeMi  and  free  from  looHskia 10 

:{.  Fore-quaitcrs  (15) 

Shonlders. —  Strong,  nnoothly  bleoding  into 
body,  with  good  distance  thrxragh  from  point 
to  point,  ana  Bne  on  top 3 

GhwL — Low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and 
fore-legs 8 

Brisket. —  Dvep,  nut  too  prnmLRDOt  and  with 
very  little  dewliip 2 

Legs  &nd  feet.— Legs  well  apart,  straight  and 
shrirt ;  ahanka  line  and  smooth,  jninta  firm  ; 
feet  of  medium  8ix«,  round,  solid  and  deep  .      3 

4.  Body  U8) 

Back.^bort  and  straight;  chino  strongly  d«- 
veiuiKrd  and  open-jnititvid 5 

Loin. — Broad,  strong  and  level < 

Ribs."Lung,  broad,  i^trong,  well  sprung  and 
wide  apart 4 

Abdomen. — Large  and  deep,  trimly  held  up 
with  maarular  development 4 

Flank. — Thin  and  arching 1 

5.  Hind-quartBFa  (It^) 

kunip.  -  Levt.1,  long  from  hooks  to  pin-boi>ea  .     5 
Hoolui.  — Miiiiiuni  i1I.Ktan('.n   apiirt,   proportion- 
ately narrower  than  in  female,  not  rising 

abuve  the  level  of  the  back 2 

Pin-bonw. — High,  wide  apart 2 

Thighs. ^Tbin,  long  and  wide  apart 4 

Tail.— Fine,  long  and  .let  on  level  with  back    .      1 
Legs  and  feet. — I«gs  straight,  set  well  apvt. 
shanks  line  and  smooth;  feet  modlora  aixe, 
round,  soliil  wid  deep,  not  to  crom  in  walking.      3 
fi.  Scrotnm. — Wi-ll  (ii'Vflii]riNJ  and  .ttrojij;ly  rarrieid  .      3 
RadimentaheB,  veina,  et«,— Teat«  of  anifonn 
Hist:<,  wiuiiri'ly  ]iUu'i-d,  wide  apart  and  frve 
from  81  rotum  ;  veins  long,  large,  tortuov. 
with    extenjiiune    entering    largL'   orifices : 
ucutcheoi  pronounced  and  covering  a  Urge 
surface 4 

7.  Color. — Rt'd  «f  any  ahade,  brown,  or  thetie  with 

white,  muhogany  uid  white,  or  white  :  eiKh 
folor  distinctly  dffineH 3 

8.  Cohering  (C) 

Skin. — Medium  Ihtckneeit.  mellow  and  elastic  .      3 

Hair.  -80ft  and  tine £ 

Secretions. — tlily.uf  rich  brown  or  yellow  color.      1 

9.  Style.-Acttve,  vignroo!!,  shownng  strong  maKU- 

line   chiiracter:    tvmpenkment   inclimid   to 
mrvonanMu  hut  not  irritable  orviclMia  .   .      B 
10.  Weiglit  at  maturity  not  Icon  than  1500  pounda  .     4 

Perfection lOO 

History. 

The  Ayrshire  did  not  have  its  origin  in  th!» 
fionntrr,  but  was  brought  from  Scotland,  its  native 
home,  in  the  early  part  of  the  last  century.  It 
t^ikes  its  name  from  the  county  Ayr,  although  in 
its  formative  perio«l  it  was  known  as  the  Dnnlop 
and  the  Cunningham  bree<I. 

From  the  descripticinH  of  Ayr  and  the  adjacent 
territory,  given  by  Low,  an  English  writer  on  agri- 


CATTI.E 


CATTLE 


335 


^  Snatters,  it  may  l>e  inft^nw!  that  agricul- 
rmMitiona  in  th»l  country,  ut  UmvluM--  of  tht< 
RevoTotionary  War,  wt're  at  a  low  ebb.  "There 
were  no  fallows,  no  sown  grasses,  no  carts  nor 
wagons  and  no  straw  yards ;  no  roots  were  grf>wn. 
very   little   straw   anil    no   hay,   »ave   the   small 


■^'i 


FU>  itt-    Ayiabirt  buU,  n<Ut*f  Cndc  8vlc7  8«in. 

amounts  cut  from  the  bo^  and  wastes.  Unilcr 
these  conditions  the  cattle  were  starved  in  winter, 
being  scapcoly  able  to  rise  in  the  sffring,  and  nu-vcr 
were  in  rnnriition  fit  for  the  nia,rket.'*  Such  were 
the  cunilitions  from  which  the  hardy,  xiseful  race 
of  Ayrshire  cattle  haa  come.  Culley,  who  wrote  a 
treatise  on  live-stock  before  the  year  1790,  flixw 
not  mention  the  Ayrshire  as  one  of  the  recui;ni2«cj 
breeds  of  the  country.  FVora  this  we  may  conclode 
that  their  history  as  a  breed  begtna  some  time 
shortly  after  the  first  of  the  past  century  ;  prevl- 
oufl  to  that  lime,  they  were  one  of  the  coarse 
varieties  of  cattle  which  formerly  occupied  all  of 
tbe  southern  part  of  the  country. 

The  earliest  recognition  which  they  rwceivwl  as 
a  brewl  was  given  by  a  Mr.  Alton,  who  published 
a  treatise  on  the  Dairy  Husbandry  of  Ayrshire,  in 
1825.  He  descriltea  them,  according  to  Low,  oa 
being  a  puny,  unshaiwly  rncp,  not  sufienor  to  th« 
cattle  of  the  higher  district:^,  referring,  perhaps, 
to  th«  West  Highland  or  Kylo  cuttle.  He  further 
states  that  the  Ayrshires,  at  that  time,  were  mostly 
black  in  color,  marked  with  white  in  the  facedown 
the  hack  and  Hank,  and  th?it  few  of  the  cows  gave 
more  than  a  gallon  and  a  half  or  two  gallons  of 
miUt  per  day  whun  fn-ith.  They  were  very  small  in 
bIbb,  so  small  that  the  averu|;:e  dn-ssed  weight  of 
matare  animals  was  but  two  hundn.<d  and  eighty 
pounds. 

This  description  was  written  after  the  introdnc- 
lion  into  tbe  Ayrshire  district,  it  is  asserted,  of 
the  cattle  descended  fnim  the  crosses  made  with 
ttie  Teeswater  or  Holderness  stock  from  Darham, 
fc:ngland.  The  Earl  of  Marchmont  is  supposed  to 
have  brought  this  foreign  blood  into  Scotland  be- 
tween 1724  and  1740.  This  importation  of  a  boll 
and  .^veral  cows  was  taken  to  the  earl's  estates  in 
Berwickshire  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 

It  h:ia  k^en  thought  that  the  Aldemey  (or.  pre- 
snmably,  Jersey)  chms  -vtha  alno  introdoc^  into  tlie 
Ayrshire  district  at  this  time.  An  evidence  that 
tin  Aldemey  was  used  is  the  small  head  and  alender 


neck  poasoBflSd  in  common  by  both  these  breeds.  In 
spile  of  tha  lack  of  historical  evidence  that  Jersey 
cnllle  were  cnisswl  on  the  old  Ayrshire  stiM-k.  Uiw 
concludes  that  the  "Dairy  liree*!  of  .^yrshirew  owes 
the  characteristics  which  diKtingtiiKh  it  from  the 
older  race  to  mixture  with  the  ImxxJ  rfltx-a  of  the 
continent  and  of  the  Dairy  Hrwis  of  Alderney." 

Prom  the  above,  we  may  rightly  infer  that  the 
conditions  which  surrounded  the  foundation  of  tbe 
Ayrshire  brec-d  wore  such  that  the  fittest  only 
could  survive.  Thisfactorof  hardiness  was appfir- 
ently  but  little  disturbed,  if  any,  when  the  Tees- 
water  cross  was  maiie.  Hanlihood  has  been  so 
closely  interwoven  with  every  fiber  of  the  Ayr- 
.ihires  that  they  are  today  the  moat  hardy  of  all 
breeds  ot  dairy  cattle,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  Irish  Kerry.  It  is  probable  that  the  Tecfi- 
watcr  cross  eventually  increased  the  milk-pnxluc- 
ing  ability  of  the  Ayrshire. 

What  is  true  of  many  of  our  improved  breeds  of 
cattle  is  tnie,  also,  of  the  Ayn^hire:  that  no  one 
bniedcT  stands  out  prominently  from  his  fellowa  as 
the  great  improver  of  the  hree*L  Tho  dairy-farm- 
era  of  Ayr  and  the  adjacent  counties  worked 
together  for  the  common  purpose  of  developing  a 
hardy,  active  race  of  cattle  arlaptetl  to  the  humid 
climate  and  sparse  hillside  pastures,  as  well  as  a 
race  that  would  pn«Iuce  the  maximum  amotint  of 
milk  when  fed  on  chaffed  straw  and  roots  during 
the  long  winlera  of  Scotland.  Thtdr  success  is  indi- 
cawxl  by  the  very  large  number  of  exportation^ 
from  Scotland  to  other  countries. 

in  America. — Ayrshire  ciittle  were  first  imported 
into  America  between  1820  and  1830.  Impnrta 
tiona  continued  to  be  made  into  the  eastern  states 
with  more  or  less  regularity  up  to  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civil  war.  Importations  are  thought 
to  have  been  made  in  1H22  by  H.  W.  Hills,  of 
Windsor,  Connecticut ;   about   1837   hy  John   P. 


./^> 


Vf 


'l>v 


^, 


y/j. 


'-^■•'''-1 


^■^•-' 


i^ 


Fix.  SO.    AynhUe  cow. 


(lushing,  of  Massachusetts,  and  in  IK4H  by  K.  A. 
Brown,  of  Ohio,  While  tho  imported  cattle  gave 
their  owner*  entire  feitisfactinn  as  far  as  hardiness, 
ease  of  keeping  and  milk- product  ion  were  wm- 
cerned.  they  failed  to  find  mnrh  favor  where  the 
milking  w  done  by  men.  l»ecaiise  of  tbe  shortness 
of  their  t4>ats.  In  C-nnada  and  in  Scotland,  where 
wumen  milk  by  stripping  with  tbe  thumb  and  fore> 


S36 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


finger,  this  fault  win  not  the  sertouft  objection  that 
it  WJ18  in  enstorn  United  Statea.  It  is  pns.'iible,  too, 
that  another  reaj^on  why  Ayrshire^  did  not  jjrow  in 
favor  mnro  rafiidly  was  thjit  the  center  of  the  breed, 
in.  ita  early  hUtory  in  the  Hnitwi  Stat4w,  wa«  in  New 
KniiUiiiii.  and  in  thu  hands  of  liairy-fanntrs.  The 
cattia  were  kept  for  practical  purpo.»L's,  and  but 
little  attention  vras  paid  to  breed  charact^ristica, 
to  exhibiting  at  the  fair»,  or  tu  advertising  the 
merits  of  the  breed  in  any  other  wiy, 

Dhtributloiu 

The  Ayrahirea  are  practically  the  only  dairy  cat- 
tle in  Scotland,  and  nearly  every  conntry  in  which 
dairj-ineii!  an  important  inthstry  has  drawn  heavily 
on  Scotland  for  foundation  stock.  The  principal 
countries  that  are  asinp  Ayrgbinj*  are  Canada,  the 
United  States,  JJorway,  Sweden,  Finland  and  Russia, 
They  are  also  found  in  considemble  nnmbora  in 
South  Africa,  New  Zealand,  Aaatralta,  China  and 
Japan.  In  America,  the  breed  is  found  in  largest 
numbers  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  in  Canada,  bat  it 
is  fast  becoming  popular  in  eastern  United  States, 
notably  in  the  New  Enjjland  States,  New  York  and 
Pennaylvania.  There  are  a  few  herds  in  Ohio,  Illi- 
noi9,  Missouri,  Oregon  and  California. 

Types  of  Ayrthirt  cattle. 

The  event  which  served  to  bring  the  Ayrshirea 
from  their  obRcurity  in  America^  and  but  for  which 
they  might  still  have  been  comparatively  unknown, 
wafl  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  held  in 
Chicago  in.  1803.  At  this  great  World's  Fiiir  two 
distinct  tYi>e«  of  A^Tahire  cattle  appeartrtJ  in  com- 
petition ;  the  American  or  New  England  tyite,  which, 
navinff  received  lui  fresh  infusion  of  blooii  from  the 
mother  country  for  many  years,  had  beooniG  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  another  breed,  and  the  Cana- 
dian or,  more  properly,  the  .Scotch  type.  This  type 
was  representw)  solely  ty  animals  that  conformed 
to  the  type  generally  held  liy  GVnTy  oni;  but  Ameri- 
can briMxlera  to  be  the  corruct  one,  and  many  indi- 
vidiiala  bad  btHiii  jirix^vwinnara  at  the  imjwrtant 
agricultural  shiiws  in  Scotland. 

The  Stw  England  aitlle  differed  from  those  of 
Scotch  typo  in  that  they  were  a  little  shorter  in 
the  leg,  heavier  boilied,  and  pofw<'s«ed  better  hand- 
ling qualitieH.  Their  udders,  while  large  and  capa- 
cious, were  hanlly  levrd  anil  Kiiuare,  and  in  many 
cases  were  rather  pendulous,  Th*'  tmata  were  of 
£01x1  liize  and  length,  and  uf  a  dark  or  tan  color ; 
the  horns  frequt^ntly  were  cniinplL-d,  and  tho  colors 
were  dark-brown  tir  cherry-red,  Awkwl  with  white. 
While  these  cattle  posBessed  unque^tinred  dairy 
meritH,  they  did  not  have  the  uniformity  of  tyjie 
that  nhiMild  he  characterit;tic  of  a  mcngnized  brew). 

The  Sieotch  mtUe  were  longer  and  not  relatively 
so  deep  in  the  boily  as  their  cumpetlturs  ;  u  trifle 
longer  in  the  leg :  hardly  so  rugged,  perhaps ; 
straighter  from  the  poll  to  tail-head  :  pottae^ed 
of  targe,  aqnare.  level  udders,  whoeo  front  (juartera 
were  particularly  well-developed,  cloftely  attached 
to  the  body,  with  teats  ideally  placed,  hnt  t(Mi  often 
not  only  flmalt  in  nize  but  very  flhort  in  length.  It 
is  stated  by  some  authorities)  that  a  cloAely  attached 


udder  IB  very  rarely  found  with  long  teats.  Other 
characteristicB  of  the.se  Scotch  Ayrshires  were  their 
heavy  skinn,  bruad  upward-turned  horns,  and  their 
coKir,  which  wjw  white,  with  varying  shade.'i  of  red 
spots  on  the  head  and  neck  ;  fre*|uently  there  were 
larger  or  ttmaller  spots  un  the  body,  but.  in  most 
cases,  at  least,  the  white  predominated,  t'nrther- 
more,  all  of  the  cattle  exhibited  by  the  Canadians 
showed  a  uniformity  of  breed  characteristic  or 
type  that  was  plainly  evident  to  the  most  cas- 
ual olwerver.  It  wa."!  this  uniformity,  as  wpll 
as  their  distinctive  showy  altractiveneiw.  that 
drew  to  the  foreign  cattle  thj  attention  of  the 
visitoni  in  the  stadium,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
.\merican  breeders  in  and  outside  of  the  judging 
arena. 

The  judge  on  this  occasion  had  been  selected 
from  Canada,  and,  naturally,  was  partial  to  the 
Scotch  t)"pe.  As  a  consequence,  miwt  of  the  priies 
went  to  the  Canadian  exhit)itor8.  While  the  .■Ameri- 
can exhibitors  were  bitterly  disappointed,  the 
decisions  mude  at  Chicago  have  had  a  far-reaching* 
effect  in  changing  the  type  of  .Ayrshire  cattle  in 
America.  Since  that  time  the  majority  of  the  most 
progressive  breeders  either  have  mad©  direct 
importation  from  Scotland,  or  have  placed  at  the 
head  of  their  herds  bulla  of  the  Scotch  type.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  those  who  exhibit  at  the 
leading  fairs.  .\nd.  when  competition  comes  be- 
tween this  and  the  old  New  England  type,  the 
former  nearly  always  wins. 

The  question  of  tj-pe  had  become  so  confusing 
that  early  in  the  year  1906  the  ofRcials  of  the 
American,  Canadian,  and  Scotch  .\yr»hire  breeders' 
associations  recognised  it  as  worthy  of  their  atten- 
tion. The  result  was  that  they  agreed  on  a  uniform 
scale  of  points  (iiee  page  U:!3).  which  is  intended  to 
serve  as  3  guide  for  the  breeders  of  all  three  asso- 
ciations. 

Breeders  of  these  cattle  have  never  practiced 
inbrueiling  to  any  great  extent,  and  there  are  no 
well-defined  families  or  strains,  as  in  other  breeds^ 

Uses. 

F\}r  mUk  and  batter,^ln  point  of  milk-yield 
alone,  the  Ayrshire  doe(*  not  compare  favorablj-. 
individual  for  individual,  with  the  Ilolstein,  nor  m 
butter- production  aliine  with  either  the  Jersey 
or  Ouernsiiy.  But  in  the  yield  of  milk  and  butter, 
on  rough,  hilly  pa-stores,  or  without  heavy  grain- 
feeding  in  the  winter,  the  Ayrshire  is  in  a  class  by 
herself.  It  is  dil^cult  to  give  ligurea  of  production 
that  are  at  all  representative,  since  fls  much,  if  not 
more,  depimdn  nn  the  system  uf  care  and  manage- 
ment .IS  on  the  cow  herself.  From  reports  of  a 
numlwr  of  herdfi  which  may  bei  constdered  rvliable, 
us  indieaCing  the  dairy  qualities  of  the  Ayrshire 
Lreei],  it  may  l>e  stated  that  herds  numbering 
twenty  animals  of  all  age^,  will  yield  as  an  aver- 
age, ft,500  pounds  of  milk,  and  30(.i  pounds  of  bol- 
ter. This  estimate  presupposes  that  the  herd  is 
fed  for  profit,  but  not  forced  in  any  sense  of  the 
word.  A  number  itf  herds  f"^  a  liberal  allowance 
iif  grain  the  year  ronnd,  and  managed  with  the 
view  of  yielding  the  maximum  amount  of  milk  and 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


337 


butter,  have  averaged  over  8,000  poanila  of  milk, 
and  350  jeoanda  of  butter.  Bl-ChIusc  the  Ayrshire 
cow  Is  perhaps  not  capnble  of  malting  forced 
weekly,  or  even  yearly  milk  and  butter  reconls 
eii«Bl  to  thi>se  of  sonie  of  the  other  breeds,  and 
furthermore,  liecauw  she  hiw  lieen  so  compl^lely 
in  the  handH  of  practical  dHirynmn,  »he  han  riiiver 
be«n  forcfd  io  hur  production  in  tha  generally 
accepted  sense  of  the  term.  As  a  conaequcnco. 
the  cnvfs  of  this  breed  are  in  a  more  normal  condi- 
tion than  thoi^o  of  almost  any  other. 

KecautK  the  batter-fnt  globules  are  smaU,  the 
cream  di>es  not  rise  so  qaickly  aa  in  the  case  of 
aonie  of  the  other  dairy  breeds,  and  an  a  contie- 
quencti  AyrBhlre  milk  ta  well  adapted  for  shipping 
to  city  marketjt,  and  for  um^  a^  a  beverage. 

For  ehff»f. — It  wa«  formerly  thought  that  Ayr- 
shire milk  was  pecnliarly  adapted  to  cheese-mak- 
ing. With  our  present-day  informalinfi  on  this 
subject,  however,  this  view  is  no  Itmjjt-r  gi?ner3il!y 
held,  although  the  milk  m  UHed  for  this  pur[iose. 

For  lietf.  As  far  as  a  dairy  cow  van  be  a  beef 
animal,  the  Ayrshire  7»n>bably  excels,  for  the  rea- 
son that  she  is  a  little  smoother  in  conformation 
than  the  other  dairy  breeds,  and  the  fat  of  the 
carcass,  instead  of  being  yellow,  which  is  objec- 
tionable to  the  consumer,  i;*  white. 

For  erosfbifj. — .An  Ayrshire  bull  at  the  bead  of  a 
grwie  herd  will  greatly  inereaw  milk-production 
in  its  progeny.  When  uswd  on  gratte  cowm  the 
standard  of  the  herd  will  be  materially  elevated. 

Orffanizationa  and  records. 

Th<^  wflfnre  nnd  interest.'*  of  this  race  of  cattle 
are  in  charge  of  the  American  Ayrshire  Breedere' 
Association,  which  was  organised  on  its  pFiwent 
baoiA  in  187.S.  The  breeder's  of  Ayrshires,  how- 
ever, have  done  systematic  work  for  the  breed 
through  the  .'IsBociation  of  Breeders  of  Thorough- 
br*-d  Noat  Stock,  as  far  back  as  1859.  The  latt*r 
organiHition  published  three  volmmes  of  a  herd 
register.  On  the  organization  of  the  former  a*w> 
ciation,  the  publication  of  the  Ayrshire  Ue<:ord 
came  into  it«  hand:).  .Since  1876  it  has  published 
sixteen  volumes  (new  series).  The  North  American 
Ayrshire  Kegister  first  appeared  in  1875,  devote*! 
to' cattle  that  could  be  traced  to  importation.  It 
was  discontinued  in  L880,  after  four  volumes  had 
liaen  published.  .\Bide  from  guarding  the  purity  of 
the  breed,  the  .American  Ayrshire  Breeders'  Asso- 
ciation also  conducts  a  yearly  home  dairy  test  and 
an  advanced  registry.  Both  of  thct^e  divisions  of 
the  Asiociation's  work  tend  to  encourage  the  devel- 
opment of  the  breed  by  creating  a  greater  interest 
among  the  members  of  the  .\3sociati0n,  to  excel 
either  in  making  ofticiat  records,  or  in  making 
attractive  dii^plays  of  their  cattle  at  leading  agri- 
cultural exhibitions.  The  present  beadqaarters  of 
the  Association  are  at  Brandon.  Vt. 

There  wag  organised  in  1870  the  Ayrshire  Im- 
porter.'*' and  Breeders'  Association  of  Canada,  and 
In  1889  the  Dominion  .Ayrshire  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion. In  1898.  the  former  was  absorbed  by  the 
latter.  The  Montreal  Ayrshire  Ilerdbook  first 
appeared  in  18S6.  It  was  lat«r  unital  with  the 

C22 


Dominion  Ayrshire  Herdbook,  which  appeared  In 
188-1,  and  published  as  the  Canadian  Ayrshire 
Record. 

Liieratitrc. 

Yearbook,  published  annually  by  the  Ayrshire 
Breeders'  Association  ;  E.  L.  Sturtevant,  The  Dairy 
Cow:  A  Monograph  of  the  Ayrshire  Breed  of  Cat- 
tle, Boston  C1875J.  [For  further  references,  see 
page  302.] 

Brown  Swiss  Cattle.  Figs.  364,  3G5. 

By  Chatlf*  D.  Nixon. 

The  Brown  Swiss  cattle  of  America  are  a  distinct 
dairy  breed.  They  have  been  generally  known  as  a 
dual-purpose  breed,  but  the  American  Brown  Swiss 
Cattle  Breeders'  Association,  at  its  latt)  meeting, 
deciik-<l  to  estjibtish  only  a  distinct  dairy  breed. 

Dtfcriplion, 

An  a  breed  the  Brown  SwIm  cattle  are  fairly 
Iflrgw.  the  cows  averaging  1,1^00  pounds  and  the 
bulls  1,800  ponnds,  with  a  beautiful  symmetrical 
form,  covered  with  a  soft  mellow  skin  of  onnsual 
thickne.«~><,  giving  thi;  animal  a  sle<^'k,  fat  apgiesrance. 
The  color  is  a  shade  from  light  to  dark  ehestnut 
brown.  The  peculiar  markings  area  light  tuft  of 
hair  between  the  horns,  on  the  inside  of  the  ears 
and  a  narrow  line  along  the  back.  The  nose  is 
black,  with  mouth  surrounded  with  a  meal-colored 
band ;  a  yellow  strip  along  the  middle  of  the  under 
lip  crosses  over  to  the  upjM^r  lip  and  extends  up  the 
sides  of  thn  noRlrils.  Thf^  hnm.>»  are  of  medium  size 
and  length,  well  set,  with  black  tip^ ;  face  diahing, 
with  a  large,  full  eye,  denoting  energy  and  vigor. 
The  tail  is  long,  with  heavy  black  switch,  The 
hoofs  and  tongue  ar»  also  black.  The  hind-legs  are 
straight,  with  I  highs  well  cut  oat  beforo  and  be- 
hind. The  udder  is  Inrgo,  exUmding  well  up  in 
front  and  re.ir.  Thi*  teuts  are  large  and  wtdl  plawMi 
at  the  corners  of  the  udder,  with  a  beautifully 
formed  escutcheon.  The  ribs  are  well  sprung.  The 
heart  girth  is  targi*.  pcrlvic  arch  high  and  hips  broad. 
The  short  legs  give  the  appearance  of  underweight, 
differing  from  other  dairj-  bree^ls  in  that  thtjy  have 
a  stronger  and  more  vigorous  appearance. 

The  following  scale  of  points,  a<lopt^  by  the 
.American  Brown  Swiss  Cuttle  Breeders'  Association, 
shows  what  is  desired  in  this  hroed. 

BcALB  or  Points  for  Bkowm  Swiss 

CXTTLB  Pnrfitn 

IICOT* 

1.  Bead.— Hedtuni  size  and  nithar  long 2 

2.  Face.— Uiiihed,  broad  bvtwMa  tha  •jw  sjtd  oar- 

raw  betWMH  the  horns 2 

3.  Ears. — Of  a  de«p  orange  ci>lor  within 1 

i.  Nose.  — Biacb,  aqaare,  and  with  t1)i<  mouth  sur- 

round«(l  by  a  light,  musbcolored  band  ;  tongue 

hlm-k 2 

5.  Eyes.-  Full  and  placid 1 

G,  Horns.— Kuthnr  abort,  flattifth  aad  regularly  set 

with  black  tipa 6 

7.  Neck.- Straight,  rather  long  and  not  too  heavy 

at  sboaldera 4 

8.  Chest— Broad  and  dt^ 4 


338 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


Scus  or  Points  for  Bbovn  Swm  Cattle, 

canttnand  Pvrfcvt 

9.  BAck.— I^vel  to  the  setting-an  of  Uie  tail  and 

broad  acrosH  the  lots .  .  6 

10.  Band.— H<^i>(>i-(I,  tirtjarl  ami  lissp  at  the  flank  .   .  8 

11.  Hips. — Wid*  apart,  rump  lung  and  broad    ...  4 

12.  Tliighe.   -Wiile,  wJLh  b-avy  (tuarl*irH 4 

13.  I^gs — PKorl  enj  straight.  *ith  good  hoofs  .    .    .  4 

14.  Tail.  — SlcDiJtr,  pliubLi.-,  out  tvv  LvDg,  with  good 

Rwitch 4 

15.  BUe.— Thin  and  movable 8 

16.  Color. — .Shndi>a  frutn  diirk  brawn  to  lifcht  brown, 

and  at  ttomo  s«aaoaH  of  tlie  yoar  gray ;  Blight 
BphAhMi  of  whito  n>i^iir  iiddctr,  not  objectionable; 
light  stripe  along  the  back 6 

17.  Hair.— Bftweoii  h«ni»  llgtit^notreddiiih  ;  hnir  on 

initiiJe  uf  tiara  tixlit.   iNopointfi.) 
IH.  Fore- udder. ^Ful I  in  furm  and  carrii»l  up,  ruaeh- 

IDE  far  forward  on  the  aMfjinen IG 

19.  Hind-odder. — Nut  too  deeply  hung,  full  in  form 

and  wol!  np  behind 10 

20.  Icata.~Rath«r  Ur;;;e,flGt  trell  apart  and  hanging 

etraight  down C 

21.  Milk  veini.  — Prominent 4 

22.  Escutcheon.  —  High    and    liruad,    and    full    In 

thigh* 7 

23.  Dbpoaitioo.- Quiet  and  good  natornd  ....      4 

Perfection 100 

[n  judtnng  bulls  and  heifers,  omit  NtM.  14,  15  and  Iti ; 
and  for  color  they  ahoold  bo  dark  brown. 

HiMory. 

This  breed  is  descended  from  the  Brown  Switzor 
or  Schwywr  cnttle,  eatablished  from  a  time  beyond 
historic  record  in  themountainoascmintry  of  Switi- 
prland.  e^specially  in  the  Cantons  jif  ZQrieh,  Zug  and 
Schwitz  or  Schwyz. 

Ill  .4infrfca.— The  first  importation  of  Brown 
Swum  eaUle,  consistinK  of  fti^vt-n  cows  and  one  bull, 
WM  made  l>y  Honry  M.  Clark,  of  Belmont,  Mass.,  in 
1869.  They  were  subsequently  sold  to  I\  Hall,  of 
Providence,  R.  I.,  and  D.  G.  Aldrich,  nf  WnrceBter, 
Mass.  From  them  and  siiliw^quent  ImportationH  liy 
W.  Koch  and  J.  B.  EldredgK,  of  New  York ;  Scott 


.';:■*  !■■-: 


Ptc.  3M.    tinpHiitol  Brvwa  SwUa  ball.    Lnob,  Ifo.  SllfT. 


&  Harris,  of  Connecticut ;  E.  M.  Barton,  of  Illinois, 
and  McCormick  Brothers,  have  eprua^  the  2,500 
balls  and  3,700  cows  since  registered  as  pare-bred 
cattle  by  the  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Actio- 
ciatioD.  In  I90'l,  McLaury  Brothers,  of  New  York 
State,  made  a  large  importation. 

Dutributiou. 

Brown  Swii*^  cattle  are  in  lii^h  faror  iu  Europe, 
eflpacially  in  Russia,  (lennany  and  Italy.  In  Switz- 
erland they  art;  the  must  popular  miik'producing 
cattle.  They  are  rather  generally  scattered  over 
the  United  State*.  Some  of  the  larger  henls  are 
now  in  Mi.*u4nuri,  lUinoiH  and  WinconHin,  and  are 
uaetl  alnuwt  BxiiliiHively  for  dairy  purpiisoR.  They 
are  also  found  in  Mexico.  Very  few  of  them  are 
offered  fur  sale  anil  they  are  selduni  hoM  except  at 
a  high  price,  owing  to  their  pIcaRant,  kindly  dis- 
position and  their  rare  excellence  for  milk  and 
butter.  Their  njggednesB  and  ability  to  thrive  on 
rongh,  RparHe  pastures,  adapts  them  to  a  wide  range 
of  conditions. 

Fuding  and  care, 

Ab  baa  been  said,  the  Brown  Swias  cattle  origi- 
nated in  the  mountainous  country  of  Switzerland, 
where  the  feed  is  griiss  and  hay  alone  and  where 
grains  are  scarce  and  expensive.  They  grazed  on 
the  muuntain  mde  in  the  «ummier  and  were  fed  hay 
in  the  valley  in  the  winter.  Hitwever.  they  re^Mnd 
very  quickly  to  good  care  and  feed  in  every  part 
of  the  Dnited  States.  Alfalfa  hny  is  eapecislly 
rccommendeil  as  one  of  the  best  feeds  to  develop 
the  Brown  Swiss. 

For  milkand  baiter. — They  are  persistent  milker* 
and  UHually  produce  large  averages  for  the  year, 
occasionally  an  high  as  tO.OOU  pounds  of  milk  and 
500  pounds  of  butter-fat.   The  milk  is  adapted  for 
condeii.^ing,  and  for  butter  and  cheeite  pniduction. 
They  will  produce  more  milk  and    butter-fai  on 
rough  feed  than  any  of  the  othiT  dairy  hreedt*.  The 
average  j*r  cent  of  butter> 
rati.4  4..^  Inl891.thecow 
Brienz  No.  168,  at  the  age 
of  twelve  years,  in  a  care- 
fully supervi-sed    test    at 
Chicago,   made    the    very 
notable  reconi  of  an  nver- 
ti'  "jiff     age  yield  of  81.7  pounds 

of  milk  i>er  day  for  three 
dayit.  containing  9.32 
pounds  of  butter-fat. 

Far  fte^^Brown   Swiss 

cattle  have  not  been  pop- 

^  ■H-JiyTKJV      ^''""'  ^  beef-prod ucerrt  in 

Tf  Y^<;,wLi:     Amerieii,    altliongh     they 

;in.*  higiily  prized  for  this 
purpose  in  Switzerland. 
They  fatten  rapidly  and 
attain  goo*!  aiee.  They 
dreits  out  about  60  per 
cent.  The  calv«w  moke  ex- 
cellent veal  at  six  weeks. 


.>W 


CATTLE 


rATTLE 


weifihinc  2ri0  tf»  .TOO  pounds.  They  produce  a  white, 
hiphly  flavored  trieut. 

for  cromni/. — Th«  uae  uf  Brown  Swisa  bulls  on 
irrado  cows  to  produce  voal  calves  is  highly  recom- 
niL-ndwi.  Many  farmon*  fatten  them  on  ekimmed 
milk  and  st;ll  thi^'ni  alnngt^ide  other  calves  fattened 
on  whole  milk.  TlifV  arv  aUo  valuable  for 
croHiing  on  dehilitau>d  common  stock  for  m- 
fuxing  new  vigor. 

OfffanizatioriJi  amf.  reeitrdg. 

Tilt!  AiiiL-rican  Rruwn  SwUs  Cattle  Breod- 
cre'  Associfktiun,  nr^raniwil  in  llrtSO,  can?^  for 
the  intt-rests  nf  th<?  bret'd  in  thiji  country.  It 
is  miide  up  of  lew  than  KXl  Brown  Swiww 
breedem,  many  of  them  millionuiru  farnii'nt 
whii  take  Kr<-at  pridu  in  this  i^tock.  To  datu  it  has 
published  three  small  ht.'rdbooks. 

UUraiurt, 
For  references,  eeo  page  302. 

Devon  Cattle.   Tigs.  366,  367. 

By  L.  P.  Sifton. 

The  Devon  is  a  daaUpurpose  breed  of  cattle, 
containing  both  beef  and  dairy  typea.  Beoause  of 
ttif  bright  red  color  the  aninaj^  are  aometimea 
called  "  Rubies." 

Dr*erlfil  von. 

In  K»neral,  th«  Uevonii  are  a  docile  bnt  hardy 
breed  of  cattio,  wc^ll  adapted  to  thrive  on  short 
and  hilly  pasture,  while  at  the  s^ime  time  respond' 
ing  U)  good  care.  The  following  mvale  of  pointn, 
adopU^I  by  Lho  American  Devon  f'attlu  f'lub,  Novem- 
ber 11,  18X6,  shows  what  i&  desirwl  in  the  bribed. 
Purity  of  blood  musl  \w  aviduncod  by  registry  in 
the  American  Devon  Record. 

Scale  of  I'oints  roa  Dbvqh  Cattlb 

For  eovt  ^VlSl 

1.  Head.  — Mo<IeraL(>ly  kmK.  with  a  hroad  Lndenbed 
forehfiul,  tat'^ri'nk'  ronKtilvrably  lowAnlii  th« 
DofitrllH  .  ihe  nnite  of  it  fiiwh-colur,  noALriltt  high 
•nd  op«:n :  th«  Jftws  clean  ;  the  tjt  hright, 
limly  and  prominent,  and  Burroondvd  by  a 
fleahroolar»d  twr;  throat  clean:  tun  thin; 
Ilia  nzpnMioo  eenll«  aad  [ntclliffeot :  bonu 
matching;,  Kpreaoing  and  gravvfuily  lur]i).-i]  up, 

of  A  waxy  color,  tipped  with  »  darker  nhade  .     8 

2.  Reck.-Upper  line  ahorl,  fine  at  hi-uJ.  widening 

and  dtcp  at  with«ra  tnd  litron^ly  »<*t  to  the 
riionldenK 4 

3.  Shoulders.- -Fine,  flat  and  sloping,  with  strong 

arnw  Mnd  lirin  juintx 4 

4.  Cheat. — Dmii,  bri}nd,  ind  nomewhitl  Hrcular  in 

chvact«r 8 

5.  Ktb9. — Well  ipnng  from  the  back-bone,  nioily 

arch«d,  dMp,witJi  flunlot  fully  d»rvelo|w'd  ...      8 

6.  Back. — Strwght  and  lewl  frum  tlu>  witbi-nt  to 

tlH  setting-on  of  th«  tail ;  h'm  hrosd  tind  full , 
hipa  and  rumii  of  medium  width,  uid  on  »  lervl 
with  lh<i  bJick 16 

7.  Hind-quarteif.-  Deep,  thick  and  Bqaara   ...      ft 

8.  Udder.— ^Noifltahy.  otmlng  w^ll  fnnrard  in  line 

with  the  belly  and  well  up  b«bind  :  texta  mod. 
aratety  larzc.  and  w{varaly  pineod W 


Scale  of  Pontrs  nm  Drvok  Cattle,  continued 

For  ..r*  ^:;^^ 

9,  T«il.~Well«etonat  trJKht  Angle  with  the  biwk. 
tapering,  with  a  «witch  of  white  or  roan  hair 

and  rt^ftching  thr^  horki* 2 

10.  Legs. — Slr4Ugbl.  aquuely  placed  when  viewed 


Fig.  ybi.    A  nouble  Biows  Swlw  cmr.     PUrinn  ef  SiT«r 
Mekduw,  Nu.  WOT. 

from  l>chind,  not  to  croas  or  aweep  in  walking ; 
hoof  well  formed 4 

11.  Skin.^Moderalt'ily  thirk   and   ropllnw,  covered 

with  an  abundant  coat  of  rich  hab*  of  a  rvd 
color;  no  wliEte  tpttt  admiMible,  eicept  the 
udder 8 

12.  Sise.— Uinhnum  weight  at   3  years  old,  1,000 

ponnda     2 

1.1.  GtDeral  appearance. ~Aa  indicutod  by  Htylinh 
And  (lui'k  mitvt'mcnt,  form,  conatitolion  and 
vigor,  and  the  under-tinc  as  nearly  aa  puwibW 
parallel  wilh  thn  line  of  thfl  hark 8 

Porfoctiun 100 

For  bnUt  I'""'*' 

■roM 

1.  Head.  ^  Msaoaline.  fall  and  broad,  tapering 
toward  the  DO«e.  which  should  be  ll««h-cnlAred ; 
niMLrllE  high  Olid  open ;  inuule  bread ;  eyea 
full  sad  placid  and  surrounded  with  fleah-col- 
on>d  ring  ;  eara  of  medium  site  snd  thicknasa ; 
boma  medtam  sixc,  growing  ut  ri^ht  angles 
from  Che  hi-iid,  or  Blightly  elftvated.  waxy  at 
the  haw,  lippeil  wilh  a  darker  shadi) 10 

2   Check.  -    Full   and   broad   at   rvot  of   toagne ; 

throat  clean 2 

3.  Hack.— Of  metiuni  length  and  moacular.  widen- 

ing from  the  head  lo  tho  Hhoaldan,  and 
strongly  set  nn 4 

4.  Shoulders.— Fine,  flat,  sloping  and  well  fleahed ; 

arroa  xtrong  with  firm  joinU 6 

fi.  Cheat.  -    lleep,  broad  and  aumewhal  uircalar   .   .    10 

6.  Bibs. — Well  Bpning  from  the  back-lione,  nicely 

arehed,  deep  with  Aanka  fnlly  developed  ...    10 

7.  Back. — Straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the 

setting-on  t>f  the  tail ;  loia  broad  and  fall :  Mpa 
and  ramp  of  miMliam  width  and  on  a  level  with 
the  back 20 

8.  Hlnd-<)aBrterfl.— bevp,  thick  and  square   ...    12 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


ScALB  or  PoiitTS  roi  Devon  Cattue,  cootiDoed 

fW  bulU  P»rf««t 

■ran 

9.  Tall.— W«U  mtt  00  «t  a  ri^ht  Aiif^e  with  the 
back,  tsperinK-  with  s  awitcb  bt  white  or  roan 
hiiir  and  rvacbiaff  tin  hoclu 2 

10.  L«g*  -  Short,  itraisht  and  ■qnorely  placed  when 

i^owed  from  behind,  not  to  cnas  or  »veep  in 
valkinj;.  hoof  veil  formed 4 

11.  Skin. — Mojaratel/  thick  and  mellow,  coveni 

wilh  an  alitindriDt  cant  of  rirh  hair  i^f  a  rvA 
color  ;  no  whites  spot  admitaibLe  onleaa  around 
Uiv  |jurit« 8 

12.  Site.     Minimum  weicht  at  3  rears  old,  1.400 

jruunds      4 

13.  GaoeraS  appearance.—Aii  indicated  hf  nflUh 

and  quick  moveiit»<iit,  form,  cuiutitutinn  and 
vigor,  and  the  nndtTlhi!  iui  nearly  ua  piMttihla 
parallal  with  th«  line  of  the  back 8 

P«rfeetiun 100 

Bitlartf. 

From  tiniK  iminemnrial  there  has  been  known  in 
the  wiulh  and  vrent  nf  Rni^land  ami  on  tht!  Ixin^erH 
of   WaluM,  utipi»:tully  in    th«   ctniDty  uf   Devun,  a. 


^>,.i' 


^; 


^ 


Pit.  36e.    DvTOti  bull.    Allmuntl  6t9i. 


breed  of  cattle  of  onifortn  rod  color,  rather  Img 
and  ipi^ceful  horns,  well-roumled  and  .Hymmetrical 
bodies  and  straight  broad  tmcbi.  rather  Muhler  in 
bone  than  some  other  breedn  and  shnrU-r  in  the 
legs,  tbua  posaeasing  many  of  tho  characters  of  tho 
present^ay  Devon,  Thvy  v^rv  pentle  and  hardy, 
active,  and  accustomed  to  Kaininp  their  living 
while  roaming  over  the  bleak  moors  or  rocky 
hilla  of  their  rough  native  country,  IIctb  they 
were  known  as  the  "red  "  cows.  They  were  the 
main  reliance  of  their  owners  for  dairy  prod- 
uct5.  Theae  monntuin-bred  cattle  wero  sought 
after  as  "fttedtffs"  in  Devon,  Cornwall  an<I  Som- 
erset, as  Wfll  ag  in  Hereford. 

Among  tbe  early  breeders  of  importance 
Bhould  he  mentioned  the  Qnartly  and  [)avy 
families,  through  whose  olTorta  the  Devon? 
were  greatly  improved.  For  several  peneration)"  tho 
Quartly  family  devoted  themselves  to  improving  the 
DevoDit,  and  Franci^t  Quartly,  who  began  hia  work 
in  1793,  stands  preeminent  among  Devon  breeders. 
Thi^  best  blood  in  tho  breed  has  descended  from 
his  herd.  John  Tannur  Davy  began  the  improve- 
ment of  a  Devon  herd  left  to  bim  by  his  father  in 
1790.  On  his  death  in  1852.  his  son.  Colonel  Davy, 
continued  hit)  work,  and  became  foremost  among 
Devon  breedera  of  the  time.  Tbe  latter  did  a  great 


deal  to  popularize  the  breed  by  his  writings  and  bf 
bi$i  purminal  elToria. 

/n^MCT-ini.— The  exact  date  of  the  Brat  importa- 
tions of  Devooa  ia  ancertain,  but  it  is  tboaght  that 
a  few  head  were  brought  to  America  in  1623  by 
the  colonists.  Beginning  with  an  importation  in 
IHOO  to  Maasachosetts,  several  im[fortationii  «'«rti 
made,  the  most  notable  being  in  HIT,  when  six 
pure-bred  heifpnt  and  a  bnll  were  received  by  Mr, 
Robert  Patterwin  of  Baltimore.  The  Pattersons 
made  later  imixirlntiorus.  and  were  in  no  small  way 
reaponrfilile  for  the  development  of  the  breed  in 
this  country.  Other  breeders  imported  Devon  stock 
into  IJniteil  .Statea  and  Canada,  but  thu  breed  hu 
not  become  very  popnlar  despite  the  fact  that  it  ia 
worthy. 

Dlttribtttion. 

Tha  Dhvoo  cattle  are  widely  distributed,  being 
found  scattered  through  the  aouth  of  England,  in 
Ireland,  South  Africa,  parts  of  Australia,  Tas- 
mania, New  Zealand,  the  West  Indies  and  in  Can- 
ada, t'nited  Stat-es  and  Mexico.  The  breed  ia  now 
reprewnletl  in  every  .state  in  tho  Union  with  few 
exeepliun»,  but  Li  most  nnmerons  in  New  England, 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Dhiu,  IlliiioU,  Wisconsin 
and  Texas.  Virginia.  Maryland,  the  Carolinas, 
Georgia  and  Alabama  ench  liave  many  herds.  It  is 
welt  adapted  to  warm  climates. 

Tifpes. 

Two  types  of  Devon  cattle  have  been  developed. 
The  North  Devon,  u  hardy,  compact  tAT>e,  is  prob- 
ably the  original  fonn.  The  animals  are  smaller, 
and  havy  been  developed  for  beef-production  pri- 
marily. Tho  South  Devon,  a  larger  and  coarser 
type,  has  been  developed  for  both  meat  and  milk, 
and  ia  now  ;ilmost  a  distinct  breed. 

Utc«. 

For  milk  and  iuWir.— While  the  Devons  are  not 
primarily  dairy  cattle,  still  aome  splendid  milk- 
producora  have  been  developed.  Aithongh  the 
quantity  of  the  roilk-yield  ia  not  large,  the  quality 
is    gtKtd,  which   gives    them    definite    value  for 


r->>-. 


PlK'  367 .    Devoa 


DufLcu  X.  No.  SMB. 


iH^ 


CATTLE 


CATTUfi 


Ul 


r 


Iter-making.  As  a  rule  they  pusseefi  well-ahaped 
uddyra. 

For  betf.—A  Khief  rw^ommcndation  of  the  Devon 
for  beef  is  that  it  drctisos  with  little  waste,  and 
the  meat  in  of  very  superior  quiility.  The  animals 
tniike  g™»d  gains  under  stall-feeding  but  cannnt  hn 
fi^rcnd  tfi  so  great  iin  extent  an  same  of  the  other 
liwff  breuds,  and  generally  are  lighter  wht>ii 
markettfd.  The  brwd  in  uniall.  which  hiLs  soine- 
timiiB  militated  against  it  for  tn^nit  purjMi*-*. 

f'(»r  oxrn,— The  superior  intelliijence,  quick  and 
active  movements  and  great  stfL-ngth  of  the  Devons, 
rwnder  tho  nxen  amcing  the  liest  known  and  hand- 
Romeiit  in  thi!  world.  Their  rapid  gait  and  firm  step, 
together  with  thi;  eaMe  with  which  they  are  trained, 
hav«  gained  for  Lhi'm  thin  BiifM-'rinrity. 

Far  grazing. — As  grazers,  tho  Devons  stand  in 
the  first  rank,  as  they  are  aetiv©  and  hardy,  and 
have  been  accustomed  to  rustle  on  light,  hilly 
pastureH. 

Fftr  cni*nng. — Prepotency  ia  a  characteristic  nf 
Lk'Von  cattle  due  to  thrnr  purfi  breeding  for  so  long 
a  porioil.  When  croaaed  on  gradi*  cows  the  results 
are  very  Batisfactory  for  both  meat-  and  raillt-pro- 
d  action. 

Organizations  and  records. 

In  18ftl,  Gohinel  Davy  issue*!  the  first  volume  of 
the  Engltah  Devon  Herdbuok,  O'thtr  volumes  being 
put  out  from  timu  to  tim«  until  !HS!,  when  seviin 
volumes  had  been  puhlished.  The  Devon  Cattle 
Ttreeders'  Sfwiety,  organized  in  ISSO,  bought  the 
Herdbook  in  IHS-l,  and  ha'?  since  increai*ed  it  to 
nearly  thirty  volumes.  Thi?  South  Devon  Herdbook 
Society  was  organized  in  18JK).  It  alw*  published  a 
herdbook.  The  fitJit  volume  of  the  .Americiin  Devon 
Herdbook  appeared  in  lUii'A,  and  in  IH79  the  fifth 
and  last  volume  was  isHued.  In  IHSl,  volume  one 
of  thf!  American  Devon  Record  was  published,  six 
other  volumes  h.iving  appeared  since.  Yearbooks 
for  l»()ri,  1906  und  1907  have  also  been  issued.  The 
official  organization  fur  th«>  pn>motion  of  the  inter- 
ests of  the  bretxl  in  thia  country  b  known  as  the 
American  Devon  t'attlo  Clob,  with  the  secretary's 
office  at  Newark,  Ohio. 

Litertiinre, 

Jamea  Sinclair,  Hiiitorv  of  ihe  Devon  Breed  of 
Cattle,  London  (1K;>:^).  '(For  further  referencee, 
see  page  302.] 

Dutch  B«lted  Cattle.   Figa.  368,  SG9. 

Ry  Frank  H.  iiattttert. 

Dutch  BeltMl  cattle  are  a  dairy  breed.  Their 
fifttive  home  is  in  Holland,  where  they  are  known 
af»  Lskenfetds,  Lakenvelders  or  Veldlarkers,  which 
Keanit  literally  a  field  of  white,  but  conv^yi  the 
idea  of  a  whit«  body  with  black  endit. 

rtetcripHoji. 

In  siae,  theae  cattle  rank  about  with  the  .\yr- 
ahirus,  and  arc  aim  moch  the  same  in  general  con- 
fonnation,  being,  if  anything,  a  little  larger,  and 
having  a  little  more  length  of  leg.  Cowa   range 


from  000  t*i  l,.tOO  pounds  in  weight.  Bulls  often 
WL'igh  2.1K)0  poumb*.  The  bt^st  ty[j«d  of  thu*  breed 
repre«ent  a  highly  dL-veloptd  dairy  form,  having 
thin  necks,  email  heads,  straight  backs,  deep  cheeta, 
hip»  and  rumjis  high  and  broad,  odders  and  milk- 
veins  well  developed,  melhiw  skin  and  soft  hair, 
Hnd  withal,  a  high  nt^rvmis  l^trnperament.  They 
are  very  i|niet  in  dis[Hiit;iti<rn.  The  most  distinctivg 
feature  of  this  breed  is  the  Very  wonderful,  pure 
whito  belt.  This  l>e!t  when  ideal,  should  be  a  little 
back  of  the  shouMiT,  and  a  little  in  front  of  thq 
hipii,  and  should  extend  entirely  around  the  body 
in  a  line-like  appearance.  The  body  is  coal  black, 
and  these  combinations  of  color,  so  beautifully 
blended,  are  the  wonder  of  all  who  see  them. 

The  following  stMtle  of  points  haa  lieen  adopted 
by  the  Dutch  Uelted  t'attlo  Association  of  America. 

Scale  op  Points  fob  Duu-u  Belted  Cattle 

Far  com  Pwfwit 

■eor* 

1.  Body. — Color  bbt«k.  wuh  a  ckarly  defined  con- 

titiiiauH  whiti!  Iv'lt,  l.ho  belt  to  h}  of  mediam 
width,  be^inniag  behinil  the  Khould^ra  and 
ext<Hni1in;d:  m^Hrly  to  ihn  hipr* 8 

2.  Head,— C'ompamtivaly  long  and  eomowhat  dish- 

ing ;  broad  bi;l.ww.n  the  vvv» ;  jioll,  f/roiniaent , 
muztte.  fin«;  tnngne,  dark 6 

3.  Ey*B.—BhK.-k.  full  unii  mild.  Horn*.— Long  com- 

pared with  tlieir  diameter 4 

4.  Heck. — Pint.',  and   nio)l<;ral«ly  thin,  and   ihuuld 

harmonize  in  nymmetry  with  the  head  and 
shonHent      6 

n.  Shouldera.— Kin*'  at  the  top,  bernininK  deep  and 
broad  as  thoy  extend  ba>i'kwitrd  and  downward, 
V'ith  a  hiw  chi.M«t 4 

G.  Bairel.  L^r^^e  and  d^rp  with  well-dereloped 
abdoRiien ;  ribs  well  ruundi.'d  and  trw  from 
fat 10 

7.  Hips.— Broad;  chini- h-wl,  with  full  loin  .    ...     10 

8.  Ramp.    -HiRh.  long  and  hroad 6 

9.  Hiad-quarten.—LDn);  and  ili:ep,reiir  line  incurv- 

ing. Tall.— liong,  alim,  t&paring  tci  a  full 
switch 8 

10.  Legs.— .^hnrt.clcnn.Manding  well  apart  .  ...     3 

11.  Udder. — Large,  w«l]-deve1oped  front  and  r«ar: 

tuat«  of  coni'DQient  fiw  And  widn  ajiurt .  mum- 
mary  veini  large.  Ions  and  crooked,  entering 
lorijo  oriQcM 20 

12.  E:»cutcheon 2 

IS.  Hair.— Pim  and  sotl:  tikin  of  moderate  tbick- 

ntjM,  of  a  rich  dark  ory«llowcolor 3 

14.  Quiet  dispo«itian  aad  free  from  excMWive  f at .  .     4 

15.  General  nandJtton  and  apparent  constHutinn   .    .      6 

Perfection 100 

Fttr  huUi 

Tbfl  t^oif  of  puint«  for  malcc  shall  be  the  some  as 
that  Ktvea  for  fetnaliM,  except  thai  No-  11  shall  ba 
omitted  and  Ihs  bull  aball  Ira  credited  10  puintu  for  »ize 
and  wide-Rpread  placing  of  rudimentary  t«atft,  and  10 
additional  points  fi>r  perfection  of  belc 

mstor}/. 

The  early  history  of  this  bre«d  is  not  fully  under- 
stood, but  from  the  records  obtainable,  and  from 
conversation  with  several  of  the  oldest  bretjders  in 
Holland,  it  seems  that  these  cattle  began  tofloarieh 
about  1750,  and  no  doubt  the  8]r8tem  of  seleetioii 


842 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


by  which  this  marvuloaa  color  breoding  was 
attained,  datct^  back  into  the  aixtefnth  €i>ntury. 
One  breeder  says  hi.s  ffither  informed  him  that  there 
were  gentlemen  of  wealth  iifid  leimiri!  nesir  whst  m 
now  culled  Htiariem,  NiirLh  Hcillatid,  who  e<mc(;ivnJ 


.##. 


Hl-Sea. 


Ouw&  BeltM  bull.  AutcB,  495.    Ohm ehntaplon 
bull  of  Ihi^  liK-^l  In  Aiiii-iica. 


the  idea  iif  lirewlinj;  (Luiinais  of  all  kind^  t<i  a  cer- 
tain <;iili)r,  chtu'Dy  with  u  lirniid  hand  uf  white  ia 
the  cwnttT  of  thu  body,  with  block  ends.  Theau 
noblemen  hadl  largo  estates,  and  it  ia  said  that  for 
more  than  100  years  they  and  thu-ir  desccndiinta 
wnrked  on  the  perfection  of  thtwe  peculijir  colnr- 
markinsH,  until  they  prtKinrifvl  belti^d  cattle,  pisR, 
anil  pcHiflry.  Thjit  these  hreedt'rs  were  wonderfully 
successful,  nn  one  iiuiwtiimn,  an  we  have  the  ivsullA 
of  their  labors  in  tlie  DiiU-h  Ileltwl  cuttle,  Luken- 
velder  poultry  of  EnKlan'i  and  AniL-rica,  the  Lan- 
cheswino  of  HoMand  and  Germany  and  tho  Hamp- 
shirti  Hwine  of  America,  which  were  fliipposed  in 
originate  in  HampHhire,  ETiglund,  Imt  imdduhtedly 
are  the  deswendanta  4>f  the  Huarlem  henla  nf  long 
agi>.  Alt  nf  tht*se  hoMMl-s  pownL'sx  a  bnlt,  and  carry 
out  the  idea  of  their  originators  in  a  marvelous 
decree. 

The  proceaa  by  which  these  unparalleM  result* 
were  attained  se^-ms  to  be  hidden  in  the  obscnrity 
of  the  past  :  however,  it  is  nwtdiHicalt  to  iinder- 
etanil  th»t  many  years  of  careful  tudection  nii;:ht 
culminate  in  the  desiretl  end,  Thera  Seanis  to  he 
gornt!  doubt,  uvon  in  Holland,  aa  to  the  niutbud 
employed  to  [tnMJuce  tioch  distinct  color-mark  injpt, 
and  nothinft  in  the  animal  world  ahows  mure  Hkitj 
in  hreedinu  than  the  results  of  the  Hollanders  in 
the  pHMluctiiin  of  the  dtirerent  breeds,  su  strongly 
bred  todistinrt  [';i>liir  lines, 

/«  Aitcirrim,  Dutch  Beltfd  cattle  were  first 
imported  to  America  in  l^SS.  D.  H.  Huight  wa:i 
the  larRfst  im}^r«rtcr.  He  made  hi»  first  importa- 
tion in  18.1?,  and  a  later  one  in  1848.  Hin  hi-rd 
became  scattered  over  Orange  county,  N.  Y.,  tintil 
one  will  find  a  ureal  many  belted  cows  in  every 
township  in  thitt  county  ttxbiy.  Hon.  Rnbert  W. 
Colemaa  also  import«d  a  large  herd  to  plac«  on  hb 
estate  at  Cornwall,  Pa.  The  Dutch  Ileltfd  cattle  in 
America  today  arc  entirely  descended  from  thiym 
herds.  In  1840,  I*.  T.  Barnnm  imported  a  number 
of  Dutch  Belted  cattle  for  8h<iw  pitriinscs,  but 
shortly  placed  them  on  his  farm  in  Orange  county, 


New  York.  One  beifer  was  imported  in  1906  by 
Dr.  H.  W.  liance,  of  New  York  City,  for  his  farm  in 
New  Jersey,  but  previonfi  to  that  time  none  were 
brought  ovur  for  more  than  fifty  years.  This  was 
due  chit>|]y  to  thu  very  great  ditlicaLty  in  securing 
them  and  to  the  rcstrictiuin  .igainiKt  importing  tbem. 
A  number  have  been  exporti-d  from  this  country 
to  Canada  and  Mexico,  and  a  few  t«  Cuba.  In  1893, 
11.  H.  Richards,  secretary  of  the  Dutch  Belted  fat- 
tie  .AHs<>oiation,  sold  his  Worbl's  Fair  hicrd,  nnmber- 
bering  sixteen,  and  uino  others  to  a  son-in-law  of 
President  Dia^  and  shipped  them  to  .Mexico.  Lat«r, 
Mr.  Richards  sold  twenty  toSir  William  Van  Home, 
of  Ciinaila.  Othor  expnrtatinns  have  been  made. 
There  are  about  fifteen  hundred  heail  in  America 
at  the  pret^ent  lime. 

Diitriitutloii. 

Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  not  widely  distributed, 
but  are  found  in  cumparatively  small  numbers  in 
Holland,  Canada,  United  States  and  Mexico.  In 
AmeriL-a  the  largest  herds  are  found  in  the  New 
England  States  and  New  Ynrk.  The  cattle  are  also 
found  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Mlsais- 
si|>pi  an«l  other  parts  of  tbu  South,  and  several  fine 
herds  are  Iming  built  up  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

As  many  of  these  cattle  have  been  kept  success- 
fully in  northern  New  England  for  years,  they 
have  gradually  a-ssumed  a  hardy  constitution,  well 
adapted  to  withstand  New  England  climates.  There 
alno  seemB  to  be  a  place  for  them  in  billy  sections, 
as  they  are  active  and  well  able  to  rustle. 

These  cattle  do  best  on  a  comparatively  light 
grain  ration,  a.«(uatly  not  over  eight  pounds  in  a 
property  balanced  ration.    When  fed   heavy  they 


Fix.  X9.    Dutch  B«lted  WW.  Boba.  D,  701. 

return  a  Ic^s  per  cent  of  profits.  Xhu  is  a  reason. 

also,  why  Dutch  Belted  cattle  do  well  in  sections  of 
country  where  feed  is  not  abundant. 

Utet. 

Far  milk  and  ftu/frr.  — Dntch  Belted  eowSt  as  A 

mle,  are  large,  persistent  milken*,  giving  milk 
constiintiy,  almost  without  going  dry.  The  fact 
that  wu  have  many  breeders  of  fifteen,  twenty  and 
twonty-five  years  flxperienc4>  who  are  as  enthusi- 
astic as  ever,  speaks  strongly  of  the  meriU  of  tbo 
breed.    In  order  to  convey  an  idea  of  Lhe  ability  of 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


84S 


F 


this  breed  JD  tho  production  of  milk  and  hotter, 
wo  cite  the  records  of  the  cows  of  some  of  the 
breeders  for  long  periodR.  Mr.  .f.  A.  HoIl»f>rt,  of 
New  York,  at  tme  time  had  a  fine  hflrd  tif  Dutch 
BvHed  catUa  and  he  kept  a  careful  rocioni  for  over 
einht  yeara.  Twenty -five  of  hi»  eowa  and  heifers 
avumtjiKl  about  fi.CXM)  pouruls  yuarly,  fwl  eight 
poonds  of  urain  and  hay  ad  litiitum  in  winter  and 
pasture  alone  tn  snmmor.  Mrs.  S.  A.  F.  Servin,  one 
of  the  largest  brewlen*,  who  has  maintainet)  n  farm 
solely  for  profit,  kept  a  daily  rec()nl  for  eleven 
years,  and  twenty-five  cowsaverageil  betwi^en  niim 
and  Urn  thimaand  [Minnds  of  milk  yearly.  Mr.  U.  B. 
Wilson  of  Connecticut,  who  liaa  made  bultt-r  from 
his  herd  for  about  Cwelce  yi-ani,  says  that  it  takoH 
about  t«'n  quarts  o(  milk  to  m;ikc  a  pound  of 
batter.  Cows  in  tht*  .Mountain  Lawn  Herd  of  New 
HRin[»thire,  owned  by  thu  writer,  have  averagnd  as 
foHow.t :  K]<:^ven  fows  m.^de  an  avurajje  of  H,n7!* 
[founds  of  milk  for  eight  years.  One  cow  produciHl 
12,672  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year  and  in  mx  years 
60,297  pounds.  The  average  prodaction  of  butter 
by  this  cow  was  51H?  ponnd.^  yearly. 

i-'or  6fl(;f.— Because  of  their  scarcity,  Dutch  Belted 
cattle  are  seldom  offered  for  beef.  Owing  to  their 
size  and  easy  keeping  qnaiitien,  they  make  g'ocd 
beef,  and  rank  well  with  the  other  dairy  breeds. 

tW  urjiamenf.  This  breed  ofcattl«  ha»  a  use  for 
ornamental  purpoite.^.  llecauHo  of  their  unique  ap- 
pearance and  beanty.they  are  constantly  sought  by 
pereons  of  wealth  who  desire  6omething  novel  as 
well  a^  n-iefnl. 

Ditatei. 

It  huA  been  shown  by  the  experience  of  a  numW 
of  breeders  that  Dutch  Belted  cattle  are  exception- 
ally fre«  from  disoaae,  and  need  no  special  care. 

Organizations  und  records. 

The  Hatch  Belted  Cattle  .■^swciation  of  America 
was  oniranrxed  February  4.  1886,  in  New  York 
City,  and  ia  the  only  organization  promoting  the 
breed  in  ."Vmerica.  The  Netherland  rieneral  Stam- 
boek,  published  at  the  Hague.  Holland,  is  the 
foreign  rppresentative.  Eight  herdbooka  of  the 
Dntch  Belted  Cattle  Asswiciation  of  America  have 
been  published  to  date.  The  addreoH  of  the  secre- 
tary i»  Easton,  Pa. 

Literal  ure. 
For  references,  sec  page  302. 

Freacfa  Coaadian  Cattle.    Figs.  OTO,  371. 
ily  G.  K.  iMtf. 

Frt- nch-Canadian  cattle,  or  *'  (Juebec  Jerseys  "  as 
they  are  sometimes  called,  belong  to  the  xtrictly 
dairy  class.  They  are  an  American  breed,  devel- 
oped ia  Caaada. 

Dtatription. 

French -Canadian  cattle  are  somewhat  small, 
matore  cows  weighing  700  to  900  pounds  and  bulls 
about  1,000  poands.  The  rules  for  registration 
contain  the  following  statements  regarding  color : 


"  The  color  for  cowa  may  Iw  black  or  brown,  or 
dark  brown,  with  or  without  a  yelhtw  stripe  along 
the  back  and  around  the  muzzle,  or  a  gray  stripe 
fimund  the  muzzle.  The  color  may  al^o  b«  fawn  or 
brindle.  Tho  citlor  for  bulls  may  be  black  or  brown, 
or  dark  brown  with  or  without  a  yellow  stripe 
along  the  back  and  around  tho  mnaule,  or  a  gray 
stripe  around  the  mnzjile.  liegistralinn  should  nob 
be  refuHed  if  females  hnve  a  little  white  under  the 
l»elly,  on  the  forBhenil,  or  in  the  switch,  nor  to 
bulls  huvinj^  a  little  white  uniler  the  belly  or  in 
the  Hwitch.  The  horns  must  be  white  with  black 
tips  or  blaek  with  white  tips."  In  general  appear- 
ance they  poseinbEc  the  Jersey,  but  have  leKs  of  the 
deer-like  appearance  p(jsse«sed  by  the  Jersey,  and 
are  somewhat  more  rugged  tn  appearaniw.  The 
type  is  lean  and  muscular,  and  the  cuwa  tend  to 
be  weilgB-shaped. 

The  ncala  of  points  which  follows  was  prepared 
by  The  iVench-Canadian  Cattle  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion of  Canada. 

SCALB  OP   PorUTS  KOH   FREINrH-CAMAWAS  CaTHJI 
For  eom$ 

1.  Dslry  tempetsmBDt  {26j  ^'"^m 

Head. — Lean,   tang,  femiDioe  and  rvflned  ia 

appearanra    8 

Nwk.— Thin,  ruthur  long,  vwv-iiuckod    ....  3 

Shonldent.  — Liffht  and  Bpnrp,  withera  sharp  .   .  8 

Crope. — Kiigh,  slmight  ami  shiirp 3 

Spini)  and  riW     i^pine  promlaent,  vertebrs  aad 

ribs  op«n  ^pactnl *.    .  .    .  8 

Thifchs. -Thin  And  incurvinf:,  flank  high  .   ...  6 

Ilip  joinU  and  pin-boseiu^Shsrp,  anxslBr  ...  S 

Pi'.lvlc  arch.  — ProEQinent,  stTDiiK  and  sharp    .   .  2 

Tail.— Long  and  tapering 1 

2.  Feeding  powers  [25} 

Barrel  -llejith  f  rum  line  of  bai^k  to  Davel  .    .  .  10 

Length  of  body  from  fhoutdpr  Ui  hnok-points  .  7 

Bnadth  of  boqjr  thruujich  middlii  ......  6 

(Period  of  frcfltatton  to  be  iruiuldpred). 

Muzzlv.- Pn>sd.  jawHlrong 2 

3.  Kamoury  orgsDS  (.2r>) 

Udder.^Lon^,  broad  nnd  doep,  pxtdnding  well 
forward  asd  well  up  behind;  wvll  let  down, 
Imt  not  pendulous :  ail  quarters  fully  and  sym- 
TiK-trically  d^v^lnpftd:  Ano  and  elutic:  not 
fleshy  I  te&tfi  well  placed  and  wide  apart    .   .    15 

Teata.  — Rsclwr  larg*.  vqnal  tn  slie,  not  cobo- 
sbapixl    . 2 

Mitk-w>?!l](. — Numcroua.  large  and  far  forward  .      4 

Milk  veins  and  veins  on  udder. — Praroinent  and 
branrhing.    i\Kf  tu  de  c-rinaiitenrd.t    ....      3 

Encutcbeon.  — Uii^'h  and  wid^,  with  tbigh'orala  .      1 

4.  IHapositlon  (f,) 

Eyca.     Litrj^,  [irominent,  bright,  tnt«lligent  and 

placid  3 

Face.     Broad  Iwlween  eypa 1 

UoTtfinunt  of  ean  and  body.— Rather  elow,  net 
reBtloBB 1 

5.  Qnalttr  [5) 

Skin.— Loow,  thin,  mellow,  with  fine  &o(t  hair  .     3 
Skin. — Deep  yellow  in  «an  And  nn  nnd  around 
encDtchvon     2 

6.  CoBstitution  (^i) 

ChcaL  -  U««v :  wide  through  heart,  full  behind 

and  a  litlli!i  above  elbows;  large  girth  of  chest  S 

Noetrils.— Luge,  opea 1 

Lain— Broad 1 


344 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


ScALS  or  Points  for  FttE:Ncu-CANADiAN  Cxnu, 
continued 


PwfeM 
■eor* 


For  eoui» 

Horn«.  — Not  targe  nnr  coanie,  rurvsd,  bl&ck  or 
triftck  with  whttv  lips,  or  rk«  veraa 1 

Legs. — Kikthcr  fihort,  strai(;ht  und  vntW  p]nceA  .      1 

Color.— Etack  or  darit  broa-n,  prpferably  with 
brnwo.  Tawn  or  cream-nolorud   muule,  and 
brown,  fawn  or  yt^ilow  ulrEfw  on  back  ....      2 
8.  Geoeril  appeiraoce,  including  etyle  and  move- 

TTifnt 6 

Perfecifon 100 

Pnr  bulln  the  nconi  is  tiip.  name  oxrnpt  in  the  following 
points  :  The  hcml  shcrald  be  Tnaflcuiin«  in  appAarance, 
and  [if  fin«>  contoar  :  neck  inuBciilar  anil  sommwhHt  arcbi-d, 
proud  an>i  vigorous  in  bearing ;  for  cropH,  allow  2  iMi'nls  : 
fpin«  leM  ifruminent  tbun  ia  cuw  .  for  thightt,  allow  3 
poiata  ;  no  score  for  hip.  joint*  and  pin-bonea  :  omit  sec- 
tion S:  undifrMctton  &(i4U»litj'],  allow  6  points  fur  first 
caption  (qaaliLy  of  Kkim,  and  4  [>iunu  for  necond  cnplLon 
(color  of  nkinl:  und«r  section  6  (cooxtitution).  allow  G 
pointJi  for  chrat,  2  poiritA  for  noatrila  and  2  poinU  for 
loins  :  under  section  T  (nymmetr)-),  allow  2  points  for  leca 
and  10  pointjii  fur  color;  fori"ii(ill[>nS(K''Mtir«l  apiwaranri-i, 
allow  12  puinU.  Add  a  section  on"l>airy  Indicalions"  (o!. 
as  follows  :  Embryo  tuuLs,  — tiot  less  than  f«ur  well^L-vt'l- 
optd  embryo  t«atJ,  w«ll  rnrwitrd  and  wide  apart,  with 
■mplitude  of  akin  on  rt<iir  part  of  uiidcT-linti — S  paints  ; 
Mcutchaon,— higb  and  wid«— 2  potnb). 

BUtcry. 

IVench-CaTiadian  cattle  are  nndoubtedly  dcscend- 
t'd  from  cattle  brciaglit  to  Canada  from  Urittanj- 
and  Normandy  liy  the  early  French  sottlvre.  littwe«n 
the  years  1620  and  liJ.50.  Th*'y  are  thought,  there- 
fore, to  be  i>f  thL>  fiame  oriKin  as  the  Jersey  and 
Guernsey,  and  their  appearance  teytilies  tt>  the 
troth  of  thlH  opinion.    Althnugh  the  climate  of  the 

tirovince  of  (iuelve,  where  tht-jtc  cattle  wore  brought 
)y  the  settlers,  is  much  more  severe  than  that  of 
their  native  land,  th«se  little  cattle  showed  wonder- 


MvVl. 


sc-^ 


Fff.  370.    Prsocb-Canadlan  buD.     TXnln  Alhcn  No.  l«TT. 

fnl  adaptability  to  chanf^ed  circuiMtancet*.  and 
appear  to  h&ve  thriven  under  a  ri|;<)'ronA  climate, 
cold  stables,  conree  fare,  and  very  indifferent  care 
and  [RanaKement.  Tlur  result  ix  a  breed  that  is 
second  to  none  in  hardiness ;  and  it  is  said  that  it 


is  a  very  rare  thing  for  an  animal  of  this  breed  to 
be  affected  with  tuberculosis. 

Diitribidion. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  headqnartera  for  this 
breed  i?  the  province  of  C^uelfei'..  where  they  are 
popular  withthe  French-Canadian  farmer,  or  "habi- 
tant." It  is  only  within  comparativiirly  iw^ent  years 
that  the  breed  ha^  become  known  to  the  out- 
side world.  The  entering  of  five  cows  in  the  Pan- 
American  dairy  test,  where  they  gave  a  remarkably 
good  account  of  Ihemselvei",  served  to  advertise 
the  breed  more  than  any  uther  circomittance.  and 
they  are  now  to  be  found  in  several  states  of  the 
Union,  as  well  as  in  the  provinces  of  Ontario,  New 


/  ' 


'.X 


J\A 


FU-  371.    PruKb-Caaadlaa  cow.    DcnUe  Chain plonii«. 
Xo.  IS2IT. 

Bnin.in'ick.  Nova  Scotia,  and  I'rince  Bdward  Ijslaml. 
They  haveaUo  established  themselves  on  the  island 
of  Anticosli.  These  cattlo  should  prove  of  value 
on  the  hills  of  northeastern  United  States,  especi- 
ally in  New  England,  New  York  and  Penn.fylvania. 
As  yet,  however,  the  number  of  herds  outside  of 
Quebec  U  comparatively  small,  and  It  is  difHcult  to 
say  just  how  far  these  hardy  little  cattle  may 
extend  their  domain. 

Manayemenl . 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  about  French- 
Canadian  cattle  is  the  degree  of  excellence  as  dairy 
cattle  which  they  have  retained  under  generations 
of  Qnskilled  selection,  bare  pastnrt:s  in  summer, 
and,  as  a  rule,  a  winter  ration  of  nothing  bat  straw. 
But  they  respond  re:i^ily  to  more  liberal  treatment. 
The  application  of  well-known  principles  of  breed- 
ing, and  the  following  of  a  judicious  system  of 
feeding,  should  render  the  French-Canadian  a  really 
prominent  dairy  breed. 

f'sfA. 

For  miV:  and  butter. — The  French-Canadian  is 
a  strictly  dairy  breed.  As  yet,  milk  and  butter 
records  for  the  breed  are  not  very  numerous. 
Generally  speaking,  in  quantity  ami  quality  of  milk 
they  resemble  the  Jersey.  .■\t  the  Central  Experi- 
mental Farm,  Ottawa.  Ontario,  in  190^,  a  French- 
Canadian  cow  made  more  butter  and  gave  a  larger 
proflt  than  any  other  pure-bred  cow  in  the  herd, 
including  .^yrshires,  fiuernseys  and  Shorthorns. 
In  19W,  in  the  same  herd,  three  French-Canadian 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


34G 


r 


F 

r 


ciiltlumfldB  more  Imttwr  and  j^ave  a  larfrer  profit 
than  the  throe  beat  cows  of  any  othur  brt^wl,  inelud- 
ing  Ayrshire.*,  (.iuemseys  and  Sliorthorna.  The 
yearly  prwliict  |>er  cnw  of  thi-se  three  cows  waa 
S..'MO  iuiuni|j4  iif  milk,  tet^ting  4,5'J  per  cent,  or 
4-12.64  p(Hiii>iI.4  (if  butter.  The  t«tal  yearly  profit 
per  cyw  atiuve  coat  of  fiiwl  wiw  $rji).24.  In  the 
Paa-Amoriean  teat,  th«  five  Freiidi-Canjwlian  cows 
stooil  8ixth  in  total  profits  from  butter  and  fri^in 
in  weight,  but  in  percentage  of  profit  on  value  of 
f«io(i,  they  led  all  breeds.  Recently,  a  record  of 
in^rfcirmance  Huh  Ufipn  e-^l.ililiHhei]  in  connection 
with  the  linsed,  and  the:  first  cuw  to  (jualify  under 
the  rules  produced  in  Rlav«m  miinths,  7,48S  pounds 
of  milk,  and  'i'A2A  pounds  of  biitUfr-fat.  It  will 
be  seen,  therefore,  that  iho  French-('anadian  cow 
poMeswes  dairy  qualities  of  nn  mean  character. 

For  herJ.—Th'a  breed  hiw  little  claim  to  Iwefing 
qualititw,  and  has  comparatively  little  value  from 
the  point  of  viijw  of  the  beef  lalvocatc. 

For  erotmiag. — ^The  uae  of  the  Frpnch-ranadian 
bulls  on  native  cows  should  bu  uspecially  appropri- 
ate in  the  Northeast,  where  dairying  is  •  Jtpecialty, 
and  no  doubt  the  offspring  would  show  increased 
vigor  over  the  dama,  and  in  many  cases  the  cows 
would  yield  milk  richer  in  buller-fot. 

Organizaiiorijf  and  records. 

The  first  organization  in  tho  iuterosls  of  FVench- 
CanaJian  cattle  was  forme<J  in  188(5,  and  a  record 
was  e.stal)lishi*d  tu  rpconl  fnundnlion  atock.  The 
record  was  placed  in  the  hand.-*  nf  a  commbtsion 
oppointod  by  tho  yuobw  govurnmunt.  In  lSf)5. 
this  record  was  handi-d  over  to  the  French-* 'a nadian 
Cattle  Breeders'  .\aawiation,  organized  by  Dr.  J. 
A.  Couture,  Qneliee,  who  is  still  secretary  of  the 
Aaaociation.  In  IHWi,  the  Foundation  Herd  boob 
was  closed,  ami  since  that  time  only  the  progeny 
of  recorded  animals  have  been  acceptwl  for  pcgis- 
tralion.  In  the  Foundation  Herdbook  thtre  were 
recorded  f>,307  females,  and  '^22  malea.  In  IWii. 
the  old  "French-<.!anB«1ian  Cattle  Rook"  was  taken 
over  by  the  Canatlian  National  Uve-Stock  Records. 
\o  benibouk  hua  yet  Iwen  iitHued. 

LUemtun. 

For  referenctw,  b«©  page  302. 

GaUoway  Cattle.   Figs-  372,  373. 

By  Charlm  Gray, 

Thu  fJalloway  is  a  brew]  of  beef  catUe  which 
derives  itji  name  fmm  the  province  of  Galloway. 
which  is  now  confine«l  to  the  two  fionlhwfst  coun- 
tiee  of  Scotland,  but  formerly  i!omprisLi|  thu  hix 
coanttes  lying  south  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.  The 
name  Gallovray  now  embraces  only  the  Stewartry 
of  Kirkcudbright  and  the  shire  of  Wigton. 

DaeriptioH. 

Tho  typical  modem  Galloway  ia  a  low,  blocky 
lutimal.  with  a  long.  xoft.  ahaggy  coat  of  liluck 
hair.  homleM,  well  sprung  in  the  ribn.  the  whole 
make-up  reAembling  a  barrel  in  shape,  which  is 
tvenly  covered  with  joicy.  lean  Itesh.  iphe  Gallo- 
wava  have  been  hornless  from  time  immemorial. 


Some  writers  mention  a  tradition  to  the  eftect  that 
in  remote  ages  they  were  provided  with  horns ; 
however,  notices  of  the  breed  centuries  ago  invari- 
ably state  that  Galloways  were  hornless.  If  any 
fwi-called  Galloway  presents  the  slightest  appear- 
ance of  horns  he  should  be  rejected  asi  impure. 

The  following  scale  of  points,  adopted  by  the 
American  Galloway  Breeders'  Association,  Decem- 
ber ^,  11K)5.  shows  the  characters  to  be  desired 
in  the  Iwst  type.  The  numerical  values  attached  to 
the  development  of  each  part  are  not  given. 

SoALi:  or  ToisTS  for  Gam>)Way  Cattui 

1.  Color. — ntack.or  black  with  a  brownish  tinji«  :  white 

inarkini;^  on  fei-t,  ankle*  or  leK^,  ui*  i>n  xny  y»rl 
of  ihtf  but!)'  uliove  the  ander^Une  are  verj-  objec- 
l  ion  able, 

2.  Head.  — Short  and  wide;  forehead  broad :  crown  wiJe 

and  D<ral,  nut  rising  tu  i  point ;  any  trace  uf  Hcun 
or  homa  debara  an  animal  frnm  registration.  ?'ara 
clean,  tnuuW  bmad,  and  nostrila  Urge. 

3.  Eye. — Large  and  prumim-nu 

4.  Kit. — ^Modcrnto  in  length  and  broad,  pointing  fo^r- 

ward  and  upward,  with  fringw  of  long  hair. 
5-  Neck. — Short,  clean,  and  fiUins  into  the  ahoulder  in 
auch  a  wiiy  .u  ti>  makv  thu  neck  and  Hh'UuldDr  of 
fletthy  animals  apiiear  molded  an  one  piece:  the 
toil  ^f  thi-  neck  in  line  with  the  back  in  u  feniuLo. 
and  in  a  mate  riiit^  with  age. 

6.  Body.—Dtn-pi,  wMe,  well  roundif>l,  moderate  io  k-nt'tlii 

and  ajin  metrics  I. 

7.  Sbouldera. — Ilroiid.  but  well  laid  into  body,  joining 

smoothly;  cnmpiu't  and  rlei'ply  (teKh«,-d  on  luji. 

8.  Ribs. — Deep  nnd  w«ll  »[>runK:  crops  deeply  fleshed, 

m.-Lkiiig  width  of  Khouldcn*  and  iHjdy  at  riha  ani- 
fnrm. 

9.  Hook  bones. — Not  i^romincnt;  in  llwhy  aaimaLe  not 

visible. 

10.  Loln.^Mudarate  in  lunf^h,  wide  and  deeply  fleshed. 

11.  Hind -quarters.  -I^ng.wid^^  ami  well  f)ll«j. 

12.  Rump. — Strai«ht.  wide,  citrrying  width  of  body  out 

unifnnnly;  wi>ll  filled  with  Hi'ith. 
IS.  Thighs. — Brnad  a«  viewed  froia  side,  thick  as  viewed 
frum  behind:  Htraight  and  wi^ll  l<H  down  at  hock ; 
rounded  batcocks  very  objeelionahle. 

14.  Lega. — Sburt  and  c1«ud,  with  Rac  bonv. 

15.  Tail. — Set  onstniight  and  mnootfalylaid  in  with  fleith 

at  aidiv:  high  taibhead  vitry  objet'tionable. 

16.  Skio.— Mellow  and  moderate  in  thickneis. 

17.  Hatr. — Soft  and  wuvy,  with  mocvy  undercoat :  hanh 

or  wiiy  hair  is  very  objectionable  ;  early  hair,  if 
Boft.  t«  not  objection  able. 

Histtrry. 

The  origin  of  the  Galloway  cattle  in  lost  in  the 
miHtx  of  antiquity.  Whpn  the  Romans  tirst  %*imted 
Britain  thecountry  wiiscnverwl  with  den.'ie  forestn. 
In  thefw  fori'Mts  the  Romans  found  many  wild 
cattle  roaming  at  their  leisure,  add  it  ia  now  con* 
ce<Ie<l  that  they  were  the  progL-n iters  of  our 
modem  breed  of  Gallowaye.  Cfittle-breeding  has 
been  the  principal  businera  among  Galloway  farm- 
era  ai  nee  time  immemorial.  A  history  of  .'Votliind 
alluding  Ui  the  time  ]irior  ti>  and  including  the 
reign  uf  Alexander  III  (124!^>  aays:  "Itluck  cattle 
were  reared  in  great  numbers  during  the  Scoto- 
Saxon  period."  George  l^uchanan.  tutor  to  Jamea 
I,  of  England,  writing  about  15(itj.  says  of  Gal- 
loway: "It  is  more  fruitful  in  cattle  than  in  com." 


346 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


The  br«ed  was  of  great  importance  durini;  the 
Scffto-Saxon  period.  In  the  early  ai^  the  dairj' 
was  an  object  of  conaiderable  attention.  Large 
f]uantitie^  of  cheese  were  made  and  the  people  con- 
tnimeti  mnch  animal  fle^.  There  wa.saisoan  exten- 
sive export  traiie  in  hides.  At  a  later  period, 
immediately  after  the  union  of  Kngland  and  Scot- 
land, the  farmers  of  EDi^land  W'amti  extensive 
purchaflera  of  Galloway  cattle.  During  this  activ- 
ity the  (lalloways  found  much  favor  acnoriff  the 
grazierii  of  the  south  of  En^^latid  and  the  hutchura 
of  f^mithlieli]  market,  and  they  inrariably  sold  at 
an  average  price  of  £2  per  head  above  that  of  any 
other  breed  of  the  same  weinht.  The  breed  was 
much  improveil  during  thi.t  periiwi  and  lal«r  when 
turnip  husbandry  wa*i  introduced  into  the  province 
of  Galltiway.  A  ci re iimK lance  worthy  of  attention 
in  that  the  breed  haa  never  bwen  affectiid  by  cross- 
ing with  any  other  breed.  The  improvement  has 
been  brought  about  entirely  by  the  diligent  atten- 
tion and  careful  management  of  the  breeders  of 
Galloway  and  of  thft  ■corn-belt  of  AmericA. 

Although  the  Galloway  in  the  olde^tt  of  the  pure 
breeds  of  Britain,  there  bax  been  very  little 
written  about  the  breed,  and  the  record*  that  were 
colliicted  during  the  early  part  of  the  last  century 
wore  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  Highland  and  Ajcri- 
cultural  Society's  Museum  and  Recorls  in  Edin- 
burgh in  1851.  Some  lime  lat^r,  about  the  year 
1862,  a  tmok  of  pedi^reeii  wa»  compiled,  which 
contained  pedigrees  of  both  Aberdeen -Angus  and 
Galloways.  Slill  a  little  later,  about  the  year  1878. 
the  Galloway  Cattle  .Society  of  Great  Britain^  with 
the  able  aA.<^i8taDee  of  the  ^x;retary,  Iter.  John 
Gitli8[iie.  of  Ilurafriesshire,  Scotland,  published  the 
first  iiook  of  Galloway  pedigree-s  which  we  have 
and  which  is  recognized  by  Galloway  a»iociationM 
at  present, 

III  Ameriea. —The  brood  was  formally  introduced 
into  America  by  an  importation  made  by  Graham 
Brothels,  Ontario,  Canada,  in  18;')3,  aithoagh  it  haa 
been  said  that  one  or  two  individuals  were  oeeo  in 


ita  wdj  Into  tbe  United  States  alow];  at  6ral .  A 
few  bead  were  brought  into  Michigan  in  1870,  and 
from  there  spread  into  other  central  and  weetem 
states. 

I^^stribHiion. 

GallowavH  are  found  mainly  in  Scotland,  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  but  have  been  exported  to 


"c'^M 


•^^ 


^ 


*:} 


~^ 


He  m.    OiU}«iy  bttU.     P«t  Ryu  at  R«il  Cbud  VX39. 

this  country  before  that  time.  The  cattle  of  tho 
fln^i  importation  adapted  thenutelvcs  so  readily  to 
Canadian  conditions  that  many  large  shipments 
quickly  followed,  until  now  the  hornless,  shaggy 
black»  are  found  in  all  the  provinces  of  Canada  and 
nearly  every  state  in  the  Union.  The  breed  made 


PtC-  373.    GAltewAy  oow.     Myrtle  of  Avmid*!*  SM4S. 

several  countries.  They  can  now  be  found  in  Rus- 
sia, South  Africa,  Mexico  and  Alaska,  In  I'nited 
StatMK  they  are  more  nitmerotui  in  the  corn-bett  aod 
western  ran^e  Ktat«s  than  in  the  southem  Btatus. 
In  the  past  yisar  sevoral  havu  been  shipped  to  Vir- 
ginia, Florida,  Calif orn  ia  and  Alaska  from  the  corn- 
belt  herds,  and  an  enterprising  Spaniard  haa  recently 
taken  a  large  number  from  Midland,  Texas,  to  bia 
ranch  In  Mexico. 

F&r  milk. — The  Galloways,  as  a  breed,  can  not  lay 
claim  to  any  superiority  a**  milker«.  Althongh  many 
henls  have  keen  kept  for  centuries  in  the 
south  of  Scotland  for  dairy  purponog,  yet, 
aa  a  whole,  the  breed  has  been  improved 
chiutly  along  the  lines  of  beef-production. 
Some  breeders  in  Scotland  have  developed 
the  milking  faculty  of  their  herds  to  a  very 
high  degree  by  syttiematically  disposing  of 
cows  that  pniv'ed  shy  mitkeni.  It  is  not  an 
unei'mmon  thing  in  the  corn-bett  of  this 
ctiimlry  to  find  cows  that  produce  large 
quantitiett  of  milk.  Some  of  tho  most  noted 
showH^uws  exhibited  in  recent  years  gave 
large  iiuantities  of  very  rich  milk  during 
their  milking  season.  Many  persons  think 
that  Galloways  are  useless  as  dairy  animals, 
hut  this  is  erroneous.  'iTie  United  Slates 
Government  rpcently  purchased  a  number 
of  animals  of  the  milking  strains  and  sent  them 
to  .Alaska  for  dairy  puriM>9L*a.  Many  favorable  re- 
ports hnve  \wen  niceivLd  from  Ala-nka  since  thwie 
hardy  blacks  arriveil  ot  their  new  home.  They 
seem  to  be  as  welt  adapted  to  the  rigors  of  the 
northern  climate  as  they  are  to  the  iaclument 


ir»S 


'^3^i 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


F 


lior  round  amon^  the  raf^ged  hills  and  fertile 
I  of  their  nativti  land  insouthwe.steni  ScotUiKJ. 

For  brrf.— it  is  chiefly  a§  a  bvcf-producing  breed 
that  theOalloways  are  famoaa.  The  qualityof  tht-ir 
■beef  attracted  macb  attention  in  thu  Uritish  mar- 
kets centurie.'i  ago,  and  hod  thediatiiictioa  of  Wing 
classed  oa  "pn'me  scols"  at  Smithiield  long  before 
these  animaU  were  known  to  the  feeders  of  the 
corn-belt  or  the  cciw-men  of  the  western  plains. 
The  superiority  of  the  Galloway  beef  arisea  from 
the  fact  that  it  ia  always  wt-ll  ntarbled  and  \\09i- 
seasea  a  larf^  proportion  of  lean  meat  intermixed 
with  fat.  The  packers  and  butcbfra  have  bwii 
Btrivinu  to  educate  breeders,  stockmen  and  farniura 
to  breed  animals  with  a  great&r  proportion  of 
natoral  flesh  and  Ie.-»B  wxttefal  fat.  The  Galloway 
has  lonj;  been  bred  with  thid  ei^tential  feature  Iti 
view,  and  thus  he  leadu  hii?  rivalfi  in  this  respect, 
and  brings  hi]i:hur  returns  per  hundred  piuiindii  live 
v^ht. 

TTie  breed  has  been  va^^tly  improved  Bince  its 
introdoction  into  the  corn-belt.  Greater  w*iiphta 
have  beea  ttecured  in  shorter  time  than  was  cu.'tto- 
mary  twenty-five  years  ago.  and  the  earl y-mutu ring 
feature  has  been  much  in  evidence.  In  the  past,  the 
statement  haw  l>een  advanaid  by  some  persons  that 
one  could  not  mature  the  Gallowayji  mo  «iK»n  an  indi- 
^•iduala  of  otht-r  beef  breads.  One  need  only  vinitttome 
of  the  loading;  Galloway  henbt  throuf^houL  tlie  cuun- 
try,  or  review  the  varinos  a^^es  and  clas£i»  of  fndi- 
viooals  presented  every  year  at  the  national  ahoWH, 
to  be  convinced  nf  the  error  of  this  statement. 
Experienced  authfiritieK  wbi  havH  handlefl  two  f>r 
more  of  the  leailin^  l)eef  bn-eda  under  similar  con- 
ditions maintain  that  the  Galloways  mature  at  any 
age  ju.«t  an  rea>(Iily  as  individuals  of  any  other  l>eef 
breed.  Today,  the  Galloway-t  have  many  clainiB  to 
favoriliflm.  RxperimenUs  at  various  asricullural 
experiment  atattonK  show  thiit  while  they  do  not 
attain  ao  Rreat  size  ac  Home  of  the  othpr  beef 
breeds,  yet  thi*y  are  more  econoitiicnl  feefierH, 
e«iK!cially  where  a  lart^  proportion  of  ruugha^ 
ha«  tu  be  consumed.  WhL>n  tbu  numtjors  of  each 
breed  is  considered,  the  Galloways  top  the  market 
at  the  (creat  live-«l/»ck  centers  at  often  as  any  other 
breed.  The  killing  nunllties  are  in  their  favor 
because,  aa  a  rule,  tn«  GalhhwayK  have  very  Httte 
waiite  offal  or  fat  that  Kb)Uj;h«  off,  and  eonHetiaently, 
they  dress  a  very  hifih  percentaiju  of  marketable 
be«f. 

For  kideg. — In  midsummer  the  hide  of  the  Gallo- 
way ha«  no  greater  comparative  value  than  that  of 
any  other  breed.  From  November  to  March,  how- 
over,  when  the  coat  of  hair  in  Icing  and  at  ita  best, 
the  Galloway  hide  ta  worth  five  to  eight  centA  ]ier 
pound  more  than  the  hide  of  an  animal  of  any  other 
breed.  There  waa  a  time  when  the  Western  plaina 
were  covered  with  bafTnlo.  which  prodoced  raillions 
of  robes,  but  tht^ino  animals  are  now  almost  extinct, 
and  the  Galloway  t«  the  only  domestic  animal  of 
the  bovine  rare  that  t^an  roam  on  the  plains  and 
produce  a  superior  (juality  of  Ixn-f  and  robea  that 
cao  take  the  plaeu  of  the  buffalo  of  days  (tone  by. 

For  ffrazinff.~\»  graiers.  the  Galloways  are  sel- 
dom equaled  and  never  excetied.    It  has  already 


been  mentioned  that  the  habitat  of  the  Galloway 
w.-tf  for  centuries  in  the  southwest  of  Scotland. 
They  were  often  kejjt  on  the  hillii  where  the  pa.sture 
wa.1  scant,  and  they  invariably  pave  a  goo<l  aj'count 
of  themselvea.  They  respond  readily  to  the  luxuri- 
ant pasture  of  the  valleys,  but  thrive  antl  mvm 
contented  on  the  bleak,  scant  fnrage  of  the  moor- 
land. For  a  time  they  had  a  struggle  for  existence 
in  this  country,  due  to  the  keenneas  of  their  worthy 
rivalfl  of  the  other  beef  breedji.  Their  persistent 
fttnjf^lea  and  many  victori*«  in  tbii  show-yard  in 
recent  yean*,  however,  have  established  a  place  for 
them  in  the  coni-belt  and  the  ranges  of  the  West 
and  t>0LiLbweat,  which  will  unJoulitedly  continue  as 
lontr  as  our  cattle  industry  remains.  The  constitu- 
tion which  waa  built  up  from  years  of  ex[ji«ure  to 
inclement  weather  in  Scotland  furnishes  the  breed 
with  the  required  merits,  and  reiidily  n'Oummende 
them  for  the  vast  grazing  ranges  of  the  Northwefit, 
\\%el  and  Suuthwe«t.  In  summer  on  the  range,  the 
Galloway  will  make  a^  good  gains  en  luxuriant 
paf^ttire  as  any  breed,  and  will  hold  his  own  and 
oftenthrive  on  scant  pastures  orondroutb-stricken 
regions  where  cattle  of  other  breeds  can  not  exist. 
While  the  hardy  constitntion  is  put  forward  as  a 
speci-il  merit,  however,  one  ahould  not  forget  that 
Galloways  prefer  luxuriant  feed  just  as  much  as 
the  softer  breeds,  and  will  give  increased  returns 
from  gooil  feed  and  care. 

On  the  ninge  where  different  breeds  have  boon 
wintered  it  has  been  found  thiit  during  severe 
storms  the  mortality  among  Galloways  is  much 
less,  and  the  1u»h  in  weight  due  to  diRagreeahle 
weather  much  nmaller,  than  is  usually  tn  evidence 
among  individuals  of  the  softer  brueds. 

The  Galloway  calves  are  very  active  and  hardy 
when  dropped  on  the  open  range,  and  are  soon  able 
to  ruHtle  for  themselves.  In  summer  they  cjin 
endure  the  broiling  snn  and  in  winter  withstand 
the  severest  storms. 

Far  croxxinr;. — For  prepotency,  this  hroM  stands 
in  the  first  rank.  It  is  eonceileil  that  the  Gallo- 
wny  [K^seases  the  ability  to  perijetuate  himself  as 
uniformly  in  size,  quality  ami  color  as  any  other 
breed.  The  stcwkman  must  have  a  uniform  bunch 
of  hornlerts  steers  in  order  to  command  top  prices. 
Ity  thp  UHe  of  a  good  Galloway  hull  on  average 
cows  the  best  rt^ulls  are  invariably  secHreil.  Thu 
Gallovay  as  a  dehorner  stands  high  among  the 
polled  breeds.  In  this  day  when  practically  all  feeil- 
ing  cattle  are  dehorned,  thu  naturally  polled  catttu 
have  a  deciiled  advantage  over  their  homed  rivals, 
as  the  dehorning  procejw  i»  many  times  dangerous 
and  occanioRHlly  fatil,  and  in  every  instance  it 
causes  a  temporary  shrinkage  in  weight  and  tardi- 
ness in  growth  of  animnbi. 

For  crossing  with  other  brei>da,  especially  witb 
thu  Shorthorns,  they  are  very  valuable.  Tlie  out- 
come of  the  cross  of  Shorthorn  bulls  on  Galloway 
cows  is  usually  known  aa"blue-gniyp,"  This  system 
of  crrewing  has  Iieeu  practiced  for  many  years  in 
threat  Rrit^iin  anil  tn  some  extent  in  thij!  country, 
and  the  results  have  In-en  very  witisfai^tory.  The 
Shorthorn  furnishes  plenty  of  siie.  while  the  Gal- 
loway forms  the  low  type  and    large   proportion 


sm 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


of  natural  flesh,  qaalities  which  up-to-date  feeders 
flnd  butcher?  are  constantly  demanding.  When  a 
piirn-brei]  animal  is  cnissed  on  any  grade  beef  or 
dairy  cow,  the  resulti  are  surprising  and  the  off- 
«[iring  i.'i  invariably  hrtrnlens,  bluctc  in  color  and 
unifurrn  iii  fnake-iip.  Galloway  bulls  are  as«J  very 
frt^fly  in  tho  dairy  iliatricts  yf  Great  Britain,  and 
the  black  oalvoa  sell  at  much  butter  prices  than 
thoat!  from  balls  of  the  dairy  brecdd. 

OrganizatioRg  and  itconls. 

The  Council  of  the  Galloway  Cattle  Society  of 
Great  Bntuin.  MotisM'aM  Man»e.  Kuthwell,  K.  }>.  0., 
riumfriesflhire.  Scotland ;  the  Dominion  Galloway 
Ketnster  of  Canada.  Ottawa:  and  the  American 
Galloway  Brecdcra'  Association.  17  Exchange 
Avenue,  Chica(;o,  Illinois,  are  the  present  repre- 
aentativejs  of  this  bre^.  About  1872,  there  waa 
established  the  Ontario  Gailoway  Stock  Register 
of  Pure  Bred  Gallowaya.  Tho  North  American 
Galloway  Herdbook.  the  official  rucord  of  the 
American  Association,  wan  first  published  in  1883. 
Fifteen  volumes  had  been  published  up  to  1905. 
[Se«  further  notes  on  page  3-lG.J 

Ltierafure. 
For  references,  ftee  page  .102. 

(juernsey  Cattle.  Figs.  374,  375. 

Uy  n'Uiiam  H.  CaidweU. 

The  Gaernfley  It  one  of  the  lending  breeds  of 
dairy  cattle. 

DeMrijttion, 

The  following  scale  of  pointii.  adoptwl  by  The 
American  Gnornaey  Cattle  Club,  Decembt-r  13. 1899, 
together  with  the  explanatory  notes  by  the  com- 
mittee, describes  what  is  desired  in  the  Guernsey  : 

Scale  of  Pwnts  for  Guesmev  Cattlb 

For  row*  I'erfwl 

■fore 

1.  Dairy  temperament.   Constitution  (IIS) 

Cl«an-cut,  iean  face ;  strong.  slnewT  jaw ;  wide 
miiMli-.  with  wide  i>|nin  niattril.t:  fuil,  bh^ht 
eye,  unth  qtii(>t  juii  gentle  expression  ;  fon^- 
heu>)  \»i\^;  nnii  brum) 5 

LoHK.  thin  neck,  witln  strong  jnnctore  ta  bead; 
cleian  thruut.  Back-bnne  rii>iiig  well  belwren 
dhoulder-blatlaH:  larRa,  rURRed,  spiniil  prt>- 
ceML's,  iDcItcating  good  devi-lopmeni.  of  the 
Rliinal  L'nni 5 

Pelvis  ftrching  and  wid* ;  romp  long ;  *id». 
HtmiilE:  Ktnictnre  nf  itpine  at  8uUlne-on  of  tnfl. 
Lohk.  thin  tail  with  good  switch.  Thin,  incurv- 
ing thiKhtt C 

Ribe  amply  and  fully  spninjt  and  vide  apart, 
etTing  an  vpen,  rvliixed  l-oh forma tion  ;  thin, 
arching  flunks B 

Abdomen  UrRe  und  deep,  with  etronK  moBcnlar 
and  narcl  dcvolopmml,  indict'  ive  of  capacity 
und  vitality 15 

Hide  firm,  yet  loiwe,  with  an  nily  fenllnK  and 
t>.'xtitn).  iiut  not  thick 3 

2.  Blillnag  nurka  denoting  quantity  of  flow  (10) 

E«cutvhiKin  wide  on  thighs;  high  and  broad, 
with  thigh  gvak 2 


Scale  op  Points  fok  GosKNifKY  Cattle,  ewDlimiwI 

/Vr  eOKS                                     I'rrtrft 
•core 
Milk  veins  lung,  croaked,  branching;  and  prorai- 
nent,  with  liugo  or  dMp  w^tln 3 

3.  Odder  formation  ('26) 

I'dfk-r  fall  ID  front 8 

L'ddcr  fall  and  wt^]l  up  behind & 

Udder  of  large  eiie  and  capacity 4 

Teiita  well  iip.irt,  itquarvly  pUc«d,  and  &f  pwd 

and  even  t-iio 6 

4.  Indicating  color  of  milk, — Skin  dwp  y«llow  tn 

ear,  on  end  of  lione  uf  tail,  at  buaof  nonu,  on 
adder,  teata  and  body  generally.   Hoof  anitxtf^ 

colnri'd 15 

i*).  Milking  marks  denoting  quality  of  Sow.— Ud- 
der showing  plenty  of  eubstancs.  but  not  too 

auMily 6 

G.  Symm«tTyand  eiie  (fj) 

Color  of  hair  a  Ahade  of  fawn,  with  white  mark- 
ings. Creain-tiolured  none.  Horns  amber-col- 
ored, small,  cun'<!>(l  ;ind  nnt  coarse 3 

Sixe  for  the  breed : — Mature  cowh,  foor  yean 
nld  or  nrer,  cbont  1,050  ponnds 2 

ParfecUon     lOO 

For  built  P*rf»rt 

Bcor* 

1.  Dairy  lempeiament.  Constitutioii  (.'^} 

Clean-i'ut,  kan  f.ire :  atront;,  sinewy  jaw  ;  wide 
Riuulc.  with  wide  open  nostrils  :  full,  brlgbc 
eye,  with  i^tiiet  .ind  gentle  expresrion  ;  for»- 
heud  lun^and  brood 5 

Long,  maxculino  nuuk,  with  xtning  junntnre  to 
head  :  ckan  throat,  li&ck-bone  risinj;  well  be- 
twe«Q  vhvulder.l^ladvs  ;  lorj^e,  rugged,  ipinal 
proe«t»ea,  indicating  Road  development  of  the 
spinal  cord 5 

PelviH  archinR  and  wide;  rump  lnn;t;  wid«, 
strong  Ntmc tufe  of  npine  at  wttias-on  of  tail. 
liOng,  thin  tsil  with  t;aod  switch.  Thin,  incurv- 
ing thighs & 

Ribn  luiiply  aiid  fully  iipruag  und  wido  apart, 
Kivinf:  im  open,  ri'lojced  conformation ;  thin, 
arching  llaiik & 

Abdomen  lar^e  and  dwp,  With  strong  nusrulsr 
and  navel  dewlopment,  Indicative  uf  capacity 
and  vitality 15 

Hide  t^rm,  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feeling  and 
texture,  hut  not  thirk 3 

2.  Dairy  prepotency.—As  shown  by  hanaj;  a  great 

deal  of  visor,  stj-le.  alertness,  and  resolnte 
up|)ear»nre 15 

3.  Radimentaiirs  and  milk  veins. — Radimentariea 

of  good  niic.  »quarcly  and  broadly  placed  In 
frtjnl  uf  and  fn-L-  fruwi  scnpluin.  Milk  veins  prom- 
inent   10 

4.  Indlcatingcolor  af  milk  in  oflspring.-  Skindssp 

yelluw  in  ear,  un  «nd  of  bi^no  of  tail,  at  base 
of  homo  and  body  Kenernlly:  hcKtfs  amber- 

colured , 15 

6.  Symmetry  and  alzs  (22) 

Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  whh»  mark- 

inga.   Cri'am-culorL-d  nose.   Horns  aaiber-«ol* 

ored,  ourvinK  and  not  caanie 8 

Siae  (or  ths  brwil :— Mature  ball*,  four  y#ai» 

old  or  over,  nimut  1  /i<Xl  pound.i 4 

General  appearance  as  indicative  of  the  power 

t»  begi-t  animals  nf  strong  dairy  qualiti*«  .  .    10 

Perfvclion 100 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


849 


'KtPi,A>'ATORY  Notes  by  Committee 

■"  We  rweogniiM  tlmt  thi?  GwrriBoy  iboald  be — 

H)  A  dairy  nnimiil  with  n  iilHtinctivi>  dairy  tenperA- 
tnont  and  cunformatioD.  tianOK  a  strong,  wrvy  straocura 
with  &  correiponding  flow  of  norvous  eoLTi^-,  nod  every 
indiciitiaD  at  capacity  Ami  vilulity. 

I'd)  In  color  of  hair,  a  shaiie  of  fawn,  with  white  im 
limbs  and  ancit>r  |wrt  of  body,  nrv  oonsid>-re<i  llie  pr.'vnil- 
ing  inarhin]^,  and  some  dcRT^w  of  uniforuiity  is  deaimhiB. 

(3)  On«  of  th«  important  (listineiiis^i'iK  f«aliirM  of 
the  hn^rnt  in  thn  [•ri'stciic^  of  it  yellow  wlor  in  thxi  pitcniDnt 
of  the  skin,  which  is  indicatirs  of  rich  golden  color  in  the 
milk.  This  'us  very  pronuanfi«d  in  the  Guenwey  ftciil  heliil 
by  her  to  the  creat4>At  eitfint  under  aEI  conditions  of  slab- 
ling  and  feod.  Thv  intensity  of  this  Lrnit  is  ntoru  marked 
in  soiRD  animal!)  nnd  fami1i<>it  than  in  othen,  but  it  should 
be  k«pt  itl  the  hii^htrtt  ittandanl.  It  is  fast  Ving  rocog- 
fil»N)  that  this  rnlor  j.i  .-u'nompanied  hy  n  anperior  fluror 
in  the  milk  and  thus  in  the  buCt«r. 

Dairy  temperament 

"  By  'dair7  t«mperam«nt'  in  meant  ii  strong,  overruIinK 
pre-di«poicitii)n  or  (ondenn-y  Ui  turn  tho  connomptitm  nf 
food  towards  the  prodnciion  of  milk  with  a  high  content 
of  Bolidn.  especially  butbor-fut,  uh  against  th«  constitu- 
tional t«ai]e&cy.  ao  ofita  M«n,  to  turn  food  into  Reiib. 
Even  in  the  strongest  dairy  br<<«da  there  an  more  or  less 
frequent  ODt-eropH  in  male  and  female  of  the  flesb-making 
tenpemmeiit.  To  breed  from  sach  animals^  while  we  are 
•trirlng  to  Mtahliiih  «  prf'piit''Til  dairy  lt-mp<T,-iini»nt  or 
t«ndency.  is  not  wise.  Ail  cattle  hred  specifically  for 
dairy  pnrpmMi  should  pooMiiM  a.  clear  and  dt-nifW  dairy 
t«ni|ierament,  for  it  is  that  quality  of  character  we  moat 
irnan  to  wtublbth,  Knlurgu  and  perpetuata  En  the  Guem- 
lay  cow. 

"This  is  especially  indicated  by  the  shape  at  the  head, 
•bowisff  brain  cap&city,  wide  muule,  orno  nostril,  fall, 
bright  eye«,  feininino  neck,  and  a  cunfitmction  of  tho  back- 
bone indicating  n  strong  flow  of  r*^rvp-power  and  rapport 
from  the  brain  to  all  of  the  maternal  organs. 

Oatutilution 

"In  breeding  our  dnmestic  aninalti,  especUlly  for  long 
aenrice  like  Ihe  dairy  row,  it  ia  very  important  that  they 
should  have  abundant  vital  power,  which  ne  call  'consti- 
tntlon.'  Etot  constitution  must  be  judge^l  and  meaAured 
by  tbt  pMuUar  fonetion  the  animal  is  bred  to  fuMl.  With 
tbe  riic»4ione  the  function  is  *\iw!i  :  with  tho  mleer,  tbv 
lijing  on  of  flesh ;  with  the  dairy  cow.  the  production  of 
milk  solids.  In  all  those  various  functiotia,  the  animal 
that  is  to  repreaent  aoy  one  of  them  mnut  show  not  only 
hnn  capuity  b  the  line  ot  that  fanction.  but  also  the 
abuTity  to  endittre  long  and  well  the  Htrain  of  such  ftinr- 
tJon,  and  1[e«p  in  good  health.  Constitution  i*  l>est  indi- 
cated by  a  full  development  at  thii  navid,  and  strong 
abdominal  wnlU.  ahou-ing  that  tbe  animal,  when  in  a  pro- 
aatu)  state,  wat)  ahundantiy  nnarittbed  by  the  mother 
tbrouffh  a  weII-dcvelope<l  ombiltcal  cord. 

LPrepotenc}/ 
"  In  tbe  scale  for  build,  for  the  finl  tine,  we  believe,  in 
tbe  history  of  dairy  breeds,  this  point  lb  introdured.  Th«> 
reaam  we  have  incladad  It  is  that  '  prepotency '  is  the 
ebfaf  eonsideration  in  the  aelectton  of  a  male  breeding 
ubaa].  Tbe  pedlffFM  anil  conformation  ia  often  all  that 
can  b«  d6Btr«<[,  but  because  tbe  bull  ia  lacking  in  prcpo- 
taot  breeding  power  hi>  in  an  expensive  failure.  This 
quality  is,  ju  a  Hiue,  diSlcull  Ui  |>«ir<M<ni  or  describo,  but 
we  know  certain  aiuniBlB  have  il  in  hit;h  degree  and  othom 
fail  of  it  eompletaly.   Et  is  fairly  w*ll  indicated  bjr  rigor 


of  appMStnoik  ttlWig  reaoluu^  bearing  and  ahundant 
UfTODi  6iMC|y.  We  would  distioguiiih  this  from  an  ugly 
dlspoeltion.  A  bull  ia  ugly  hy  tbe  way  hn  is  handtHd 
ralhi^r  than  by  hit)  breeding.  What  vie  waul  is  strung 
impreHstvt!  hhxwl,  .\  dull  Hbgginh  spirit  luid  action,  we 
consider  indicative  of  a  la«k  of  true  dairy  prepotency,  but 
we  would  prefer  to  breed  to  a  ruthL*r  sluggish-appearing 
bull  with  iir?t-cl(i«i  rudiment nries  than  to  a  st^ytiah  one 
witb  badly  pluced  rudiment ories. 

Rudimentary  teats 

"  Wt  consider  that  a  well-balanced  and  well-ithaped  udder 
in  the  cow  ia  largely  due  to  the  way  the  ru'iimeniary  touts 
Are  |>Iac«d  on  thi3  sire.  Ef  they  ors  cmwdi-d  clone  together 
the  rwult  is  likely  to  be  narrow,  pointed  udders.  If  they 
ure  plaued  well  »)jart,  of  good  nize  and  ivf*ll  forward  nf 
thte  Bcrotum,  the  eifect,  we  think,  will  be  to  influence 
luj-gely  the  prudoctiun  of  w«ll-sbai)ed  udders  in  the  reault- 
ing  heifera,  and  counteract  the  tendency  to  ill -shaped 
udders  ioheritable  from  dams  deficient  in  thi^  resp^t. 
We  beliese  the  future  excellence  of  the  Cnomfiey  cow 
will  be  greatly  aided  by  close  attention  on  the  part  of  her 
breedera  tn  this  point," 

The  tempierament  of  Imlh  the  buILt  and  cows  of 
this  breed  if  very  ivikt  und  uniform.  The  bulls  are 
very  tractuble  ami  the  cowa  have  hoer  developed 
and  handle)  en  tho  Island  in  a  way  that  wnnid 
indicate  gentlencsH  and  <itiietude. 

Higtorp. 

The  riiiernaey  J>n^ed  of  uattle  on'ginatwl  and 
wad  develufwd  on  the  island  of  Cuernuuy,  whit-h 
is  one  of  the  Channel  islandit.  Tlt«  foundation  of 
the  hrcc<l  lay  in  the  ndmixtun)  of  the  large,  red 
Normandy,  and  the  little  black  Brittainy  breeds, 
which  were  brotipht  from  the  neighboring  coaat  of 
France  to  the  Island-  It  ha.<ilif>ic^nKPnt?™"y  at-'tJ'^pted 
that  the  large  red  Normandy  tnalea  i»redominated 
in  crossing  on  the  little  bliR'k  Brittainy  cows  on 
Guernsey,  and  that  the  Gaerrsey  takes  many  of  ita 
characteristics  from  the  Normandy  breed.  The 
fact  that  for  nearly  one  hundred  years  no  live 
cattle  have  betju  permitted  U)  come  on  the  Island, 
is  enoiigh  to  nay  that  the  breed  ha.-"  r«.*mained  pure. 
and  been  bre<i  by  itfelf  without  admixture  of  for- 
eign blood.  The  Royal  Guernsey  Agricultural  and 
Horticultural  Society  la  largely  responsible  for  the 
improvement  of  the  breed. 

Little  more  can  be  said  of  the  history  of  the 
breed  on  the  Island.  The  shrewd,  careful,  sturdy 
islander,  while  zealously  guardinfi  the  purity  of 
the  breed,  paid  little  attention  to  the  breeding  and 
development  nf  his  cattle.  In  fact,  tm  the  Island, 
the  glHHDhoufte  nnd  buib  indut>try  inipplattted  that 
of  tbe  cows  in  the  ialander'n  mind.  The  cattk-  were 
neter  bred  to  the  dictate  of  fashion,  but  de7elo|)ed 
by  themselves  into  a.  hardy,  sturdy  breed,  commonly 
spoken  of  as  "the  old-time  yeliow  and  white  cow  — 
the  farmer's  cow." 

In  Amerien.—ln  1818,  a  pair  of  cattle  were 
secured  from  the  island  of  .\ldemey,  by  Reuben 
Uaine«.  of  Germantown,  I'cnniiytvunin.  These  may 
have  been  Guernseys.  The  first  definite  reconl 
of  importation  of  Guernseys  into  this  conntry 
wa3  about  I8;i3.  when  a  'sea  captain,  stopping 
at  the  inland,  brought  lo  this  country  a  pair  of 


860 


CATTLE 


CATTUE 


ir 


young  atiimalx  ttiat  were  sent  tu  }l)«  brother  on. 
what  18  known  as  Cow  island,  in  Lake  Winne|>e- 
aaukee.  New  Harayehire.  Tract;sof  Ihia  importation 
arc  still  tobcfaunil  in  somu  fjucniMysiii  tbn.t  Htat^. 
Gaernseys  were  introduced  into  private  dairies 
around  Philadelphw  an  warly  an  18-I0,  arnt  are  xtill 
tn  he  found  in  thw  dairion  of  sonic-  of  thoiw  families 
who  finst  introduced  them  tbfcro.  About 
ISGTi,  a  fi'w  Gmjriuw?y»  were  brouf^ht  over 
by  tba  Fowlt'^rs,  who  w«ro  importing  Jor- 
icys,  and  in  some  bt-Tds  animals  can  be 
traced  to  tlie  imfwrttLtion.-*  of  that  period. 
In  June,  1871,  Mr.  Jani'eif  M.  Cctdman,  now 
Pneidenl  of  the  American  {luernaey  Cattle 
Cinh,  selected  uight  cuwk  and  a  bull  na  the  inland 
of  OuBrnsuy,  and  iraportud  thum.  thvea  few  cowb 
made  &  hifrh  reputation  for  thenisolvea,  and  n 
number  of  owners  of  gentlemen's  estates  near 
Boston  were  attracted  by  their  merits.  This  led 
the  Massachusftt^  Society  for  Promoting  Agricnl- 
ture  to  send,  in  187-1,  one  of  their  members  to 
import  a  herd,  which  was  maintained  by  the  Society 
for  a  Khort  time,  and  then  Koitj  at  amotion  to  itit 
members.  Tbia  was  ffdlowed  by  a  nunilwr  of  Con- 
necticut farniLTa  joiniiij^  together,  and  BetidinK  a 
representative  to  the  Island  to  brini;  over  a  ship* 
ment.  The^e  importations  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  Guernsey  in  thiB  country,  and  led  to  the  eatab- 
UHhn]>entof  the  hpnl  n?gister. 

Tht!  first  rtal  publi;;  intnidmitiim  of  the  breed 
was  in  Koimoction  with  the  dairy  te«t  condiirteil 
by  the  Now  York  and  Now  Jersuy  AKficuItursI 
Experiment  Stations,  whi-n  the  various  breeds 
were  tried,  and  the  Guernsey  made  a  most  credit- 
able record,  the  fibres  nhowing  them  to  be  the 
most  eimnomical  prodncern  of  cream  and  butter, 
ranking  the  lowest  in  coBt  t»f  food  to  jirodiire  a 
pound  of  biittur-fat,  and  in  the  coat  of  f«Hl  for 
maintenance  for  a  year.  The  {Juernseys  and  the 


which  failed  to  credit  the  bre«d  fally  on  some 
of  its  special  characteristics,  yet  the  Goernseya 
ranked  ahead  on  llavor  and  had  the  advantage  on 
color  of  butter,  and,  as  in  the  Experiment  StatiOD 
trials,  stood  with  the  Jerseys  in  the  front  rank  as 
buiter-pnxiuceri".  The  last  public  appearance  of 
the  bree^l  was  at  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at 


;^-r 


^'^'^^ly 


Pig.  in. 


Goeraaay  C9W.    Suluiia  of  Putung  1731. 
A'lTaniNNi  R«vt«Uy  No.  3S. 


sister  Channel  island  breed  (the  Jersey),  stood  first 
in  (he  annual  production  of  butter,  and  the  profit 
resulting  from  sale  of  cream.  Their  next  appear- 
ance was  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at 
Chicago,  in  1>^3.  where  amidst  rules  and  conditions 


M 


Ftfl.  374.    OuetDHy  bnU.    Urujamln  U3I. 
Raela.lr]r  So  2. 


Ad  (Band 


RufTalo,  whore  after  a  careful  nix  months'  test,  tho 
Guernseys  were  awanit^l  the  first  priie  for  the 
gn-atest  net  pr()fil  in  the  pniiiuclion  of  bntter-fat, 
and  aljto  in  the  production  of  churned  butter.  The 
Guernsey  cows  in  this  trial  ma^le  butter  at  the 
lowest  cost  per  pound,  and  returned  the  greatest 
profit  in  butter-production  for  the  investment  of 
feed.  They  also  ranke<l  in  the  production  of  total 
Kolids  next  to  the  hcjivier  milking  brewls.  Group- 
ing the  cows  in  this  test  as  a  whole,  the  Guernsey 
cow,  Mary  Marsha!!,  made  the  gniatest  net  profit 
of  any  cow  in  pHHluetion  of  butler,  and  viewed 
from  the  same  standpoint,  wo  find  three  of  the  five 
Guernseys  among  the  best  five  cows  in  the  en- 
'  tire  fifty. 

Distrilniiion, 

The  even  temperament  of  Guernsey  cattle 
has  been  very  comlucive  tu  the  ailaptability  uf 
the  breed  tii  the  variiMis  climates  and  conditiona 
of  the  world  iit  large.  They  are  found  mainly  on 
Oncmsey  islnml,  in  England,  Canada  and  the 
United  Slates,  The  only  hindrance  to  their  wtde- 
aprea*!  introduction  ha«  been  the  fact  that  for  the 
last  few  years  there  have  not  Wen  enough  aniraak 
to  supply  the  demand.  At  the  preeent  time  they 
are  largely  on  private  estateti'  and  wlii-rc  high- 
class  dairy  products  are  demanded.  There  are  few 
persons,  if  any,  at  tho  priv^ent  time  breeding 
Goernaeys  from  the  speculative  standpoint.  They 
will  be  found  largely  in  New  F.ngland,  through 
New  York.  Now  Jersey  am!  Pennsylvania,  and  in 
Ohio,  through  \Vi.sctinxin  and  eastern  Minnesota,  al- 
though there  are  a  nunil)er  scatterwl  throDghoat 
Califoniia,  Virginia  and  the  Corolinaa. 

Ufei. 

Fnr  milk,  rrrtim  aiut  bufier. — The  chief  charac- 
teristic of  the  Guernsey  is  her  economical  production 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


351 


of  the  highest  natural  colored  mitk.  cream  aod  but- 
ter. In  IhU  she  has  excelled  and  proved  ht^rnelf  in 
&|]  tin[inrlia)  trials.  In  ECnglnnd,  and  to  a  Rowing 
exlnnt  in  thia  cuuntry,  tht^ru  it)  an  im|irt-sKit>n  that 
with  this  natural  biKh  color  of  her  pruiu^^b;  theru 
is  a  Bpecial  and  very  desirable  fluvor.  Whiiti  the 
Guernsey  is  prfi'ininently  a  civnin  and  buttor  breed, 
it  has  been  found  within  the  last  few  years  that 
the  cplnr  and  flavor  of  her  milk,  combined  with  a 
good  amount  which  nhe  ih  able  t^i  produce,  hmt 
placed  her  a  favoriUi  in  catering;  to  the  choii'^Kt 
trade  in  the  nah  uf  milk  and  crenm.  TiNlay,  in 
nc'urly  all  our  larcest  towns  and  ctlit>&,  thia  trade 
will  be  found  HU|lplit^d  with  tha  products  of  fnll- 
bltxid  and  grade  f-Iuomgeys. 

This  characterifltio  has  appealed  to  two  classes  of 
dairymen  —the  iirogreaaive(inf,i  who  are  producing 
strictly  hiph-claiw  dairy  prcnlucts  f4>r  a  critical 
tradf!,  from  which  the  bighi'sL  returnH  are  tiectired, 
and  Ihoau  who  dt«ire  the  bent  flavored  and  colored 
milk,  cream  and  butt*T  for  use  on  their  private 
estate.  To  the  former,  the  fact  that  in  impartial 
trials  the  Guernsey  has  shown  Ri-cater  returns  for 
a  dollar  inveated  in  food  when  cream  or  butter,  and 
even  high-^rade  milk,  in  produced,  is  anllicient  to 
win  for  her  a  goud  trial.  Wherever  her  golden- 
colortfl  product*  are  whown  tht?y  are  sure  to  win 
recognition.  Numerous  iiistancea  can  be  cited  in 
which  the  products  of  herds  of  Guernseys  are  sup- 
plying such  markets.  A  good  grade  llTjernsey  cow 
is  eagerly  sought  in  the  higher-class  dairiw. 

The  A  meriran  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  was  the  first 
t«estab!ish  an  advanced  r^'ginler  on  a  yearly  brutiR. 
During  thefewyeani  that  lhii*haii  been  established, 
the  records  of  ^79  cuvm  and  young  heifers  have 
been  followed.  The  average  of  these  is  a  good 
index  of  the  capability  of  the  breed.  These  records 
show  an  average  year's  yield  of  8,0(10  pounds  of 
milk,  JOS  pouniLs  of  butter-fat.  and  5.08  per  cent 
of  butter-fat.  During  this  time  the  highest  records 
made  have  be<rn  17,297  pounds  of  milk,  and  8^7 
pounds  of  buttor-fat.  The  latter  is  equivalent  to 
1,000  pounds  of  butter.  There  can  be  no  better 
indication  of  what  a  breed  is  capable  of  doing, 
than  what  it  will  do  year  in  and  year  out.  A  cow 
that  will  average  live  years  in  3Ucw.wion  12,000 
puuniihi  of  5  per  cent  milk,  and  this  determined  by 
public  dupervlsioD,  is  mwt  creditable.  Thta  has 
been  done  by  a  Guernsey. 

ForrAfete. — Tho  compoaitinn  of  Guemfiey  rotllt 
adapt*  it  for  the  preparation  of  high-grade  cheese, 
but  because  of  the  dem>and  for  the  milk,  cream  and 
butter,  it  is  not  u.'ied  largely  for  cheese-making. 

For  beef.  While  a  (iictincUvely  dairy  breed, 
the  Hire  of  the  Guernsey  allows  her  easily  t<> !»  con- 
verted as  a  young  animal,  or  when  puHt  her  useful- 
Den  w  a  milker,  into  hvt^t.  There  are  few  prettier 
sightfl  than  those  seen  in  the  meat  division  of  the 
great  market  of  SI.  Petersport  on  the  island  of 
Guernwy,  and  thisi  testifies  what  can  be  done  with 
the  breed  in  this  respect. 

Fur  (Tojwi'nfl.  — The  prepotency  of  the  Guernsey 
bull,  or  hiji  ability  to  stamp  the  desirable  character- 
isticR  of  the  bree<l  on  his  offspring.  make«  him  most 
raluable  for  improving  thu  common  dairy  stock  of 


any  section.  If  ho  is  employed  intelligently,  he 
will  get  grade  cows  yielding  rich  mitk.  and  pos- 
Kcssing  good  constitution  and  pniductivity. 

OrtfanUationg  and  Ttcordt. 

Tlie  Royal  Guernsey  Agricultural  and  HorLicnl- 
tural  Society  directs  the  intert!J>ts  of  the  breed  on 
Guernsey  island.  It  maintains  a  herdbook  for  general 
registration.  In  18H5,  tho  English  Guernsey  Cattle 
Society  was  organised.  It  iwues  a  herdliook.  The 
American  Guernsey  C-attki  Club  was  organized  in 
1877.  It  has  pubHah«<()  sixteen  vidumes  uf  the  heni 
register,  and  there  were  recorded  in  October, 
1907.  12,49e  males  and  2a,3;J0  females.  Nearly 
three-fonrths  of  tho  animab  have  bw^n  placed  in 
tho  herd  register  since  the  World's  Columbian 
Exposition  in  ISilS.  Kinc«  1895,  the  register  has 
been  iasueil  in  quarterly  parts,  and  is  known  as  the 
American  Guernsey  Herd  Register  and  Breetlers' 
Journal.  A  department  of  the  herd  register  is 
maintained  as  an  advanced  register.  It  now  con- 
tains the  names  of  over  fHH)  animals.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  about  240  active  members  of  the 
American  Goem.sey  Cattle  Club,  and  some  1,100 
breeders  of  Guernseys.  The  headquarters  tjf  the 
club  are  at  Peterburo,  Xew  Hampsliire. 

hiUrafure. 

Hazani,  The  Jersey,  Aldemey  and  Guernsey  Cow, 
I'hilaiielpbia  (1872);  herti  register  of  the  American 
Guern.tey  Cattle  Club.  [For  farther  references,  see 
page  302.) 

Hereford  CatUe.    Figs.  132,  376.  377. 

By  Oflr/wr  Gtidg«!tl. 

The  Hereford  is  a  breed  of  cattle  raised  for  the 
production  of  beef. 

Dftcriptitm. 

The  mmt  dLitbctive  featun*  nf  the  Hereford  to 

the  ordinary  observer  is  hie  color  markings,  or  the 
distribution  over  the  body  of  the  re<i  and  white 
colors.  The  head,  including  jaws  and  throat,  is 
white,  with  white  under  the  neck,  down  the  breast, 
under  the  beSly  and  more  or  less  on  legs.  The  Imsh 
of  the  tail  is  also  white,  and  there  is  a  while  strip 
on  the  top  of  the  neck  from  about  the  middle  thereof 
to  the  top  of  the  shoulders.  The  l>ody.  sides  of 
the  neck,  and  usually  some  parts  of  the  legs,  are 
red.  The  red  in  different  animals  varies  from  very 
light  or  yellow-red.  as  it  ia  termed,  to  very  dark 
red.  An  animal  is  classed  in  point  of  color  as  a 
light  red,  a  medium  red,  nr  a  dark  red.  The  forego- 
ing is  the  popular  distribution  of  the  colors  of  the 
Hereford,  yet  there  is  (Sometimes  a  considerable 
variation  therefrom  in  ditfercnt  animals.  While  as 
a  breed  of  cattle  they  aR'  very  uniform  in  confor- 
mation and  color  markint^s,  yet  they  do  not  have 
by  any  means  the  same  degree  of  uniformity  as  the 
self-colored  undomeitticat^Ml  animals. 

The  head  of  the  Hereford  is  short,  with  broad 
forehead ;  tlie  eyes  are  full  and  not  sunken ;  the 
horns  are  usually  rather  strong  and  of  a  whitish  yel- 
low color,  free  from  black  tipe.  in  the  best  types, 


3^ 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


and  come  forward  with  a  more  or  less  drooping 
tendency  ;  the  neck  ih  short  nntl  thick,  merging 
smunthly  into  the  xhoulilt^rs,  free  frum  fliiriiliu;  skin 
in  thv  unilur  )iart:v;  the  hide  in  heavy,  IwMe  and 
very  pliatle,  and  covi>red  with  a  dentu!,  soft  coat  ot 
hair.  The  body  of  a  well-fa tt4?nL*d  Huruford  should 
be  free  from  any  p&unchinetu.  The  breast  should 
be  broad  and  full,  hut  free  frnm  loose  dewlap,  the 
shoulders  smoothly  laid  and  bmad  on  ti>p,  but  not 
too  open  Itelween  the  liIadeH.  The  cropH  iihould  t»u 
wide,  the  ril>s  well  sprun^i;  and  extendinK  wuH  back- 
ward, the  loin  broad  and  of  good  lenKth,  the  hook- 
bonce  by  no  nican^  prominent,  but  down  within  the 
lines  of  the  ribs,  the  tail-head  on  a  line  with  the 
le%*el  of  the  back,  and  the  rump-hones  wide  apart 
and  well  up,  SI)  as  not  to  present  a  drooping  appear- 
ance. The  legs  nhonld  Ite  ahort,  straight,  strong  in 
bone  and  wet  well  ajiart.  The  line  of  the  back 
shuuld  be  practically  Hiraight  and  level  from  top 
of  shoulders  to  the  tail-hfad.  The  quarters  should 
bo  full  and  well  roundtyl,  and  the  outlines  of  the 
animal,  when  viewed  from  the  wide,  should  present 
a  somewhat  box-like  iippearance,  and  from  the  end 
mure  that  of  a  barrel. 

The  Hereford  has  great  length  and  thicknesii  of 
loin,  and  all  the  bones  of  hiA  frame  iire  no  well  cO'V- 
ered  that  they  can  .tcarcely  he  felt  through  the 
thick  covering  of  flesh.  Along  hi*  back  from  shoul- 
der to  rump  his  spine  is  so  deeply  buried  in  flesh 
that  the  vertebra!  are  not  perceptible  to  the  touch 
except  at  the  small  indentations,  commonly  called 
ties,  near  the  middle  of  the  back.  Thei*e  ties,  usu- 
ally one  to  three  iri  number,  are  the  attachments  of 
the  skin  to  a  few  of  the  forward  lumbar  vertebra;, 
and  are  common  to  all  cattle.  The  indentations  are 
caused  by  the  up-lifting  of  the  skin  surrounding 
the  tie  by  a  great  deposit  of  lle.sh  along  the  spinal 
column.  When  of  a  pronounced  character,  these 
tie*  are  not  looked  on  with  much  favor  by  the 
breeders  of  fancy  Hereford;!,  an  they  detract  some- 
what from  the  smooth,  rounde*!  appearance  of  the 
body,  although  they  are  a  very  reliable  indication 
of  the  great  depth  of  tleah  that  covers  the  frame  of 
the  animal.  Breeders  fiometimes  loosen  these  ties 
in  animaU  they  are  tilting  for  exhibition  by  a 
slight  surgical  operation,  that  is  not  of  very  diffi- 
cult execution,  whereby  the  depresinton  in  the  skin 
disappears  and  leaves  the  bock  perfectly  smooth 
and  even. 

The  coat  of  hair  of  the  Hereford  is  regarded  by 
the  breeders  a.t  a  feature  of  much  importance.  The 
preference  i.^  that  It  should  be  long,  soft  and  curly, 
as  indicative  of  a  certain  degree  of  quality  in  the 
animal.  Such  coats  are  regarded  as  famishing 
some  protection  against  cold  in  winter  and,  in 
some  animals,  a  protection  against  flies  in  Bumnter. 
At  the  great  fairs  and  other  shows,  much  care  is 
taken  by  the  Hereford  exhibitors  to  have  the  coats 
of  their  animaU  properly  cleaned  and  manipulated, 
80  as  to  present  a  curly  appearance  and  set  ott  the 
form  of  the  animal  to  the  hvi^i  advantage. 

The  most  valuable  characteristic  of  the  Hereford 
is  his  disposition  to  accumulate  flesh  at  all  ages. 
The  Hereford  is  almost  universally  credited  with 
iH-ing  a  superior  rustler  under  range   conditions. 


Hifl  ability  to  withstand  rigorous  eonditioui  in  due 
mostly  to  hia  capacity  ana  diligence  in  laying  up 
stores  of  flvsh  during  the  season  of  plenty  on  which 
he  may  draw  in  a  suason  of  want.  The  superior 
fleshing  disposition  of  the  Hereford  has  been  demon- 
strated many  times  in  the  feed-lots  of  the  corn- 
belt,  where  large  numbers  of  the  grade.'i  of  all 
breeds  are  collectenl  ami  fe<l  for  market  under  like 
conditions,  and  the  Herufords  are  the  fintt  to  be 
shipped  to  the  niiirket. 

The  American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion has  never  adopted  a  scale  of  points  for  judging 
purposes. 

Higtory. 

The  Hereford  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  Kngland,  in  a  district  thu 
center  of  which  w  the  county  of  Herefunl.  It 
duuhtlexs  had  its  foundation  in  iha  native  cattle  of 
that  district  in  the  same  way  that  the  other  Eng- 
lish breeds  of  domestic  cattle  had  their  origin. 
The  name  Hereford  was  at  first  used  to  designate 
the  cattle  generally  of  that  district.  These  cattle 
were  hwloricaily  mentioned  at  a  %'ery  early  date 
(1627),  OH  ]»orfseM8ed  of  remarkably  easy-keeping; 
and  fattening  qualities.  Later  the  term  Hereford 
came  to  be  used  to  designate  the  improved  and 
pedigreed  cattle  that  had  been  developed  into  a 
race  with  well-established  breed  characteristica 
that  were  reliably  transmitted.  Many  of  the  early 
breeders  had  diffenmt  objWUi  or  ideals  in  breed- 
ing, with  the  result  that  the  Hereford  cuttle  of 
that  day  bad  s  great  diversity  of  color  ay  well  oa 
of  physical  featured. 

The  colors  that  predominated  among  Hereford 
cattle  at  the  time  of  the  preparation  of  the  lirst 
volume  of  the  herdbook  of  Hereford  cattle  {about 
1845)  were  varying  shades  of  red  on  the  body  with 
white  face,  and  the  same  with  mottled  or  spotted 
face,  and  ako  varying  degrees  of  roan  or  gray,  as 
it  was  called,  an  the  sides  of  the  animal,  with  all 
the  other  parts  white.  In  the  establishment  of  the 
improved  and  pedigreed  Herefords,  different  breed- 
era  manifested  a  preferencd  for  animals  of  one  or 
the  other  of  these  markings,  and  each  zealoosly 
maintained  the  same  during  his  breeding  opera- 
tioud.  The  result  of  this  was  that,  about  1845,  there 
were  several  ditTervnt  strains  of  Ht-reford  cattle 
that  were  di.-<tingui3hed  mainly  by  their  color 
markings,  and  were  designated  by  the  name  of 
some  prominent  breeder,  who  had  originated  or 
was  closely  connected  with  thede%'elopment  of  this 
particular  striin.  Subsequent  breeders  very  wisely 
interbred  the."^  different  strains  or  families,  with 
the  result  that  in  a  few  years  the  breed  became  of 
a  uniform  color  and  markings,  as  of  th'a  present 
day. 

The  Hereford  is  among  the  olaest,  if  not  the  old- 
eat  established  of  the  English  breeds  of  domeatic 
cattle.  Some  of  its  early  improvere  were  con- 
temporary, and  some  antecedent  to  the  operations 
of  Rakcwell,  who  began  hia  great  work  as  a  scien- 
tific breezier  about  \"5^.  As  an  evidence  of  the 
importance  and  advancement  of  the  Hereford  in 
production  of  beef  at  an  early  date,  it  may  be  cited 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


853 


that  the  prize  for  the  champion  simr  over  alt 
bre«<ts  at  thu  Rnit  show  of  thi-  Smithfioltt  Club  beld 
at  LondcH)  in  17^  was  won  by  a  Hereford  steer, 
arii  the  aame  for  seveml  Huhsequent  years.  .\t  a 
dispemiun  Hale  hy  aucliim  of  the  lirtteilin);  lieni  of 
one  of  the  eaHy  imjirovera  iif  the  Herefoni,  held  in 


ry.  ^1 


u 


Ptg-  37b-    Hftivtord  buU.     li&iuly  Km  71UilO 

iSld,  the  a%'erage  of  the  «ale  was  about  $750  [her 
head. 

In  America. — Iniportationa  of  a  few  head  of 
HL-rj^ford-s  were  made  to  America  in  1817.  1824, 
and  IS  10.  The  first  two  of  thivie  impurtaliimn  were 
unfortuniito  in  that  in  one  case  the  hull  died,  and 
in  lht.>  Cflher  the  cow  dieiL  The  difTicultiei^  and  rhk* 
attending  thu  making  of  im^iortationx  of  cattle-  at 
that  time  were  xo  great  that  no  attempt  was  made 
to  keep  up  the  race,  and  the  result  was  that  they 
liecame  mer^'ed  into  othc^r  stocks  and  disappeared. 
The  importation  of  Ift-iO  wan  flomewhat  latfjerand 
more  eucc«jiriful  in  that  the  cattle  wc-re  mainlined 
in  their  purity  and  pedigree  record*  were  ki-pt. 
The  depcendanlaof  this  importation  hare  continued 
to  the  prectent  day  and  are  refnetcrcd  in  the  Ameri- 
can Hereford  Ilecord. 

It  was  not  until  the  Centennial  Exposition  at 
rhiladflphia,  in  !S7f)  that  the  rattle-growers  of 
the  weitti-rn  part  of  the  United  States  were  at- 
tracted to  the  viaiblii  merits  of  thiit  hnied  of 
cattle.  A  very  attractive  herd  of  the  deacendanta 
of  later  importations  was  on  exhibition  on  this 
occasion.  To  nearly  all  of  the  cattle-men  of  the 
WeBt  the  ItHreford  was  an  unheard-of  hreed,  and 
their  nniformity,  color  ami  markings,  together 
with  their  beef- carrying  ciualiti(«,  were  n>vela- 
tions  to  them.  As  lh«  cat lle-firo wing  interests 
were  at  that  time  assuming  enormous  proportions 
in  the  country  went  of  the  Missouri  river,  these 
visitinf;  cattle-men  were  the  more  easily  prevailed 
on  to  (five  the  Hereford*  a  trial  undt^r  thftir  system 
of  production. 

In  the  few  succeeding  years  all  the  bulla  obtain- 
able of  this  breed  were  bought  and  shipiH^  to 
different  partji  of  the  rang©  country  from  Wyom- 
ing to  Texas.  It  was  then  developed  that  the 
Hereford  bull,  when  bred  to  range-bred  cows, 
tranitmitted  to  his  progeny  his  hreei]  characteria- 
tics  to  a  great  degree,  and  ranchmen  proceeded  at 
once  to  make  arrangements  to  introduce  Hereford 
botla   into  their  h^da.    The   popularity  of    thu 

C28 


breed  steadily  grew  and  spread  throughout  tb« 
cattle-growing  sections,  and  it  soon  became  evident 
that  they  were  imjjrenHing  their  characters  on  the 
imprcivetl  rani^e  stock.  This  wave  of  popularity 
has  not  lM*n  confined  to  thL-  cattle-growtrs  of  the 
Unitod  Statute,  but  has  ovL-rflowed  thu  borders  into 
Mexico  and  Canada  and  now  bids  fair  to 
leave  a  similar  impre.-<s  on  the  beef-proda- 
cing  herds  of  those  countries. 

Ft)r  some  years  the  appreciation  of  the 
Herefords  was  baaed,  mainly  on  their  ability 
to  withstand  hardships  and  produce  beef  on 
graas  and  under  tho  rigorous  conditions  of 
the  range.  Later,  when  the  conditions  od 
the  ranges  had  changed  somewhat,  the 
range-raised  grade  Hereford  8te*re  found 
their  way  into  the  feed-Ifts  of  the  corn- 
gniwing  states,  where  they  gave  an  even 
Initter  jMieount  of  themselves  m  the  matter 
of  fiuick-fe^Hling,  economy  of  pn»duction,  and 
i;uaEity  of  product  when  finished,  than  they 
did  on  the  ranges.  At  first  only  steers  two 
ye-nrs  old  and  over  were  admitted  to  the  feed- 
lots,  but  liiter  high-grade  steer  caU'es  of  this  breed 
were  takun  direi-tly  from  the  range  into  the  feed- 
lots.  This  opened  up  a  uew  field  in  the  production 
of  high-class  l>eef.  The  experiments  in  fuU-feediny 
high-grade  calves  were  so  satisfactory  that  a  great 
d<-mand  for  thia  class  of  feeding  cattle  has  resulted. 
The  calves  are  taken  from  their  mothers  on  the 
range  at  weaning  age  in  the  fall  and  are  shipped 
directly  to  the  feed-lota,  where  they  are  full-fed 
and  grated  for  about  twelve  months.  Then,  aa 
yearling^,  they  go  to  market  weighing  LOOO  to 
1,200  pounds,  where  they  arc  known  as  "baby 
boef,"  a  product  that  is  not  produced  so  success- 
fully and  proiitably  from  the  grades  of  any  other 
breed  of  cattle  than  the  Hereford. 


> 


Fix.  377.    Beratotd  sow.    LkiIt  Stjaphlnn  M. 

At  the  time  that  Hereford  bulla  were  introduced 
on  the  ranches,  herds  of  pure-bred  Herefords  in 
Am^^rica  were  few  in  number  and  small  in  site,  so 
that  tbey  were  unable  more  than  partially  to  sup- 
ply this  demand,  with  the  result  that  Hereford 
bells  were  high  in  price.  This  awakened  a  lively 
interest  in  the  breed,  such  as  had  not  been  expert- 
enced,  and  a  nnrabcr  of  new  herds  were  established. 
To  supply  the  demand  for  bulls,  importations  of 
breeding  herds  were  made  from  England  in  such 
numbers  and  in  such  rapid  auccessiun  in  the  years 


854 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


1880  to  188(j,  tliaL  it  looked  as  thongh  tho  regis- 
tered stwk  in  the  place  of  thieir  origin,  which 
were  nevpr  very  large,  wntilil  become  exhanRU><1. 
During  ihifl  periotl  sevvrjit  thi)DHand  Wtid  were 
impurlud  and  many  nt>w  IienJti  w»re  uatiiliUHhtfiJ, 
mainly  in  thu  catlle-feiiiiiiig  sLaU-a.  HLTi-Eorils 
wereexhibitwi  at  all  the  leaJing  fairs.  A  fat-stock 
ahow  was  inanguratcd  at  Chicago  in  1879,  and  a 
few  years  later  another  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.  Steers 
wore  s(wnri>ti  from  the  supply  avaitahle  and  exhih- 
itwl  with  remarknlile  siicceHS.  While  the  Herefonls 
Were  able  tu  hwcure  a  goodly  share  of  the  prizes  in 
the  older  classes  and  in  the  chanipiiin  rings  at  tht^ae 
fat-stock  »huw.s,  yet  it  waa  sonn  otwervL-rf  that  they 
were  nearly  always  sacccaafal  in  the  yoongor 
classes. 

Owing  to  the  shortness  of  the  legs,  and  general 
rotinclneiw  of  b«Hiy  of  the  Hereforda,  they  are  fre- 
tjiiently  misju(ly*ti  as  to  their  weight,  and  are  gi^ner- 
ally  thought  to  be  smaller  in  siiw  than  some  of  the 
other  beeC  brewis  of  cattle.  A  eompari.'«un  of  the 
official  wvighta  uf  the  prizu-winnLTS  in  the  claasos 
for  Herefords  and  Shorthorns  at  the  now  American 
Royal  Live-Stock  Show  at  Kansas  City.  Mitwnuri, 
showed  practically  no  (Jilference  in  the  average 
weights  of  the  prize-winneis  in  the  cla-'tHes  for  bulls 
and  cows  two  years,  old  anrl  over.  Hut  in  the 
claases  for  calves  and  yearlings,  the  average 
weighti  were  always  detridwlly  in  favor  of  the 
Herefords. 

AlthoGgh  in  tho  importations  of  breeding  Here- 
fords that  were  made  in  the  year  1880  to  188G,  all 
the  animals  imported  were  not  high-cla.'i.s  speci- 
mens. theri>  were  among  them  many  of  the  very 
Isest  caltlu  both  individually  and  in  breeding  to  be 
had  in  England.  Knim  imlividiials  of  the«e  impor- 
tations have  been  di'veloped  families  or  strains 
that  have  become  very  popular.  On  the  foun- 
riatiiin  of  the-^ie  importations  the  American  breeder 
b-is  maiJe  a  very  great  improvement  in  tite  confor- 
mation of  the  Hereford. 

Ditlribution. 

The  Hcrcf'ml  ha;*  l>een  introdticed  and  used 
extensively  in  most  parta  of  the  world  where 
attempts  havo  been  made  to  improve  the  cattle 
grown  mainly  for  beef  purposes.  They  were  in  use 
ID  considerable  numbers  in  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land Bome  yearrt  liefore  thoy  were  brought  to 
America  to  any  extent.  I^arge  herdj?  of  registered 
Herefords  anj  now  established  in  thcuo  countricbi, 
and  a  herdbook  society  has  been  organized  thiit 
poblish&s  a  registry  for  the  breed  in  that  section. 
Some  years  ago  an  importation  of  Herefonia  wa«i 
made  from  .Australia  to  California  for  the  founda- 
tion of  a  herd  in  that  state.  The  Herefonis  have 
been  taken  to  several  of  the  Sotith  American 
CJuntriL-s,  mainly  to  Argentina  and  Uruguay. 

In  recent  years  some  Herefords  have  been  taken 
to  Cuba  and  Porto  Kico,  to  some  of  the  Central 
Amoric'in  states  and  to  the  .Sandwich  islands, 
where  they  are  reported  as  doing  extremely  well. 
The  breed  is  preeminently  a»:lat>t.ed  to  the  range, 
with  it*  viciflsitades  of  cold  and  scant  vegetation. 
For  this  reason,  in  the  United  states  they  are 


found  mainly  west  of  tho  MiiJaissippi,  although  herda 
are  maintained  in  New  England.  It  hni*  already  been 
said  that  the  breeil  has  made  its  way  into  C-anada 
and  Mexico. 

Fefdirtff. 

The  strong  point  with  the  HerefoH  in  the  pro- 
duction of  beef  is  hit  ability  to  grow  and  develop 
on  grass  alone.  Hu  was  developed  in  a  groat  grai- 
ing  district,  and  his  Itrst  reputation  was  based  on 
hh  ra|»nc'ity  for  converting  gra.s8  into  beef.  While 
he  aiirjKuwea  other  breaia  as  agraiier.  he  is  equally 
jiroininent  in  the  feed-lot.  .411  cattle  feeds  are 
acceptable  to  him,  and  he  reLSpond^  as  promptly  as 
any  to  a  ration  of  grain.  In  the  proiluclion  of 
high-class  Herefords  for  breeding  purposes,  it  i» 
essential  that  they  should  have  the  best  of  fe^d 
and  care,  for  sach  cattle  cannot  be  produced 
otherwifie. 

I'iO. 

For  miV/iT.— This  breed  makes  no  claim  to  milk- 
production,  and  no  efforts  have  bM^n  made  in 
America  to  develop  this  faculty. 

For  frf^r— Hereford  cattle  are  primarily  beef 
animals,  and  in  this  captK'ity  they  stand  in  the  first 
rank.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  the  produc- 
tion of  "  baby  beef."  In  the  matter  of  early  Jiatur- 
ity,  they  are  unuxcelled. 

Organiiationt  and  rMorrii. 

The  first  organization  of  the  breeders  of  Here- 
ford cattle  in  America  was  the  Breeders'  Live-Stock 
Association,  orgiiniw^  in  1878.  at  Beecher,  111.  It 
undertook  the  publication  of  a  monthly  jwriodical 
called  the  Preedi^rs*  Journal,  which  was  devoted 
mainly  to  presenting  the  merits  of  Hereford  rattle. 
At  tho  same  time  it  inaugurated  a  hcrdbn<>k  —  the 
American  Hereford  Record,  Volume  I  of  which 
appeared  in  1880.  and  Volume  11  in  IS8a  In  1883. 
it  disbanded,  having  sold  its  interest  in  this  Record 
to  the  American  Hereford  Cattle  Hreeders'  .'Vswocia- 
tion.  which  vi\»  organiEe<i  at  Chicago,  111.,  in  June 
1881.  and  was  incorporated  under  the  Iaw.s  of  Illi- 
nois in  188;J.  At  the  second  meeting  of  this  Asso- 
ciation, in  November,  1881,  the  total  enrollment  of 
breeders  as  membem  numbered  thirty-four.  In 
1883.  it  purchased  the  copyright  and  unsold  copies 
of  Volumes  I  and  It  uf  the  Aniericin  Hereford 
Record.  It  c'^ntinued  the  publication  of  the  herd- 
bw>k>i,  and  thirty  voJumus  have  been  published  to 
dat«.  There  arc  now  over  Zj2>Xi  members  in  the 
Association. 

Tho  entry  numV-rs  in  the  .A-merican  Hereford 
Record  at  the  lime  of  it-^  purchase  by  iUt  present 
owners  were  a  little  over  6.000.  These  numbers 
were  a!«igned  to  both  male  and  female  entries,  and 
were  very  largely  of  anccators  of  cattle  owned  in 
America.  At  the  present  time  the  number  of 
entries  is  nearly  275,tX"iO.  The  rules  do  not  rv<iuire 
an  entry  to  be  made  until  the  animal  ifi  nearly  two 
years  old.  although  the  appHcutkiit  for  entrance 
mijst  be  nied  with  the  office  before  the  animal  is 
«ix  months  old.  The  number  of  entries  annually 
made  at  the  present  time  ia  almost  30,000,  which 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


365 


• 


fairly  ri-priaonU  the  annual  iticreasH  that  reach  a 
breeding  age.  Thf  oflico  of  the  Amurican  Ht'rtfford 
Cattle  Hrei-ders'  Association  is  in  Kansas  City.  Mo. 
The  Hereford  Henlhook  of  Englaml  appeared  in 
Iftlfi,  of  which  thirty -eight  volumea  h«ve  bi*«n 
itwuMl.  The  Hprtfonl  Kcnlbonk  Sw.iety  of  Eng- 
land was  organized  in  1H7H,  since  which  tmti  it 
has  been  rmponsible  for  Ihu  publication  uf  the 
herdhook.  A  herdbook  societv  has  been  organiitotl 
and  a  registry  poblished  for  the  Herefor*]  hreeilors 
of  Aiutratla  and  New  Zealand.  Henihooks  havtj 
aim  been  established  fur  the  breed  in  Argentina 
and  Uruguay. 

DOUBLE^AN'DARD  POLLED  HeRBFORDS 


Since  the  introdnction  into  the  United  states  of 
the  polM  breeds  of  cattle  fmm  Scotland,  the  hom- 
letta  feature  in  cattle  hiiR  found  favor  with  Aome 
of  the  brnt>der«  and  aiSmirers  of  the  Hereford.  The 
fact  that  Ht-'refonl  feeding  steers  that  have  been 
artificially  niado  poHed  or  dehorned  are  so  niueh 
preferred  in  the  feed-Iota  to  those  that  are  horned 
has  led  a  few  breeders  t«  undertake  to  establish  a 
strain  of  registered  Herefjtrds  that  are  naturally 
|Kj|led  or  hiirnk'jis.  This  him  been  accon)pUnhe'l  in 
the  case  of  the  Shorthorn  bre*^!  of  cattle,  and  is  in 
a  fair  way  to  b«  realize))  in  the  Hen;ford.  How- 
ever desirable  the  homlcj«  feature  may  or  may 
not  he  (there  is  a  great  ditforence  of  opinion  among 
breeders  on  this  Hobject),  the  elimination  of  the 
horns  fnnn  the  Herpfonl  by  a  natural  pnweiw  has 
Ijeen  nu  easy  undertaking.  Of  the  more  than  240,* 
(XK)  registertMl  Hereford.H  that  have  beun  brtKJ  in 
this  country  in  tho  past  quarter  of  a  century, 
a  very  few,  possibly  liiag  than  twenty  head  from 
homed  sire  and  dani,  have  been  naturally  polled. 
The  great  rarity  of  sport-s  of  this  kind  among  the 
Hereforda  has  made  the  establishment  of  a  strain 
uf  registered  polled  Herefonls  a  slow  and  diHiimtt 
undertaking.  However,  sevt-ral  breeders  are  now 
devoting  themselvea  to  this  work  with  considerable 
enthusiasm  and  some  degree  of  success.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  about  one  hundred  head 
uf  all  ages  uf  naturally  p»lle<l  Herefords  that 
are  registered  in  the  American  Hereford  Record. 
ThefWi  pollud  Herefonls  are  denoniinattsl  by  their 
breeders  Double-Standard  Polled  Hea-fords,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  a  class  of  polled  cattle  that 
are  registered  in  the  herdbook  for  pi>lled  Herefonls 
Bxctaaively,  hut  are  not  eligible  to  record  in  the 
American  Hereford  R*'cord. 

The  dilfieuUies  that  the  breeders  of  polled  Here- 
fordfl  have  encouatt^red  are  two-fold.  In  the  first 
place,  the  scarcity  of  malt'rials  to  work  nn  has 
necessitated  very  close  breeding,  in  order  lo  pre- 
aerre  the  hornleaa  feature,  !n  the  second  place, 
[  tho«e  hiimkjfls  aports  were  unfortunately  not  high- 

I  class  either  individually  or  in  breeding,  so  that  in 

I  BtPBrglhening  the  desired  hornless  feature  by  cloee 

I  breeding,  thv  breeder*  at  the  same  time  were  fix* 

I  ing  in  their  cattle  aomo  undesirable  features  in 

I  other  respects.    Ity  careful  breeding  and  feeding. 

I  theae  difficulties  will  he  overcome  in  time,  but  it 

^^_         will  take  a  much  longer  time  under  the  conditions 


that  prevail  to  establish  a  strain  of  Herefonls  that 
will  be  popular  because  of  their  mcritorions  quali- 
ties other  than  the  polled  condition. 

Two  asscKiations  of  the  breeders  of  polle<l  Here- 
fonls have  lieen  organised,  one  of  whirh  is  called 
the  Amoricjin  Poilod  Hereford  (battle  Club,  with  the 
ofiitjB  of  its  sc-cretary  at  I>ea  Muiiies,  Iowa,  Tha 
other  organization  is  called  the  National  Polled 
Herefoni  Breetlers'  Association,  and  has  its  office 
in  Chicago,  Ulitiois.  Both  of  the.se  small  organi- 
stations  have  Wgun  the  prepnrati<in  of  henllH)oka 
for  polled  Her«forilH,  Neither  of  them  h;is  as  yet 
progressed  to  the  point  of  publication  uf  the  first 
volume,  and  it  ja  likely  that  it  will  bo  aoveral  yeara 
beforii  that  stage  of  development  has  been  reached. 
Hoth  of  theae  herdbooke  accept  for  registration 
the  dniiblft  standanl  variety  of  poUed  Rerefords, 
and  al'u:)  other  naturally  polletl  Herefonls  that  are 
not  eligible  to  registry  in  the  American  Hereford 
Record. 

Lilrralurt. 

In  England  there  is  a  History  of  Hereford  Cat- 
tle, by  Mucdonal'i  and  Sinclair  (1888),  that  is  very 
valuable,  as  treating  of  this  breeil  in  its  native 
home.  A  history  of  Herefoni  Cattle  is  in  prepara- 
tiiin  by  .^Ivin  H.  Sanders,  of  Chicago.  [For  further 
referenc-BS.  see  Jiagu  S02.] 

UoUtein-Frieaian  CatUe.   Figs.  131,  378, 379. 

By  Sninmon  Haxie. 

The  Holstein-Friesian  bre&d  of  cattle  is  th» 
American  representative  of  the  great  lowland 
race  of  cattle  found  on  the  rich  allnvial  land  in 
Europe,  bonlering  the  eost<'rn  ahortrn  of  the  North 
sea.  It  ia  a  dairy  breed,  possessing  valuable  beef- 
ing qualities. 

Dcecripiiori. 

In  color,  the  Holstetn^FViesian  !s  invariably 
black  and  white  piebald.  It  is  specially  character- 
ized by  great  constitutional  vigor.flexibility,  thrift 
and  enormous  production  of  milk  of  comparatively 
low  percentage  of  batter-fat. 

The  ideal  type  of  this  breed,  which  has  become 
cimstant  in  North  Holland  and  Friesland,  is  desig- 
nated as  "milk  and  lieef  form."  This  form  involves 
great  breadth  and  length  of  rump ;  superior  width 
of  hips,  with  biin  slightly  rounded;  well -sprung 
ribs;  rounded  btxly.  with  the  abdomen  well  held 
up:  a  straight  chine;  shoulders  .-liightly  lower 
than  hii:>s  and  rounded  at  t(>ui,  from  w'hence  the 
neck  starts  out  lev.^!,  or  nearly  so,  and  is  carried 
symmetrically  to  a  finely  formed  throat  and  rather 
long  head,  bearing  a  broad  muzzle.  It  also  involves 
comparative  fineness  of  limbs,  and  quarters  broad 
at  sides  and  rear  without  pnftneas ;  a  capacious 
udd«r  of  considerable  depth,  carried  well  forward 
in  front  and  well  up  in  rear,  and  a  large  develop- 
ment of  mammary  veins.  An  animal  of  this  form 
will  appear  wedge^haped,  viewed  both  from  front 
and  side. 

This  ideal  type,  however,  varies  with  respect  to 
locality  and  breeding  purpose.    It  "  is  identifted," 


356 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


says  Profenor  Hen ner veld,  "  with  tln^ir  nse,  lodR- 
ing,  reading  and  iiiaoafionifnt."  The-  tunduncy  of 
l>rt*dinK,  in  the  United  States,  is  now  strongly  In 
the  direction  of  milk  form.  A  chief  mt-rit  of  the 
brc-fd  is  its  adaptability  to  widely  different  f-nvi- 
ronments  and  inirpowea.  TIih  typH  may  lie  changed 
lu  meet  the  *jxi(iHncie»of  thu  spiecinl  rtituatiuTi  with 
iittlp  sarrifiee  of  cutiatilutional  vigor,  tiirift  and 
productiveness. 

The  heiferH  maturo  rapidly,  and,  if  well  t&d,  aro 
ready  to  broed  at  twelve  to  fifteen  montha  of  ago. 
As  a  rule,  they  deliver  their  calves  without  diffi- 
culty ami  may  he  rvVmil  on  to  enter  the  dairy  herd, 
pHKiuctively,  when  twu  y«arK  old. 

The  following  wsIh  of  jioints,  reviseii  and 
adojittd  by  the  Holstein-FrieHian  AsaiKriutioH  of 
Amtricn,  June  I,  1904,  ahows  the  importance 
attached  to  the  development  of  the  parti*  of  the 
animal. 

ScALS  Q?  Points  for  HoLSTBiK-FicrBSCAN  Cattle 

For  cave  i>tr*^t 

Mora 

1.  HMd. — Decidedly  femiaiitB  in  appearance ;  fine 

in  contour 2 

2.  Fore Iteid.—Q road  betweun  the  «y«i :  dishing  .  .      2 

3.  Face.^Jf  mwlium  Itrigth  i  clwan  and  trim.  Mpw- 

ially  under  the  eyes,  abowiof;  facial  v^b  ;  the 
briil(^  of  lh<?  noHL*  iiLruight 2 

4.  Mniile.— Hroiw),  withKtronif  lijut 1 

B.  B9TB.^-i)t  mudium  i(i»j ;  uf  tlnii  texture ;  thv  hair 

plentiful  and  soft;  the  secretions  oily  and 

flbundant     I 

$.  Eyes.— Urg»,  full,  miM,  hright 2 

7.  Bonis.— SruiII,  tapering  finely  tnwanJu  the  tipB ; 

Ktt  modcratfly  Ufirrow  nt  lnwn  :  nvul ;  Inclin- 
ing  forward,  well  bent  iDward:  of  fine  t«itiire ; 
in  appeariuici*  wiuy   ....'. I 

8.  Heck.— Long;  fine  und  clean  at  janctiire  with 

tho  head ;  free  from  dewb]] ;  i-vt-nly  and 
smnoiiily  jr)iTiH  tuiihtmlders ■! 

9.  Shoulders. -Sli^'btty  lower  than  hi|ia .  fini'  nnd 

en^n  over  tops* ;  iriiidpratflly  broad  and  full  at 
Eidee 3 

10.  Chest. — Of  modemlK  depth  and  lownfiia:  Rmnoth 

and  tnoderat«ly  full  in  tbo  Imiiktit,  full  in  the 
ft>n-fl.inkn  (or  throumh  nl  Iht  h.-artl B 

11.  Crops— MoJurat«ly  full 2 

12.  Cblne.     Straight;    Htrong;   broadly  devulopi-d, 

with  vfvQ  verl*braL' 6 

Vi.  Barrel.  Lonu  .  of  wt-d^  iiha{H< ;  well  ruTinded. 
with  a  larire  abdomen,  trimly  held  up  ;  'in  judji- 
infi  the  l-iJit  item  ape  miwt  be  cooaidered)  .  .  7 
14.^  Lfiin  and  bipa. — Broud ;  level  ur  nearly  li-vvl 
betwo^m  tha  hnok-bonoA :  bvol  and  otroait  lat- 
erally; BpreadinK  from  chiae  bruodly  and 
nearly  lev<il ;  hi^ok>iiflni-ii  fuirly  proinlnent  .  .  6 
15.  Hump, — Ltmfi;,  high,  hrnad  with  roomy  pelvis, 
nearly  level  laterally;  comparativuly  full  abort) 
the  tJiurl :  carried  out  strai^^ht  to  dropping  of 

tail 6 

IR.  TIlUTl.-IIigh.biDad 3 

17.  Quarter). —Ueep.  etraiRht  behind;  twist  Riled 
with  di^vi^lopment  nf  udder;  iride  and  modern 

ately  full  at  the  aides 4 

JR.  Planks.— Deep,  comimrnlively  full 2 

19.  L«gl. — Comparativuly  vhort,  clean  and  nearly 
straight;  wide  apart;  firmly  and  eqaarely  set 
under  the  body;  feet  of  medium  Ai£>\  round, 
flolld  and  deep 4 


SCAIf  OP  POtNTB  rOR  HnLSTBIK-FniGSUN  CATTLB, 
continued. 

For  cotea  Perferi 

•core 

20.  Tail  —Large  at  base,  the  settinff  w»Il  back : 

tiLperin);  finely  to  switch ;  the  end  uf  tha  bone 
rearhing  ta  hocks  or  lielow  ;  the  awiteh  fall    .      2 

21.  Hair  and  haodliog;.— Uuir  bodlthful  in  appear- 

jince,  line,  soft  and  furry  ;  thp  skim  of  medium 
thicliness  and  lotm  ;  mellow  under  the  hand  ; 
thii  flivr^tEi'ms  (lily,  abundant  and  of  a  rich 
brown  or  yellow  color 9 

22.  Mammai;  vein*.- Very  largo ;   rery  crooked 

(age  TOuat  be  taken  into  consideration  in  jadg> 
inj;  of  siie  and  crook<dneM) ;  i'Dt«-Hng  rery 
large  or  numerous  orific^ii ;  double  eiteoAion, 
with  special  devt'liipmrnts  such  as  branches, 

ponnec'tionn,  ct*" 10 

2.1.  Udder. — Very  capaciomt ;  ver>-  flexible  ;  quartera 
even  ;  nfiarly  filling  the  KpHTe  !n  the  ri^ar  below 
the  twiat.  extending  well  forward  in  front ; 
brund  iind  well  hi-ld  up 12 

24.  Teat3.— Well  fortned.  wide  apart,  plumb  and  of 

vjni-enit'Cit  siu< 2 

25,  KacutdieoD.—Unteat.  finest 2 

Perfection 100 

For  hiUi  ^'^ 

1.  Head. — Showing  full  vigor;  vk^gant  in  contour  .      2 

2.  Forehead.— Broad  between  the  eyes ;  dishinj^  .    .      2 

3.  Pace. — Of  taedium  length  ;  clean  and  trini.wpe- 

cinlly  under  the  eyes  ;  the  bridge  of  the  nose 
straight 2 

4.  Huzile. — Bmad,  with  strong  lips 1 

5.  Eats.-  -Of  medium  (iie  ;  of  Sne  texture  ;  the  hair 

plentiful  and  soft;  the  secretions  oily  and 

abundant      '     1 

B.  Eyes.- Large,  full,  mild,  bright    , 2 

7.  Horns. -pliort,  of  mcdiuni  hiw  at  base,  gradually 

ditninufbiiig  lowanls  [ip:< ;  oval ;  inclining  for- 
ward, moderately  curved  inwiird  ;  of  fine  tex- 
ture ;  in  appeamnci?  waxy 1 

8.  ITcck. — Long;  finely  created  lif  the  animal  is 

maturel.  tin*  and  clean  at  tunctur*  with  tho 
hfJitl ;  iie.iirly  frpe  from  dewlap  ;  strongly  and 
smO'Othly  joined  ti»  shoulder* 5 

9.  Sbouldera.  —Of  medium  height,  of  medium  thick- 

nt'M.  and  sTTvoothly  ronnded  at  tops;  broad 
and  foil  at  xidt-a ;  snujuth  over  front     ....       4 

10.  Chest.  -  Deep  and  low  ;  well  filled  nud  »mnoth  in 
tile  briBket ;  broad  betwii-n  the  fonj-arms,  full 
in  the  forefUnks  (or  through  at  the  heart!  .   .      7 

H.  Cropa.— Comparatively  full,  nearly  level  with  tho 

shoulders      4 

12.  Chine.— -Strong,  straight,  broadly  developed,  with 

0|K?n  verUibrm T" 6 

IR.  Barrel.  -Lonu.  well  rounded,  with  large  abdo- 
men ;  slmngly  and  trimly  held  up 7 

14.  Loin  and  hips, — llmad;   l^vel  or  nearly   li^el 

l>et«VL'ti  ho<:>k-burti-«;  level  and  strong  later- 
ally; spreading  from  the  rhino  hruiidly  and 
nearly  level ;  t^e  hook-bones  fairly  prominent  .      7 

15.  Sump.— Long,  broad,  high,  m-arly  level  later- 

ally ;  comparatively  full  above  the  thurl ;  car- 
ried (jQt  atniight  to  dropping  of  tail 7 

16.  Thurl.— Uigh.  broad 4 

IT.  Quarters. — Drup,  brood,  straight  behind,  wide 

and  full  at  sidea;  open  tn  lJii>  twist 5 

18.  Flanks.— Deep,  foil 2 

19.  Legs. — Comparatively  short,  clcian   and   nearly 

straight  ;  wide  apart ;  firmly  and  fquawly  lot 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


3B7 


F 


Sulk  op  Poitrrfl  for  HoLrmN-PitrBSUK  Cattue, 

contioaei]. 

For  bulU  P"f«^ 

tron 
BBd«rtcie  bmly;  &rms  vid«,  ftran^  and  taper- 
ing; fe«t  of  me<lium  *ae,  round,  Hulid  amj 
dwep fi 

20.  Tall. — Lnree  at   baAP,  the  M^ttiiif;  wall   back; 

tapering  finely  lo  switch ;  the  end  uf  bone 
r«a<-liini^  to  hiK'kn  or  licluw  ;  thn  switch  full  .   .      2 

21.  Sair  and  haQdIlae.— Hair  hedthful  in  uppctar- 

ance ;  fiD«,  soft  and  furry;  skin  of  medium 
thicktnwui  Hnd  loi>si>  ^  m^'Ibw  uniliT  the  band  ; 
th«  »&ci«tion8  oily,  abundant  and  of  a  Hrh 
brown  tir  yi>ll<iw  cdur 10 

22.  Mammary  Teloa. — Lar^a.  full,  rnturini;  larnw 

oriScM  ;  dnub]«  pxt«nHicn.  with  Bpeciiil  devel- 
vpincnl,  tiui.-b  an  fi;rks,  bruit;licjt,  connccCioiui, 

etc 10 

28,  Rndinientary  teats.— Large,  well  placod   ...      2 
24.  Escntcheoia.  -  Lun^t,  tlneat  .  .   * 2 

Perfection 100 

This  Holstein-Friesian  type  differs  mftrkodly  from 
that  of  othor  part-brod  cattle  known  in  tho  Unitt.*d 
State.'*.  From  the  Jersey  it  is  distingnished  by 
much  greater  size,  much  leveler  top  lines,  fuller 
muAcIeK,  a  mitre  unlfurm  '(;a1«r,  tin<{  much  greater 
pfiMluction  of  milk  of  lighter  colur,  and  had  i)er- 
centaKu  of  fal;  from  the  flmTri««y.  liy  dilTfrerictw! 
of  structure,  m  indicati^^d  for  tho  Jersey,  but  to  a 
les3  extent,  of  color  and  milk-production,  but  by  has 
difference  in  size  ;  from  the  Ayrshire,  by  differences 
of  color  and  ^ize,  but  by  li^ss  riilference  in  (luality 
and  <]nantity  of  milk,  and  by  a  greater  difference 
in  style  and  length  of  horns ;  from  the  Urnwn 
Sw'ias,  by  difft-runKti  in  color,  weight  of  limbs,  and 
by  a  nearer  approach  to  the  idt-al  milk  form; 
from  the  Dutch  ReltL-d,  by  scattered  markinRs  and 
Bm.iller  hnm-i.  Compared  with  lieof  breodB,  the 
HuUtein-Friedian  type  nhown  le!^ri  depth  of  cbei<t, 
hi'ight  and  weight  of  nhoiilders,  and  te»n  depth  of 
brisket.  In  general  outlines  alw).  Un-ro  '\a  a  m,irked 
difference,  the  b<.'ef  type  forming  a  parallelogram 
from  the  side  view  rather  than  a  wedge  form,  as  in 
the  dairy  type. 

Hiatory. 

The  HoUtein-FrieBian  rattEe  originated  with  the 
ancient  FrieBland  [leople,  a  tribe  which,  at  the  time 
of  our  earliest  hi«turieal  knowletlgu  of  it,  uc^'upied 
the  mhorea  of  the  North  Bea,  between  the  river  Kms 
and  the  Rhine.  The  Frie.'tintis  w»ru  the  oldest 
inhabitintH  of  Holland,  and  were  known  as  herds- 
men, hunters  and  fishermen.  Their  history  dates 
aa  far  back  as  three  hundred  yeani  before  Christ. 
The  Bataviana  came  twohundreil  veJirH  later.  They 
were  likewise  herdKmen,  but  iKtciipied  themBelves 
mora  particularly  with  hunting  and  liifhing.  Taci< 
tna  says  of  the  Friesians  and  Hatavians:  "They 
owned  cattle,  not  excelling  in  beauty,  but  in  num- 
ber." The  prewnt  farmers  of  North  Holland  and 
PrieMland,  an!  lineal  de-flcendantri  of  thene  ancient 
people,  and  the  mtiltttiide  of  black  and  white  cattle 
which  they  own  are  lineal  descendant'*  of  llie  cattle 
owned  by  their  onc^fltors.  In  North  Holland  at  the 


present  lime  there  are  some  80,000  head  of  pure- 
bred cattle  of  this  hn^ed,  and  in  Friesland  at  least 
125,000.  They  are  found  in  other  provinces  of 
Netherlands  to  a  limited  ext*?nL 

The  lowland  race  of  which  this  brem)  is  the  lead- 
ing repreDdntative  has  been  the  prolific  mother  of 
other  nrtJeds  in  Europe.  From  't  have  «j>ruiig  the 
East  FVieaian  and  Oldenlterp  breeds  of  (Jemiauy, 
the  Jutland  breed  of  TJenmark.  the  Kolmogorian 
breed  of  Ruwia,  and  the  Flamande  or  Flemish 
breed  of  Helgium  and  northern  France.  The^e 
approach  each  other  in  color,  but  differ  in  other 
important  characterintiei*.  They  have  been  pn)- 
daced  largely  by  the  effect  of  different  enriron- 
menlu,  and  are  maintained  in  their  purity,  in  the 
different  localitiei*,  by  widl-eatablitihed  henlbooks. 
According  to  thu  natur.ili.'it,  Low,  also,  before  tha 
development  of  English  dairy  breeds  Friesian  cat- 
tle were  imported  into  that  cmintry.  and  estahlinthed 
especially  in  the  district  nf  Holdernejw  on  the  north 
side  of  the  Ilumher,  whence  they  exLendtMl  n<irth- 
wani  through  the  plains  nf  Yorkshire.  It  is  asserted 
that  from  the  mixture  of  this  Frieaian  breed  with 
the  native  cattle  linally  sprung  the  improved  i^hort- 
horn.  Friesian  cattle  were  also  made  the  basis 
of  the  composite  Rosentcin  breed,  which  was  so 
greatly  admired  by  Klippart,  and  described  by  him 
in  his  report  to  the  Board  of  Agrit^ulture  of  Ohio 
in  1SR.S. 

In  Ajnerica. — It  ia  probable  that  cattle  of  this 
bree<i  were  brought  to  America  by  the  early  Dutch 
settlers  and  that  a  few  wens  imported  late  in  tho 
eighteenth  and  early  in  the  nineteenth  centurieie. 
The  Holland  l>and  Company  in  reported  as  having 
sent  a  few  animnlsto  Carenovia,  New  Ynrk,  in  1795. 
William  Jarv  is  imported  a  bull  and  twocows  in  1810, 
fur  his  farm  at  Wealhersfield.  Vermont.  Another 
JmpurUtion  into  New  York  iJtate  was  made  in 
1825.  The  first  importer,  however,  to  establish  and 
maintain  a  pure-bred  herd,  waa  Winthrop  W.  Chen- 
ery.  of  Helmunt,  Maiwiichusetts.  He  made  impor- 
tations in  the  years  l8.")2-7-9,  and  1S61.  Until 
1871,  these  cattle  were  almost  untverHally  known 
in  this  country  as  Dutch,  although  as  early  as  IS(>4 
the  United  States  Uvpartmeiil  of  Agriculture  hod 
recognized  them  as  Holstein  cattle.  In  that  year 
(1871),  the  Association  of  Freeders  of  Thorough- 
bred Hol.'^tein  Cattle  was  organized  with  Mr.  ('henery 
at  its  hf.'Kl.  This  gnws  error  in  the  renaming  of  a 
well-known  breed  was  ryganled  by  the  Uutch  lireed- 
ers  as  a  great  injustice  to  them.  They  protested  vig- 
orously, and  finally,  naable  to  secure  justice  directly, 
in  IHT^.  assisted  Thomas  E.  Whiting,  of  Mci.'tsachu- 
Bvtts,  to  select  and  purchase  a  herd  of  their  cattle, 
pledging  him  to  establish  in  .America  a  herdhook 
which  should  maintain  the  correct  name  of  the 
br>?ed.  This  herd  finally  came  intt}  the  hands  of  tlie 
Unadilla  Valley  Brwders"  Association,  who.  with 
other  owners,  «rganiw."d  inlK79,  the  Dutch-Fries ian 
Cattle  Breeders'  Association  of  America.  A  sharp 
controversy  ensued,  which  was  finally  brought  to 
a  close  in  188fi,  through  the  union  nf  the  contend- 
ing bodies  in  the  present  Holstein-Friesian  Associ- 
ation of  America. 

The  significant  hLntory  of  this  breed  in  Anicrica 


368 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


centers  almost  entiroly  about  the  estabtishment 
and  mainten»Jico  of  a  sjiileni  uf  advnnced  registrii- 
tion.  The  advance)]  re^fii^try  nyittitni  waKorif^inRrteil 
by  Scilumiiri  Hoxie,  whilo  st-cretary  of  the  Dutcli- 
Priut^ian  AsscicitiLiDn,  Thu  iHfcewaity  for  il  whkhuk- 
Riistetl  to  him  by  ihv  Sad  that  many  t-attlo  uE 
duuhtful  merit  and  unknown  hretidinj?  were  boing 
entered  in  tha  Holstein  henihooli.  There  was  need 
of  recoKnized  intrinsic  standards  of  merit  to  Rervu 
asgiiidoHin  breeding  ami  HeWtinn.  Arcontingly, 
he  induced  the  ]lntch-FrJe«ian  Atwuciali'un  to  main- 
tain an  adv;u]ced  rupiatar,  in  which  cattk  «h(iald 
Iw  enlurwi  only  in  case  of  8jH-"cial  merit,  determiiiud 
fnr  hull))  by  meumi  of  an  oiliciat  scaW'  of  points,  and 
in  the  case  of  cows  by  an  additional  scale  of  pro- 
dactivcness.  While  there  was  moch  e^irly  npposition 
to  the  advanced  register,  it  h.m  aliiindanlly  riemun- 


Introduccd  into  the  United  States  le»t  than  fifty 
years  ago.  it  huB  Hjiread  to  evt-ry  important  dairy 
Hection  of  thitt  country  and  tu  Canada,  and  more 
recently  to  Mexico.  It  is  aiiecially  adapted  to  rich, 
iurel  KCaKS-Eandt!  ami  to  densely  )>o|>ulat«<i,  highly 
civilised  conntrii^  in  which  milk  and  its  every 
product,  and  veal  and  beef  of  auwrior  quality  are 
in  demand. 

Feeding  and  wrr. 

The  extrnonlinary  vigor  of  cattle  of  thin  breed 
IH>Fmitfl  very  wide  latitude  in  caring  for  and  feed- 
ing them.  In  some  MctLonu  of  Hulland  "they  are 
found  on  landrf  covun--d  with  water  plants  and 
grass  of  small  nutritive  valu«."  In  northern  Rus- 
sia they  are  siicceiwfully  kept  in  the  frigid  climate 
near  the  Arctic  circle.  The  only  hanl-and-faat  rule 


*e'%% 


Pi|.  3?B.    TonnE  BobtelD-PileslAO  boll. 


PlC.  37$.    Holatetn-PriMUn  cow.    HeUn  Sarputk  So.  IIM  Adv.  Re* 


strated  its  y&lae.  Since  about  18^4,  it  has  been 
recognized  aa  the  chief  meanj*  for  the  advancement 
of  the  interests  of  the  .Association  and  of  its  mem- 
bersiK  and  ita  eBsential  principle-s  have  been  adopted 
by  other  breeders' organizations  both  in  America 
and  Kurope.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  descrip- 
tions and  measurements  in  the  practical  operation 
of  the  system  have  been  abandoned.  It  is  also 
nnfortnnate  that  the  Association,  while  admitting 
cowB  to  the  advaiice<]  regi.-^tr)*  only  on  the  basis  of 
the  yield  of  butter-fat,  tacitly  sanctions  the  use  of 
too  low  a  factor  for  the  conversiion  of  butter-fat 
into  bntt*r  recorda.  The  factor  80  pt-r  cent,  gen- 
erally used.  i;aiinot  be  too  aeversly  condemned,  since 
repeated  demonstrations  show  that  good  martcet- 
abl«  butter  retiuires  the  presence  in  the  milk  of  at 
least  8o.7  per  cent  of  its  weight  of  butter-fat. 

Ditfrilmlioa. 

This  race  of  cattle  is  widely  dirtributed  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  prevailin};  iwfiei'ially  in  north- 
ern Franca  and  along  the  shorex  uf  the  Knglish 
chanmd  and  the  North  sea,  as  far  as  Ffenmark.  It 
is  the  leading  dairy  breed  in  Rut^sio,  occupying  tho 
shores  of  the  River  Dwina  and  the  VVhite  sea 
nearly  to  the  .■\rctic  circle.  It  is  firmly  eetabliahed 
in  nearly  every  province  of  Germany,  in  Italy. 
Sweden  and  Denmark.  It  is  aI»o  bred  in  South 
Africa,  and  is  rapidly  Iwing  introdDced  into  Ja[>an. 


for  feeding  is:  "Feed  abundantly  well-balanced 
rations."  The  breeders  in  Holland  and  Friesland 
confine  their  cattle  in  their  stables  cont»tantty 
from  the  middle  of  November  through  the  winter 
till  the  middle  of  Way^  apparently  without  injury 
to  them,  at  much  less  expense  of  food  and  with 
greater  production  of  milk  than  results  from  the 
practice  of  daily  exposure  to  the  outside  atmos- 
phere, as  in  America.  Their  method  requires,  how- 
ever, much  greater  air  space  per  animal,  and  henc« 
that  they  be  confined  in  much  larger  buildings. 

[:aa. 

For  milk. — .^t  two  to  three  years  old,  the  yooog 
cows  produce  about  half  the  quantity  of  milk  of 
mature  animals  of  the  breed,  if  well  supplied  with 
suitable  food,  or  5,000  to  8.000  pounds  of  milk  in 
ten  months, -the  uxual  annual  period  of  milking 
dairy  cows.  They  will  also  continue  their  growth 
and  incniase  in  productivt^neas  until  four  and  a  half 
or  five  years  old,  at  which  ago  they  wilt  reach,  if 
in  go<)d  milking  condition,  an  average  weight  of 
1,200  pounds.  From  this  time  forward,  average 
cows  of  the  breed  will  produce,  when  in  full  Bow. 
40  to  70  pounds  of  milk  daily,  or  S.OOO  to  12,000 
pounds  annually,  until  twelve  to  fourteen  years  of 
age,  the  milk  ranging  tn  quality  fnim  11  percvnt 
to  i:).5  per  cent  total  solids,  of  which  2.5  per  c«ttt 
to  4.5  ])er  cent  will  be  butter-fat.    The  areraga 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


350 


F 


ykld  will  probably  contain  12  per  cent  total  solids 
Asd  3.3  per  cont  bnEtcr-fat. 

Gnat  Dumbers  of  the  cows  of  this  breed  have 
tvt  enieeded  thin  range  of  productiveness.  For 
example,  of  %50  cowr  that  were  entered  in  the  (Irtt 
Totome  of  the  ttuUttiln-Frieeian  Advancud  UtfifiEter, 
published  in  1886,  U7  produced  over  12,000  pound* 
of  milk  each  in  a  siiiKlft  lactation  periled  of  ten 
montha,  and  16  exceeded  1  "'.(XX)  ixiDnde  each.  In  the 
first  four  volumes  of  thin  rej^i-'iter,  40  records  are 
reported  which  a,veragwd  IS.O'itit'fj  rioiinds  in  a  lac- 
tation p(^rio<l  of  one  year.  Some  individual  records 
have  enormHiisly  exciueded  this  avL-ra^je  :  Clothilde, 
No.  ir)ii,  pruilueed  in  one  yi--;ir,  within  a  sinjile  lac- 
tation ptTiod,  2t»,92U  pounds;  Princess  of  Wayne, 
No.  2,  calvinfi  in  her  eleventh  year,  pro<luced  29,- 
OOSJi  pounds  in  a  tdmiiar  period  ;  Pietertje  2d.,  Nn. 
497,  produced,  under  like  ciroumstancefi,  3ft.3lsj 
poands,  and  Relle  Sarcastic,  Nn.  IIOS  (Fig.  379), 
designated  as  the  moilet  cow  of  the  hmv^  by  a  com- 
mittee aiipointed  by  the  Hotstein-Frie«ian  Afisocia* 
tiiin  to  draft  a  scale  of  points,  produced,  in  the 
hands  uf  the  Michigan  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  21.97r»jV  pounds  in  one  year,  and  in  her 
full  lactation  period  of  fifteen  moiithfl  and  one 
week,  27,2^iV  jwuniU.  The  hi^hetit  milk  prtxluc- 
tion  of  Pietertju  2i].  for  a  singlu  day  was  112iV 
pounda,  and  the  highest  of  Princeaa  of  Wayne 
while  rnakiag  bor  great  record  was  IISJ  pounds. 
DoKul  (.'reamelle  recently  prwluced  in  official  test 
119  pounds  in  one  day.  26,280.2  pounds  in  one 
year.  Colantha  4th'fl  Johanna  (Fig.  3.32)  priMiiiced 
€51.7  pounds  i)f  [nitk,  2H.176  [Kiiinds  of  butter-fat 
in  seven  daya ;  2,S72.ti  poundM  of  milk,  nO,R:i3 
pounds  of  butter-fat  in  thirty  days ;  rj,326.7  pounds 
of  milk,  208.393  pounds  of  butter-fat  in  sixty 
days ;  27,432^  pounds  of  milk,  998.25G  pounds  of 
butter-fat  in  one  year.  Thus.  Colantha  -Ith's 
Johanna  holds  the  world's  official  reirord  for  tho 
production  of  butter-fat  f(>r  »evnn  dayj-,  thirty 
days,  sixtv  days  and  SfiTi  days.  These  records  illus- 
trate the  highest  attninmenU  of  the  bri^nl  thus  far 
in  the  matter  of  milk-  and  butter- fal-pr:KJuct ion. 
For  such  production,  the  cow,  of  course,  must 
receive  special  care  and  food,  and  moitt  be  milked 
threw  or  four  times  a  day. 

The  milk  of  this  breijd  haa  aeveral  peculiar  and 
notable  characteristics.  It  is  not  highly  colored. 
"The  absence  of  granules,  as  a  prodoniinant  fea- 
ture, makes  the  skimnietl  milk  eH[}«cially  appear 
blue."  The  fat  globules  are  comparatively  small 
anil  uniform  in  size.  The  cream,  therefore,  riries 
slowly,  but  it  is  dem^u  in  cunHei.|Herice  of  the  com- 
pactness of  the  glolmtL'S.  The  milk  is  richer  than 
the  color  or  thickm-ss  of  the  cream  would  indicate. 
After  the  cream  rises  to  the  surface  it  is  easily 
re-incorporateil  in  the  milk  by  stirring  or  shaking. 
This  renders  th:  milk  mon?  than  ordinarily  valuable 
for  diroct  consumption  purposes,  esiwcially  for  city 
supply,  since  it  insures  t^  all  consumers  a  compara- 
tively uniform  quality.  Moreover,  both  tli«  milk 
and  the  cn'Ana  approach  the  stnicturo  of  the  corre- 
flponding  human  products  more  closely  than  those 
of  any  other  breed  which  has  been  testeil  in  this 
re«pect.  This  leads  to  the  inference  that  the  milk 


of  this  breed  is  superior  to  that  of  any  other  for 
the  feeding  of  young  children.  Recent  experiments 
made  at  tho  Storrs'  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion in  Connecticut  tend  to  substantiate  thit;  infer- 
ence. Farthermore,  the  milk  of  \he^  cattle  Is  said 
to  putMusj  a  quality  which  has  recently  lH?en  called 
"vitality,"  a  <|uality  very  «tronj;ly  associated  with 
the  vitality  of  the  animal  producing  it.  Thus,  the 
high  constitutional  vigor  of  Hdhituin-Friesian  cat- 
tle is  another  strong  point  in  their  favor  as  milk- 
producers. 

For  fcuWw.— Butter-fat  records  of  the  breed  have 
been  no  less  remarkable.  (See  above.)  In  1894, 
statu  agricultural  uxjieriment  stations  began  the 
ullicial  BUpLTvision  of  the  testini;  of  Holsteia- 
Frieaian  cows  at  the  homes  of  the  ownurs.  Thou- 
sands of  such  tests  for  a  periwl  of  seven  con- 
secutive days  have  now  been  mode.  These  testa 
are  annually  clatsified  according  to  the  age  of  tho 
cows  at  date  of  calving.  A  summary  of  such  records 
for  a  single  year  will  8er\'e  to  show  the  Initter- 
making  possibilities  of  thu  filite  of  iha  breed.  In 
tho  official  year  1901-2,  191  records,  of  cows  five 
years  old  and  over,  averaged  431 1'^  pounds  of  milk, 
containing  an  average  of  3.42  per  cent  of  butter- 
fat,  making  a  total  of  Id.Oiil  pounds  of  butter-fat 
per  cow ;  48  records,  of  cows  four  and  one-half 
years  old  and  under  five,  averted  40li'(,  pounds 
milk,  S.ri2  per  cent  bulU-r-fat,  toUl  fat  14.121 
pounds ;  47  records,  of  cows  four  yeare  and  under 
four  and  one-half,  averaged  392yS  pounds  milk, 
3.28  per  cent  butter-fat.  total  fat  12.8.^8  pounds; 
Ttl  records,  of  cows  three  and  one-half  years  and 
under  four,  averagwl  3731*0  jxiunds  milk,  3.44  piT 
cent  butter-fat,  total  fat  12.8.S3  |K>unds;  &>  records, 
uf  cows  three  years  old  and  under  three  and  one- 
half,  averaged  3(30iV  pounds  milk,  3.42  per  cent 
butter-fat,  total  fat  12.;i0y  pounds;  GTi  records, 
of  cows  two  and  nne-half  years  old  and  under  three, 
averaged  3:t3i'n  pounds  milk,  3,.'^2  per  ct'nt  hutttsr- 
fat,  tfHal  butler-fat  1HM}|  pounds;  U».t  records, 
of  cows  under  two  and  one-half  years  old  at  date 
of  calving,  averagwi  279i'rt  pounds  milk,  3.-^^)  per 
cent  butter-fat,  total  butter-fat  9.36S  (Ktunds. 
One  hundred  and  thirty  cows  of  the  breed  have 
oflicial  reconls  gn>jitvr  than  20  pininds  of  butter- 
fat  ia  seven  days,  and  sixty  cows  of  the  breed  have 
ofheial  records  greater  than  80  p<"iunds  of  butter-fat 
in  thirty  days.  Such  records  are  usually  made  at 
ten  to  fifty  days  after  parturition.  A  lapse  of  at 
lea.'^t  five  days  is  rwiuirt-d.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
.IS  to  the  correctneas  of  these  records.  In  many 
cases,  esjiecially  when  the  yield  was  exceptionally 
large,  the  cows  were  re-ti-sted  fur  jierlods  ranging 
from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  experiment  sUition:*.  who  kept 
constant  watch  in  order  that  no  milk  nr  cream 
should  he  intr'Klucetl  into  the  udders  surr-'ptitiously. 

It  is  not  maintained,  of  cirarse.  that  tlu;  average 
pure-brefl  Holsttiin-Friesian  cow  or  heifer  could 
produce  equal  records.  Probably  the  best  one-third 
of  all  thof!e  owned  in  this  country  could  do  so  if 
sufficiently  well  fed,  skilfully  cared  for  ami  milked 
three  time*  a  day.  It  is  probable  that  in  butter-  aa 
well  as  in  milk-production,  the  average  cow  of  this 


360 


CATTLE 


CATT[£ 


brued.  wonld  excel  the  Aver&g6  cow  of  any  other 
known  breed. 

Butter  made  froTi  the  milk  of  those  cows  is  com- 
paratively mild  in  flavor  and.  if  nitt  artificially 
colored,  is  of  a  [nile  straw-color  in  eiimmer,  wlion 
tha  cowji  are  fw]  ini  fjriuw,  and  i>f  a  cr«amy  white 
ID  winter  whwi  thuy  uru  fed  on  hay.  In  kueping 
quality  it  ranks  very  hi^ib.  In  IRTfi,  Mr.  E.  lA>wi8 
SturtL-vant  publlshod  an  account  of  a  compura- 
tive  test  of  butters  of  dilfurent  brouU,  which 
indicated  the  8Ui)eriority  of  the  Holstein-Frieisiaii 
product  in  this  connection.  He  took  seven  «amplea 
of  Jersey  butturs,  fowr  of  Ayriihire,  one  of  Guem- 
«ey  and  onu  of  Dutch  or  lIoUtBin-FriBsian,  and 
placed  them  in  a  eupbiiard  adjoin  Iuk  a  «U'am  healer. 
The  CiUBmaoy  s:ifli;>lu  was  (irobably  not  so  well  made 
a.s  the  others.  "It  mouldtnl  in  spots  in  about  a 
month.  ...  In  seven  weeks  the  Jersey  butters 
were  all  rantdd.  .  .  .  The  Ayrshire  butters  were 
not  rancid,  but  had  loHt  flavor  and  were  poor.  .  .  . 
The  Dutch  butUr  Wiut  wfll  nrexervwd,  b«inK  neither 
runcid  or  flavorless,"  The  buttt-r  of  Pritiiland  has 
long  been  recofrniz«d  as  a  standard  product  in  the 
markets  of  Euroiw.  and  the  butter  of  cows  of  this 
breed  la  Jiteadily  gaining  favor  in  our  own  markets. 

For  eheac. — Tha  milk  of  Flnlstein-Friefiian  cattle 
makex  a  very  hijjh  grade  of  cheese,  and  it  has  been 
much  used  for  this  purpose  both  in  Holland  and  in 
America.   The  milk  ia  rich  in  Molids  uttmr  than  fat. 

For  beef. — This  breed  combines  with  its  p^reat 
milk- and  hntter-producing  capacity,  good  heeling 
i)oalitiei».  For  this  reason  it  ha^  been  calleii  a  diial- 
purpoHe  breed.  Itfi  calves  lire  very  lar^je  and  vig- 
orouH  at  birth,  grow  rapidly  and  are  exceptionally 
free  from  disyast!, — eapecinlly  fnmi  that  which  i« 
known  as  white  scourtt.  When  vealed  at  thu  t^nd  of 
four  or  five  weeks  they  dress  '.XI  to  12U  pounds. 
The  Teal  is  of  superior  color,  BWeetneiW  and  tender- 
ne*i8.  The  cows  (|inckly  tiike  on  flesh  when  dried 
oCf  and  add  12.^  tu  200  pouadx  to  their  milking 
weight.  They  dre»ti<  rt2  per  cent  to  r>.'»  (wr  cent  of 
their  lire  weight.  While  fattening,  the  catllm  of 
this  breed,  like  those  of  beef  hrotMis,  deposit  fat 
largely  in  the  interstices  of  the  niaacles,  and  spar- 
ingly on  the  intestines  and  around  the  kidneys. 
The  meat  is  light-colored  and  marbled  in  appear- 
anct!.  It  it)  prefprred  by  Kome  to  the  fatteneii  prod- 
uct of  the  heef  breeila. 

For  brevJinff.~hi  breeding,  hulln  should  be 
selected  that  are  of  supt^rior  constitutional  vigor 
and  stEe,  When  fully  devebped  they  should  have 
the  outlinefl  of  a  beef  animal  with  the  exception  of 
the  brisket.  In  alt  cases,  the  male  in  breeding  should 
be  the  offspring  of  larger-sized  utork  than  the 
femalo  if  possible,  although  the  dilTen^nce  should 
not  be  extreme.  For  crossing  on  grade  cows  to 
increase  milk-production  the  pure-bred  bulls  of  this 
breed  give  very  satiefactory  resolts. 

Or^antzationg  am!  rfcnrdn. 

Organ iiations  for  the  promotion  of  the  interests 
of  this  hrewl  were  clnmdy  a^tsociated  with  the  hi.s- 
tory  of  the  breed  in  .\mericJi  (which  see,  page  Xi7). 
It  is  a  singular  (mI  that  while  the  thciughUt  and 
energies  of  so  many  genorationa  were  devoted  to 


breeding  and  improving  these  cattle,  the  first  pot 
lie  herdbook  of  the  breed  was  published  in  1872  by 
an  American,  Winthrop  W.  Chenery,  of  Belmont,     J 
MaAsachuHetts,  by  authority  of  the  Association  of     \ 
Hreederfi  of  Thoroughbred  ITol^tein  Cattle.   It  waa 
known  aii  the  liubttein  Herdbiiuk.   Thn-e  years  later 
a  herdboi>k  waa  issued  in  the  NetherUinds,  by  the 
N'etherland  Herdbook  Association.   It  was  u  protest 
against  naming  Holland  cattle   from  a  German 
province  that  had  no  valid  claim  to  the  origin  of 
the  breed.    In   1879,  the  Dutch-Friesian  Cattle 
Hreedent'  .Association  w.ifl  formed  in  America.   In 
the  mime  year  the  Friesian  HerdbiKik  Association 
waa  organised  in  the  province  of  Frifsland.   A  few 
years  later  the  North  Holland  Herdbook  Associa- 
tion was  organized  and  a  branch  was  e^^tablished 
in  America.   The  present  Holstein-Friesian  Asso- 
ciation of  America  was  formed  in  1885  by  the  union 
of  the  HoJstein  and  the  Dutch-Priesian  Associa- 
tions.   It  limited  importatiuns  to  a  great  extent, 
and    iit  consequence  of  this  the  Netherland   and 
North  Holland  vVsaociations  became  nearly  mori- 
bund.   Recently,  the  former  has  adopted  a  system 
similar  to  the  American  system  of  advanced  regis- 
tration, and  probably  may  become  an  ineititiition     j 
of  great  valuo  to  breeders  in  all  the  provinces  of     I 
Holland,  with  the  excnption  of  Friesland,  where  the 
early  association  was  of  a  aimilar  character.   The 
Weelern  Holstuio-Friesiftn  Assoelatiun  was  organ- 
ized in  1892,  and  published  its  first  and  only  herd- 
book  in  18y.l  containing  pedigrees  of  2,100  cattle. 
It  wa^  united  with  the  Holntein-Priesian  Associar 
tion  of  America  in  189B,  and  its  pedigree  records      ■ 
became    a    part  of    the    herdi)Oi»k    of    the    oliJer     I 
asswiatioii.  The  HolHtein-Frteeian  Association  of      ' 
Canada  was  founded  in  1891. 

The  Hol.Hein-Friusian  .Association  of  America 
wa.1  incorporated  for  the  purpose  of  im|torting, 
breeding,  imjiroving  and  otherwise  handling  pure- 
breil  Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  and  for  gathering 
and  fiiiblishing  information  in  regani  to  them.  It 
maintains  a  herdbiHjk  and  aiJvanced  regist-er  of 
cattle.  The  entries  Ut  its  herdhouk  hm)  reached,  at 
the  tote  annual  meeting  (1907),  4G,ti2f>  males,  and 
94,829  females.  The  policy  of  this  association  has 
been  to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  breed  in  America, 
to  improve  the  type  by  selection  of  the  mnst  supe- 
rior animals  f«r  separate  or  advanced  registration, 
and  to  demonstrate  the  merita  of  the  breed  thniugh 
the  making  of  great  milk  and  butter  records.  It 
h.is  maintained  a  consistent  advocacy  of  tests  at 
the  homes  of  owners  under  the  strictest  supervision 
of  agricultural  experiment  stations.  In  this  respect 
it  took  the  initiative,  and  has  compelled  other 
breeders'  aasociationa  to  follow. 

Liieraturt. 

Hulstein  Henlh(Kik,  9  volumes.  1872-lS8ri; 
Datch-Friesian  Hi-rdbouk,  4  volumes,  1SS0-I88G  ; 
HolHtein-Frieaian  Herdbook.  24  volumes  1885-1906; 
Holstein-Friesian  Advanced  Register,  9  volumes, 
1887-1891  and  li»t)2-I90fi  :  Breeds  »t  Dairy  Tattle, 
I.Sth  Repnrt,  Hureau  of  Animal  Industry,  United 
States  Department  of  Agrtcultur«  ;  Frieaiitn  C'attle, 
Twentieth  Report,  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agricaltare; 


CATTIiB 


CA1 


Reports  of  New  York  State  l>airyinen'B  Association 
for  1878-1880 ;  Holatein-I-Yiesian  Cattle.  S.  Hoxie. 
Holstein-Friesian  Assoclatian,  third  edition,  1H04: 
AdTaiic«d  Registration,  S.  Uoxie,  in  IVoceedLnuis  of 
the  American  Association  of  Live-atock  HerdWik 
K«cretari«,  190-;.  C.  F.  Mills.  Editor  ;  The  North 
Holland  or  Fricjiian  Breed,  Utica,  Curtis  and  Childs 
(1884),  S.  Hoxie,  Editor :  Records  of  Dairy  Cows 
in  the  United  States,  C.  B.  Lane,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washinpton.  D.  C.  {1905> ;  History 
of  the  Holstein-Friesian  Breed.  Brattleboro,  Ver- 
mont (IsaT),  F.  U  Houghton  ;  Cattle  and  Dairy 
Farming,  United  StateB  Connnlar  Reports,  1SS7': 
Holstein  Cattle,  Dudley  Miller ;  Di*  Rindviehzncht 
im  la  and  Aui«tuade.  J.  Hansen  :.nd  A.  Hermea, 
LeipiiK,  Carl  Schmidt  &  Co.,  2  volomes  (1005) ; 
Friesch  Rundree  Stamboek,  32  To1ume«,  1880- 
1906 :  The  Holstein-Frieman  Yearbook,  1901-1007. 
7  volumes,  F.  L.  Houj^httm ;  Western  Holstein- 
Frleaian  Herdhcxik.  I  viiliime,  18%,  Weiturn  ITol- 
Bteio-Priesian  Aiiaociatiiin ;  The  HoUtein^Friojiiaa 
Roei^ter,  Brattleboro.  Vurmont,  F.  L.  Hou^'hton ; 
The  Holstein-Frieaian  World,  C.  G.  Brown.  Ithaca, 
N'ew  Yori(.  [See  also  page  302.] 

Jer«y  Cattle.  Figs.  36,  37.  33i,  380,  381. 
By  If.  A.  ScoiW/. 

The  Jenejr  i»  one  of  the  leading  dairy  breeds  of 
cattle.  The  Island  of  Jersev.  tfluvi-n  nHJi.t4  long  and 
1e»  than  six  miles  wide,  lySn^;  in  thu  Bn^^littfa  Chan- 
nel some  thirty  mik'S  from  the  southern  extn-niLty 
of  England  and  about  thirteen  miles  from  the  coast 
of  France,  ia  ita  native  hnme. 

In  American  and  English  writint^  there  has  been 
some  confuskin  in  the  use  uf  thu  tt^rm  Aldemey,  aa 
applied  to  cattle  from  the  Channel  islands.  In  1844, 
Colonel  Le  Couteur  wrote  an  article  on  thu  "JL-rsey 
misnamed  AMerney  cow."  This  article  was  pub- 
lished in  the  -Itiurnal  of  the  Rnyal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England,  Vol.  .'">.  page  'iX  and  was  aftpr- 
wards  copied  into  ttw  Transactions  of  the  Xew 
York  State  Agricultural  Sociuty  in  IS^iO,  and  into 
Volume  I  of  the  Herd  Register  of  the  American 
Jersey  Cattle  Club.  It  forrnKthchai^isof  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  early  history  of  Channel  Inland  cattle. 
Wnen  Channel  island  cattle  were  fiTnl  exiH'irted  to 
Great  Britain,  they  wem  collectively  called  Alder- 
neya,  becauae  vessels  plying  bctweyn  the  ChannBl 
islands  and  Great  Britain  cleared  from  the  iiort  of 
Aldemey.  The  cattle  were  actually  very  largely 
from  the  Island  of  Jersey,  since  that  is  the  largeet 
ialand  and  contains  the  most  cattle.  The  local  gov- 
ernment of  the  Ch.innel  islands  is  administered 
through  two  municii'alitleti,  the  one,  the  states  of 
Jersey,  comprising  the  island  of  Jersey  alone;  the 
other,  the  states  of  CtuomBcy,  comprising  Guernsey 
and  tbe  other  inhabited  ii*!and^  of  which  Aldernvy 
u  ooe.  For  more  than  a  century  there  has  be«n  no 
intercommunication  of  cattle  from  outside  the 
ialondfl  or  between  the  two  municipalitiM  them- 
selvcA,  This  has  been  one  of  the  agencies  in  the 
«fltabliiihment  of  the  two  breeds,  Jersiey  and  Guern- 
sey,  which  are  now  and  have  been  for  many  yeftia 
euiBciently  distinct  eo  as  to  Im  readily  recognized. 


Aldeniey  is  in  no  sense  an  agriccltural  island,  and 
the  few  cattle  on  the  island  are  kept  merely  as 
family  cows  by  the  Inhabitants.  They  come,  of 
coume,  fram  Guernsey,  and  are  of  that  breed. 
There  has  never  been  a  distinct  breed  known  aa 
Atdemeys,  and  the  nam©  "Aldemey"  has  been  more 
commonly  appi  ied  to  Jersey  than  to  Guernsey  cattle. 

lk»cnpti(tn. 

The  ideal  Jersey  of  today  has  a  small  head,  short, 
broad,  lean  and  disb-faced.  The  muzzle,  including 
the  under  lip.  is  black  ur  d3,rk  in  color,  surrounded 
by  a  light  or  meaty  strip  of  light  skin  and  hair. 
The  tyes  are  prominent,  large,  bright  and  wide 
apart.  The  horns  are  crumpled  «r  incurving,  email, 
waxy  and  often  bla^ik-tipped.  The  ears  are  small, 
delicate  and  yellow-colored  within.  The  neck  is  line, 
clean  and  small.  The  legi^  aru  short,  fine  boned  and 
small.  The  body  is  well  hooped  or  roondi*d,  Lirge 
and  deep.  The  tail  h  fine  boned,  long,  with  a  full 
brush.  The  skin  is  mellow,  loose,  yellow,  with  short, 
fine,  silky  hair.  The  uddi>r  is  large  in  size,  exti;nd- 
ing  Well  up  behind  and  wtdl  forward,  not  pendant. 
The  teats  are  medium  sizt-d,  placed  far  apart  on  tho 
udder,  without  having  the  udder  cut  up  between 
them.  The  milk  veins  are  generally  highly  devel- 
oped, tortuous,  knotty,  and  often  spreading  in  sev- 
eral bronrhfa  The  bank  shfwld  lie  straight  from 
shoulder  to  the  finttirg-on  of  the  tail.  So  far  as 
tieauty  is  ronceniHtl,  the  sloping  rump  is  very 
ol)jrH;tii>naMe.  The  general  appBarance  should  be 
attractive  and  sprightly.  The  head  slitmld  be  erect 
when  walking  and  the  movements  should  be  light, 
quick  and  graceful.  Whoa  in  full  flow  of  milk,  the 
Jersey  should  carry  little  flesh,  hut  have  muscular 
development  enough  for  healthy  ai-tivity  and  full 
digestive  ftirces.  The  following  scale  of  puint-s, 
adopted  by  ibe  Amerii'4in  Jersey  Cattle  Club,  shnws 
the  retativi)  vatuus  attributed  to  thu  various  parts. 

Scale  op  Points  fob  Jebsky  Cattlb 

_  Pwfwt 

For  Muri  aeon 

1.  Head  (7> 

Mixtioin  site,  kan;  face  dished ;  broad  between 
vyoR  and  nnrrow  b«tw<%n  henu 4 

G^es  full  and  placid  ;  homs  smal!  to  meilfuin. 
iricurvixj;:  muule  bnwd,  with  nia^cuiar  li|«; 
strong  under- jaw 3 

2.  Week.  —Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat :  thin 

at  wiihvn 5 

3.  Body  (33) 

Lung  cafiacity,  aa  indicated  by  depth  on-i  breadth 

throuifh  lM>dy.  just  buck  of  fore-li>g«  ....  5 
Wedge  ahape,  with  deep,  large  pannch,  legn  pro* 

p<^bnat«  tc  aizA  and  «f  fine  quality  ....    10 

Bac\  Btraitrht  t^  hip-bon«« 2 

Rump  long  to  tail-wtting  and  leral  from  bip- 

bnnvH  torump-bunes 8 

Hip-bones  higb  and  wide  apart ;  loinit  broad. 

strong 5 

Thighs  flat  and  well  cut  oat 8 

4.  Tail.    Thin,  long,  with  good  awitcb,  nut  coarse  at 

H«tting-on 2 

r,.  Udder  (28) 

Large  nn  and  not  fleihy 6 

BroM.  I*T»I  or  spbaricaf.  not  deeply  cut  betwcee 

teste 4 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


Scale  of  Pdivts  tor  JBtasY  Cattlb,  contlntisd 

for  MB*  Pwfeet 

Kont 
Poroudder  fnll  tind  well  mundivl,  nmniii^  veil 

forward  of  frvnt  teat« 10 

Reur-uddnr  well  ruuniK^d,  lutd  wull  out  am)  up 

kehiud 8 

^  Teats. — Of  gutxl  and  unifonn  Ivnt^h  und  sue,  rtig- 

nlarty  iuid  «quari<ly  placed S 

7.  Hilk  veins  — I,arj;e,  birtiiatui  and  Glaatjc  .   ...      4 
a  Site.     Matur«  C0W8, 800  to  1.000  pnundH  ....      3 

5.  General  appeaiance.— A  tiymTnt-triral  lialunriiig 

of  all  the  putts,  oad  a  proportion  of  [letrXA  to 
i-.irili  c>th(.'r,  ili.'jiottijiii^  iin  nuit  of  nriiriiul,  with 
thi>  ^i-iii^rnl  appearance  of  a  hii^ti-clasa  nnirnal, 
with  (.'iipacity  fur  fuod  and  pr<)dui:tir»nfss  at 
puL 10 

Perfection     100 

For  IniUt  »«-#-,» 

1.  Ue.d  (10)  '^Xi 

Broid,  fncdium  Icn^h ;  fnco  dJahcd;  narrow 
betwif^n  hornn;  hom.i  medium  in  size  And 
iiR'urh'ing 6 

Muulu  Iruaii,  nuBtrilti  upuii,  i;vt.-ti  full  ?nd  liold; 
entire  exproMJon  nne  of  vigor,  resolution  and 
muculinity 6 

2.  Neck.— Hwiiuiu  length,  with  fnll  crest  tti  tna- 

turjtjr ;  cle&n  at  throat 10 

3.  Body  (hi) 

Lont;  capacity,  as  indicat«d  hy  d«pth  and  br«adth 

tliriiti^li  bi%,  juMt  liuck  of  font  obituldera; 

■houldem  full  and  stronj; IB 

Barrel  Ido^,  of  goud  dcgith  and  Lraadth,  with 

BtronK,  well-flpranjt  rihs 15 

Back  BtfuLKht  to  hip-bonoH 2 

Rump  of  Kood  Ittn);^  and  pn>pnrtJon  to  siea  of 

body,  and  lev&l  from  hip-Doiie  to  rump-bone  .  7 
Lolna  broiw!  and  Atmn^r:  ^']»  roimdrd,  and  of 

medium  width  compared  with  female  ....  7 
Thighs   rntbi.ir  flut,  wi;ll  cut  Dp   U>hind,  high 

arehod  ftiuik 3 

Ltga  propttrtiiinalQ  to  size  and  of  linxi  quality, 

vivll  upnrt,  ami  not  bo  weave  or  cruttt  in  walk* 

in,^      & 

4.  Rudimentary  teats.~-Well  placed £ 

Ti.  Tail.— Thin,  long,  with  (food  switch,  not  coarae  at 

settlnn-on 4 

6.  Siie.— Matun-  liulln.  1,200  to  l.-'iOO  pounda  ...      f. 

7.  General  appearance. — Thoronghly  maftcalinc  in 

chariu^t<T.  with  a  haraiiinidun  bluading  of  tlie 
parts  (o  each  other;  thurooehiy  robant,  and 
auch  an  animal  as  in  a  hvrd  of  wild  c-attle 
would  lik4>iy  became  nuiatt>r  of  the  herd  by 
the  law  nf  natural  adectjon  and  enrriTal  at 
the  fitt#-8t !.'■ 

PerfecUon     lOO 

The  origin  of  the  Jersey  breed  is  coTijwrttiral, 
but  it  in  probaMy  the  same  as  the  original  breed 
of  Normandy.  The  earlit^tit  vrlters  on  the  cattle  of 
this  Inland  awwrt  that  they  w*re  superior  to  those 
of  Normandy  and  Hrittany.  R*-r.  Philip  Falle  wrote, 
in  17;t4,  "Tiie  r.ittle  on  thia  Uland  are  auperior  to 
the  French."  Thomas  Quaylt-.  in  1812,  asserted  an 
advantage  over  any  nther  breed  in  the  qnantity  and 
quality  of  cream  produced  from  the  consumption  of 
a  given  quantity  of  fuddvr.   Garrard,  in  the  first 


part  of  tht!  Ia«t  century,  gave  the  milk  yield  B8 
three  to  four  gallons  (ler  day,  and  th>t!  butter  yield 
OH  220  to  230  pound*  per  cow  jilt  VL-ar.  According 
to  Inglii!,  the  guiiural  avt-ragc  produced  at  that  time 
was  ten  quarts  of  milk  per  day  and  seven  pounds  of 
butter  per  week. 

No  diBtinct  characteristics  a-^  to  form  and  color 
were  given  by  the  uirlieitt  writers,  except  that  Colo- 
neE  Ia!  ('outeur  irientionB  the  fac^t  that  the  Jersey 
farmer  wa»  content  to  pussetiM  an  ugly,  ill-formed 
ajiinial  with  flat  siden,  cat-hammed,  narrow  and 
high  hips,  with  a  hoUow  bai'^k,  yet  ever  possessing  a 
lively  eye,  round  barrel, deep  cheat,  short,  tine,  deer- 
like limbs  and  a  tine  tail.  (Fig.  34j.)  Nor  do  any  of 
the  writers  give  the  reason  why  the  Jersey  was 
BOperior  to  other  breeiiK,  until  the  article  by 
Colonel  1.6  Cotitcur  appeared  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Knglaiid,"  in  184.'!, 
In  thin  article  Colonel  I.*  Couteur  says  :  "The  Jer- 
sey cow  waa  excellent  as  phe  has  ever  bwn,  which 
haa  bticn  atVribntiM  to  the  circumstance  of  a  few 
farmers  having  constantly  attended  to  raising  stock 
from  cows  of  the  best  milking  qualities,  which  at^ 
tention,prosoc«teti  for  a  long  number  of  years  in  a 
small  country  like  our.'*,  where  such  Bui>tsri«r  quali- 
tit'3  would  sunn  l>e  known,  led  to  the  excellence  of 
milk-  and  butter-yielding  qualities  in  the  race. 
This  never  could  have  been  secured  80  generally  in 
Normandy,  from  whence  our  bre*d  probably  origi- 
nated, or  in  any  other  extended  country."  We  may 
assume,  then,  that  the  breed  owes  its  [wrnliar  qual- 
ities to  an  evolution  of  persisti^nt  breeding  to  per- 
petuate and  accentuate  distinctive  qualities,  and  to 
the  excluHion  of  all  other  cuttle  from  the  Island. 
The  method  of  tethering,  which  has  always  pro- 
vailed  on  the  Island,  may  hav*;  had  its  influence. 

An  organized  attempt  was  made  to  give  a  fixed 
beauty  of  form  to  the  Jersey  about  11^3.%  when, 
gays  Colonel  lie  Couteur,  "A  few  gentlemen  aelected 
two  beautiful  cows  with  the  best  qualities  aa  models. 
One  watt  held  to  be  iierfect  in  her  barrel  and  fore- 
quarters,  the  other  equally  so  in  her  hind -quarters. 
From  these  two,  a  scale  of  points  was  laid  down  to 
be  the  rale  for  governing  the  judges  at  the  cattle 
shows  of  the  Jersey  Agricultwral  Society." 

At  an  early  period,  stc-(ifl  were  taken  to  keep  the 
breed  pure  by  preventing  outside  cattle  coming 
into  the  Island,  and  in  ITt^J  an  act  wu  passed 
which  has  jiince  been  rigidlv  enforced,  and  supple- 
mented by  the  further  acts  of  1789. 1826.  1861  and 
1878,  prohibiting  the  landing  of  cattle  on  the  Island 
except  for  the  purpose  of  sl,T.ughter.  Even  before 
thti  enactment  of  laws,  the  purity  of  the  cattle  was 
maintained  by  the  persistence  with  which  the  Jer- 
seyman  clung  to  his  own  breed.  Kvery  effort  to 
introduce  other  cattle, even  from  Kr  gland,  has  been 
invjiriably  rendered  futile  by  the  inhabitant*. 

The  Royal  Jersey  Agricultural  and  Ilorticnlloral 
Society,  organized  in  1833.  has  l>een  one  of  the 
chief  means  of  improving  the  general  character  of 
the  brood  on  the  Island,  and  of  developing  its 
Fainablc  dairy  qualities.  In  1830,  the  Society 
recommended  that  one  superior  bull  be  kept  in  each 
parish,  and  that  encoarageroeRt  be  ^ven  to  keep 
Gnt-rate  heifers  in  thd  Island,  as  the  high  prices 


CATTIoE 


ffn,E 


offend  wera  Ftron;:  temptations  to  export  them. 
In  ISte,  it  enacted  at  least  two  new  rules.  One 
was  to  the  effect  that  any  perflon  withholiling  the 
senricee  of  a  prize  liull  from  the  public  should  for- 
feit the  premium  ;  the  other  wa-s  that  all  hwifers 
bavinf;  prumiumii  adjudged  to  thtsm  should  be  kept 


FlC  3M.    Imparted  Jersey  buD.    Guenon'ti  LmI  M42a. 

on  the  Island  until  they  shall  have  dropped  their 
drat  calf.  If  prevlouaty  sold  for  exportation,  they 
shall  forfeit  the  premium. 

In  1853.  the  Society  iwgan  to  recounizw  tha 
fact  that  it  was  unw'se  to  ship  out  of  the  Island 
the  best  cattle,  and  urged  the  breeders  against 
itellint;  their  best  stock  to  be  taken  from  the  T.<«land. 
In  1802,  the  Society  reports,  "To  a  very  consider- 
able extent,  thu  hu^inefut  of  the  society  \ti  limited 
txi  the  improvemtmt  of  our  insular  race  of  cattle, 
which  in  iteelf  i»  of  thi;  hijihest  importance.  We. 
therefore,  wish  to  impress  an  observation  on  those 
who  .tlndy  the  improvement  of  their  stock— beauty 
of  symmetry  alone  can  not  ever  be  the  acme  of 
perfection.  The  latter  can  bo  obtained  only  when 
goodn*".**  and  ht-auty  are  equally  combined."  "It  is 
an  etttablishtKi  fact  that  the  renown  which  the  Jer- 
sey cow  enjoys  is  attributable  to  the  peculiar  rich- 
nasB  of  its  milk,  as  well  as  it)  its  docility  of  temper 
ind  neatness  of  form.  N'ow,  as 
thia  richneKi  is  not  so  marked 
in  some  Apecitneos  as  it  is  in 
otherit,  it  becomm  advis^able  to 
makuHUch  neluctioni'  in  breeding 
as  will  ensure  furth«r  amidiora- 
tion  in  this  must  essential  arnl 
highly  important  point." 

Up  to  ISW).  there  appears  to 
have  l«en  little  attention  paid 
to  the  quantity  of  milk  whitth 
the  Jersey  (tave.  The  (|iiality  of 
milk  and  the  quantity  O'f  butter 
and  beauty  of  form  stsum  to 
have  been  the  only  points  which 
tbo  breeders  had  considered, 
up  to  that  time.  Itut,  in  that 
year,  a  committee  of  the  Agri- 
cultural .<uciuly  of  Jeniey  urf^ 
that  thu  Jeraey  br«>eiler  should 
pay  groater  attention  t-.)  the 
■nilk-prodocing  qQalities  of  tlio 


COW,  and  that  every  cow  witii  the  least  tendeBcy 
to  deficiency  in  'luuntity  of  milk  should  be  weedM 
out,  and  sug;;cistL-d  that  the  judges  especially  oon- 
aider  thia  in  awarding  prizes.  It  will  ha  seen,  ther^ 
fore,  that  the  Jersey  has  l>eon  bred  for  quantity  of 
milk  for  only  alK>ut  forty  years.  It  w:i»  in  the 
seventies  that  it  btK:ame  the  fashion,  both 
in  England  and  America,  to  select  solid* 
colored  Jerwrys  with  black  pnintu,  and  for 
Home  time  this  color  craze  had  a  detrimcn- 
tal  influence  on  the  breed.  But  it  appears 
that  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Jersey, 
ever  watchful  of  the  future  interests  of 
the  breed,  condemned  this  color  craze,  and. 
in  1373,  it  reports,  "Let  henceforth  such 
fanciful  ideas  as  black  tails  and  black 
tonj^es  be  estimated  at  their  proper  value, 
but  let  the  Large  and  rich  yield  of  milk  be 
ever  the  breeder's  ambition  to  procure." 

The  Jersey  herdbook  was  started  in 
186^,  and  it  has  undoubtedly  had  a  marked 
influence  on  the  improvement  of  the  cattle 
in  the  Island.  In  America  or  in  England, 
an  animal  may  be  regii^tered  ait  soon  as 
bom,  if  ita  .sire  and  dam  are  registered,  or  are  ca- 
pable of  being  registered.  On  the  Island,  however. 
inspection  is  made  a  conditional  precedent  to  regia- 
teriiig.  Tile  following  are  necessary  conditions  to 
registration : 

(1)  Every  animal  must  be  inspected  by  compe- 
tent judges,  and,  if  it  is  considered  fit.  it  obtains  a 
qualification,  n:;mely,  commended  or  highly  eom.- 
mende-d. 

(2)  Every  hull  submitted  for  qualilication  must 
bu  accompanied  by  hiss  dam,  in  order  that  the 
merits  of  the  latter  may  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion in  awarding  a  commendation  to  the  farmer. 

(3)  No  heifer,  although  she  may  be  descended 
from  registere<l  parents,  can  be  entered  in  the 
herdbook  until  she  has  had  a  calf,  and  if  at  the 
time  of  her  examination  she  is  a  poor  milker,  she 
receives  no  commendation. 

It  will  readily  be  seen,  therefore,  that  by  the 


\l 


•«. 


.-  .y. 


t:^£:ii^h*»S 


ieiwy 


cow.     Brawii  B«M*U,  cJtauniitnD  vow  of  all  br««<(l«  •!  WovU't 
C*huUMi  EitnsliloB.lM. 


364 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


methmL  nf  recistralifin  on  thi^  WifunA  of  Jersey,  not 
only  thie  ijwlitireu  can  ba  trai'ed  but  Jt  can  be  aacer- 
taiiied  whettiLT  the  dams  anil  eirtia  for  {fenerations 
Iwek  have  been  commended  or  highly  cnmmemlwi 
by  the  commwsionRd  jndgefl.  Theso  c<«nmi'nilaU»ns 
are  shown  in  iHHji(rn>B  by  the  letter  C.  if  commended, 
and  by  the  leLLwrs  //.  (\  if  hi(;;]ily  cominemled. 

JiTfiey  cattlv  ware  imporUid  into  Ensland  as 
early  as  ISSi'i,  and  in  larj^u  numbLTs  in  the  forti<;s. 
Profeaaor  L.  \V.  Low,  in  184ri|  snyj*.  "Thecow«.Tre 
imported  into  England  in  considerabSe  n»n»l>erH. 
and  are  esteemed  beyond  th«ie  of  any  other  race 
for  the  richnetw  tif  timir  milk  and  the  deep  yellow 
cfdor  nf  their  hutt^r." 

In  Amrrim.—hnpftHatlan  into  Amprica began  in 
IStiO.  In  that  year  twelve  aiiimiLli:;  wltb  imported 
undtT  the  auspices  of  a  club  of  farmers  organized 
fur  the  puqiose.  Only  prize  winners  were  pur- 
chasejt.  The  bull  "Spipn<len8"  was  in  this  impnrta- 
tion,  and  ho  pnivpii  tn  l>e  a  verj'  valuable  animal. 
Other  i mjKirtatinnn  f(dl»wed  in  the  tiftii-M,  iniistly 
to  Ccinneetlout,  MaKHiluhuHettH,  New  .Tersey  and 
New  York,  and  frmn  ISfiO  to  1S90,  importatiuns 
were  nunieromi  and  to  nearly  every  part  of  the 
United  States.  Moru  than  two  thousand  head  a 
year  were  imported  year  after  year.  Again,  from 
about  lyOO  tf>  tho  present  time,  many  importatidnn 
have  been  made.  Tn  fact,  8o  nnnientusly  have 
Jersey  cattle  been  imported  and  no  rapidly  have 
they  increased  in  AmtTiea,  that  tliey  outnumU-r 
the  Jerseys  on  tlu^  Island  or  any  other  breed  of 
dairy  cattle  in  this  country,  and  they  have  been  bo 
largely  used  for  grading,  that  the  Jersey  character- 
istics* are  seen  everywhere  dairy  cows  are  kept. 

Dittributiott. 

The  Jepwy  is  very  widely  distribuU'd,  due  to  its 
wide  nthiptnlion  to  cimflitions.  As  has  been  said,  it 
itt  scattered  through  the  United  Stati's  and  I'anada. 
Kngland,  France.  New  Zealand,  Aut^tralia  and  many 
other  countries  can  boast  of  large  herds. 

Fading  and  ixirt. 

Jeri^eys  have  a  capacity  of  assimilnting  lar^ 
c|iiantities  of  food  und  may  be  forced  t^)  advantage 
when  in  full  flow  uf  milk,  as  all  extra  food,  in  auch 
case,  is  converted  into  milk.  When  the  milk-flow 
begins  to  slacken,  the  food  shnnid  he  reduced, 
especially  the  cnnrentrates.  The  Jeweys  are  large 
eaters  of  mughagt;  and  Huciculent  feedH,  as  roots. 

A  goixi  average  daily  ratiun  fur  a  Jersey  that  is 
giving  forty  poundd  of  miik  a  dny  ia  as  follows  : 

RoiniliMIB       CMiPrnlrNtet 

Alfalfa,  gr  clover  bay    .   .    .  20  Ibe. 

Carnftilagt) 12   " 

Wheat  bran 3  lbs. 

Com  Rieul a   " 

Ground  oatH 1    " 

Oil  meal 2    " 

Glntsn  feed 6    " 

CottonBced  meal (  " 

Total 82  Ua       .      16ft]to. 

On  the  Island  the  method  of  caring  for  the  cow» 
hubeen  the  same  for  nearly  two  hundred  years. 


In  the  summer  they  are  tethered  In  meadows  and 
pastures,  and  in  the  winter  arc  warmly  housed  at 
night.  The  same  care  ithould  be  taken  in  the  man- 
agement of  JerseyR  in  thin  country.  They  should 
have  plenty  of  pfiptwre  to  run  on  in  the  summer, 
and  they  snauM  not  be  confmiMl  in  the  winter  in 
day-tiraii  except  in  very  cold  and  incleHieiiL 
weather.  They  shonld  be  treated  kindly,  as  they 
have  ever  been  on  the  Island.  Nervous  cows  should 
be  excluded  from  the  hen),  as  well  as  those  giving 
Kmal!  c)uantitieH  of  milk,  and  those  not  persiftlent 
in  their  milk. 

At  one  lime  the  Jersey  waw  iiiippoced  to  t>e  deli- 
cate, but  the  Amtrican  brFwl  of  cows  at  this  time 
seems  to  ht>  constitutionally  as  strong  as  any  other 
dairy  breed,  and  not  more  sulijoct  to  disease  than 
other  cattle,  with  pos.sibly  the  exception  of  milk 
fever.  Bnt  since  the  oxygen  treatment  for  Ihia 
dineaiv  has  been  n.^ed,  this  heret<-fore  dreaded 
ntHtctiun  need  net  longer  be  considerei]  a  dangerous 
d  i»eaHe. 

I'seg. 

/Wr  nUk  and  butitr.  —  For  many  years  the 

Jersey  was  ha-d  almost  exclusively  for  its  bntter- 
prcMlucing  quolities.  Many  private  and  official  but- 
ter tests  have  been  published,  giving  phen)»menal 
yields  nf  butter.  As  the  result  of  the^^e  tests,  eo- 
called  familitw  of  .lerseys  have  sprung  up,  ae  the 
St.  Lamhert,  the  Signal,  the  rombinatior,  the  Vic- 
tor, the  Tdrmentor.  But  a  carefnl  review  of 
authenticated  tests,  and  especially  the  resuttfi  uf 
the  oflicial  teats  at  the  World's  Columbian  and  at 
the  l-ouisiana  l*«rL'hfliie  Expositions,  show  that  the 
excellence  ia  inherent  in  the  breecl  generally,  and 
is  not  confined  to  any  particular  line  ur  lines  of 
breeding.  Of  late  years,  much  attL-ntion  has  been 
paid  in  the  nrifedingof  .lersvys  for  niilk-prodnction 
aa  Well  aa  for  hotter,  and  for  beauty  of  form,  with 
excellent  results.  Jerseys  giving  four  to  five  gal- 
lons of  milk  perday  are  not  rare  in  most  hpnis,  and 
such  cows  are  noted  for  jHTsistence  in  milking. 
Records  are  given  of  individual  cows  giving  10,(KJ0, 
12,000,  and  even  morn  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year. 

Very  interesting  are  thi+  riaulta  from  the  dairy 
test  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  at 
Chicago  in  18iW,  and  the  cow-demnnstration  tests 
at  the  Louisiana  Turchase  Rxpnftition  at  St.  I/onis, 
in  ItlOI.  In  both  instanci-s  the  cnws  were  selw!«l 
and  cared  for  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club, 
and  it  may  be  nutsumed,  therefore,  that  the  best 
cows  in  the  breed  available  at  that  time  were 
selected  in  each  case.  The  tt-st  waa  conducted  in 
each  instance  by  a  committee  of  the  Association 
of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment 
Stations.  The  results  show  that  the  Jersey  cows 
can  assimvlate  a  large  quantity  of  foixl,  give 
four  to  five  g.ilbin.s  of  rich  milk  per  day,  ami  that 
they  are  persu^tent  milkers  ;  and  if  conclusions  can 
be  drawn  from  compariaon  of  the  two  tests,  each 
with  the  same  numher  of  cows,  selected  in  the  same 
manner,  and  undor  like  conditions,  it  is  that  in 
eleven  years  the  Jerseys  have  increased  largely  in 
flow  of  milk,  and  in  the  production  of  butter. 

The  rwordsof  the  Jerseys  in  the  ninety-day  test 


366 


r 


al  ths  World's  Columbian  Ex|iasitti)n  ut  Chicago. 
Jnaft-Augtut  'JS,  18B3,  give  the  foilowin);KutDmary 
of  remits  for  the  twenty-fiT«  cows  entered  : 

TnUl  Itn,  A*«mtep9r  TotAl 

milk  m^fii  fAl  lb«.  hnii^r 

GnoiA  toUl  .....  73.4HS.8  4.784+  3,516.1 

Av«r«8e  P^rcCKW  .    ,    .    2,&n9.6  4.794+  l-IO.S 

DBiljravvrngL' porcuvr  .         H'lM  .   .  l.uQ 

Most  of  the  cows  had  been  in  milk  one  to  thrw 
monthfl,  and  one  at  leant  five  months  i>ri<jr  to  thu 
bepinninj,'  of  the  t«st. 

Thi*  records  of  the  Jerseys  in  the  120-da7  cow- 
demnnatration  test  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Ex- 
position at  St.  Louia.  June  IC^.tot'jlwr  13.  1904. 
give  th«  following  summary  of  results  for  the 
twenty-five  cows  entered  : 

Tntftl  Jbn.     Pnr**nt    Lhtt.ct        Lb«,  «r 
mitk  of  fat  fnl  bntirt 

CrandtoUl  .  .  .  124,624.2  4.688+  5,810.7  6^1.6 
Toial  aviTJijic  i»t 

cow 4^1.0    4.666^       232.4         273.7 

Daily  Rverjige  p«r 

cow 41.B       .  .  1.9  2.3 

The  cows  averaf^  sixty-nine  dayv  in  lactation 
at  the  time  the  demonetration  beicar,  so  in  reality 
at  the  cloBe  of  the  test,  the  cows,  on  nn  average, 
had  been  in  milk  nearly  six  months.  The  Jersey* 
not  only  gave  over  forty  poandit  of  milk  per  day. 
hot  the,  milk  was  the  richest  of  any  in  butter-fat, 
averaging  4.7  per  cent,  or  an  average  of  more  than 
two  pounds  of  butter  per  day  for  eaich  cnw,  msking 
n  total  of  274  pounds  in  120  d»y.^.  In  the  two 
months  in  which  they  were  milked  i>riur  to  tlie 
beginning  of  the  test,  they  «liould  have  produced 
nboot  the  aame  amount  of  butter  in  proportion  to 
the  time  as  they  hnd  during  the  te.'it,  which  would 
give  an  average  for  e-ach  cow  for  six  months  of 
4l0i  pounds  of  butter.  When  it  is  remvmlH?re<l 
that  the  average  dairy  cow  give^  h-ss  than  2.'i0 
poands  of  lutter  per  year,  these  rt-'s'nltft  swm  all 
the  more  remarkable.  These  results  were  ohtained 
without  fef^ling  the  c<nv«  to  thirir  fnll'f.st  capacity 
and  withr>tit  wjtbilrawing  a  single  cow  Ixvause  of 
sieknww.  They  were  fijd  on  a  profitable  banis,  ench 
cow  eaniinji  over  coat  of  feed  nearly  $40,  or  a 
daily  profit  of  Ali  cents. 

It  U  interesting  to  compare  results  during  the 
firat  and  laat  part  of  the  te.'^t  for  the  purjioAe  of 
showing  the  persistency  of  pnidiiction  and  pndur- 
ftDCe.  During  tlie  tinit  ten  days  **(  thi^  Uvt,  the 
Jerseys  gavt-  10,942  pounds  of  milk,  or  an  aveniKi- 
per  cow  pur  day  of  43.8  pounds  ;  average  {R-r  ct-nt 
of  fat  in  the  milk,  4.25  ;  total  [Hnunila  of  fut,  4(Jfi, 
or  an  average  per  cow  per  day  of  i.SB  pounds. 
During  the  last  ten  days  they  g;tve  9,:^A2  pounds 
(if  milk,  an  average;  i>f  37..'i  pounds  per  cow  ;  aver- 
age jier  Cent  of  fat  in  the  milk,  5.13 ;  total  amount 
of  fat  4S1.1  pnundw,  or  an  averajce  per  cow  per  day 
of  1,92  pounds.  While  the  cows  decreased  in  flow 
of  milk,  they  inereatMHl  both  in  percentage  and 
amount  of  fat,  and  a  general  improvement  in  the 
pr»Mluctive  capmtity  of  the  .lerwya  is  indicated  by 
a  coinpurisun  of  the  two  test^. 

fbriiArt'w.— The  high  butt*rr-fat  content  of  Jersay 
milk  adapts  it  especially  to  the  production  of  high- 


claw  Cheew.  At  th@  World's  Columbian  Exposition 
it  was  spvm  first  place  over  the  Guernsey  and  the 
Shorthorn  in  acheese-makmgtest.  T3ie  demand  for 
Jersey  milk  for  the  rutail  trade  and  for  butter-mak- 
ing allows  but  lltlie  of  it  to  be  made  into  cheese. 

Fur  Urf.  The  Jeriey  is  not  pretended  to  be  a 
beef-produeer.  The  meat  is  of  Rood  quality  but  is 
olT  in  color.  The  Jersey  dresses  out  too  small  a 
percentage  of  marketable  meat,  compared  with  the 
beef  tireeds,  to  adapt  it  to  the  batcher's  block. 

FifT  ffrailing.—Tiiii  Jersey.'*  have  been  much  used 
for  grading  on  native  cows  tn  iiicrea.>w  milk- and 
butter-production.  Curefully  a-lected  bulls  may  be 
used  for  thi»  purjfOtH}  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

Organizations  and  reeords. 

The  two  organiiations  which  have  done  so  much 
for  the  development  of  the  Jersey  are  the  Royal 
Jersey  .Agricultural  and  Hnrticuitunil  Society, 
organized  in  1833.  and  the  American  Jersey  Cattle 
Club,  orgaaized  in  1868.  with  offices  at  No.  H  West 
Seventeenth  »treet,  New  York.  In  1S66,  the  first 
herdbook  of  the  island  Society  apjieared.  Eighteen 
volumes  have  been  published  to  diUe,  The  .Associa- 
tion of  Breeders  of  Thoroughbred  Neat  SU«k,  the 
first  orgiLntzation  in  .America  In  care  for  the  breed, 
],)uldtyhe<l  six  volumes  of  The  .American  Jersey  Hurd- 
hook,  the  last  volume  being  ijwued  in  1.S78. 

The  .American  Jersey  Cattle  Club  has  done  much 
to  develop  and  keep  the  btood  of  the  Jersey  pure  in 
this  country.  The  Club  registers  only  such  animals 
in  its  herd  register  as  can  be  traced  ilirectly  to  the 
island  of  Jersey.  There  hiive  been  sixly-three  vol- 
umes of  the  register  published,  bringing  the  records 
and  i>ediKree«  fur  balls  up  to  74,U-H).  and  for  cows, 
up  to  \m.OW.  To  January  21.  190S,  7K,Kfi5  bulls 
and  212,515  cows  had  been  registered  on  the  hooks 
of  the  clerk.  It  isestimat<ii  that  there  are  120,000 
registiired  cattle  alive  in  the  United  Statett  today, 
beaidea  hundreds  of  thousands  of  grades.  The  Jer- 
sey Bulletin,  published  at  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  is 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  development  of  the  Jersey 
cow. 

Other  organijiations  are  the  English  Jersey  Cattle 
Society  and  the  New  Zealand  Jersey  Cattle  Breed- 
ers' Association.  The  former  ha.i  publi.shed  seven- 
teen volumes  of  ita  berdbook  ;  the  lutter,  orgnnixed 
in  1903.  has  publishetl  one  volume  of  its  herdbood. 

Litfratttrf, 

John  Thomttm,  History  of  the  Rri-t'd  of  Jersey 
Cattle,  Jers^jy  Biillttin,  Vol.  I  (IKS3);  Hl.ick,  <^uide 
to  Hrittany  (IK73):  Report  of  Highland  and  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  Kdinburgh,  18TS:  Colonel  Le 
CoiitiMir,  On  the  Jersey.  Misnamed  Alderney  Cow, 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Kng- 
land.  Vol.  5  ( 1X45):  C.  P.  U  Comu,  The  Agricul- 
ture of  the  Iidanda  of  Jerspy,  iluernsey,  Alderney 
and  Sark,  Journal  of  the  Roval  .Agrieultural  Society 
of  England,  Vol.  'M  (IS.-,9):  ErneiH  Mathi-ws,  Tlio 
Jersey  Cow,  Little  Shardeloea.  Amersham,  Hacks ; 
John  S.  T.inalev,  Jersev  t'attle  in  .America,  New 
York  (I8R.1);  W.  P.  Hpizard.  The  Jersey,  Alderney 
and  Guernsey  Cow,  Philadelphia  (1872).  [Sew  altu 
page  302.] 


866 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


Oxen.   Figs.  U,  16.  Vol.  I.  Figs.  126. 127, 178. 

By  a  S.  riumb, 

Tbu  wurd  ox^n  as  used  in  the  United  States  w 
gBBerally  andi^rstood  to  wfor  to  mature,  caatratod 
male  cattle  ust-d  for  draught  purposes.  The  tenn 
steer  is  more  commonly  applied  to  castrated  male 
cattle  fed  for  fmHl  only.  In  Rurci[K>  and  in  New 
England,  the  word  stufr  applit^a  ti>  aiiimalH  not  of 
full  maturity.  In  FViyfllaiid  it  in  applim!  tu  all  bulls. 
The  word  tix  may  bo.  and  i»,  property  applied  to 
cattlo  in  f^uncral,  altbougfa  not  xtsually  so  used. 

Hiftory  of  the  witf  of  oxtn. 

Oxen,  as  Ixsiiafe  of  burden,  have  been  used  for 
centuripa.  In  Kildtral  time»  the  ox  wafl  tined  to 
tnsoA  utit  the  fjam  at  thriBHliing  time,  and  to  haul 
burdena.  In  varioua  parts  of  the  world,  where 
domestic  animala  have  been  ua^d  to  till  the  soil, 
oxen  havo  been  used  extensively  from  time  imme- 
moriai. 

The  use  of  oxen  for  draught  purposes  in  the 
more  civiliwd  countries  has  gradually  been  on  the 
decline.  In  1781it,  (Jeorife  CuUey,  the  nnted  RnglJoh 
(iUHTkni»n,  in  hi«  "Observations  on  Live  St»xrk," 
wrote  that  mui;h  fewer  stetTs  were  then  kept  to 
bt!  oxt-n  than  waa  formerly  the  case.  Two  reasons 
were  given  for  this  condition  ;  one,  the  increased 
cost  of  land  rent,  and  the  other,  the  greater  slow- 
n«e3  of  oxen  than  hnrses  in  draught  work.  Some 
fifty  years  later,  James  Oiwle,  of  Scotland,  in  a 
prize  eaaay  before  the  Royal  Ajfricultural  Society 
of  England,  on  the  comparative  advantajiea  of 
boraes  and  cattle  in  farm  work,  also  comment*^  on 
the  falling  off  in  the  use  of  cattle  for  farm  work. 
InsnuthL'rn  Kiirope.  in  India  and  Home  other  regions, 
however,  oxen  are  yet  importjint  he,T8ts  of  lalior. 

In  Amfrira,  oxen  have  l>een  naed  more  extensively 
in  New  England  farming  than  eluewhere,  but  in 
locatitiea  where,  (ifty  years  a^o.  yokes  of  oxen 
were  common  on  farms,  they  firo  now  rare.  In 
general,  the  horse  ha.i  repliiced  the  ox.  According 
to  J.  D.  Avery,  in  the  fall  of  1907,  there  were 
exhihited  at  the  Danbiiry  (C(mn.)  fair  approxi- 
miLtely  une  hundred  paint,  including  ail  hrei^da  on 
the  grounds.  There  were  forty  paira  of  Devon«, 
Within  a  year  or  two.  as  many  aa  fifty  to  seventy- 
flve  pairs  of  «:.xen  hnvc  bwn  employed  in  some  of 
the  large  lumber  camps  in  Vermont. 

Ojtcti  vertua  hn-ttt. 

There  are  certain  arguments  in  behalf  of  the 
use  of  oxen  for  labor.  They  are  steady  at  the  yoke, 
sure  of  foot  in  hilly,  rough  regions,  have  great 
draught  power,  and  may  be  nold  to  the  buU:her  at 
a  fair  price  afttT  Wing  fattened,  even  if  eight 
years  or  more  of  age.  Previous  to  the  introduction 
of  horse-shoeing,  the  feet  of  oxen  were  more  dur- 
able than  those  of  horses,  and  .stood  the  wear  of 
labor  better  than  the  feet  of  horaes.  The  chief 
objection  rests  in  their  slowness  and  inudH|)libility 
to  other  work  than  stow  draught.  The  wider  range 
of  ufe  of  the  horse,  with  his  greater  acti\*ity,  has 
resulted  in  the  displacement  of  the  ox  on  the  farm 
and  in  most  lumber  camps,  when  oxen  at  one  time 


were  very  popular.  Cowie,  in  commenting  on  the 
relative  value  of  nxen  and  horses  wriU*» :  "The 
farm  which  I  o<;riipy  hax  lieen  tenanted  by  my 
ancBHtors  for  many  generatloDH.  At  the  time  of 
the  Kevolnlion,  my  great  grandfather,  and  hiii«ons 
for  many  yearn  after  that,  employed  twelve  work- 
ing horsefl  and  twenty-eight  workiog  oxen,  one- 
half.of  each  set  lieing  yoked  to  one  plow.  I  now 
work  the  ^nme  land  to  better  parpose,  I  prettume, 
with  Hix  hordes  and  two  oxen." 

Brted*  of  cattle  for  oxen. 

The  different  breeds  of  cattle  may  be  wkA  In 
draught  work,  but  some  breeds  seem  much  better 
suited  to  the  purpose  than  others.  Devon  oxen 
have  long  been  famous  in  England  and  In  New 
England,  showing  much  activity  in  the  yoke,  and 
being  kniiwn  aa  the  quickeKt  walkers  in  Rngland. 
Hert'forda  are  altio  noted  for  draught  use,  while  in 
8n.s8ex,  Kni;land,  the  cattle  of  thia  county  have 
been  regarded  as  of  exceptional  merit  for  labor. 
.Simmt'nthaler  oxen  (Fig.  16)  are  worthy  of  special 
mention.  In  America,  Devon."*,  Herefords,  Short- 
horns and  Hiil.<ttein>Frie9iaR8  were  used  con.«tder- 
ahly  for  draught  work. 

Handling  oxtn. 

While  oxen  may  be  broken  in  to  work  when  two 
years  of  age,  or  thereaboats,  they  are  not  regarded 
as  suited  for  hard  work  before  four  years  of  a^. 
Training,  however,  may  well  be  begun  early. 

There  are  variouH  contrivances  for  hitching  op 
working  oxen,  but  the  customary  one  i«  by  means 
of  a  yoke,  with  two  animalu  abreast.  The  yoke 
consists  of  a  wooden  main  piece  resting  on  the  tops 
of  the  nwks.  with  two  wooden  bows  placed  about 
the  necks,  with  the  enda  of  the  bows  inserted  up 
through  the  yoke  and  fastened  by  pina  or  otherwise. 
At  the  center  of  the  yoke,  by  means  of  a  staple  and 
ring,  the  wagon  poitj  or  plow  chain  may  W  faal- 
entSl.  There  are  also  other  methods  of  fastening  or 
harnessing.  In  Spani.'^h  countries  the  oxen  are  fast* 
cned  at  the  horns  with  straps  and  thnngs,  making 
a  very  undesirable  attachment  to  the  line  of  draught. 
In  times  p:wt  in  England,  various  forms  of  hnrneaa- 
ing  have  been  used,  in  which  bridltyi,  lines,  and  tug 
straps  have  fonned  a  part. 

The  driving  of  oxen  is  usually  conducted  with  so 
ox-g'iad  or  whip  with  a  long  lash.  The  terms,  "gee," 
meaning  right,  and  "haw."  meaning  left,  are  amd 
in  driving.  Oxen  readily  turn  l^i  the  direction  indi- 
catei],  and  back  or  go  ahead  by  the  Haroe  inatroc- 
tion*  as  are  usually  given  hor^^os.  The  ox-good  fn 
the  hands  of  the  driver,  very  lightly  used,  with  ihe 
aid  tif  the  terms  above  indicat*-d.  will  enable  the 
driver  of  a  yoke  of  cattle  to  go  through  or  around 
very  considerable  obstacles. 

Oxen  are  shod  with  a  flat  piece  nf  iron  on  each 
sole  of  the  divided  hoof.  One  of  the  familiar  aighta 
of  the  writer's  boyhood,  was  a  blacksmith  shop, 
with  special  frame,  where  many  oxen  were  shod. 

[For  additional  information  about  these  cattle 
the  reader  should  consult  the  articles  on  Devon, 
Hereford,  Holstein  -  Friosian.  Shorthorn,  Simmeo- 
thaler  and  Suawx  cattle.] 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


387 


Ked  PoUed  Cattle.   Figa.  49,  3S2,  383. 

B>   U,  A.    Martin. 

Red  Polled  ciittW  an>  a  dual-purfiose  breed,  rank- 
ing very  highly  in  both  milk*  and  buitor-production. 

Dexriplioa. 

Id  gttDeral,  the  bull  is  strong,  impresnive,  low-eet 
and  of  good  carriage,  ami  weighs  1.800  to  2,000 
pouRiiii,  when  matiiFR  and  fintifiii^.  The  cow  w  of 
DitKlium  wiflije-form,  low-si^t,  with  tii[i  and  bottom 
lines  atrainht,  wxcejit  at  tlank,  am!  weiclift  l.SOO 
to  1,">00  pounds  when  mature  and  finished.  The 
following  fltandiird  of  perfuction,  adoptod  by  the 
Red  Polled  Cattlw  C'lob  of  America,  shows  what  is 
desirable  and  andesirahle  in  the  breed. 

SCALR  OP  Points  ?m  Rko  Pollbb  Cattle 

For  eoujt 

■jtBto4EiAi.iFiCATiirH8A— Rcnra,  or  any  cvldijnr*  whatever 
wTshornj'  growth  on  tb«  b*ad.  Any  white  spwU  on  body 
■bore  lower  lino  or  bnuil)  of  Intl.  p«rr««t 

neoro 

1.  Color. — Any  shade  of  rvtl,  ThofiwitcJi  of  tailand 
B<!(l«r  may  b»t  white,  with  nomo  wbiU>  running 
foTward  to  the  auvel  Ncmd  nf  a  riear  fl«t^ 
cfllor.  Inlcrior  of  ann  nhodld  bo  of  a  yclltiw- 
ish,  waxy  vulur 2 

Objtftioiu:  An  extr«'ina  diirk  or  nn  extreme 
liffht  red  i*  Dot  deairublo.  A  cbudy  nose  or 
uno  ¥rith  durk  spots. 

2.  Bead.—Of  RHdiam   I«ni^h,  wide  bctWMO  tb« 

eyes,  aloptne  gradually  from  alxive  eyoa  to  poll. 
Th*  poll  w»ll  d^rtncd  nrd  proinii;<^nt.  with  a 
sharp  dip  behind  it  in  centi^r  of  h«ad,  Kara  of 
modium  nitc  and  well  carriH.  Eye*  proniU 
aent ;  fai't-  wi4I  liiahi^-J  lo-twetiTi  the  lyea.    Mua- 

lle  wiilv,  wilt)  liir)£<i  nnxtriU 6 

Objtetiom:  A  rounding  or  flat  appearance 
of  the  [tull.  Hl'sA  Loo  lang  and  narruw 
Z.  Week.  —Of  medium  lunfilh.  cl»an  cut.  and  titraijzht 
from  bead  to  top  of  sbonldur  with  inultnalion 
to  arch  wbnn  fs(t«aed,  and  may  fkov  folds  of 
loosp  akin  undemMitfa  when  in  milkint;  form  .      3 

4.  Shoutder.  — Of  m<)dlum  thii-knoju  and  nmooLhly 

laid,  comioK  up  lurcl  with  line  of  back     ...      6 

ObjtrtioTur  Shoaldcr  too  prominont,  giving 
the  app«aranc«  of  weakne«a  in  heart  girth ; 
sfanulder  [in/truding  above  )ini>  of  baiTk. 

5.  Cheel.  -Broad  and  deep,  inauriiig  cunjtilation. 

BriflkBl  pnuminent  and  cominEwiill  furward  .  .  10 
€.  Back  and  rlba.— Back  cntHJJum  Ionic,  atroiicbl 
and  level  from  withers  to  soltinK-on  of  tail, 
ni(Ndi'rau>ly  wid*.  wilh  spring  of  Hba  starting 
from  the  back-bnne,  innnK  a  roaodinK  appear- 
ance, with  ribs  flat  and  fairly  wid«  Apart  ...    14 

Objtetioiu:  Front  riba  too  straight,  caufting 
deprMNtnn  bark  r>f  ahviuldc-n.  Drop  in  back  or 
loin  below  the  top- line. 

7.  Hips. — Widf,  rounding  over  th«  hnoVs,  and  well 

covered     3 

8.  puartera.-  Of  good  length,  foil,  rounding  and 

level ;  thichs  wide,  roomy  and  not  too  in«aty  .      6 

Objeelioiu:  Prominent  hooka  and  aunken 
aiiart<>r«. 

9.  Tall. — Tail-head  KtronK  and  aettlne  well  forwnrd. 

longand  tnperine  to  a  foil  awitch 2 

10.  Laga.-  f^hort.  Hlraight.  aquarvly  placed,  tn«diiiia 

banm S 

O^tetioiui:  Ilncka  orookad;  Wga  plaoftd  too 
aloHi  together. 


poK  Rrd  ?ouS!D  Cattu.  continaed 

Far   Wirt                                    tVrfw* 
«M>re 
U.  For«-nddtt.  — Full    and   flL-xible,   mathing   wbIJ 
forward,    eitending    down    level    with    hind* 
udder  ...  10 

12.  Hind-adder.— Full  and  well  up  behind    ....    10 

13.  Teata  — Well  placed,  wide  apart  aad  of  reasona- 

bly good  aixe 4 

(ybjeeiiont:  Lack  of  development,  efipecialty 
in  forward  udder.  I'dder  loo  deep,  "bottle 
ahaped"  and  tealt<  imi  cloae  together.  Toata 
unevenly  placed  and  cither  too  largo  or  too 
umall. 

11.  Billc  veins. —Of  medium  sia.-.  full,  flexible, 
extending  well  forward,  well  ri<t&ined  within 
the  body  ;  milk  wvlla  of  medhun  siie    ....      6 

16.  Bide. — Ijonse,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thick- 
mas,  wilh  a  ^w"!  full  ('Viit  of  aoft  hair    ...      5 
Objtelwoi;  Tliiu,  pKpi;ry  akin  or  wuy  bair. 

16.  Condition.— Healthy;  moderate  to  liberal  fleah 
evenly  Inid  on:  gfoMty  cout;  animal  prewntod 
in  good  bloom 10 

rerfoctioD 100 

F«r  butU 

Dl3(jTiAl.lPirATtoK3. — Srors,  or  nny  eviilence  what«ver 
of  a  homy  growth  on  the  h.ead.  Any  wfait4  sputa  on  body 
above  luwL°r  line  or  bmah  of  kill.  PnrtfK 

More 

1.  Color.~Any  shadf)  of  red.   The  ewitrh  of  tail 

may  be  white,  with  eotne  whit«  mnning  forward 
lo  Ibe  navel.  Niis*-  i>f  a  cl^ar  fli-dh  colur,  Inlti- 
rirjr  of  «ar«  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy 

color 2 

Oh^eetuftu:  An  rxtrvmedark  or  an  vxtrvmo 
light  red  in  nut  desirable.  A  rioudy  nose  or 
one  with  dark  ii[>i>ta. 

2.  Head. — Wide,  strong  and  masculine,  rolativoly 

sbart   Poll  stronger  and  ieiM  prominent  than 

in  cow.    Eani  of  medium  auto  and  woll  carriird : 

eyes  prominent ;  muxzte  wide  with  large  noa- 

Irilj 12 

Objfctiont:  Long.  Dorrow,  or  lacking    in 

masculini^  chaj  arler. 
H.  Keck  — Of  me<])U[n    Innglh,  full    crest,  of  good 

lhickn«as,  strong,  of  mtLicuUne  appearance  .  .      S 
1.  Sboulder.— Of  mi'dium  thjckneM  and  Rmootbly 

laid,  coming  up  b^vnl  with  line  of  bark     ...      8 
Ohjtetiont-  f^houlder  t4Mt  prominent,  giving 

the  appearance  of  t'eakn-«s  in  heart  girth; 

Hbonldf^r  prolmding  above  line  of  bnck. 
A.  Cbeat.  — Broad  and  de<'p,  inKuring  conMitntfon. 

Briaket  promini'nt  and  coming  well  forwani  .    .     12 

6.  Back  and  ribs.— Bark  mHium  long,  straight  and 

level  frfim  witlierfl  to  aettinii-on  ol  tall,  moder- 
al4<Iy  widv.  wilh  npring  uf  ribK  aturting  from 
the  back-bone,  givintt  a  rounding  ap])earanoe, 

wilh  riba  flat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

(Wifniimt:  Front  riba  too  Mrulghl.  causing 
depreiision  bark  of  *bofllden.  Drop  in  back  or 
loin  below  tb«  lup-line. 

7.  Hipa.— Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well 

covered    3 

a  Qaaitera.-  Of  good  length,  fnll.  rounding,  aad 

level :  thighs  wide  and  moderat«)y  foil,  d«ep  .     6 

Objcetion$:  Prominent  hooks,  ionken  qaar- 
tere. 
9.  Tail.— Tiul-hoad  atroi«  aad  Mttii«  well    for- 
ward, lone  '^  tapariag  to  a  fall  switch  ...      2 


968 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


SCALE  or  POIKTS  FOB  liED  POLLBD  CATTLE,  CtmtiBOed 

For  inilh  Pfrfwi 

*tft\Tn 

10.  Lejii. — Short,  straigliL,  squarpljr  placed,  meiliam 

bcnf 3 

Olijettioai:  Hocki  crovked  i  Jogs  placed  too 
eio«c  together. 

11.  Budlmeotarle).— LarKe,  wide  apart,  an^  placed 

well  forward    ...  12 

Pimitian  of  radimt^ntarii's .      6 

OkjrctiotJi :  Hudimont.iries  plaood  bncl!  on 
pcmtuui,  or  [iliicod  tuo  cl>Mt;  tufc-'tlivr,  indkal- 
ing  tcndcBL-y  ti>  cranHmh  bjiiily  fornicyl  uddvnt. 

12.  Hide. — Loosp.  mt-lkiw,  fl«-xlbl«,  iiirlincc!  to  tliick- 

aesB,  with  e.  ^uai  full  cout  of  soft  hair     ...      & 
Objeeliotu :  Thin,  papery  Hkir  or  wiry  hair. 

13.  Coadition.— Healthy :  moduriiU-  to  lilxTnil  Honh 

«venif  Itiid  on;  glostiy  coal:  animal  preA6nt«d 
Id  good  bloom 10 

Pfrfection 100 

HiMcry. 

HornIeB.9  or  polled  cattle  ha^'e  exiflti^i  in  the 
county  nf  Suffolk.  Knglami,  from  time  immemorial. 
The  probability  Ketenitt  Iti  be  that  they  wt-Tii  iDtro- 
(lucBiI  Boon  aflBr  the  RoTtian  occupation.  Utile  saya 
that  thti  j>lhi|j1v  who  svttlod  In  pastom  England 
aftcfr  the  RomuiL&  hiul  gune,  brought  with  them 
slavoa,  thfir  cattle,  and  all  their  live-«t(ick.  Clt- 
tain  it  is  the  hrecd  ha«  existed  in  Sutfolk  M  far 
back  as  we  cnn  trace  the  hiRtwry. 

Of  the  Nurfiilk  strain  of  the  bretfd,  Mr.  H.  F. 
Euren,  in  th«  acirutinl  [ire])an^  for  thi;  liL-rJbook, 
ftsya  :  "The  fdes  of  the  Nurwich  Murcury  sliow 
that  aa  early  aa  the  year  1778,  thorw  wcro  wholv 
dairifs  of  pollt-d  cows  in  Nnrfolk."  In  the  adver- 
tiaitmoDts  of  that  and  sticcc^ing  yeunt,  saiefi  nf 
polled  cows  and  b\illfl  are  BpecJally  referred  Ui. 
Mr.  Mnney  Griggs,  of  Gately,  who  iJiwl  in  1872,  in 
his  huadre<lth  year,  and  who  had  been  for  upwards 


'V. 


Ui' 


f^^ 


i^:-\.-*^ 


/^^.-.-^--'^ 


FU.  »t-    Red  Polled  ban. 

of  eighty  years,  a  ti'nant  of  the  Elmham  estate, 
informed  Mr.  Fulcber.  when  making  im(iiirie8aK  to 
the  bre«d,  that  "from  his  earliest  recolletitiun  Rt-d 
Polled  cattle  had  lieen  kept  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Elmham." 
la  .■Ir/trricu.— Theru  »eema  little  doaht  that  on r 


Bo-called  native  miiley  cowa  are  deacendaDts,  more 
or  lesa  mixed  with  other  .strains,  of  the  Norfolk 
and  Saffoik  cowa  brought  over  by  the  early  emi- 
grants from  that  section.  They  have  been  preserved 
from  extinction  by  the  pcrsintence  of  their  pood 
(ltialitte.1.  The  penniRtence  with  which  the  old  Suf- 
fidk  traits  are  tratiBmitted,  under  what  wonW  seem 
moiSt  adverse  cunilitions,  finds  a  striking  illustratioD 
in  what  were  known  in  M:iA<iBchiit)etL!!  as  James- 
town cattli!.    In  lKt7,  during  the  famine  in  Ireland, 


.c 


Fir.  383.     Red  Polled  cow.     Ulena 

tho  people  of  Boeton  sont  a  shipload  of  provisions 
tn  that  country  to  relieve  the  distress,  .'is  a  slight 
token  of  appreciation,  a  Mr.  Jeffries,  living  rear 
Turk,  prej^ented  to  the  captain  a  SutTolk  jiolted 
heifer.  She  wns  delivcretl  by  him  to  the  donors  of 
the  provifliona,  and  was  sold  at  auction  for  tho 
tK>neAt  of  the  fund.  She  proved  a  remarkably  line 
milker,  and  her  progeny  (mostly  bulls,  by  what 
were  then  known  m  .\lderney  sires)  were  used 
largely  in  the  dairy  herds  about  Boston.  The  prog- 
eny of  the«>  half-bbi(Kl  Suffolk  biill«  were  nearly 
all  hornless,  and  were  m  j^upertor  to  th&  ordinary 
cattle  of  the  distrit't  as  to  become  noted.  They 
wero  known  a»  Jamestown  cattle,  from  the  name 
of  the  vewiel  in  which  the  heifer  came  over.  .■\t 
several  locaJ  fairs  they  were  shown  in  considerable 
ntimbent. 

Tha  first  regular  importation  of  Red  Polled 
cattle  for  breeding  purport's  was  made  by  G.  P. 
Taber,  of  Now  York,  ia  1R73.  This  im|jortation 
consiRtt-d  of  a  bull  and  three  heifers.  In  1875,  bs' 
imported  four  more  cows,  and  in  ISfi2.  three  bntis 
and  twenty-three  heifers.  From  this  time,  the 
number  brought  over  increased  rapidly  from  year 
to  year,  until  the  prices  on  tlie  other  aide  became 
su  high  t)iat  the  busioesH  was  unpro5tablo. 

Diatritmium, 

In  England,  we  find  the  Red  Polled  cattle  in 
their  native  counties  nf  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 
They  are  also  found  in  South  America.  AuMtralia, 
Rnssia,  South  Africa,  New  Zealand,  (.'anada  and  the 
United  States.  In  America  we  find  the  greatest  nuni- 
Wr  of  Rwl  Polled  cattle  in  the  Mississippi  valley, 
in  the  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin. 
Michigan,  MinneRnta.  Iowh,  the  D,ikotas,  Kansas, 
Nebraska  and  MiKSonri.  We  also  fiml  them  on  tbc 
Atlantic  coast,  the  Pacific  coaftl  and  in  Texas.   In 


•/,"■ 


CATTLK 


CATTLE 


8G9 


the  last-n*med  place  they  are  very  numcnmis  and 
do  exceptionally  well. 

Tgpu. 

S^f<)^k  Rfd  Pollfd  efittk.—Th\s  typo  waa  char- 

icterised  by  a  thin,  clean  head;  clean  throat  with 

hUttle dewlap:  thin  leg?:  a  larj^e  frame;  rib  tvler- 

)»bly  apiinging  from  tfie  center  of  the  back,  but 

with  a  b«avy   barrel;  back-bone  riilgc^d ;  udder 

larc^,  loose  and  creased  when  empty ;  milk  veins 

rfumarkalily  large,  and  HsinK  in  knotted  puffs.   It 

^was  the  dairy  type,  and  v>-:x-%  remarkattle  for  the 

I  large  and  uniform  yield  of  milk.    It  was  developed 

in  the  county  of  Suffolk,  Eaglaad,  at  a  very  early 

date. 

yorfolk  lied  Pdloi  ealtk.-  Thi«  type  waa  char- 
acterized by  small   boneu,  nhnrt  li^gi;  and  round 
barrel  with  pood  loina.  and  the  he^  rather  fine. 
It  vaa  a  hardy,  thriving  strain,  matnring  at  an 
f«arlyage  and  making  a  superior  quality  of  flesh. 
It  was  the  beef  type  and  had  poor  milking  quail- 
i  tie*.   It  wtui  derelopetl  at  an  early  date  in  Norfolk 
l-eounty.  £ng:land. 

Br*^er§  of  the^e  two  types,  striving  to  prMuce 
([ood  d  uat-purjiose  animals,  that  should  be  polled  and 
'ttd^olored.  gradually  worked   toward  the  same 
[type.  MrEurensays:  "  The  year  1 84tJ  may  be  taken 
'«p  the  date  from  which  the  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  vari- 
eties merged  into  each  other,  ao  a.s  to  be  spoken  of 
aa  one  and  the  aame  breed."  There  waa  a  friendly 
rivalry  between  the  two  counties  at  the  agricul- 
;tora!  *how8,  and  a  constant  interchange  of  the 
bloi>d,  with  a  resulting  improvement  and  sirai- 
flarity  in  the   two  strains.   After  an  exhibit  at 
Battenea  in  lSG2,wben  it  wa?  noted  that  the  best 
forma  of  the  two  tyfjes  were  of  the  same  kind^  the 
name  Norfolk  and  StitTolk  l^d  I'olled  cattle  viajt 
ei«n  them.    Later,  aboat  1882,  the  8rat  part  waa 
dropped.  sincQ  which  tims  the  cattle  have   been 
,  known  simply  aa  Red  Polled, 

The  Red  Polled  cattle  are  a  daal-parpo»e  breed, 
Lind  we  ftnd  that  they  have  made  a  large  number  of 
f^ery  creditable  record*,  both  in  dairy  testa  and  in 
[slaughter  teats. 

For  milk  and  ditWer.— The  cowa  give  a  good  flow 
I  of  mitic,  which  testa  well,  and  milk  right  up  to 
[calving  if  allowed.  Some  results  of  teats  may  be 
.given  to  illustrate  this  point.  The  following  dairy 
[testa  were  made  at  the  state  fairs  the  pattt  season 
1(1907).  At  Ohio  State  Fair  a  three-dajH'  test  re- 
imlted  as  follows  :  The  cow  Quaen  ]\(-m  20:^;ir)  gnve 
'99  pound*  of  milk  and  rj.31ti  pounds  of  fat ;  the 
[cow  Ulsa  McKinley  17203  gave  82.7  pounds  of  milk 
[and  3.84tt  pounds  of  fat;  the  cow  €;i&.«andra  2nd 
^16305  gave  92.1  pounds  of  milk  and  3. 18  pounds  of 
1  fat.  .4t  the  Illinoii!  Stat«  Pair,  in  a  three-dav.i'  tc-it 
the  Red  Polled  cow  Olftna  18772  gave  12R.  1  jmindu 
[:of  milk  and  4.r>.i:i  pounda  of  fat.  The  next  highent 
>w  of  any  bree-i  in  the  jihow  made  4.2.14  pounds  of 
tfat.  At  the  Wisconsin  Rtate  Fair,  in  a  three-dava' 
[le«t  the  R»Mi  Polled  cow  Olena  18772  gave  125 
[pounds  and   12  ounceti  of  milk,  and  made  ^lSSG 

inda  of  fat. 

C24 


For  heef. —  The  steera  make  a  good  growth, 
are  ready  for  market  at  an  early  age,  and 
furnirth  a  very  fine  quality  of  meat.  The  follow- 
ing Hlanghter  ttu^La,  maite  at  the  International 
Live-Stouk  Exposition  show  the  standing  of  the 
Red  Polled  cattle  in  nteat--pro<luction  :  For  two- 
year-old.'*  (iy(M!),  tho  highfiit  yield  was  made  by  an 
Aberdoen-Anguw,  dressing  tili.5  per  cent ;  the  next 
highest  waa  a  Red  Polled,  dreasing  69.2  per  cent. 
For  yearlings  (UK)6),  the  highest  yield  van  a  Red 
Polled,  dressing  67.i»  per  cent;  the  next  highest 
was  a  Herefoni,  dressing  67,1  \wt  cent.  For  two- 
year-olds  (1907),  the  highest  yield  was  made  by  an 
Aberdeen-Angus,  dressing,  66.9  per  cent;  the  next 
highest  was  an  Aberdeen-.^ngns,  dressing  66.64 
per  cont ;  the  next  was  a  Red  Polled,  dressing  66.6 
per  cent.    In  this  test  were  fifteen  entriew. 

For  crtigsing  and  grading,  Red  Polled  bulls  have 
been  u.ied  extensively  and  with  good  results.  They 
transmit  the  color  and  polled  character  uniformly, 
and  may  l>c  used  profitably  on  either  dairy  or  beef 
common  stock.  They  cross  well  with  Shorthorns. 

Organizaliont  and  rtcordf. 

The  Red  Polled  .Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land was  organized  in  1888,  at  which  time  it  took 
up  the  publi,-ihing  of  the  Red  Polled  Ilerdbook, 
which  hiid  been  published  by  H.  F.  Euren  »inco 
1874.  The  Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  of  America  was 
organized  at  Chicago  in  ISS^J.  The  first  volume  of 
ltd  herdbook  appeared  in  1887,  since  which  time 
nineteen  volumes  have  been  issued.  Until  19<)I, 
tho  .'American  Red  Pulled  Herdbook  included  all  of 
the  cattle  entered  in  the  English  series.  At  present 
only  cattle  grown  in  this  country  are  published  in 
the  American  series.  There  are  several  state  asso- 
ciations In  America  devoted  to  the  breed. 

LUemUtrt. 
For  references,  see  page  302. 

Shorthorn  Cattle,   Figs.  46,  270,  384,  385. 

By  Herhfvt   W.  Muv\ford. 

Shorthorn  cattle  are  a  breed  possessing  both 
beef  and  dairy  types.  Registered  and  grade  cattle 
of  this  breed  are  more  numerous  than  the  cattle  of 
any  other  beef  breed.  They  originated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Tees  river,  in  northeastern  England,  and  first 
became  prized  by  farmers  in  the  shires  of  Durham, 
Northumberland,  Lincoln,  and  York.  Largely  from 
the  localities  in  which  they  originated,  Shorthorns 
wt>re  formerly  called  Teeswater  cattle  and  Dur- 
hams.  These  names  as  referring  to  Shorthorna 
have  now  largely  become  obsolete. 

Tkjrripl  inn . 

The  general  conformation  of  the  Shorthorn  is 
that  of  the  beef  tyiK-.  The  brei^i  is  characttrized 
by  width  and  depth  of  form,  great  scale  and  sub- 
stance, and  symmetry  and  style.  It  is  the  largest 
of  the  beef  breeds.  The  head  should  be  wide 
between  the  eyes,  short  from  eye«  to  nostril,  and 
while  it  .should  be  neat  and  refined,  it  ehoukl  indi- 
cate good  feeding  qualities.   The  horns  are  short 


370 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


&nd  ratfa«r  fine,  shotiM  ci3rv«  frrac«faI1y  forward, 
and  should  be  waxy  whit«  in  color,  with  dark  tips. 
A  "spike"  horn  is  object ionalile.  The  neck  should 
be  short  and  fin^,  aad  smoothly  jointed  to  tha  head 
and  shouldeni.  The  ahonldera  are  rather  npn'Rht, 
and  frequently  inclined  to  be  bare  of  flesh.  The 
back  should  be  straight,  level  and  broad,  and 
deeply  covered  with  flesh.  The  strong  feature  in 
the  make>ap  of  the  Shorthorn  is  the  hind-^^uarter, 
which  \ti  said  to  be  the  bust  of  any  brt-wi.  The 
thighs  are  wide,  deep,  and  long,  and  well  nlM 
down  in  the  twist.  The  line  of  the  back  of  the 
thigh  is  nearly  straight  from  the  tail  down,  giring 
a  characteristic  ftjuarely  built  appearance.  As  a 
rul«,  the  body  in  deep,  with  a  good  heart  and  dig'est- 
ive  £!apa<'ity.  The  flanka  should  be  well  let  down, 
makinK  a  nearly  straight  undier-line.  The  lugs  are 
medium  length  and  of  fine  yet  strong  bone.  The 
bree<l  has  a  great  capacity  for  the   production 


■(S***^ 


!r?^F»»i^ 


M 


i 


SKvv' 


Fit.  3M.    CUuaplon  Bbortaam  bnll.    ^VllllflhllH  Sniiaa  ie3S73 

of  flesh,  and  as  they  become  fat  there  i»  a  tendency 
to  produce  patches  of  fal  about  the  tail-head  and 
rolls  along  the  side*. 

A  criticism  of  the  breed  that  has  been  made  in 
the  pai!t  is  that  Shorthorns  WL-re  too  long  in  the 
legs.  There  was  probably  ju.«t  ground  for  this 
criticism  in  the  old  tj-pe  of  Shorthorn,  hut  since 
the  breed  ha«  received  auch  an  infusion  of  the 
blood  of  the  low-flet,  short-lfgged  S?coti-,h  type,  thia 
tendency  hafi  been  largely  done  away  with. 

The  color  of  the  Shorthurn  in  more  variable  than 
that  of  any  other  breed  of  cattle.  It  may  be  pure 
red,  pure  white,  a  mixture  of  these  two  colore,  or 
roan.  Roan  is  diKtlnctively  a  Shorthorn  color,  and 
may  always  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  Short- 
horn biood.  Iteil  and  white  were  always  character- 
istic cnlora  of  the  old  Shorthorn  breed  in  Kngland, 
but  after  their  intriHluction  into  the  United  States, 
whiU?  btKrame  unpopular,  especially  on  the  western 
rangfs,  and  anything  except  a  solid  red  color  was 
greatly  discriminated  against.  The  demand  for  red 
cattle  became  greater  than  the  supply  of  good 
individuals,  and  sireJ^  of  very  ordinary  character 
were  used  for  no  other  reason  than  that  they  were 
red,  while  excellent  individuals  of  the  lighter 
colors  were  rejected.  Good  sense  and  sound  judg* 


ment  finally  prevailed  in  the  matter,  and  the  red 
color  craze  haa  abated  so  that  whites  and  roans 
have  again  come  into  popularity. 

No  scale  of  points   has   been  adopted  for  the 
Shorthorn  breed  of  cattle. 

Hjgtory. 

As  hafl  been  said,  the  Shorthorn  breed  of  cattle 

originated  in  northt-'aatem  England,  and  first 
became  popular  in  thi-  shintii  of  Durham,  N'urth- 
umberlanJ,  Lincoln  and  York.  F'Vom  thiai^omewhat 
restricted  territory  their  popularity  grailually  ex- 
tended throughout  England  and  Scotland^  until, 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century,  they  were  by  far 
the  moat  popular  race  of  cattle  in  the  Hritioh  Isles. 
Authoritie:)!  differ  somewhat  at;  to  the  pnrticulnr 
stock  used  in  developing  this  breed.  .Ml  auree, 
however,  that  the  largest  factor  entering  into  their 
production  was  the  native  cattle  of  the  northeast- 
ern section  of  Kngland.  That  occa- 
sional croatted  of  Dutch  bulls  were 
u$ed  is  probable. 

CoUingt   Brothert.  —  Improvement 
began  about  1750,  alllumgh  very  lit- 
tle methodical  or  ej^lcient  work  wa« 
accomplished    prior    to    the   cattle- 
breeding  operations  of  Messrs.  Rob- 
ert and  Charle.!*  Collings,  of  Barmpton 
and  Ketton  Hall.  By  careful  selection 
and  inbrfe<Jing  they  succeeded  in  Bet- 
ting standards  towards   which  con- 
temporary breeders  aimed.    Charles 
CflUinga'finit Shorthorn  purchase  was 
made  in  ITS-l.   His  herd  waj>  dispersed 
RucceRsfuliy  in  1810.  Robert  Cotlinca* 
herd  was  sold  partly  in  1818  and  tne 
remainder  in  1*^20.   While  these  two 
brotht-rs  operate<I  their  farms  sepa- 
mtely  and  maintained  separate  henls, 
their  methods  and  accompii:^hment«  were  similar. 
They  were  uniwually  fortunate  in  the  purchase  of 
that  first   great  Shorthorn  sire,  Hobback  (319). 
While  thin  waa  an  undersized  bull,  yellow-red  in 
color,  he  proved  a  fortunate  "nick"  for  the  late- 
maturing,  conrse  cows  so  common  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  breed.  j\s  hreedera  of  the  Durham  Ox. 
The  White  Heifer  that  Traveled,  Favorite  (252)  and 
Comet  tl:V)l,  theae  pioneer  breeders  established  a 
reputation  for  breeding  good  Shorthorns  that  has 
made  an  impression  on  every  careful  student  of  the 
early  history  of  the  breed. 

OfAcT  Enfflhh  brcrdtrs.  -.Among  others,  the  fol- 
lowing breeders  were  identified  with  the  early 
history  of  the  breed  :  Sir  William  St.  Qaintin.  Sir 
James  Pennyman,  and  Messrs.  Milbank,  Sharter, 
Pickering,  .Stephenson,  Wetherell,  Maytard.  Pobin- 
son.  Charge,  Wright.  Hutchinson.  Snowdon,  Wals- 
tell,  Richard  and  William  Barker,  Brown,  Hall» 
Hill,  Best,  Watson,  Baker,  Thompson,  Jackson, 
Smith,  Jolly,  Masterman,  Wallace,  and  Uobert«on. 
Darlington  was  for  years  looked  on  as  the  center 
of  Shorthorn  interests,  although,  strange  as  it  may 
suem,  thert.'  is  but  little  activity  in  breeding  Short- 
horns in  that  section  at  the  present  time. 

Thoma*  Bate*  of  Klrktcvington.— Thomas  Bales, 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


vn 


r 


irfco  VIS  defltined  to  bocomu  »UL-h  an  important 
taeior  in  tbo  brHuding  of  Shorthorn  cattle,  pur- 
dused  his  first  stock  in  18*XJ.  He  had  (irevi- 
ously  boon  a  brevier  of  Kylva  or  Went  Highland 
cattK  He  wrt«  well  uriijmrefl  for  i,he  work  he 
undertiKik,  and  eHtaiiliHlK^I  fumiiteo  iif  Sliurthonis 
cif  BOch  [ironourieed  individuality  anil  rwiOKniawi 
cxcutlunce  of  ijudij;:n>e  that  thuy  were  at  one  time 
by  far  the  moat  popular  strain  of  the  breed. 
Prices  were  paid  during  "ijdom  times"  for  Baliw' 
Sh«rtht)mrt  that  have  never  !>een  ajiprnjichwl  hy 
KhorthomH  of  r)thRr  linen  of  breedioy,  Thdmiifi 
Bat(M  was  a  stickler  for  |»ei3iKrea.  He  assuniwl 
that  cattle  Wis!  alonn  oyrtain  specifiwi  lines  would 

Srodaoe,  when  mated,  almost  inviiriahly  certitin 
osired  results.  'I'he  particular  family  or  trilio 
which  he  develnppfll  most  and  favored  mmBt  was  the 
Dnchees.  Fabutmm  pricvH  have  been  paid  for  re[i- 
Tesentativi»4  uf  thia  family.  The  hij^heHt  recorded 
price,  ^-UVifX),  vtm  paid  fer  a  cow  of 
this  family  at  this  NVw  York  Milla 
sale  of  .September  10,  1873. 

Belvedere  (1706)  was  one  of  the 
be»t  bullfl  iiBed  by  Tlatei^,  while  the 
Duke  of  Nnrthumberiand  (Ifl-lO),  the 
acknowledged  champiun  bull  of  Eng- 
land in  IH42,  was  uiiduulile<lly  the 
beet  ball  ever  produced  at  Kirklev* 
ington.  Bates'  aim  in  hreedint;  wait! 
to  produce  a  dual-ptirtiose  cow,  and 
an  a  eonHetiuenrn  ho  gave  careful 
attention  to  preMsrvinfi;  the  milking 
qualitiea  of  hia  .Shorthorns.  There 
was  a  characteristic  style  and  fininth 
about  Rate^'  ShorthornH  that  still 
clings  to  cattle  contJiinine  a  stront; 
infusifin  rjf  this  bUKxI.  While  cattle 
of  Thomujt  Bates'  hruetlin^  were  fre- 
qaently  «e«n  in  the  ahow-rinc  from 
iSSa  to  L&48,  and  wherever  shoun  wore  unuHuully 
8acceB<sful,  he  watt  personally  very  mnch  opjiosed 
to  training  cattle  for  Rhow.  The  llatee  herd  was 
didperHecI  in  IfioO,  when  prices  were  very  low,  and 
a»  a  consetiuunoe  the  rjtttle  did  not  hring  whiit 
they  were  worth, 

Tht  {!ovthg.—l\iv  elder  Uooth  was  a  eunteinpo- 
rary  O'f  Thomas  Bat4^-s.  tli.s  first  herd  was  established 
at  Killerby  in  1790.  His  e-special  aim  was  to  breed 
an  earlier-maturing  he-at<t  th.it  would  be  noted  for 
its  btHtf'proilucing  rather  than  its  milk-tinxliicrng 
qualitiofl.  While  Mr.  Hooth  wan  very  rejidy  to  admit 
that  the  rollings  had  (i^reatly  impruvetl  ^hurthorns, 
he  did  not  think,  as  many  of  the  breedL^rs  uf  the 
time  apparently  thought,  that  it  was  necessary  to 
buy  the  femakw  composing  his  herd  of  them. 
Anionic  his  early  purchaseK  were  live  heifer  calves 
from  the  herd  of  Mr.  Brtia^ler  of  Pairholme.  To 
mate  with  these  heifers,  Mr.  BiHilh  piirehiiawl  the 
Robert  Collings  bred  bull,  Twin  Brother  to  Ben 
(660),  and  one  of  his  get.  Some  of  the  best  of  the 
Kilferby  and  Warlaby  cattle  descended  from  this  line 
of  breeding  and  from  the  following  tribes  or  fam- 
ilies: Bldesom,  Bright  Evvm,  btabella  and  the  Booth 
Red  Rofles.  Another  ball  which  was  porchaaed  of 
Robert  Collingfl  was  Suworow  (626),  at  the  disper- 


sion sate  of  the  Ketton  Hall  herd  in  1810.  Mr. 
Booth  purchased  the  bull  .Albion  (M),  which  proved 
to  lie  a  mikst  excellt^nt  sire.  Most  of  hi;(  bullH  were 
from  the  rollingti'  herds.  Btwides  the  families  of 
Shorthorns  mentioned,  Thomas  Booth  was  partial 
to  the  Strawberry  and  Bracelet  tribes.  In  1819,  Mr. 
Thomas  Booth  gave  up  the  Killerby  farm  and  a  part 
of  his  herd  to  his  son  John,  and  removal  to  hia 
Warlaby  farm,  bo  prominent  in  Sliurthorn  hL-itury. 
To  anothi^r  son,  RichanJ,  who  waw  on  the  Studley 
farm,  he  hail  also  s(d<i  a  nwmber  of  his  Shorthorns. 

Other  familiiw  uf  f^hortborns  which  should  be 
oaaociatud  with  the  Booth  families  are  the  Fare- 
wells,  the  Brought^tn,  Hairy  Miiids  or  Moss  Roses, 
Gaudy  or  Lady  Betty  onrt,  Mantilinis  and  Betindait. 

PerhapA  the  thriw  mo^t  famous  show  animala 
breil  hy  Booth  were  Bracelet  and  Necklace,  twin 
heifers,  sirwl  by  I'rJam  (2452)  and  Lady  Fragrant. 
The  twin  cows  mentioned  proved  excellent  breed- 


.ti 


,*-» 


FIC.  3U. 


■^•ik 


r---->' 


Id. 


A  typical  au.tl-purpow  Shuilbotn  oow.    Olptjr  Ma 

ers.  The  most  famous  bull  used  by  anv  of  the 
Booths  was  Crown  Prince  (100S7),  "The  bull  of  all 
Booth  bulls,"  tho  one  that  was  to  Warlaby  what 
Duke  of  Northumberland  was  to  Kirklevington, 
and  Champion  of  England  was  to  Sittyton.  Crown 
Prince  wan  considenil  tiKi  valnahle  a  Btock-getter 
to  lie  fittfil  for  exhibition. 

The  Booth  family  is  still  intereuted  in  the  breed- 
tag  of  Shorthorns  and  the  operations  of  this  family 
will  always  remain  an  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  Shorthorns,  They  were  prominent  in  the 
leading  live-flti»ck  shown  of  the  country,  and  nn- 
daobtedly  the  hrcivjing  ipialitie8  of  many  of  their 
beat  cattle  were  airi.-cte4l  by  high  feeding  for  exhi- 
bition purposes. 

In  Vniltil  ^atejt.—Thv  first  recorded  importation 
of  Shorthorns  to  the  United  States  was  that  of  llr. 
Miller,  of  Virginia,  and  Mr.  flongh.  of  Baltimore, 
M.iryland.  The«e  gentlemen  impurte*!  from  (Ireat 
Britain,  in  1783,  some  cattle  that  were  undoubtedly 
of  the  Shorthorn  bree«l.  In  the  years  179(1  nnd 
ITtfij,  it  is  thought  that  they  brought  in  consign- 
ments of  cattle  of  the  same  breed.  In  17SH  and 
17%,  Mr.  Heaton  brought  several  Shorthorns  from 
England  to  the  Htal«  of  New  York,  which  were  lost 
among  the  common  stock  of  the  country.    AScotcb- 


S72 


CATTLE 


?attij: 


miin  nitined  Cox,  brought  a  StiorLhorn  liult  ami  twn 
cows  tu  ReosBelaer  county,  Nww  York,  in  IHl't. 
The  first  Kuntucky  impurtation  was  mailo  in  lalT, 
by  Coluticl  lA!wis  i^artders,  who  purchased  through 
an  agent  eight  ShnrthnrnB  and  four  Longhoms. 
At  alxint  the  name  time,  Jamw  Prentii-e,  of  I#xing- 
ton,  Kentucky,  imported  two  piml  Shorthimi  bulls. 

Itnpi)rtH.tiiinK  were  hroufjhl  to  the  !«Late  of  Mas^a- 
ohusetU  in  1S17  by  Siimue!  Wifliatiw,  in  IBlft  by 
(>>rn4;liua  (!!ot»]idge.  In  1822.  Mr.  Williams  sent  over 
the  roan  yearling  heifer  Arakdla,  by  North  Star 
(460).  The  Arabellafl  were  notwi  for  being  heavy 
milkers,  and  at  one  time  cuifltituteii  a  large  and 
valaable  family.  Other  MaiwachiiHettH  impiirtaticmH 
of  an  early  d;iie  were  madB  by  MeKsra  Ijee,  Or, 
Monfliin,  f'uffin,  Itut*ih  and  Sil«l>y.  From  1H21  to 
1S28,  aevoral  unimportant  importations  were  made 
to  New  York,  Feniisylvania  Jinii  Maryland.  In  1H3.S, 
Walter  Dunn,  living  near  Lexington,  Kentucky, 
imported  six  head  nf  v.iluahle  ShorthornB.  Another 
importation  was  made  by  Mr.  Dunn  in  company 
with  Samuel  Smith  in  lS:^(i. 

Tho  year  1S:W  was  an  ini[M)rtant  ont*  in  Short- 
horn hirflury,  for  it  saw  the  organixaLion  of  the 
Ohio  Importing  Company,  "For  the  purpose  of  pro- 
moting the  interest  of  agrieolture  and  introducing 
an  improved  breed  nf  cattle."  Felix  Ronick  was 
chosen  as  the  agent  of  this  company  to  go  t^i  Eng- 
land to  select  cattle  fnr  the  company.  While  it 
was  not  reetricted  to  purehasfj  all  ShorMiornH,  it 
decided,  after  consideirabli!  investigation,  to  import 
only  Shorthorns.  Amunn  tho  henlsi  viaited  were 
Ihoae  of  Maynard,  Booth,  Bates,  Whitakor,  Altli- 
rope,  Craddock,  Kainc  and  f'aley.  Seven  bulls  and 
twelve  females  were  carefully  selected  for  the  fir^t 
importation.  In  this  lot  were  the  two  heifers.  Rose 
of  Sharon  and  YoungMary,  which  were  declined  Ut 
play  snch  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  Short- 
horn.'? in  the  UriUil  States.  This  importation  wasao 
satisfactory  to  the  shareholdui^  of  the  Ohio  Import- 
ing Company  that  their  agt-nt  was  soon  author- 
ized  to  make  nrrangementfl  for  further  importations. 
In  1835  and  1836.  Mr.  Whitaker,  through  Mr. 
Renick's  authorization,  sent  out  two  Hhipments 
comprising  forty-two  animak  to  the  Ohiw  Imfwirt- 
ing  i'-ompany.  Among  theiw  were  ,Io.siephin«,  Yciung 
Phyllis,  Illu.Htriou8,  and  Harriet.  In  August,  ISSG, 
this  company  held  a  sale  on  Felix  Itenick'tj  farm 
in  Uose  county,  Ohio.  Forty-throe  animals  wore 
sold  lit  an  average  price  of  $803.25,  or  a  total  of 
$^,510.  The  final  dispersion  sale  of  the  company 
was  held  in  1R37,  at  which  the  fifteen  animals 
averaged  $1,071.65.  A  number  of  importations 
were  m:ide  to  Ohio  from  1S36  to  1840.  In  1839, 
the  Kentucky  Importing  Company  brought  over  a 
numlter  of  Shorthorns. 

Vrom  18-10  to  1850,  agriculture  In  the  United 
Statea  wa«  in  a  very  depresai*d  atate,  and  tho  cattle 
industry,  along  with  other  farm  interests,  remained 
practically  at  a  standatill.  There  was  little  demand 
for  breeding  cattle,  which  resulted  in  large  num- 
bers of  Shorthorn  breeding  stock  finding  their 
way  to  the  shamblej*.  In  1852.  the  Scioto  Valley 
Imi>arting  Company  was  organlied.  This  company, 
tbroogb  its  agents.  Ueorge  W,  Kenick  and  Dr. 


.Arthur  Watta,  tm|M»rted  ten  balls  and  seventeen 
females,  which  were  sold  at  auction  at  the  very 
high  average  of  $1,3.51,85.  This  sale  proved  a 
stimulus  to  .Shorthorn-cattle-breeding  interests,  and 
othur  importing  companies  were  qui<:kly  urganixed, 
among  which  were  the  MuiU-son  County,  (Jhio,  the 
Northern  Kentucky,  and  the  Scott  County  Import- 
ing CumpanifK,  the  Clinton  County,  Ohio,  and  Clark 
County,  Ohio,  Ai«<f)cialt(ms. 

In  isr»2  and  IS.'hS,  Mr.  A.  J.  Alexander  of  Ken- 
tucky,  who  was  visiting  in  Cireat  Britain,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Woodburn  herd  of  Shorthorns. 
The  first  shipment  of  cattle  tu  the  Alexander  farm 
was  made  in  18r)3 ;  aubaequently  other  importa- 
tions were  made,  which  included  Duchess  .■linlrio, 
IJuchesa  Athol,  Pearlette,  Vietnria  ^Oth,  Filigrt-e, 
Ijjjdy  Ciulnare,  Minna,  Conatance.  Rosabella,  and 
other  cowH.  Three  of  the  leading  bulls  imported 
were  Uuke  of  Ainirie,  Second  Diike  of  Athol  and 
Dr.  Buckingham.  At  th«  Northern  Kentucky  and 
Scott  County  t'ompanies'  sales,  Mr.  Alexander  made 
important  pon'hases  in  the  cows  Mazurka.  Maid  of 
Melrose  and  fkjiiity.  Tho  Woodburn  herd  took  a 
prominent  place  in  Shorthorn  affairs  and  was  at 
ene  time  proltably  one  of  the  largest  and  best 
.Shorthorn  henis  in  America  if  not  in  the  world. 
Tho  Duke  of  Ainlriu  (1*^730)  was  used  a  year  by 
George  M.  Kedfonl  and  to  wme  extent  by  Abram 
Renick  and  Jere  Hnncan,  as  Well  as  by  Mr.  Alex- 
ander. Bell  Duke  of  Airdrie  2552,  Duncan's  Duke 
of  .Ainirie  274.%  and  .A.inlrie  2478  anj  considered 
among  thin  great  Imll'.s  most  famnus  sons. 

Among  the  moat  prominent  breeders  of  Short- 
horns in  the  Unit'C^d  States  at  this  early  period 
shonid  be  mentioned  Ahram  Kenick  of  Kentucky. 
Perhaps  the  most  far-reaching  accomplishment  of 
his  efforts  is  to  he  found  in  the  founding  and 
bringing  to  a  high  degree  of  exceSlence  that  family 
that  for  many  yeara  attracled  intern ationnl  atten- 
tion, vir.,  the  iUym  of  Sharon.  The  bull  Airdrie 
247)^,  already  mentioned,  was  spoken  of  as  one  of 
medium  siie,  very  symmetrical,  neat,  smooth  and 
stylfsh,  and  a  remarkable  sire  of  high-class  balls. 
This  bnll  WiLs  use<3  exten-sively  in  Mr.  Jtenick's  herd 
and  sire*),  among  other  fnmmis  Shorthorns,  the 
bull  Swee^Mtakes  (52.10,  Joe  .Johnson,  Ainirie  3d 
13320.  Dick  Taylor  5.508,  and  Airdrie  Duke  5306. 
It  waa  with  the  get  of  Airdrie  that  Mr.  Renick 
began  his  system  of  in-and- inbreeding,  producing 
the  Rose  of  Sharona  that  called  forth  the  admira- 
tion and  respect  of  the  entire  Shorthorn-breeding 
fraternity. 

Even  a  brief  history  of  Shorthorns  should  not 
omit  the  name  of  Warfield.  lienjaniin  Warfield 
Becure«i  hin  first  pnre^bred  Shorthorn  in  1831.  The 
first  groat  sire  in  the  herd  was  lU'nick  903.  He 
was  noted  more  as  a  sire  than  for  his  individual 
excellence.  Benjamin  Warfield  was  succeeded  by 
his  son.  William  Warfield.  of  Oasmere-  One  nf  the 
famous  bulls  used  by  Warfield  was  Muscatoon 
7057.  This  bull  proved  to  be  not  only  an  excel- 
lent show-  hull  hut  a  sire  of  superior  show  animals. 
Mr.  William  Warfield  originated  the  Loudon  Duch- 
esses, by  many  persons  thought  tfl  be  one  of  the 
best  tribes  of  Shorthorns  evolved  in  America. 


CATTI.E 


CATTLE 


878 


r 

r 


Several  importatioiw  were  made  intotho  eastom 
part  of  the  United  States  from  18:«)  to  18a(t.  This 
stock  was  very  larRely  of  the  Bates  Btrsiins.  Por- 
hapa  the  most  important  importiUionH  during  thi8 
period  were  by  Mr.  Samtiti^l  Thorne,  of  Thorndiil*', 
Xt'W  York.  His  first  impi>rtaCiun  was  fiillowed  by 
olliers  tii  1854.  lisr>5  unci  If^frtJ.  Tht-su  cwnstitutt-d 
th«  liiKhest-priccd  cattle  that  !iad  thus  far  Iwen 
brought  to  the  Unit*_^  Statf-s.  In  ISTtT,  Mr.  Thurne 
purchased  the  Morris  and  Becjir  herd,  consietinj: 
of  fiftv-thrw  Shorthorns,  at  the  reported  price  of 

$3fi,oon. 

While  the  principal  importations  were  confined 
lu  Kentucky.  Ohi".',  and  New  York,  iShnrthorn 
activity  wa»  apparent  elsewhere,  notably  in  Illi- 
ooia,  Iniiiana,  Michif;an,  Mis-soiiri  and  Iowa. 

/«  Canada.— In  lS;iy.  Mr.  Hohnd  Wingfield.  near 
Toronto,  imported  two  Shorthorn  bn'U  and  tive 
cows  from  Kngl.ind.  Other  eJirly  im[«irt:ition3  were 
made  by  the  Home  District  A^icultural  Society. 
Adam  f^irK^ton.  Mw(8r«.  Gewrjie  and  John  Simiwon, 
William  and  tlyorRc  Miller  and  Frederick  William 
Stone,  It  may  bo  eaid,  however,  that  the  Short- 
horna  were  not  imported  extensively  to  Canada 
nntil  ScoU'h  Shorthorn.^  came  into  popularity. 
V«HsrH.  George  and  William  Millftr,  Simon  Ht-attie, 
Gfortte  Isaac  and  M.  H.  Cochrane  were  first  reapon- 
■ible  for  Shorthorn  activity  in  Canada. 

The  first  Canadian  to  bring  Scotch  cattle  into 
pn>minence  in  America  was  Mr.  Jo*t;ph  S.  Thorn paon, 
Mayfield,  Whitby,  Can;ida.  He  imjiorted  the  Cham- 
pion iif  England  hpifers,  Sylvia  and  Christolwl,  also 
Violet  4th.  Mr.  James  I.  David.ton,  Babam,  Ontario. 
wasaUooQerif  the  t>arly  and  mo.^)!  ardent  aupp^ri^rs 
of  the  Scotch  tvpe  in  Shorthorns.  He  started  his 
Shorthorn  herd  in  18(!0.  From  IH.S1  to  IS.S7,  practi- 
cally all  the  stock  from  the  Sittyton  herd  that  was 
brought  to  tht!  United  Stat^i)  pa.<iise<I  through  the 
handa  of  Mr.  Diividsion.  Hon.  John  Dryden,  Brook- 
lyn. Ontario,  founiled  the  Maple  Sluwle  Farm  herd 
of  Sborthorn.s,  in  1S7L  He  imported  that  famous 
Champion  of  Englantl  cow,  Mimulus,  and  other 
good  ones  representing  the  best  of  the  Sitt>aon 
bloocl.  Hun.  George  Brown,  of  Bow  Park  farm,  will 
go  down  in  history  aa  a  prominent  factor  in  Cana- 
dian Shorthorn  activity.  Among  other  Canadian 
breeders  and  importers  wore  John  M.  Armstrong, 
Arthur  Johnson,  W.  H.  Telfar.  W.  Major,  William 
Collum,  Thrtiras  Kossell,  Francis  Green  and  George 
WhitBehl. 

Impaflanl  rwnfx  in  Shorthorn  kittorif  fiiwt  1860. 
—In  ISRHand  1S70.  M.-.-wn*.  Walcoltand  Campbell, 
of  New  Y'ork.  iniinirted  Booth  Shorthorns  and  the 
entire  Sheldon  herd  of  Duchewie*  and  Oxford*. 
Thin  was  the  beginning  of  the  greatest  boom  in 
BaU-a  cattle  in  the  l.'niU^  States.  In  1867,  Col.  W. 
S.  King,  of  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  founded  his  impor- 
tant herd  in  the  nnrthw^-st.  FVora  ISfJO  to  1880. 
Shorthorns  uf  Bate-i  families  were  undoubtvdly 
preeminently  popular  in  the  United  States.  In 
Canada,  however,  Scotch  Shorthorna  were  gaining 
in  popularity. 

The  first' Bale  of  cattle  ever  held  in  Dexter 
Park,  Chicago,  wm  in  the  year  1872.  The««  were 
prosperoua  time*   for   Shorthorn  breeders.    Ihia 


prosperity  extended  into  the  next  year  and  culmi- 
nat«Ml  in  one  of  the  greatest  if  not  the  greatest  puhlio 
sales  of  pedigreiMJ  cattle  held  in  the  world,  namely, 
the  New  York  Mills  Hale  of  Wulrott  and  Campbfll, 
September  10, 1S7S.  This biunl contained  theonly  liv- 
ing Uucliiifidea  which  were  descended  direct  frojn  tho 
Bates  herd  without  the  admixture  of  blood  from 
other  sources.  The  sale  was  very  largely  atteniled 
by  Shorthorn  fanciers  from  Great  Britain,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States.  At  this  Bale  the  eighth 
Duehess  of  Geneva  brought  $I(l,fi<X).  and  many 
others  were  sold  at  fabulous  prices.  Almost  imme- 
diately following  thift  aalo  there  came  a  period  of 
Bnaneia!  depre.sston,  and  Shorthorn  cattle  gradually 
decreased  in  valutt  for  a  few  years. 

I'apnhrily  nf  Srntrh  Skirrfli'trtu. — Undoubtedly" 
the  mMt  notable  feature  of  Shorthorn  history  from 
18S0  to  the  preiJent  time  has  lieer  the  growing 
popularity  of  Scotch  Shorthorns.  Of  all  the  breed- 
era  of  Scotch  ShorthornB,  Amos  Cruickahank  is 
looked  on  as  the  most  famous.  He  was  ao  Aber- 
deen.shir«  tenant  farmer,  who  thonght  that  Short- 
horns had  been  too  much  pampered  for  practical 
use  on  the  tenant  fami**  of  Scotland,  where  climatic 
conditions  made  it  m><y'-iwary  for  the  farmers  to 
chuosH  a  hardy  race  of  ciittli!.  Hi>  was  a  lover  of 
Shorthorns,  and  dutynwined  to  develop  a  typo  that 
would  meet  the  ro«|uirements  of  the  farmers  of 
Scotland.  His  ideal  was  a  ahort-Iegged,  broad, 
thick-rteshed  beast,  carrying  a  good  middle;  that 
is,  a  well-44prung  rib  and  a  thick,  fleshy  back  and 
loin.  He  selected  animals  of  this  type  with  which 
to  found  his  herd,  and  was  ao  auuce«)aful  that  his 
herd  soon  tiecanie  recogniwd  as  the  foremost  one 
of  Scotlanil.  His  brother,  Anthony,  was  aa8ociat«d 
with  him,  Mr.  Cmick*hank  got  a  very  strong  hold 
on  Shorthorn  breeders,  that  remains  to  this  day. 
To  snch  an  extent  is  this  troe  that  one  Shorthorn 
may  be  two  to  five  times  more  valoable  than 
another  of  e<]ual  individual  merit,  simply  because 
it  has  a  good  Scotch  pedigree  and  the  other  has 
not. 

Among  those  who  have  helped  to  popularito 
Scotch  Shorthorna  in  America  may  be  mentioned 
Col.  W.  A,  Harris,  of  Linwood,  Kans.,  J.  J.  Hill,  of 
St  Panl.  Minn.,  and  Col.  T.  S.  Moberiy.  of  Rich- 
mond. Ky.   Many  other  names  might  be  added. 

Di*trit»ution. 

The  Shorthorn  is  the  moat  widely  distributed 
breed  of  cattle.  It  is  found  in  Europe,  especially 
in  Great  Britain,  in  Asia,  South  Africa.  Australia, 
North  and  South  America.  It  is  tho  most  popnlar 
and  mwt  widely  distributed  beef  breed  of  cattle  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  is  found  in  every 
8tat«  and  province  in  thei»e  two  countries.  In  the 
United  States,  Shorthorna  are  found  mo«it  numer- 
ously in  the  following  states,  in  order  of  their 
importance :  Iowa,  Missouri,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Kansas,  Xebraska,  Minnesota,  Michigan.  They  are 
still  growing  in  popularity. 

One  feature  wnii-h  a^Jds  greatly  to  the  popularity 
of  the  Shorthorns  w  their  great  adaptability.  They 
hare  the  power  to  adapt  Ihemaelves  to  varying 
conditions  of  food,  climate  and  treatment.  Although 


374 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


tJi^  are  best  adapted  to  ti^mperat«  regionn.  they 
nadi])'  adjust  theinselvKa  to  (rreat«r  ftxtremeft  of 
temperature  and  climato.  They  posses*  a  fair 
ilej^ree  of  hdrdine^^,  and  do  fairly  VfaW  undc-r  rau^u 
conditions.  The  Shorthorn  was  the  first  bre^d  used 
for  the  improvement  of  the  cattle  an  tho  ranfff-s, 
and  has  liwii  uewl  t-xtensively  for  this  purpose  in 
the  United  States.  Argentina  and  Aiutnilia,  but  in 
recent  yeara  haa  been  larRC-Iy  supplanted  by  the 
HtTffrtrd.  Notwithstanding  itit  value  on  the  ninge, 
the  Shorthorn  is  best  adapted  to  a  systtrm  of  nuxc-d 
fanning,  stich  as  is  followed  in  the  Misaiaeippi  val- 
ley, where  land  is  e.o  valuable  that  a  cow  cannot  bo 
kept  for  the  calf  alone,  but  must  yield  a  profit  in 
the  dairy.  Mr.  Ueorye  M.  RDmmfl.  in  TuMetin  N'o. 
34,  Bureau  of  Animal  InduAtry,  I'riitc^d  StJitefi 
Department  of  .\t;riculture.  stated  that,  uf  the 
iriO.OOO  n:ifi;iBtereii  Shorthorna  e-stiniated  to  he 
living  in  Amurica,  5  per  cent  are  found  on  the 
range,  and  the  other  115  per  cent  are  tn  the  hands 
of  the  small  farmer. 

Fnrmitk. — The  Shorthorn  ranks  high  in  its  Hairy 
capacity.  In  England  thure  have,  always  been 
farnilieft  or  strainfi,  notably  those  of  Hati-H  breeding, 
which  have  been  nolL'd  for  their  milking  capiicity, 
and  in  England  tuday  the  dairy  qualities  of  the 
J^hortborn  rei'eive  as  much  conttideratiun  aa  its 
beef-producing  qualities.  It  is  aRSerted  that  90  per 
cent  of  the  milk-.'iupply  of  I>»ndon  is  fumi.'ihe*!  by 
ShorthortiH,  In  Amerie;;,  more  attimtitm  has  liei-n 
psiil  to  the  betff  »ide  uf  the  r],uefttion,  and  the  dairy 
qualitiett  have  been  somewhat  ii«g!ceted,  estjM'tialily 
during  the  pa-st  craze  for  the  thiL-k-fleahed,  bJocky 
Scotch  typti,  which  were  poor  milkers.  At  present, 
however,  more  and  more  attention  is  being  paid  to 
the  milking  <jLialiti()A  of  th(^  breed,  and  elTortii  are 
being  made  tu  develop  milking  Htrains  of  Short- 
horns. 

Major  Henry  E.  Alvord,  in  FarmerH'  Bulletin 
No.  106,  UniU-'d  States  [)e[Hirlmetit  of  AKrteuIture, 
gives  »ome  performances  of  Shorthorn  herds  and 
individuals  as  foDows:  "Records  of  several  dairy 
herds  in  the  United  States,  within  a  quarter  of  a 
century,  show  a  mllkinb;  seitnon  uf  ahnnt  2Ti)  diiyti 
and  an  average  proiiuot  of  fi.fiOO  pounds  of  milk. 
One  henl  of  ten  cows,  three  tu  twelve  years  old. 
averagi^nl  7,7nO  pounds  in  a  year.  Single  eows  have 
averagod  much  morL<,  several  instances  being  known 
of  10,000  to  12,(XH)  pounds  in  a  sca.ion.  The  .Short- 
horn milk  is  of  good  quality,  rather  ahitve  the 
average;  the  fat  globules  are  of  medium  and  fairly 
uniftirm  size,  wi  that  creJim  separates  easily;  it  is 
rather  pale  in  culur.  In  IK2-1,  a  cow  near  Philadel- 
phia miHJe  over  twenty  pounds  of  butter  in  a  we^^k 
without  special  feeding.  Herds  of  forty  cows  have 
averaged  209  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year ;  the  herd 
of  ton  COB'S  mentioned  above  averaged  Sili  [lounds. 
and  single  cows  ha%-e  recorda  of  400  pounds  and 
over,  one  Knng  of  GJ."?  poands." 

FifT  huHrr.  The  Shtirthjims  made  a  very  crt'dit- 
nlile  showing  in  the  butter  te.Ht«  against  the  lend- 
ing dairy  tretvls,  the  Jerseys  and  (Juemwya,  at  the 
World's  Columbian  ExpoBition  at  Chicago,  in  18t^it. 


In  the  ninety-day  batter  test,  the  best  Shorthorn 
cow,  Nora,  producer]  3,(579,8  pounda  of  milk,  from 
which  was  made  I<i0.ri7  pounds  of  butter,  and 
during  the  period  she  gained  115  jxrunds  in  weight. 
The  beat  J^niey,  Brown  Besaie  (Fig.  .'t81),  produced 
S.tJ.'U  pounds  of  milk,  from  which  was  made  216.G6  J 
pounds  of  butter,  and  gained  81  ponnds.  In  this 
test  the  showing  made  by  the  Shorthorn  was  very 
good,  considering  the  fact  that  not  nearly  8«  much 
care  and  money  were  spent  in  selecting  the  herd 
38  waK  dune  with  the  Jerseys  and  (luernseya. 

For  ekftstt.—Ki  the  aanie  time,  the  Shorthorn 
made  a  liku  croiJitablB  ghowing  in  a  14-day  cheese- 
making  test.  In  this,  the  Shorthorn  ranked  third 
against  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  yielding  12,186,9 
pounds  of  milk,  which  made  1,077.6  pounds  of 
cheese.  Nora,  a  Shorthorn,  ran  second  to  a  Jersey, 
making  60..S{i  ])iiunds  of  cheefte  at  a  net  profit 
of  $6.27. 

For  beef. — Fur  the  production  of  beef,  the  Short- 
horn stands  second  to  no  brvod,  and  there  are  very 
few  that  equal  it.  Itts  pojiularity  as  a  beef  breed 
both  in  England  and  the  United  States  is  shown  by 
the  number  of  its  repri3Sentativ6K  found  at  the 
leading  fat-stock  shows  of  these  two  countrieei. 
The  Shorthorn  is  naturally  tbick-llesbwl,  with  a 
maximum  dL-velopmeut  of  the  valuable  parts  of  the 
carcass,  which  causes  it  to  dress  out  a  high  per- 
centage of  carcass  to  live  weight,  although  it  is 
not  BO  good  in  this  respect  sia  the  Aberdeen-.^nguB. 
The  Shortliom  is  a  goinl  feetier,  and,  when  supplied 
with  an  abundance  of  food,  makes  large  gains, 
yielding  gimd  returna  for  the  food  consumed.  Tha 
brfixE  matures  early  ajid  can  be  made  ready  Cor  the 
block  at  two  to  two  and  one-half  years  of  age  ;  but, 
if  80  desired,  it  will  stand  a  longer  period  of  feed- 
ing. When  forced  for  a  long  time,  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  take  on  flesh  unevenly,  with  the  fat  in 
patches  or  n)lls  on  the  rump  and  along  the  sidea. 

Far  cmsHi'iif  and  ffrndiHg.—Sa  other  breed  ban 
been  u«eil  for  grading  up  common  cattle  to  the 
extent  that  the  Shorthorn  has,  and  marked  improve* 
ment  has  resulted  wherever  this  method  of  griiding 
has  boon  followed,  as  may  be  seen  hy  noting  the 
im]irovement  that  has  followed  the  use  of  Short- 
horn bulla  on  our  westprn  ranges.  In  onrv\merican 
cattle  Biarkctj^,  grailta  Shorthorna  predominate  over 
nil  other  breeds  in  numbers.  The  first  cross  of  a 
Sfiurthom  i'D  any  of  the  beef  breeds  makes  a  good 
beef  animal.  The  "prime  Scots,"  which  are  so  pop- 
ular in  the  Englipfi  markets,  are  cnwses  of  the 
Shorthorn  and  Aberdeen-Angus.  The  "blue-gray " 
nteer»,  whieh  are  also  highly  prized  in  the  itritish 
markets,  are  crOMSeiHof  the  lightniolon-d  Shorthoros 
un  the  Galloway. 

Organixaiiojit  and  records. 

In  1S2'2.  George  Coates.  of  \orkf<hire,  EngluH)/,] 
published  the  Shorthorn  Herdliciok.  the  first  registr 
nf  li%*e-atnrk  to  l>e  insuiMl.  From  this  develoi»ed  the 
Knglish  Shorthorn  HenilMmk  (Coates'  Henlbook),  uf 
which  fifty  volumejt  have  now  been  publishetL 
Since  ]S7<\  it  hiLS  iK'un  in  the  hands  of  the  Short- 
horn Society  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland, 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


375 


Ae  work  of  rBCimlinj;  Shwrthorns  in  AmtTica 
WM  first  takL'ii  ii]i  by  Mr.  1«wls  F.  Allon,  of  Black 
Rock.  New  V»rk,  who  publishod  the  first  volume  of 
the  American  Shorthorn  Elerdbnok  in  1846.  Mr. 
AHen  cnntinufld  this  puhlicatinti  as  »  private  enter- 
prise until  1>W2,  when  it  wh«  purchased  hy  the 
Anii^ri'Can  Shurthi>rn  BrRedeni'  AtwKiiatLun.  In 
iSGft,  Mr.  A. .).  Alexander,  of  Wijodburn,  Kuntucky, 
pabli^hed  thu  first  vdIuuiu  of  ii  henlbuok  known  as 
the  American  Shorthorn  Kecord.  In  1S78,  the  Ohio 
Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association  puWinheri  the  firet 
Tolume  of  the  Ohio  Shorthorn  Kecurd,  two  more 
Tolumes  of  which  were  piitili.ihed  Later. 

The  regiatrat ion  of  Sh»rthi>rnH  in  the  United 
StateH  at  prgi^Hnt  in  condtirled  enlin-ly  hy  the 
American  Shorthorn  Breeders'  AasociaLion,  ort^an- 
ised  in  lS8i  Thw  nsftocialiun  purchuMtd  the  inlL-r- 
esUi  of  all  the  Shorthorn  hi>rdliooks  in  the  United 
States,  and  continued  the  pablication.  beginning 
with  Volume  2rt  of  the  American  Sh<irthnrn  Herd- 
book  sLirted  by  Mr.  I<i>wis  F.  Alk*n.  Sixty-nine  vnl- 
amei)  iif  thi»i  herdbook  have  he^n  [>nidiKhe<i,  and 
VoluirieH  70,  71  and  72  ure  now  in  preparation,  two 
volumoa  bcinK  published  annually.  Up  to  the  close 
of  Volunse  &,  there  aro  reRistered  about  273.(XI0 
mates  and  421.000  femaJc-s,  making  a  total  of 
about  6S)'l.0i:>0. 

The  Rr^t  Shorthorn  herrlbook  in  Canada  waa  the 
Canailian  Shorthorn  Herdhook,  the  first  volnme  of 
which  was  published  in  1SH7.  In  18S1,  the  first 
volume  of  the  Briliah-Atnerican  Shorthorn  Henl- 
book  was  pnbli^he^l,  and  the  first  volume  of  the 
Dominion  Herdbook  appeared  in  1KH7.  The  latter 
took  over  the  interestn  and  records  of  the  tirat  two 
herdbookH,  and  now  the  repBtration  of  Shorthorns 
in  Canada  is  through  the  Dominion  Herdbook. 

Polled  DtTRnAU  Cattle.  Fig.  R86. 

Polled  Durhama,  ss  b  breed,  have  the  noique 
dfeiinction  of  being  the  only  breed  of  cattle  origi- 
oaiing  in  the  UnittKi  States.  They  are  very  aimilar 
to  the  Shorthorn,  and,  in  fact,  the  Shorthorn  13 
chiefly  renpon^iible  for  their  origin. 

Description. 

Like  the  Shorthom.  the  l*olled  Durham  is  mas- 
iive  in  size,  quiet  in  disposition,  and  a  breed  well 
calctilat«-d  to  meet  the  requirements  of  farmers 
wanting  a  hornleM  race  of  doal-purpoae  cattle. 
They  are,  however,  better  fitt<Ki  to  give  satisfaction 
as  b«ef-i>rodacer8  than  in  the  dairy.  During  the 
«arly  ht^ory  of  the  breed  much  attention  was  paid 
to  color  and  milking  qaalities.  Red  was  preferred, 
but  in  later  years  roans  have  cotne  to  be  looked  on 
with  more  favor.  With  the  increase  in  numbers 
comes  the  opportnnity  to  make  more  careful  selec- 
tiooit,  aud  the  breed  ia  making  rapid  advancement 
both  in  real  merit  and  public  Gst«om.  It  possesses 
considerable  prepotency. 

No  scale  of  point-"  for  judging  Polled  Durham 
csttte  has  been  adopted.  Nearly  nil  Polled  Dnr- 
hams  that  are  being  recorded  at  the  present  time 
are  pure  Shorthorn  in  blood,  and  brvexlers  are 
striving  to  produce,  u  nearly  as  [mssible.  the  ideal 


Shorthorn,  minui;  the  horns.  Polled  Darhams  are 
jndged  by  the  name  HlandanU  as  are  Shorthoros, 
and  in  nearly  all  largo  shows  Polled  Dorhams  are 
judged  by  a  Shorthorn  br«eder. 

Di^irihutian. 

Herds  of  Polled  Durhanis  are  more  numerous  in 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Ohio  and  Illinois  than  in  othcT 
stales,  although  they  are  being  introduced  rather 
extoneivfcly  into  other  sectionti  of  the  country, 
notably  in  North  Tlakota,  Kansas,  Kentucky.  Wis- 
cnnnin,  Texan  and  Nebranka.  Sevuntl  have  been 
shipped  to  the  Argentine  Itepnblic,  in  South 
America. 

TTfpe». 

There  are  two  somewhat  distinct  linos  of  blood 
to  be  found  among  Polled  Durhams.  The-se  are 
designated  as  Double^tandard  and  Single-Standard 
Polled  Durham.i. 

DnuUc -  Sfanilard  PMrd  Durhtims  include  the 
homlcHH  Khihrthorns  that  are  eligible  for  record  in 
the  American  Shorthorn  Herdl>ook,  us  well  as  the 
American  Polled  Durham  Herdbook.    Thuy  are  the 


m 


■s%i 


n<.  3Se.  Touax  PDlbd  Duibun  bull. 

result  of  retaining,  m  breeding  animals.  homlflH 
Shorthomi*.  which  occasionally  appear  as  freaks 
in  Shorthorn  henls.  The  mo«t  of  the  Double-v'^tand- 
ard  Polled  Durhums  are  from  the  three  families. 
White  Roses,  Young  Phyllis  and  Gwynne's. 

Singif-Slatt'iard  PoUed  Durham*  are  eligible  for 
record  in  the  Polled  Durham  record  only.  This 
branch  of  Polled  Durhams  originated  by  the 
attempts  on  the  part  of  a  number  of  breeders, 
working,  at  Arst  largely  independently,  to  develop 
a  race  of  hornless  cattle  with  the  characteristics  of 
the  Shorthorn  breed.  This  was  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  Shorthorn  hulls  on  the  native  muley  cows. 

Brtfdrrt  of  note. 

Among  the  early  breeders  interested  in  the 
development  of  the  Polled  Durham  breed  the  fol- 
lowing were  most  prominent:  William  W.Crane, 
Tippecanoe  City,  Ohio;  W.  S.  Miller.  Elmore.  Ohio  ; 
J.  P.  and  A.  K.  Burleigh,  Maxon.  Illinois;  and  i^hafor 
and  Ciawsnn,  Hamilton,  Ohio. 

(h-ganiiati'mt  and  rrt'inh. 

The  American  Polled  Durham  Breeders;'  Associa- 
tion, which  has  for  its  object  the  furthering  of  tite 
interest*  of  the  breed,  and  the  recording  of  animals 
eligible  to  its  herdbook.  was  organized  in  Chicago, 


376 


CATTLB 


CATTLE 


NovombtT  l.H,  1889,  and  waa  chartorad  November 
2,  1890.  Three  volumes  of  the  American  Polled 
Durham  Herriljnok  have  hicen  piiblishccl,  the  first 
having  appeared  in  189).  "Animala  to  he  eligible 
to  entry  in  the  American  PoUfd  Durham  Herdlmnk 
muHt  be  »t  least  six  munthn  (dd  ;  mufit  he  niitii- 
rully  hiirnlejis ;  irjust  liavw  both  parfctitu  retordwi 
thtifein  or  have  one  parent  rfcardfd  in  tht*  biiok 
and  thu  other  parent  recordfd  in  the  American 
Shorthorn  Herdhook  ;  and  further,  must  have  all 
nnce.itry  that  are  eligible  recorded  in  the  American 
F'oHcd  Liurham  Henltiook." 

Literature. 

A.  H.  Sanders,  Shorthorn  Tattl*',  Sanders  Pub- 
lishing Company.  Chicagu  ;  Lewii*  F.  AiWn.  History 
of  Shorthurn  Cattle ;  C.  J.  Batt.*,  Thomas  Bates 
and  the  Kirklevington  ^Shcrlhorn?*,  London  (1897); 
\V.  U.  Beaver,  An  Arithmetical  Arrangement  of  the 
Leading-  Shorthorn  Tribes  ;  Thomas  Bell,  History  of 
Improve-iShorthorn-Dnrham  Cattle  (1871);  William 
Houaman,  The  Improved  Shorthorn,  London  (1876); 
Plumb,  Little  Sket<:h«s  of  FamouH  Beef  Cattle, 
Columbus,  Ohio  CliKM);  herdliooks  of  the  various 
Shorthorn  aswoctationH.  [For  further  TiOferenceft, 
see  page  302.] 

Susaex  CatUe.   Figs.  387,  388. 

By  Overton  Lea. 

Sussex  cattle  are  so  called  from  tJie  county  of 
that  name  in  England,  where  they  most  abound. 
They  are  distinctly  a  beef  breed. 

Dcnrriptian. 

For  a  nhort  dwcription,  by  way  of  compariBon. 
imaginfl  a  Devon  witn  the  weiRht  of  a  Shorthorn, 
and  thu  picture  will  convey  an  accurate  idea  uf  the 
Suasex.  Moreparticular]y,"the  horns  are  of  medium 
lenf^th,  co'ming  onl  at  any  an^fle.  but  generally 
horizontally,  branching  laterally,  and  turniiiir 
upward  tow.ird  the  ends  ;  nose  tolt-rably  wide,  with 
muKzle  of  flesh-color;  thin  between  the  nostrils 


^ 


and  well  covered ;  rump  flat  and  leing ;  tail  with 
white  brush,  which  should  drop  (ufrpeiidiciilarly ; 
thigh  flat  outside  and  full  inside;  coat  wft  and 
Rillcy.  with  »  mellow  touch  :  cobir  .a<diil  r^-d,  both 
light  and  dark,  aometimes  thu?  two  »hadc.^  mingling 
and  making  h  hfaiitifiil  dHi)pl'ed  bar;  and  a  few 
gray  or  white  hairs,  nearly  alwuys  single,  except 
on  the  foretop,  are  regarded  miwt  favurnbly." 

The  special   mtTJts  claimed   for  the  breed  are 
large  size,  early  maturity,  propensity  to  fatten. 


>^' 


iM^&is^^^^^m^;J^' 


PUt.SSI.    A  SUMM  boll. 


and eyea;e/[!S  rather  ]>rominent ;  fon-'hoad  inclined 
to  be  vide ;  neck  short ;  sidct  straight ;  wide  and 
open  in  the  breast,  which  shonld  project  forwant ; 
Kirth  deep  ;  tegs  short ;  chine-bone  straight ;  ribtt 
troad  ;  loin  fall  of  flesh  ;  hiji-hone  not  very  large, 


.v 


Fie.  3M.    A  Souex  am. 

prime  quality  of  flesh  laid  on  the  moat  di^sirable 
parts,  hardihood  of  constitution,  uniform  |K)]iular 
color  and  capacity  to  imprutia  these  characteristics 
on  their  offspring. 

The  American  Sussex  Cattle  Association  has 
never  adopted  a  scale  of  points  for  judging  this 
breed. 

Uhinr\j. 

The  origin  of  the  Sussex,  like  that  of  all  the 
olde.'^t  bjveds  of  English  cattle,  is  involved  in 
obscurity,  .\ccordtng  to  Youatt  and  Mart  in,  some  of 
the  ancient  Hritons  tied  before  the  advance  of  their 
enemies  to  the  Wtatd  of  Kast  8na»e)t  and  carri<>d 
with  them  their  cattle,  or  found  there  some  of  the 
native  cattle  of  the  country,  and  zealously  guarded 
them  against  all  admixture.  Mr.  Alfred  Hvas- 
man,  editor  of  the  first  three  volumes  of  the 
Su.'wex  llerdbook,  and  author  of  a  chapter  on 
Sussex  cattle  in  "The  Cattle  of  the  British 
lales,"  doubts  whether  the  breed  was  im- 
ported or  found  native  to  the  country  on  the 
advent  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  his 
followers.  Be  this  as  it  may.  the  breed  is  univer- 
sally recogniaed  to  1«  a  distinct  one.  It  has  been 
a  prominent  feature  of  SuKsex  from  time  im* 
memorial,  and  has  preserved,  anchange<d  through 
all  vicissitudoe.  the  same  characteristics,— great 
weight,  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  red  color,  -except 
in  80  far  as  improved  by  better  feeding  and  greater 
care.  Originally  they  were  used  chiefly  for  draft 
purposes,  their  great  size  and  strength  and  activ- 
ity, with.il.  enabling  them  to  draw  promptly  the 
heaviest  loads  and  till  the  atiffest  soil.  Rut,  even 
in  remiTitr  limes,  thu  quality  of  their  flesh  was  highly 
priztHl  and,  when  the  oxen  became  aged,  they  were 
Itought  u|i,  grazed  a  year,  and  supplied  the  markeU 
with  animals  weighing  180  to  200  stone  (a  stone 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


87T 


to  sboQt  U  poxin>]»t  avoinlupoiti,  making  the  weight 
2,500  to  2.SI10  ixjunda-l 

TiiBsw  catlle  haw  always  bewn  the  favorite  of 
the  tenant  furniLT  (than  whom  therv  is  no  better 
judge  of  a  prolUablc-  animal)  of  i<u-wi'X  anfl  a^lja- 
ct-nt  coantios,  and  have  constituted  for  many  years 
one  of  the  chief  attractions  at  the  local  stock 
shows.  More  recently,  stimulated  by  the  exporta- 
tion of  large  numbers  of  th'e  principal  brt-t^ds  at 
fancy  prices,  some  of  the  English  breeder*  have 
sought  to  bring  forward  the  Sussex  more  promi- 
nently at  all  of  the  leading  fihowg  of  the  Britixh 
Isles;  nor  are  they  strangors  in  tht;  show-yards  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Most  Kratifying  luccesg 
baa  crowned  tho^  cffortji  bath  abroad  and  here,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  Uka  of  the  Ejigltsh  and 
American  agricultural  pruaa  for  the  P'ost  quarter 
of  a  century. 

In  A(Jwri<M.— The  date  of  the  first  importation 
to  America  is  uncertain.  The  characteristics  of 
many  of  the  so-called  native  red  cattle',  found  in 
New  p'ngland  and  in  Tennesaeo  on  and  near  (.'umber- 
land  plateau,  and,  perhajia.  in  other  fttates,  suggest 
that  they,  in  common  with  alm>.<3t  all  species  and 
breeds  of  domestic  animals,  were  brought  over  by 
the  early  colonist)!.  Since  1H«0.  a  numl«r  of  impor- 
tationi)  have  l)een  made,  and  the  Siusex  are  domi- 
ciled on  many  farms  and  scattered  over  the  ranges, 
doing  thuir  fall  share  toward  the  improvement  of 
the  native  cattle.  In  1SH4,  the  writer  imported  a 
number  of  this  breed  of  cattle  for  his  farm  in  Ten- 
newee.  In  1891.  the  Ontario  Agrtcoltural  College 
at  Guelph,  Canada,  made  an  importation. 

Dittribtttum. 

.Sufsex  cattle  are  not  yet  widely  distributed. 
Their  local  habitat  U  Sussex  and  the  adjtdning 
counties  in  England.  Tbey  have  been  exported  in 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  and,  as  stated  in 
the  agricultural  presw,  to  i'outh  Africa.  Egypt,  and, 
perhaps,  to  South  America  alto.  As  far  as  known 
they  have  thrived  wherever  tried,  and  it  may  be 
stated  safely  that  they  will  do  well  wherever  any 
of  the  bovine  spucies  can  i»e  produced  successfully. 
Cattle  from  the  herd  of  the  writer  have  been  dis- 
tributed to  several  parts  of  Tennessee,  and  to  Ala- 
bama, Arkanaa-s  South  Carolina  and  Texas.  Other 
herds  are  found  in  Maine,  Indiana  and  Illinois, 

Fttding  and  care. 

The  breiil  responds  a$  ^•neronsly  as  any  to  full 
feuding  and  care,  and  thrivoa  on  rough  and  scant 
pasturage.  In  cold  weather,  shelter — the  lee  side  of 
a  shed,  or  wind-shield,  or  atraw-t*tack.  if  no  bi;lter 
is  obtainable — is  a  di-^tinct  advantage :  at  other 
aeasoiu,  nothing  but  fair  grazing'  is  reriuirei]. 

fVi. 

For  milk. —  As  the  Susaex  is  primarily  a  beef 
breed,  its  milk-giving  (lualittea  have  not  been  es|)e- 
eially  develo]>ed.  At  the  samtt  time,  the  cows, 
almost  without  exception,  give  milk  of  most  excel- 
lent quality  and.  if  milked  closely,  make  surpris- 
ingly good  dairy  animals.  They  fatt*in  when  dry 
more  readily,  perhaps,  lluin  thu  ox. 


For  6f^.— The  Sussex  has  achieved  the  highest 
honors  "  on  the  scale  and  the  block."  The  object 
of  the  breeders,  as  a  class,  revealed  by  the  typical 
Sussex  of  today,  has  been  to  produce  the  most 
profitable  butcher's  beast;  to  hasten  the  fieriod  of 
maturity  and  improve  the  quality,  without  forget- 
ting for  a  moment  to  preserve  these  most  excel- 
lent characteristics  of  the  breed.- sound  constitu- 
tion, capacity  "to  rustle."  fecundity  and  prepotency. 
The  Sussex  makes  large  and  rapid  gains,  and 
attains  great  Weight.  Alwut  1.500  pounds  for  cows 
and  2.(XK>  pounds  for  bulls  represent  the  average 
weightaof  animals  in  good  breedingcondition.  The 
average  wei^'ht  of  a  well-fatled  bullock,  twenty- 
four  months  old,  may  be  twfely  put  al  1,400  pounds. 

For  uradiaff.—  lhc  prepotency  of  Sussex  buIJa 
makes  them  valuable  for  crossing  on  native  or 
grade  stock,  to  improve  the  heeling  qualities  and 
ability  to  graze.  They  readily  stamp  their  charac- 
ters on  their  crussea. 

OrgaiiizatioM  and  rteorda. 

At  a  comparatively  early  date  in  the  btotny  of 
regUtration.  IhL-  Entjliwh  faVsaex  Herdbook  Soctetjr 
eslablii^hed  the  English  Sussex  Herdbook,  tracing 
pedigrees  to  the  year  IR.^'i.  The  American  Sussex 
Register  was  e-stablished  in  1H.S9  by  the  American 
Sussex  Cattle  Association.  Comparatively  few  Sus- 
sex cattle  have  been  importwl  to  the  United  .''tati'?, 
and  only  one  volume  of  the  Register  has  been  pub- 
lished (1906).  containing  something  less  than  300 
entries. 

IMeraturf. 

Arthur  Voung,  General  Views  of  Agricrlture  in 
the  County  of  Sussex  (1793).  [For  further  referen- 
ces, see  page  302.] 

Some  of  the  Lesser  Known   Breeds  of  Cattle. 

Fig*.  :isy-a94. 

By  C.  S.  Plumb. 

A  larger  numlwr  of  breeds,  or  sn-calV-d  breeds,  of 
rattle  exists  than  is  commonly  stip[)Ost<d.  In  varloua 
tcectious  of  Europe,  fur  many  yeara  thu  inliabitants 
liave  bred  and  devtilo]»Kl  bre^^'ds  that  seemed  espec- 
iaily  adapted  to  the  local  environment.  This  condi- 
tion exists  even  today,  to  such  a  degree  that  one 
finds  brewl.'  of  nwrit,  yet  of  limited  diKlribution,  In 
various  difltricts  of  Hreat  Britain  and  on  the  conti- 
nent of  EuroiK?.  .\mong  the  Icn-ser  known,  yet  valu- 
able breeds,  may  be  mentinmil  the  Black  Welsh, 
Urahmin  or  Sacred.  Rrt-ton  or  lirittany.  Kerry,  l»ng- 
horn,  Kormandy,  .Siinnienlhal,  and  \Vi-st  Highland. 
All  excepting  th<'  Black  Welsh  and  Longhorn  have 
been  intnuluce"!  to  some  extent  into  America. 
These  breeds,  however,  are  very  rare  in  this  coun- 
try. In  America,  there  is  also  the  Texas  Lcngboru 
ty|)e.  which  is  fast  passing,  but  which  has  filled  an 
important  nee<l. 

Buck  Wblsii  Cattle,   Fig.  389. 

I^lack  Welsh  cattle  are  found  principally  in 
Wales,  and   are  of  obscure  ancestry.    They  have 

been  regarded  :ut  of  shnriginal  ancwtry  and  have 


37f 


CATTLE 


numerous  characteristics  in  commiin  with  the  West 
Highlanii  breed.  Black,  horn>ed  cattle  are  found  in 
both  North  and  South  Wales,  and  represent  two 
different  types.  They  rostimble  each  'I'ther  to  a  cod- 
flid«rable  extent,  but  those  of  South  Wales  are 


rU.  3M.    Black  WrFftli  ball.     Priw  irinnsr  «l  Ror>l  Acrl- 

distinctly  coarser  and  larger  than  thone  of  North 
Wales.  Those  of  the  Foath  are  not  popular  in  the 
north.  Some  of  the  mpeciiil  characteristics  are  a 
hiack  color,  althoagh  brownish  black  or  reddish 
black  Bometimes  prevails.  White  hair  rarely  occorB, 
eiceptinR  on  the  udder  of  the  cow.  the  acrotum  of 
the  male  and  the  brush  of  the  tail.  The  hom^ 
are  rather  prominent,  being  yellowish  white  with 
blackish  tips,  and  somewhat  wide -spreading  and 
carried  forward  with  the  bull,  and  narrower  and 
more  uprijiht  with  cows.  These  cattle  are  beefy  in 
type,  and  are  inclined  to  be  well-fle-shed.  They  are 
criticized  for  slaoknesa  of  loin,  flatness  of  rib  and 
prominence  of  rump.  The  temperament  la  some- 
what lively. 

These  cattle  are  indij^nons  to  a  hilly  (^razin^ 
country,  and  are  particularly  adapted  to  graziiitr 
purpoaea.  They  are  rarylystable-eheltered  inwinter 
and  depend  on  pasturage  for  food  the  year  round. 
Ai!  a  result  of  this  open  method  of  life,  the  breed 
IB  a  very  hardy  one.  When  kept  on  the  uplands 
with  spariie  herba[;e.  the  cattle  tend  to  be  some- 
what emaller  than  thiwe  on  the  richer  lowlands. 
They  are  also  Bomewhat  f>low  to  mature.  Some 
specimens  of  the  breed  attnin  considerable  weipht, 
however.  In  188;i,  at  the  Smithfield  t'lub  Show,  at 
London,  a  four-year-old  steer  was  exhibited  that 
weighed  2.404  pounds,  while  a  fat  cow  was  cred* 
ited  with  a  weight  of  2.214  pounds.  The^e.  of 
cour&e,  are  very  excessive  figures.  Fair  represen- 
tative  weiffhtft  are  tfiven  :ts  1,500  to  1,S(X>  pounds 
for  the  ball,  and  1,300  to  1,4()0  pounds  for  the 
eov. 

Black  Welsh  cattle  are  rated  as  very  fair  milkers 
by  WflshniL-n.  The  cows  averafie  about  3.000 
pounds  of  milk  a  year,  while  a  better  sort  of  indi* 
vidual  produces  4,000  or  more  pounds.  The  quality 
of  the  milk  is  excellent.  The  Earl  of  Cawdor,  a 
le:idinc  exhibitor  of  these  cattle  in  the  paat,  states 
that  his  cows  produce  twelve  to  fourteen  tinartsof 
milk  daily,  and  tliat  the  quality,  color  and  flavor  of 
thu  butter  from  this  milk  is  uDsurjuaaed. 

Thtfl  breed,  althoagh  unknown  in  .\merica,  is 
prominent  in  Wales  and  la  well  represented  in  some 


of  the  important  English  cattle  shows,  notably  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Swiety  Show.  The  breeders  of 
North  Wales  established  a  herdbook  aiwiicijilinn  in 
1883,  and  publi.'ihed  tht  lirst  volunmof  their  rec*mJa 
that  year.  The  South  Wales  biwMiers  also  had  a 
herdbook  a.<i»()ciation.  In  HM~I4,  these  two  societies 
&mali;amat^:d  into  the  Welsh  Cattle  ikKsiety,  and 
piibliahed  their  first  herdliook  in  11*05. 

Brahmin,  Sacrer  Catti^  or  Zkbus.  Fig.  390. 

These  are  a  species  of  humped  cattle,  known  u 
Bos  Imliais.  They  are  the  so-called  Sacred  cattle 
of  India.  In  works  on  natural  history  they  are  gen- 
erally described  as  "ZebuH."  They  were  first  intro- 
duced to  the  United  States,  perhaps,  in  1S5:J.  by- 
Mr.  Davis,  of  South  C'Jirolina.  Some  other  importa- 
tion for  agricultural  purposes  followed,  notaoly  in 
lyiKj.  The  Davis  cattle  were  taken  we.'ftward.  their 
descendants  liecoming  distributed  in  the  Southwest 
and  ia  lltxico.  They  are  characterized  by  a  light, 
silvery-gray  color,  with  darker  whaiiings  of  fore  and 
hind  parts;  with  hump  ov^-r  the  shouldem,  exces- 
sive dewlap  and  fulnws  of  throttle,  large  drooping 
ear.  and  black,  recurving  horns.  The  disposition  is 
not  good. 

Brahmin  cattle  were  introduced  to  the  southern 
states  in  the  hope  that  they  would  better  withstand 
the  warm  climate,  insects  and  disease  than  would 
other  cattle.  In  1888,  Prof.  G.  W.  Curtis,  of  Texaa. 
wrote  of  them  to  some  extent  in  his  work  on 
"  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine,"  in  which  he 
stated  that  the  pure-breds  had  played  an  important 
part  in  improving  the  native  stock  in  southern 
Texas.  The  cross  is  said  to  improve  the  native  beef, 
but  cattle  of  this  kind  and  their  grades  are  not  to 
be  regarded  seriously  as  factors  in  our  live-stock 
industry.  The  cows  yield  a  fair  amount  of  milk,  it 
is  said,  but  ic  is  very  low  in  butter-fat.  In  India, 
these  cattle  are  used  for  domestic  purposes,  espe- 
cially aa  oxen. 

Zebu  cattle  are  being  imported  from  time  to  time. 
bat  mainly  for  circuses  or  zoological  gardens.  They 


PIC-  no.    Bnhmta  trull  iO«i  tndievtt. 

have  btwn  imported  to  South  America,  to  cross  with 
the  native  Caracu.  in  the  hope  of  securing  a  hybrid 
that  will  hv  l(u<s  subject  to  prevalent  diseases. 

In  regard  to  the  importation  of  1006,  Dr.  Mark 
Francis  writes  as  follows  :  "  In  190G,  A.  P.  Borden, 
Pierce,  Texas,  went  to  India  and  brought  sixty-four 


CATTLE 


CATTIfi 


head  to  America.  They  arrived  at  New  York  in  tho 
ttpring  (1^J6)  and  were  held  in  quarantine  on  &r\ 
island  off  the  coa.st  of  New  Jersey  all  nummer.  The 
BnresTi  of  Animal  Industry  destroyed  about  one- 
half  of  them  for  surra.  The  remainder  were  finally 
released,  and  arrived  on  the  I'ierce  Itanch  at  IMerce, 
T«xaa,  in  November  (IDOtJ).  They  were  held  hero 
several  months,  when  the  lot  was  divided,  and  one- 
half  of  them  taken  to  Victoria,  Texas,  and  put  on 
the  ranch  of  Thomaa  O'Connor.  There  are  seven 
distinct  families,  or  strainu  of  blood,  reprefletited. 
All  are  bulU  but  three.  I  tested  seven  of  them  to 
see  whether  they  were  immune  to  Texas  fever.  We 
got  no  reaction  from  inoculation,  and  decided  that 
the  whole  lot  were  probably  immune  to  Texas  fever. 
Mr.  Borden  shovvs  that  those  cattle  that  have  some 
Brahma  or  Brahmin  blood  in  them  are  in  good  f!i«h. 
whili!  those  carryin^f  some  Shorthorn  or  Hereford 
blood  are  in  puor  dexh.  and  must  be  fed  in  winter. 
ihri  claims  ap[>ear  to  me  to  be  gustained.  The  Brah- 
min  cattle  seem  to  ha  able  to  stand  the  mosquitod. 
ticks,  horn  flics,  tiver-flakes  and  parasites  ceneratly, 
much  better  than  the  jMMralled  improved  breeds. 
The  bulls  are  of  ^ood  size  and  bone,  and  not  any  of 
them  are  the  small  ''billy-goiit'  tyjie  seen  in  a  cer- 
tain menaKerie.  The  oldest  of  Mr.  O'Connor's  bulls, 
a  four-year-old.  w^ichs  about  2,000  pounds.  This 
indicates  the  sine  that  is  attained." 

Brcton  or  Bhittany  Cattle. 

Breton  or  Brittany  cattle  arc  native  to  that  sec- 
tion of  Western  France  known  as  Brittany.  T3iey 
»re  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  Kurop.j,  and  no  doubt 
their  blood  was  os^  in  the  early  stoclt  of  what 
later  becamt:  thL-  .Icrsey  and  Gui-rnsey. 

The  Breton  cattle  are  black  or  black  and  whito 
in  color,  although  in  one  Jiection  red  and  white 
occurs.  This  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  horned 
bree<l  of  cattle,  havin^i  an  average  height  of  about 
thirty-six  inchejtat  thewithera.  It  is  a  dairy  breed, 
and.  like  the  Kerry,  the  cows  produce  geni^rously 
of  milk  In  proportion  to  size.  Thu  average  yield  is 
about  1,700  pounds  of  milk  a  year,  with  well-fed 
individuals'  producing2,500 pounds  or  more.  When 
we  bear  in  mind  that  cows  of  this  brew!  weigh  350 
to  iM  punndi*,  and  receive  but  scanty  attention 
as  a  rule,  this  i.^  a  f.air  record.  It  is  said  chat  the 
Breton  is  very  hardy,  and  that  thu  cows  live  and 
do  we!l  whure  caltlu  uf  other  brewds  would  starve. 
The  Breton  has  bvtin  kept  pure  in  some  sections  of 
Brittany,  and  in  other  localities  the  cows  have 
been  cro«ied  with  j>horthorn  and  .■Vyrshire  bulls. 
The  Shorthtirn  improved  the  size  and  fattening 
qualitiew,  but  unfavorably  affected  the  milk  secre- 
ting capacity.  The  Ayrshire  cows  did  ntit  giv« 
satixf^ctury  returns  oither  in  beef  or  milk,  while 
the  docile  temperament  of  the  Breton  was  mate- 
rially injurwi. 

A  few  Hreton  cattle  were  brought  to  Mawiachu- 
detts  many  years  ago,  and  the  writer  became 
familiar  with  a  [lair  of  them  in  the  herd  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agriculluni)  College.  Th^isu  w«re 
Tery  small  in  size  and  roriHtly  black  in  color.  Unfor- 
tanately,  they  were  disposed  of  before  their  merits 
becftmo  known. 


HOLDERNESS  CATTUi 

In  southern  Yorkshire.  England,  lying  north  of 
the  river  Kumber.  is  a  rich,  level  district  long  ago 
known  Iwally  as  Holderneas.  Here  the  cattle  at- 
tained considerable  siie,  were  rather  light  of  shoul- 
der, large  behind,  had  a  considerable  reputation  as 
milkt-rs,  but  were  rather  coarse  in  qualitv  of  flesh. 
These  cattle,  which  were  often  more  or  leas  black 
in  color,  greatly  resembled  the  Dutch  cattle  near 
by  in  Holland ;  in  fact,  it  ha.<!  been  satd  that  they 
originally  came  from  Holland.  UndoTibte<lly  this 
early  stock  played  its  part  in  the  development  of 
the  Shorthorn,  and  contributed  toward  establishing 
the  value  of  the  .^horthom  as  a  milk-producor.  The 
cows  were  famous  milkers  and  wL-rL-espucially  p<ip- 
nlar  with  dairymen  supplying  Ixmdon  with  milk. 
As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  last  century  they  had 
become  much  crossed  with  Shorthorn  bulls,  and  the 
old-fashioned  Holdemess  cow  was  r;irely  met  with. 
In  the  present  day  this  breeid  is  of  no  special  in- 
terest, excepting  historically. 

The  American  Hoidtnioi  is  a  very  little  known 
American  breed,  said  to  have  had  its  foundation  in 
HnlderneRS  cows  imported  from  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire  about  1830.  Just  who  was  the  first 
importer  is  not  known.  It  is  said  that  they  were 
introduced  into  Massachusetts  about  that  date.  The 
man  who  Is  responsible  for  whattvur  progress  the 
breed  has  made  in  America,  is  Truman  A.  CoSe,  of 
Solsvjlle,  N.  Y.  About  1855,  he  purchased  from 
Mr.  Knox,  of  Oneida  county.  N.  Y.,  a  single  cow  of 
this  bived,  which  was  said  to  have  been  from  im- 
ported stock.  She  was  a  n-d  and  whit<;  cow,  and 
was  a  sii|)erior  milker.  When  purchased  she  was  in 
culf,  and  in  suason  droppud  a  bull.  Later  be  was 
was  bred  to  hia  dam,  and  from  this  foundation,  by 
close  inbieeding,  has  come  this  little-known  Ameri- 
can bn-ed.  In  form,  these  cattle  arc  said  to  resc^ml'le 
much  the  black  and  white  cattle  of  Dutch  breeding, 
with  color  which  varies  frtim  red  and  white  in 
calves  to  very  dark  brfiwn  or  black  at  full  maturity. 
Tbev  are  deep-bodied,  havu  large  udders  and  teaU, 
swollen  and  tortuous  milk-voins,  and  yellow  akin. 
Tho  escutcheon  is  especially  well  developed.  In 
1879,  Mr.  Cole  had  in  his  herd  nineteen  cow.s  that 
aver.iged  .308  pounds  of  butt«r  per  cow.  While  the 
cows  do  not  produce  so  heavy  a  yield  as  do  the 
Ilolstein-Fri^tfians,  they  give  milk  somewhat  richer 
in  butter-f*it.  The  buttt-r  is  excellent,  of  good  keep- 
ing quality,  and  sold  on  the  I'tica  ( N.  Y.)  market 
at  an  advanced  price.  It  is  said  that  the  cows  fatten 
readily  whon  dry  and  make  a  gotv!  quality  of  beef. 
A  numlvr  of  head  from  Mr.  Cole's  herd  were  sold 
to  other  breeders.  [See  pamphlet  "  Ilolderness  Cat- 
tle," issutHl  by  Truman  \.  Cole  (1887).] 

Kerrt  and  Dext»-:r-Kkrby  Cattlb.    Flga.  391- 
X9.'^. 

Kerry  cultle,  embracing  both  beef  and  dairy 
types,  have  l)een  bred  by  the  people  of  Ireland  a« 
far  back  as  history  gives  n^cord,  and  are  di»itinctty 
an  Irish  breeiL  Probably  thpy  are  descended  frc»m 
the  smaller  typo  of  the  aboriginal  cattle  of  Britain. 
They  are  found  in  lnrge.«t  numbers  in  the  sonth- 
westorn  port  of  Ireland  in  what  are  termed   tbd 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


Kerry  moantains.   Ilerds  am  found,  however,  Mst- 
tvrvd  all  over  the  islaDtt. 

Thwn?  aru  two  ty  [lefl  of  Ki*rry  cattle,  thi'  true  Kerry 
aiwJ  the  Dexter-Korry.  The  true  Kerry  (Fig.  3&1>  is 


k 


•  -'V--^-^:- 


Fli.  391.    Kxny  ocnr. 


di;it!nL''Jy  a  dairy  breed,  anil  is  lutunlly  of  a  l>l.ick 
color;  red,  however,  may  oc«iir.  White  often  i)r9- 
vailn  aTxiut  the  iiHdt-r  iif  the  cow  or  the  scrotum  of 
thu  bull,  1ml  nut  elsewhwre.  The  type  ia  muscular, 
of  the  dairy  form,  with 
lean  head,  fairly  thin  nfck, 
rather  narrow  withers. 
thin  thighs  and  compara- 
tively cap  a*-:  ions  oddi^r. 
G(x»d  fi5)ei^imens  show  re- 
Hnement,  al  though,  in 
tlieir  native  homes,  Ker- 
ries  often  show  the  effect 
of  Bcanty  fooil  in  retarded 
growth  and  rough  appL-ar. 
anco.  The  true  Kerry  cnw 
atmaturityneiially  weighs 
500  to  TiOO  |)»imd»ian<t  the 
bulls  SO*)  to  1.000  fiutindH. 
These  figures  vary  aeeurd- 
ing  to  care  and  food.  Aa 
miik-prodiicers,  cows  of 
this  breed  rank  high,  yielding  an  anosually  large 
amonnt  for  their  size.  They  have  btt-n  knnwr  to 
give  sixteen  fjuartn  a  day  when  fresh,  and  the  cow 
Reil  Rose  produced  nnarly  10,000  pounds  in  one 
year. 

The  Dexter-Kerry  (Figs.  392, 3!»3)  is  a  beefy  type 
of  the  Kerry  family.  It  is  of  obscure  ancestry,  but 
it  18  supposed  thiit  a  Mr.  Dexter  dvveioiied  it  by 
crossing  the  true  Kerries  on  cattle  of  a  beefy  sort, 
possibly  Shorthorns,  This  is  really  a  diminutive. 
du.il-p«rpose  type.  The  eompneitian  is  rather  beefy, 
showing  citmpartnejM,  breadth  nf  ha,ck,  depth  of  rib, 
thickm-jw  of  llcab  genen-illy,  with  exch'llent  udder 
development.  The  legft  are  very  fhori.  FamooB 
bulls  of  the  breed  have  weighed  about  iiOO  pounds 
at  maturity,  and  oows  even  letw.  Some  well-known 
show  Dexter-Kerrios  havu  stood  about  tbirty-aix 
inches  high  at  maturity.  The  color  is  variable,  and 
may  he  black,  red  or  roan.  The  Pexter-Kerry  is 
suited  to  beef-production  on  a  small  scale,  and 
yields  a  very  high  grade  of  meat.  The  steers  are 
found  on  the  Irish  market,  and  each  year  a  small 
but  select  class  are  on  exhibition  at  the  Smith- 


Plf.  3».    Dexter-KerTT  baU.  La  HaikIui  OitlOD  Jaek. 


field  Club  Show  in  London,  vfaere  special  prizes  are 
offered  for  small  cross-breda.  In  HWl.  at  a  fat- 
stock  exhibition  at  Uirmingham,  England,  the  first- 
prize  Kerry  steer  weighed  840  pooods  at  eighteen 
months  of  age.  This  family  of  Korries  also  pro- 
duces conaiderahic  milk,  atthongh  the  milk-flecreting 
habit  13  not  so  persistent  as  with  the  true  Kerry. 

Some  choice  herds  of  Eerrie;!!  are  to  be  found  in 
England  on  the  estates  of  men  of  wealth,  who  hare 
taken  up  this  little  breed  more  as  a  fad  than  other- 
wise. A  few  epecimen.t  found  their  way  to  America 
many  years  ago.  bat  the  purity  of  breeding  was 
soon  dwtroyed.  Twt^nty-five  yi^ara  ago  there  were  a 
few  pure-hreds  at  the  Massac  hotM-ttA  Atrricultural 
Collage,  but  theau  were  dispLTiied.  At  the  present 
time,  small  herds  are  owned  in  New  Vork  and  West 
Virginia,  and  another  has  recently  been  established 
in  Illinois.  Kxportations  of  Kerries  have  been  niitde 
from  Ireland  and  England  to  Australia,  South 
Africa  and  Oanafia.  rndoubte<lly  the  breed  has 
much  fif  merit  and  it  deserve^i  more  attention.  Ita 
hardy  chanieler  and  capacity  to  produce  milk  on  & 
large  scjile,  in  iirupuTtion  to  ita  size  and  rost  of 
pro<ducttun,  justilies  its  growth  in  public  favor. 

LONGHORN  CaTTLS. 

Longhorn  cattle  repre- 
sent a  hre-ed  that  was 
established  in  a  definite 
manner  by  Ihe  breeiling 
operations  of  Koliert 
HakeweU,  imunly  in  ihe 
latter  half  of  the  eigh- 
k'enth  century.  Bakewell, 
largely  by  a  process  of 
selection,  developed  the 
cattle  in  the  midland 
counties  nf  Rngland,  nntA- 
bly  I*iceBter,  produriny 
mnre  rapid  fattening, 
earlier  maturity,  and  mure 
economical  killers  ih&n 
had  previously  exiHted.  Longhorns  became  very 
famous  and  for  many  years  were  regarded  an  the 
best  k-ef  cattle  of  the  country.  Then  the  Shorthorn 
began  to  receive  the  attentirtn  of  intelligent  breed- 


Dextor.Kcny  oow 


erg,  and  the  Ixnghorn  gradually  asftnmed  an  insif^ 
nificant  position  among  llritiah  breeds.  Today.  Lon|^ 
horn  cattle  occur  in  very  small  numbers  in  Britain 
and  their  reputation  is  largely  a  miitt^r  of  long  ago. 


r 


This  breed  is  of  the  larK«  beef  t>T)e,  carrying 
considembla  width  of  back,  depth  of  rib,  fulnejw  of 
binfl-quarterand  thickne«sof  flesh.  Longborns differ 
from  otht^r  Uritish  bri'ieds  in  tbo  hi)rn  and  color. 
The  hnrn  is  very  [ong,  spreading,  and  often  drrw>i>- 
ing.  The  writer  has  ii  phi>ti)grapli  nf  a  pair  uf  these 
horns  which  mL'a.survd  <:ight  feet  ttroiiiid  the  carve, 
from  tip  to  tip.  TImj  colyr  of  hair  is  coimnonly 
brindtc,  or  brindle  and  white,  or  red  and  white, 
with  whito  alung  the  back  and  also  with  very  light 
shading  along  the  belly.  The  hair  attains  con- 
aiderable  length  and  the  skin  is  thick  and  mellow, 
(.loareenesa  ha^  also  attended  the  Longhoni.  While 
not  producing  heavily  uf  milk,  the  miik  is  regarded 
as  rich  in  butter-fat. 

The  breed  today  is  comparatively  unknown  in 
England,  although  effortn  have  b«en  made  to  bring 
it  back  into  popular  favor.  At  recent  shawA  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  a  few  Long- 
homa  have  been  vxhibited  and  have  attracted  much 
attention,  though  mainly  for  their  historic  associ- 
ations. 

The  I^nghorn  Cattle  Society  was  organized  aome 
years  aga.  and  in  1S78  the  first  volume  of  a  herd 
regutler  waii  published,  which  recorded  2a6  bultu 
and  a  somewhat  larger  number  of  cowa. 

NOKMASDY  ('ATTLB. 

Normandy  cattle  are  nativee  of  Normandy,  in 
northwestern  France.  Strictly  speaking,  the  com- 
mon cattle  of  this  section  arc  known  as  the  Co- 
tentin  breed,  thk<re  being  various  other  races  or 
breeds  in  France. 

Some  of  the  more  important  characteristics  of 
this  breed  are  tta  followH  ;  Color  variable,  but  usu- 
ally either  brindle,  black  or  red;  heatl  iind  neck 
rather  heavy,  the  latter  possoiwing  raort?  dHwlap 
than  luith  the  British  brwds  :  body  of  liirge  sizu, 
iacllning  tn  be  flat  of  rib ;  bcinc  inclined  to  coarse- 
ness :  size  large,  developing  heavy  weijfht  ;it  ma- 
tority.  The  character  of  the  meat  is  said  to  rank 
very  high,  .ilthwigh  animals  of  the  breeil  will  nnt 
dre«w  out  a  percMntage  of  I'arr.'Uw  to  olfrtl  H]ual  to 
the  Shorthtirn,  Ab(?n!i?en-Angus  or  H«rpf«nl,  As 
producers,  the  cows  rank  very  high  in  France, 
yielding  a  large  amount  of  milk  rich  in  butter-fat. 
In  the  late  seventies,  lUchardson  wrotv  uf  d;iirles 
in  I^Elessin,  near  Isigny,  that  prodnced  $.j,nOO 
worth  of  butter  a  year.  Large  amounts  of  bntter 
and  cheetiR  are  msule  in  Niirmandy  und  exten.<ttve 
exportitaremadf  to  other  countriiw.  Cnten tin  (tattle 
have  been  rniiwwl  cunBidt?riibly  with  the  t^hurthorn, 
the  two  breeds  nicking  to  great  advaiiUigv. 

A  few  cattle  were  brought  to  the  United  States 
from  Normandy  about  1895  hy  the  tale  lhe(HlorB  A. 
Havemeyer.  and  kept  nn  his  farm  at  Mahwah,  N.  J. 
They  witw  imp<irtert  for  expertmenUil  purpi'mes,  to 
cruHS  un  Jerwys  in  thif  Haveraeycr  herd.  The  milk 
reconid  of  th«  pure-bred  Normandy  cows  in  this 
herd  weiK  quite  coni[>arable  with  those  of  sixalled 
dairy  Shorthorns.  This  herd  was  dispersed  before 
the  value  of  the  cows  became  known. 

A  herdhook  fiociety.  for  promoting  the  breed, 
exists  in  France  (Henlbook  de  la  Ttace  Normande 
Pure),  with  head(|uarters  at  CalvadcM. 


SrajiEXTH.ii,  CATn.E.   Fig.  16. 

Simmenthal  cattle,  also  called  Bernese,  and  the 
Spotted  Uace,  are  native  to  the  valley  of  the  Sirame 
in  Switzerland.  These  and  the  lirown  Swiss  are  the 
two  important  breeds  of  cattle  in  tiwitzerland.  It 
is  a  very  old  breed  and  has  long  been  looked  on 
with  favor  in  its  native  land.  The  cattle  are  better 
adapted  to  the  Swiss  valleys  than  to  the  mountain 
sides. 

Not  much  of  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  intriv 
duce  this  breed  to  America.  Ab<int  1S95,  Mr.  T.  A. 
Havemeyer.  of  New  Vork,  imported  »omc  Simmen- 
thal  cattle  with  the  purfwae  of  crossing  them  with 
Jorseyg.  This  he  did  and  continut^  the  work  Rome 
years,  but  with  hia  death  the  henl  waa  dicjmrsed  in 
1808,  before  any  definite  results  were  made  public. 
One  purpose  of  Mr.  Havemeyer's  experiments  was 
to  use  the  Simmenthal  blood  on  the  Jersey  to 
improve  the  constitution,  the  former  being  a  very 
hardy  breed.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  this  is 
the  only  serious  attempt  to  introduce  this  breed  to 
.\merica.  Without  doubt  the  Simmenthal  has  mtrit, 
and  it  is  singular  that  it  should  not  have  found  itn 
way  to  this  country  to  a  greater  extent  than  it  has. 

This  breed  is  what  may  be  known  as  a  dual- 
purpose  sort,  producing  both  beef  and  milk  to  a 
creditublo  extent.  The  tendency  ia  somewhat  to 
a  blocky,  thick  con  form  at  inn,  covenxl  well  with 
flesh,  while  the  cowt)  in  mature  form  carry  large 
udders.  The  color  is  usually  ninitted.  of  drab  or 
yellowish  n.'d  and  solid  white  markings.  Ponieiimes 
the  color  is  almost  solid.  Animals  of  the  bn-ed  are 
large,  and  bulls  attain  a  weight  of  2,000  to  2.500 
pounds,  and  cows  often  weigh  over  I,f)O0  pounds; 
anil  larger  weights  are  not  uncommon.  These  cattle 
are  also  mnch  ukwI  for  oxen  (Fig.  Uil,  which  may 
weigh  2,000  to  2,i'M  pounds. 

.\8  niilk-producers,  the  cows  have  a  fair  reputa- 
tion. A  number  of  dairies  in  Switzerland,  where 
records  are  kept,  show  milk-yields  to  range  from 
7.000  tn  8.000  pounds  a  year.  The  milk  is  of  a 
medinm  quality,  twenty-five  pounds  yielding  about 
a  pound  of  butter.  Ten  pounds  of  milk  are  also 
usually  counted  to  make  a  |)<>und  of  ciiroi]  ehi>Fse. 

Some  interesting  nulk  rfcunln  were  secured  with 
the  pare-bred  .^immcnt balers  in  thu  Havemuyer 
henl.  The  cow,  Ffan  (79).  from  April  24,  18%'  to 
February  27,  1897.  produced  9,r.00  pounds  of  milk. 
Bari  (111),  as  a  four-year-old,  fn>m  July,  1896  t*i 
SeptiHinlwr,  1897,  pnxluced  ]l,2r>l  pounds  of  milk. 
.Spit'Sft  (41S).  a  live-vear-old,  from  April  1 1,  IfiSW  to 
April  22,  1897,  produced  10,879  pounds  of  milk. 
These  are  lietter  records  than  those  published  in 
Switzerland. 

The  Simmenthal  as  Iwef  cattEe  rank  high  in 
Switik-rland.  They  are  exfiected  to  mature  in  about 
four  years,  and  the  bc-ef  is  credite<l  with  being  fine 
of  grain  and  of  su^ierior  Haver. 

Texas  Lowiicir.v  Catti^.  Fig.  394. 

There  is  no  distinct  breed  of  this  name.  What  is 
familiarly  known  as  the  "Texas  steer"  i«  descended 
from  the  early  Span i.sh  cattle  first  introduced  into 
Mexico,  later  becoming  distrihntefl  over  the  soulh- 
westem  range.   The  cutur  was  variable,  dun,  yel- 


382 


CATTLE 


CATTLE 


low,  black,  anil  red  prevailing,  often  with  strikinK 
wliiUi  niarkinjp*.  These  wt-rn  narrow-biickeij,  flat- 
ribbed,  It'KKy  cattlo,  with  ht-avy  htswi  and  fre<iupnt!y 
widely  spreading  horns.  Thuy  wero  slow  wnd  liaril 
feeders,  and  did  not  attain  larse  size,  the  bulls 
rarely  weighing  over  1,2U0  ponnde  and  the  cows 
ranj^'ng  fmm  6(>0  Ui  900  pounds.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  the  wiistem  range  in  the  seventieB,  began 


I     :./;,-r 


f»ry 


\ 


PllC.  394.    Texas  Vaanbon. 

the  introduction  on  a  considerable  scale  of  pyre- 
bred  Hereford  and  Shorthorn  bulls.  Sinct;  tbia  time. 
the  old  Lonfcbom  has  been  about  bred  out.  and  today 
Texas  and  the  Sonthwest  have  cattle  really  much 
saperior  in  breeding  to  moat  of  the  other  sectiuns 
of  the  country. 

West  HiciiUNn  Cattle. 

West  Highland  cattle  represent  a  distinctly 
Scotch  breed.  From  time  immemorial  the  West 
Highland,  or  Kyloe  as  it  was  formerly  known, 
has  been  bred  amonp  the  mountains  of  westi-m 
Scotland.  It  is  eeni^ratly  thought  that  this  breed  is 
of  aborifiinal  descent.  Over  a  century  ago,  Culley 
included  the  Highland  35  one  of  the  very  few  breedB 
treated  by  him  in  hi-s  book  on  live-stock.  Undoubt- 
edly. Wti»t  HiRhland  cattle  have  been  bred  for 
centnripj!  in  the  west  higlilands,  especially  in  Argyll, 
Perth  and  Inverness  countiaa  and  on  the  Hebrides 
islands. 

The  West  Highland  is  dintinctly  of  the  beef 
tjrpe,  being  blocky,  broad  of  back,  deep-ribbed, 
thick-flejihed  and  short  of  leg.  The  long,  wide- 
spreading  horn,  and  long,  shaggy  mane  and  coat  of 
hair  an-  peculiar  to  this  breed  and  give  it  much 
individuality.  The  hair  in  winter  has  extreme 
length  and  thicknena,  and  jj;ivun  admirable  prcttec- 
tion  from  rain  and  cold.  The  color  is  variable, 
and  block,  brown,  red  and  brindle  are  seen  in  the 
same  herd.  .\  rich  yellowish  red  or  tnwny  color  in  a 
favorite  with  ftome  breeders.  Broken  colors  are  not 
popular  and  are  onoommon. 


West  Highland  cattle  do  not  usually  attain  large 
size.  They  are  slow  to  mature,  and  the  cowg  weigh 
about  900  ponndii  and  the  bulLi  1,200.  One  may 
see  much  larger  specimens  ut  the  Scotch  shows,  but. 
under  ordinary  field  conditions,  they  do  not  weigh 
heavy.  The  quality  of  beef  produced  by  the  brwd 
i.t  very  superior.  Nothing  cxlvIs  it  in  the  British 
market.  The  flavor  ia  choice  and  the  grain  fine  and 
of  the  best  quality.  In  the  l>indon  mar* 
ket  a  well-fleshed  West  Highland  steer 
brings  the  highest  price. 
As  milk-proflucen  the  cows  Are  very 
ordinary.  This  might  naturally  be  expected,  a« 
the  main  object  is  simply  to  furnish  the  calves  with 
milk,  and  not.  to  any  extent,  to  furnish  milk  for 
domestic  purposes. 

Cattle  of  this  breed  are  very  hardy.  Their  lives 
are  passed  on  the  hilts,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  never 
see  the  interior  of  a  barn,  even  in  midwinter.  In 
temperament  they  are  wild  and  high  itpirlted  when 
on  their  native  hill.^,  and  never  assume  the  docility 
of  the  Shorthorn  or  Jersey  under  the  most  domestic 
surroundings.  Their  reproductive  qualities  are  said 
to  bo  good,  and  the  cows  continue  us  active 
breeders  for  more  years  than  is  usual  with  moat 
other  breeds. 

The  West  Highland  breed  is  chiefly  valued  in 
Scotland  for  its  e-isy-keeplng  character  and  valua- 
ble beef.  It  has  never  secured  a  foothold  of  sig* 
nificance  away  from  its  native  hills.  One  may 
occasionally  sec  herds  on  estates  in  England,  but 
these  are  steers  brought  from  the  Highlands  for 
fattening,  and  are  kept  in  part  for  their  picturc*|uc 
effect.  .\  few  .''pecimens  of  the  breed  have  been 
brought  to  .\merica.  but  they  have  been  regarded 
mainly  as  curioaities.  Some  attempt  has  been  made 
to  introduce  them  on  the  western  range,  nntably 
in  Kansas  and  the  far  Northwest,  but  nulhjng  has 
yet  come  from  the  movement.  While  their  hardi- 
ness and  superior  (|uality  of  beef  commend  them, 
they  are  so  inferior  to  the  Hereford,  Shorthorn  or 
other  beef  cattle  on  the  range,  in  rapid  maturity 
and  weight,  that  they  are  not  likely  ever  to  receive 
serious  consideration  from  the  pure-bred  point  of 
view.  The  cross-bred  West  Highland  may  be  an 
improvement  on  the  pure  stock,  hat  even  then  tiie 
value  of  the  herd  in  America  is  open  t«>  serions 
qoetitlon.  No  doubt  in  the  grazing  districts  of  the 
higher  mountain!)  of  the  .Atlantic  coast  states  the 
breed  might  prosper  and  be  of  value.  West  High- 
land cows  may  he  crossed  with  other  British  beef 
breeds  to  advantage,  but  this  will  be  breeding  yway 
from  the  blood  of  the  mountain  breed  rather  than 
toward  it.  Galloway  and  Aberdeen-Angus  bulls  are 
especially  commended  for  this  pnrpow.  The  ueo  of 
the  West  Highland  bull  on  native  cows  might  con- 
tribute to  constitntional  vigor,  but  it  is  mure  than 
likely  that  more  will  bo  lost  than  gained  by  such  a 

CTOf». 

Literature. 

.American  writings  cont.iin  very  meagBr  acconnta 
of  these  lasser-known  breeds  of  cattle.  Por  gen- 
eral references,  the  reader  ia  referred  to  paga 
302. 


DOGS 


DOGS 


DOGS,  FARM.    OrnU  familiaris,  Linn,   Canttfcr. 

The  dog  bplongs  to  the  orHer  Carnivore*!,  the 
family  Cnniiia?,  and  the  genuH  Cnnis.  Tlio  wriifin  of 
the  doin«titic  'tJoj;  la  not  known.  It  ia  mpyosnd  that 
it  is  the  result  of  many  crowsc-swith  many  different 
tjrpes,  under  varioim  conditions,  as  the  owner  wan- 
dered from  place  to  piace.  It  is  probable  that  the 
jackal  anl  the  wnlf  have  been  important  elements 
in  the  evofution  of  the  dom^^'stic  dag. 

The  doi;  ha^  long  occupied  a  ppjminent  place  on 
the  Tarm.c'itpticially  H»a  wiiteh-<]o;;  and  asheep-dofc. 
Much  of  the  police  duty  on  the  i«t«ck-farm  in  en- 
trasteji  to  the  dog.  lie  looks  out  for  the  vermin  and 
smiill  Kame  that  would  become  troiilileflonie ;  he  is 
nn  mdispensaldeaid  in  hnntine  :  and  m  a  compan- 
ion he  is  a  privileged  member  nf  the  household. 

The  adaptability  of  certain  breedn  of  dogs  for 
farm  purponea  is  cenerally  known.  The  care  and 
intelli^nce  disiilayed  liy  a  well-trained  dog  in 
handling  stock  ia  welUnijjh  remarkable.  The  two 
recogniwd  breed*  for  herdintrand  drivinjj  purposes 
are  the  Collie  .ind  the  Old  English  Bobtail  Sheep- 
dog. Individuals  of  many  other  breeds  are  trained 
for  this  work  with  (tomu  succeiw.  and  a  ^rivat  variety 
of  do;cA,  good,  bad  and  indifferent,  are  found  on 
the  farm. 


There  shoali  be  only  a  slight  deprea&ion  at  "Btop." 
The  width  of  the  akull  nece».iarily  (lei>end9  on  the 
combine'l  length  of  nkuM  and  muzzle,  and  the  whole 
must  be  considered  in  conne<'tion  with  the  sire  of 
the  dog.  The  i:]\w)i  should  not  im  full  or  prominent. 
The  muzzle  should  be  of  fair  length,  tapering  to 
nose,  and  must  not  show  WBakne^s,  or  be  snipy  or 
lippy.  Whatever  the  color  of  the  dog  may  be,  the 
nose  mu.'^t  be  black.  The  tnth  .-ihoulfi  be  of  good 
size,  sound,  and  level;  very  slight  nneveneiw  is 
permissible.  The  jatrx  should  bo  clean-cut  and 
powerful.  The  ct/^s  aru  a  very  important  feature, 
and  give  expresitton  Ui  the  dog.  They  should  be  of 
medium  size,  set  somewhat  obliquely,  of  almond 
shape,  and  of  brown  color  except  in  the  case  of 


The  Collie  Dog.   Pig.  MB.  See  also  page  595. 
By  Hi-rljtfrl   \V.  ilumford. 

The  Collie  i»  one  of  the  moat  asefu]  breeds  of 
farm  dogs,  Hi.s  origin  is  not  known.  I'robably, 
however,  he  has  boen  developed  from  the  Old  ting- 
liah  Sheep-dog  by  croasing  with  the  Scotch  Grey- 
hound. The  rough-coated  Scotch  Coltie  is  the  best 
known  and  most  highly  prized  variety  in  this  coun- 
try. The  smooth-coated  typo  is  well  known  is  Great 
Britain  and  Is  preferred  by  some  pereons. 

Dog  shown  and  public  shaep-drlving  trials  have 
had  a  tendency  to  popularlEe  the  Collie,  They  have 
had  a  wholesome  effect  in  setting  standards  and 
bringing  nbout  greater  uniformity  in  tj-pe  among 
acxalled  high-cLiss  Collies.  There  was  a  noticeable 
lack  of  uniformity  among  them  previous  Ut  the 
establishment  of  thei'eexhibition.s.  It  should  not  bo 
Inferred  that  all  Collies  are  invariably  good  and 
that  one  is  sure  to  get  a  good  dog  if  only  he  buys  a 
pedigreed  Collie.  It  means  simply  that  there  ia  a 
well-defined  ideal  type  which  progressive  breeders 
are  striving  to  produce.  As  in  other  breeds  of 
domeiticated  animaK  fu-xhion  in  blood  lines,  in  col- 
oringi  and  in  markings,  has  to  he  reckoned  with  in 
determining  the  value  of  a  ColHe. 

Dtfcription. 

In  general,  the  Collie  is  light  and  graceful,  show- 
ing a  combination  of  agility,  speed  and  supptcneas, 
with  a  power  of  endurance  that  few  other  breeds 
pomn.  High  intelligence,  good  appearance  and 
oevoUon  characterize  this  breed.  The  following  is 
a  description  of  a  rough-coated  Collie  as  revised  by 
theCoUieClubin  18D8: 

Theafcu//  should  be  flat,  moderat«ly  wide  between 
the  ean,  and  gradually  tapering   to   the  eyes. 


Plf.  395.    Ad  imported  rouch-coitad  Scotch  ColUe. 
Ow-vik]  liy  J-  I.  BcliHiiu.  Milw^tikr*. 

marlcs,  when  the  eyes  are  frequently  (one  or  both) 
blue  and  white  or  china;  the  expre^ssion  shnuld  be 
fall  of  intelligence,  with  a  quick,  alert  l™>k  when 
listening.  The  ram  should  be  .small  and  moderately 
wide  at  base,  and  placed  not  toy  close  together  on 
topof  skull,  nortoo  much  to  side  of  the  head.  When 
in  repose  they  should  be  usually  carried  back,  but 
when  on  the  alert,  brought  forward  and  carried 
semi-erect,  with  tip  slightly  drooping  in  an  atti- 
tude of  listening.  The  wtA-  should  bo  muscular, 
powerful,  and  of  fair  length,  and  somewhat  arched. 
The  i«/ji  should  bo  rather  long,  with  welUprung 
ribs,  chest  deep,  fairly  broad  behind  the  shoulders, 
which  should  Imj sloping;  loins  should  be  slightly 
arched  and  powerful.  The  dog  should  be  straight 
in  front.  Tne  fore'leg»  should  be  straight  and 
muscular,  neither  in  nor  out  .it  elbows,  with  a  fair 
amount  of  bone;  the  fore>arni  shoutd  be  somewhat 
fleshy,  the  pasterns  show'ing  flexibility  without 
weakness.  The  hinti-lfgn  should  be  muscular  at  the 
thigh--*,  ck-an  and  sinewy  below  the  hocks,  with 
well-bent  stifles.  The />y/ should  be  oval  in  shape, 
the  soles  well  padded,  and  the  t/ies  well  arched 
and  close  together.  The  hind-feet  should  be  less 
arched,  with  hocks  well  let  down  and  powerful. 
The  bntfk  ahould  he  moderately  long,  carried  low 
when  thedog  isquiet,  with  aslight  upward  "-iwirr 
at  the  end,  and  may  be  gaily  carrier)  whi-n  the  dog 
is  excited,  but  not  ofer  the  back.  The  coat  should 
he  very  dense,  the  outer  coat  harsh  to  the  touch, 
the  inner  coat  soft,  furry,  and  very  close,  so  cloeo 
as  almost  to  hide  the  skin.  The  mane  and   frill 


384 


DOGS 


DOGS 


Khftnld  be  vf^ry  abundant,  tViR  mask  nr  fauo  smooth, 
n»  aUa  the  earn  al  tlit)  ti|n<,  but  they  t^huulil  carry 
morn  hair  toward  the  baat! ;  this  fore-lHJis  shoulJ  bt- 
woll  foatburcKl,  the  hind-W|^  abiive  thu  huic:k»  i>ru- 
fusely  so.  but  below  the  hocks  fairly  emouth, 
although  all  henvily  coatetj  Colliea  lire  likuty  to 
grow  a  slight  feathpring.  Tho  hair  on  the  brush 
should  liB  very  profuse.  Tho  caivr  is  immatorial. 
In  genera}  character  the  r«llie  shiinld  lie  n  lithe, 
artivG  dog,  bis  deep  choKt  ^hawin^  lung  power ; 
his  neck,  strerifith  ;  bis  Hlojiin;!;  HliouldHra  und  well- 
bunt  hocka  indicating  siH-vd ;  and  bis  expnwaion, 
high  ititeliigenco.  !lo  should  be  a  fair  k-UKth  on 
thu  leg,  giving  him  more  of  a  raey  than  a  cloddy 
appearance.  In  a  few  words,  a  Collie  should  show 
endtiranre.  activity,  and  intelligenc-e.  with  free  and 
true  action.  In  jtirr,  the  dogs  should  lie  twenty-two 
incheH  to  twenty-four  incbeH  at  the  sJiyulderfl  ;  thtt 
bitchtw,  twenty  inchf«  Lu  twenty-two  inches.  In 
weiffht,  the  dogH  should  register  forty-five  to  sixty- 
five  pounds  :  thii  bitobes,  forty  to  flfty-fiva  pounds. 
The  fltnooth  t'ollie  differs  from  the  rough  only  in 
its  coat,  which  should  be  hard,  dense,  and  Bmooth. 
F(im//«.— The  following  are  considered  fanlts : 
Domed  Kknli.  high-jieaked  occipital  bone,  heavy, 
penduluUH,  or  prick  ears,  weak  juws,  Hni]iy  muzzle, 
full  atariiig  or  light  eyea,  crooked  lejpi,  fiat  or  hare 
feet,  curly  or  soft  coat,  cow  hocks,  brujvh  twistt-d 
or  carried  right  over  tho  back,  and  an  ander-  or  an 
over-«hot  mouth. 

ScALB  or  Points  fob.  Colub  Dog       Pwtpct 

tcuw 

1.  Head 25 

2.  Enni 15 

8.  Body 16 

4.  h&gt  and  foct 15 

B.  Coat 25 

6.  Tail 5 

Perfection 100 

In  the  matter  of  color  there  is  much  variation. 
There  are  the  so-called  sables,  the  8.ih!e  and  whites, 
thti  bUick  und  whites,  the  whites  and  the  tricnlmrs, 
black,  tan  and  white.  The  must  desirubli^  whit» 
markings  on  either  the  trieolors  or  the  sfible  and 
whites  are  a  whito  stripe  in  the  face,  a  full  nhitt- 
collar,  white  breast,  white  feet  and  white  tip  tn 
the  tail.  There  are  but  relatively  few  Collies  that 
poBsesR  these  pi?rfect  markings  and  some  of  them 
that  do  are  deficient  in  more  important  points. 
Color  should  l>e  the  last  conaidenition  in  buying  a 
Collie  dog. 

ViflnttUicn. 

From  his  native  home  in  Sfeotland,  tho  Collie  baa 
gone  out  into  all  parts  of  the  civilised  world  ;  and 
wherever  he  haa  arrived  he  has  made  innumerable 
friends.  Hi.*  nire  Wauty  and  intelligence,  together 
with  the  enterprwH  of  Collie  breeders,  won  and  has 
held  for  him  a  If-ading  place  among  those  who  have 
a  fondnwis  ftir  dogs. 

The  Cellie  has  become  such  a  prime  favorite  that 
his  popularity  in  the  city,  as  well  ss  in  the  country. 
is  second  to  no  othtT  bretd.  Dog  fanciers  nearly 
everywhere  have  takiio  up  the  breeding  of  Collies 


as  a  fad.  The  breeding  of  Collies  in  Great  Britain 
is  attended  with  greater  success  than  in  this  coun- 
try, whether  the  me;iMire  of  success  be  the  number 
of  high-claim  individuals  produced  <ir  tho  net  pn>fit 
secured  in  the  enterpride. 

Famoux  Coflie  do^s. 

A  few  of  the  famous  Collie  dogs  in  this  country 
are;  Wiwhaw  Clinker,  Winnetka  Christopher, 
Wellesbour  ne  Conqueror.  Ormskirk  Olympian,  Par- 
Iwld  Pariigcin  and  KElwyn  Perfection.  Most  nf 
these  dugs  are  rich  in  liloud  of  one  or  more  of  the 
following  dogs  that  have  been  lo<jked  on  as  pillars 
in  the  Collie  studbook  :  Stracathro  Kalph,  Christo- 
pher, Metchley  Wonder,  Edgbaaton  Marvel  and 
Great  AIne  Douglas.  One  of  the  most  celebrated 
Collies  of  hintory  is  i^otithport  Perfection.  This 
dog  sold  at  one  lime  for  $fi,0OO.  Christopher,  a 
scarcely  less  celebrated  dog.  sold  for  $ri,OCKl. 
Mctchk'v  Wunder  and  EJdgbaaton  Marvel  each  sold 
for  $2,&b0. 

Care  and  feeding. 

Every  dog,  whether  on  the  farm  or  elspwhere, 
should  havi-  an  individual  kennel  which  he  may 
look  on  an  \m  home,  and  where  in  case  of  sicknpfw 
he  may  be  isolated  and  given  proper  care.  The 
location  of  the  kennel  should  be  carefully  chosen. 
Abundant  sunlight  and  good  drainage  are  prime 
reijuisites  in  preserving  the  health  of  a  dog.  If  it 
is  desir(>d  to  have  a  yard  in  whieh  the  dog  can  lie 
confini*d,  this  Hhrnild  lie  dry  antl  well  drained,  and 
preferably  have  a  concrete  floor,  a*  dirt  yards  about 
kenneU  rtoon  become  foul  and  thus  invite  diseaM. 
A  aouthem  exposure  is  best.  In  hot  weather,  ample 
provision  for  shitde  should  he  ma^le,  but  it  is  not 
desirable  to  have  the  yard  entirely  or  even  largely 
shaded,  as  the  sun  should  have  m^cess,  as  far  aa 
pracLieable,  at  some  time  during  the  day,  to  every 
part  of  the  enclosure. 

Straw  makes  very  satisfactory  bedding  for  the 
kennel,  the  sleeping  bench  of  which  it  is  best  to 
have  raised  about  ten  inches  from  the  floor.  Ken- 
nets  should  tie  cleanitd  freiiuenlly  antl  thoroughly, 
and  the  liedding  changed  every  week.  When  the 
kennels  are  being  eleaniil,  thL-y  should  lie  carefully 
diainfected.  An  occasional  liming  or  whitewashing 
is  excellent. 

As  a  rule,  mature  dogs  are  fed  too  often.  Twice 
daily  is  ample,  —  a  light  breakfast  and  a  hearty 
evening  meal.  There  is  a  great  dilTereneo  in  the 
fnod  retiuirementH  of  different  dogs,  some  being 
light  eaters  while  others  cuiuume  largo  quantities. 
Thi.i  diJferencB  is  due  largely  to  their  temperament 
and  degree  of  activity.  The  judgment  of  the  one 
who  feeds  the  dog  must  be  depended  on  properly  to 
n>gulate  the  quantity  of  food  rerjuired.  The  general 
appearance  of  the  dog's  coat  and  his  behavior  when 
fed  are  fairly  good  guides.  Meat  should  not  com- 
prise any  large  part  of  the  ration  of  the  dog.  Most 
authorities  on  the  feeding  of  dogs  agree  that  they 
should  not  be  fed  warm  food.  All  cooked  foods 
should  he  allowed  to  cool  before  Ijeing  fod.  Dogs 
should  be  encouraged  in  every  way  to  eat  dry  bis- 
coits.    Cooked  vegetables  should  be  fed  at   least 


DOGS 


DOGS 


385 


twice  a  week,  although  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
feed  too  much  soft  food.  RefTjilarity  in  feeding 
dogs  produces  the  same  beneficial  otiecta  that  it 
does  in  the  feediog  of  other  kinds  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. As  a  m[e,  the  feeding;  of  the  dog  is  ^ren 
very  little  thought.  Feartts  and  fasts  are  the  order, 
and  such  treatment  is  likely  to  cause  serioua  digea- 
tive  di^tu^t^ancea. 

Co*t. 

If  one  insists  on  buying  a  hieh-claas  Collie,  that 
possesses  to  a  great  def^ee  all  of  the  fancy  points 
of  the  breed,  inclnding  color  and  marking?,  he  mojtt 
be  prepared  to  pay  a  high  price,  as  has  been  shown 
in  the  prj'Cifding  paragraph.  Such  Collien  are  rare, 
and  the  experienced  brcedi'r  feels  well  aatisfiwl  if 
he  i«  able  to  secure  a  high-clasa  one  from  each 
litttr.  Pedigreed  ('tillit-s  of  inditf  eront  breeding  and 
individuality  may  bo  purchastjd  at  very  low  prices, 
but  Collies  of  choice  bn^ixiing  and  individuality  are 
worth  from  twenty  dollars  up.  Well-bred  puppiea 
that  are  notdftsirahle.  from  the  fanciir'ji  point  of 
vicu-,  because  of  some  lack  in  iniiividuality,  are 
disposed  of  by  the  breediirs.  at  Iwri  to  twenty 
dollars.  The  breeding  of  CuHies  good  enough  to 
win  at  leading  shows  is  an  extremely  dlfficnlt  busi- 
newi.  The  hreedtrg  of  Collies  that  are  much  more 
httficlsome  and  more  useful  than  the  avenige  dog, 
ia  relatively  easy. 

While  originally  developed  aa  a  sheep-dog  to  aid 
the  shepherd  tn  guarding,  herding  and  driving 
sheep,  and  ntitl  holding  a  foremost  place  for  this 
purpose,  the  Collie  has  Iwcume  a  universal  favorite 
as  a  companion  tar  children  and  grown-nps  and  as 
a  watch-dog. 

There  are  those  who  think  that  the  smtM)th- 
coatod  Collie  is  a  butter  worker  than  the  rough- 
coated  type.  Again,  there  are  those  who  arv  preju- 
diced in  favor  of  the  tricolor,  or  black  and  white 
and  tan,  a«a  worker.  The  sable  an*!  the  eable  and 
white,  however,  are  most  p<ipular  among  the  fan- 
ciers and  will  usually  setl  more  readily  and  at 
higher  prices  than  the  tricolorn. 

Hecause  the  Collie  \&  such  a  favorite  at  dog- 
Hhows  and  h.w  been  so  persistently  brud  for  the 
b«nch,  it  i«  Mid  that  thw  modern  bench  type  has 
lost  mach  of  ita  former  intelligence  and  instinct 
for  driving.  It  muKt  lie  admitted  that  h»t  very  few 
of  our  moat  valuable  Collit*  havt-  ever  been  trained 
to  drive  livep-sUjclt.and  the  majority  of  them,  until 
trained,  would  be  u}^.-lesA  for  agricultural  pur{>u3iiw. 
It  is  ev^n  doubted  whether  twme  of  them  are  stiH- 
ceptible  of  a  high  degree  of  training.  This  latter 
is  true  not  only  of  show  Collies  but  of  others  a'' 
well  ThiTe  ia  no  go«d  reai^on  why  a  gnwl  show 
Collie  should  not  make,  with  proprr  training,  a 
good  driver.  Well-trainod  dog«,  howt-vep,  are  sel- 
dom in  proper  condition  for  show.  Tho  rugged  lifii 
to  which  many  of  them  are  subjected  uri^tx  them 
(or  exhibition  purposed.  In  this  wjiy,  the  show 
may  militate  against  tlie  liest  deveUipment  of  the 
ColHe  for  farm  purpfiMea. 

It  is  doubtful  wtiMther  the  Collie  has  really  lost 

C2S 


in  iotelligeDce.  He  has  certainly  loat  much  in 
opportunity,  but  what  he  baa  loat  in  opportunity 
he  has  gained  in  beauty  and  elegance ;  and  while 
formerly  only  the  aheep-herder  was  familiar  with 
his  excellent  qualitie.s  and  privileged  with  hia 
companionship,  he  is  today  admitted  to  the  moat 
excloflive  society. 

Ailmenta. 

The  ailments  of  doga  that  are  must  troublesome 
and  likely  to  be  met  with  are  distemper,  worms 
and  fleas. 

Distemper. — Of  all  the  diseases  of  dogs,  distem- 
per is  by  far  the  most  to  be  feared.  It  assumes  a 
great  variety  of  forms  and  is  not  so  weil  under- 
stood aa  other  diseajwfi  (see  page  112).  The  writer 
takes  the  liberty  of  quoting  from  "The  Culliv" 
[«t!«  Literature]  thw  discussion  of  the  disease  as  it 
appears  in  that  work  :  "  It  is  a  contagious  febrile 
disease,  and  therefore,  once  it  has  been  diagnosed, 
the  subjitct  should  be  isolate^!,  and  the  same  per^ton 
should  not  he  allowed  to  wait  on  the  affected  dog 
and  the  healthy  ones,  as  the  contagion  is  r^adity 
conveyei].  In  onler  to  prevent  distemper,  all  that 
the  thoughtful  owner  can  do  is  to  keep  his  young 
stock  In  robust  health  ;  then,  if  any,  or  all,  should 
fall  victims,  they  will  be  l*iss  liable  to  "go  under" 
than  the  weakling  and  the  wastrel. 

*'  tlsually  the  dineaHe  is  ushered  in  with  catarrh, 
accompanicfl  by  a  poor  apt>etite,  lassitude,  hot  not^e, 
furred  tongue,  eye  inHammation.,  and  a  dii^charge 
alike  from  eyes  and  nose — thin  at  first,  but  becom- 
ing thicker  as  the  disease  progresses.  Usually,  too, 
tho  bowels  are  loose,  while  the  under  part  of  the 
belly  not  infrequently  liecomes  spotted.  Good  nurs- 
ing will  do  more  go<xi  than  drugs,  providing  it  he 
in  conjunction  with  warmth  and  well-ventilated 
cjuarterM.  .■\n  even  tem[ieraLuro  ia  desirable,  and 
the  patient  should  wear  a  flannel  coat.  The  eyes 
and  nam  Hhould  be  sponged  clean  of  discharge, 
using  a  little  rose-]iink  solution  of  Condy's  Fluid 
(warm).  There  is  almost  certain  to  be  a  cough  ;  but 
HO  long  as  the  lungs  and  bronchi  are  not  ini-olvei], 
this  will  soon  ceaw  to  tmuble.  When,  however, 
pneumonia  supervenes,  the  aid  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon  should  be  at  once  invoked,  as  ali^o  when 
that  form  of  distemiwr  OHiconipiinietl  by  jaundice  is 
presoot.  This  latter  is  shown  by  the  yellowness  of 
themncous  membranes— a  condition  that  has  given 
rise  to  the  name  of  tho  "yellows."  Diarrhea,  if 
present,  should  t)e  relieved  by  means  of  carbonate 
of  bismuth,  given  dry  on  the  tongue  twice  a  day  — 
the  dtifiu  varying  fn™  10  grains  to  ;iO  or  4t)  grains. 
If  thiere  bu  a  high  temperature  (over  103").  some- 
thing must  bo  done  to  rL-ducu  it.  Dissolve  2  drams 
of  salacin  in  a  little  hot  water,  add  ^  ounce  of  tinc- 
ture nf  gentian  and  sufficient  water  to  make  6 
ounces,  and  give  a  ileKsertapoonful  three  times  a 
day. 

The  f(»ud  during  the  time  the  [tatient  is  unwell 
should  Ik>  light  and  nourixhing.  It  may  consist  of 
gOfMJ  broth  poured  over  stale  brown  bread.  The 
best  is  made  from  sheep's  head  iHiiled.  The  meat 
may  aLsn  he  cut  up  and  added  to  the  mass.  Beaten- 
up  egg  and  Elovril  are  also  useful  when  more  solid 


386 


DOGS 


DOGS 


food  u  refused.  The  patient  shcrald  be  fed  on  the 
'little  and  often*  principle." 

H'onnji.— Tapeworma,  Ihresdworma  and  ronnd- 
VOIDS  are  f.nnitmiiily  met  with.  The  rmindwonn  i-i 
the  form  which  must  provaiU  in  puppi^i,  while  tlu; 
tapeworm  w  frtsitHTiUy  fmind  in  adult  doj;:'.  The 
presence  of  wonris  i^  usually  imJitatctl  hy  astarinfi 
coat,  a  couRh,  inx-gtilar  bowels,  and.  in  some  in- 
stances, severe  diarrhea,  and  sickness.  In  anme 
caaea  worraa  are  vomil«d.  Variivns  worm  remedies 
for  dogs  are  on  .sale  at  tlrng-sl<jn?,s  Jiml  many  of 
these  remedies  are  !tf,'*.itinfa(:tory  as  any  [iresrrtbed 
remedies  with  whit'h  the  writer  u  familiar.  Venni- 
fuges,  of  whatever  nattire,  should  always  be  admin- 
istered t«  a  dog  after  a  period  of  fastinj?. 

Fleas. — Fleas  grtatiy  annoy  doga,  am)  the  long 
coat  of  a  roatfh-coatt'd  Collie  makL-s  a  Eood  refuge 
for  them.  There  are  numerous  inseetitrides  on  the 
market  that  are  good.  Care  should  be  taken  when 
attempting  to  eradicate  fleas  or  lice,  thoroughly  to 
clean  the  kennel  and  follow  the  cleaning  with  a 
free  use  of  some  good  insecticide. 

Organizatiotts  and  rtconh. 

The  Collie  Club  of  England  was  founded  in  1881, 
Thia  club  aided  greatly  in  promoting  the  intereata 
of  the  breed  both  .it  home  and  abroad.  .\n  .Amer- 
ican Collie  Cltib  has  also  been  organized.  .\  Collie 
Btudbook  ifl  isflued.  There  are  a  few  local  ColJie 
cluba  scattered  over  the  country. 

The  Old  English  Bobtail  Sheep-dgg.    Fig.  396. 

By  Frederick  Frt<-maii  Lhyd. 

The  name  of  thia  useful,  sagacious  and  qaairt- 
appearing  dog  exactly  explains  his  ance.<!.try  and 
occupation,  although,  strictly  speaking,  the  Bohtail 
Sheep-dog  itn  a^  much  a  cattle-dog  as  a  sheefMlog, 
There  are  varieties  of  them^  rough-  and  heavy-coat«i 
Shi*p-dogs  in  other  Kuropean  and  .Asiatic  countries 
than  England,  which,  however,  have  long  tails.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  dogs. 

Di^seripluin. 

In  general  appearance,  the  Bobtail  is  a  strong 
compact- looking  dog  of  great  symmetry,  absolutely 
free  from  legginess  or  weaaelness,  profusely  coated 
all  over,  very  elastic  in  his  gallop,  but  in  walking 
or  trotting  he  haH  a  characterii^tic  ambling  or  pac- 
ing movement.  Hin  bark  should  be  lond,  with  plenty 
of  "ring"  in  it.  He  is  a  thick-set.  muM;ular,  able- 
bodied  dog,  with  a  most  intt^lligent  expression,  free 
from  nil  poodle  and  deerhound  charactwr.  While  a 
fafit-enoagh  dog  for  the  wildt?i»t  of  shi-ep,  he  is  not 
hard  on  them  ;  and  his  great  sense  or  sagacity 
makes  him  more  of  a  human  companion  than  simply 
a  dog -aid. 

While  breeders  of  CoIlie.i  and  some  others  of 
their  kind  breed  for  long-he-ndiMi  dogs,  the  produconi 
of  Bobtails  strive,  and  rightly,  after  good,  capacious 
skulls,  and  those  welUlevidojicd  frontal  liunt-s  that 
go  to  make  up,  what  ijh  generally  considered  the 
"brain-box,"  that  structure  that  contains  the  com- 
mon sense  always  ret^uired  in  a  dog  whose  every- 
dajT  occupation  is  tending  herds  and  flocks. 


A  gre-at  characteriatic  of  the  Bobtail  is  his  rug- 
gednesm.  Hecause  of  the  density  of  his  coat  he  ran 
put  np  with  the  most  ruiven-  clinmtet*.  The  itv»l 
liolitails  have  very  heavy  coats,  there  bi-ing  an 
undercoat  on  the  body  with  a  long,  harsh  and  almost 
wirt'-Iikc  overcoat  of  the  toxtori'  of  the  mane  of 
a  horse.  The  undercoat  keeps  the  dog  warm  and 
his  skin  protected  from  wet  and  rain,  while  moia- 


^ 


■M 


Pll.  39e.     Old  aniliih  Sbsep-diOg.     Owned  by  >Ir».  .Mitchell 
Hsrriiioii.  Cliestnttl  Hill,  Pa. 

tUTe  -will  roll  off  the  outer  coat.  (Ircat  poinU  in 
the  bree<l  are  the  all-round  feathered  fore-legs, 
and  the  general  massiveness  and  squareness  of  the 
hind-qTiarters. 

Bobtails  may  be  of  any  color,  bnt  the  most  valued 
and  beautiful  are  the  pigeon-blue  and  white,  and 
the  dark  ateel-blue  and  white,  the  white  being  found 
about  the  muzile,  head,  collar,  neck,  fore-legs  and 
sometimes  from  the  h<>ck«  to  the  feet  of  the  hind- 
legs.  These  hocks  should  be  well  let  down,  while 
the  fore-legs  mu?t  be  straight,  and  the  body  well 
loined.  comparatively  short,  and  strongly  ribbed  and 
rounded.  Tin?  darker  blue  puppies  are  born  black  ; 
with  a  little  age,  while  hairs  come  through  the 
black,  which  become  lighter,  the  whole  making  a 
blue  grizzle.  Some  dogs  are  entirely  whole  or  setf- 
colored.  While  these  are  not  less  useful,  the  marked 
one*  are  preferred,  for  they  are  more  striking  in 
appearance,  and,  as  workers,  can  be  seen  at  a 
greater  distance,  especially  in  dismal  and  inditFer- 
ent  weathar. 

The  colors  of  the  eyee  of  a  Bobt,iil  v.iry  according 
to  the  body  or  color  of  the  dog.  In  the  blues,  the 
eyes  are  bluiish  and  grayish.  With  white  dogs  we 
will  very  often  find  a  "wall,"  "china"  or  "marble" 
eye.  Thi«  is  highly  typical,  tt  is  said  that  a  d<^ 
with  a  wall  eye  never  fails  in  the  sight  of  that 
organ. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  dogs  of  this  breed, 
in  the  ages  that  are  past,  were  bigger,  for  they 
had,  generally,  to  protect  their  HiH'ks  from  the 
larger  camivone,  which  Britain  does  not  now  pos- 
sess. Within  the  laxt  twu  decades  Bobtails  have 
become  larger.  Soft  "-oats  have,  unfortunately,  been 
somewhat  noticenblu,  but  the  majority  of  speci- 
mens we  see  at  the  pre.ient/^ay  shows  sua  magnif- 
icent creatures.  The  present-day  dogs  are  in  t>'pe, 


DOGS 


DOGS 


887 


make  and  dhn[M>,  coal.,  staturo  and  general  cbarac- 
teriatics  a  great  iJeal  bt^tter  than  the  lirst  of  this 
breed  to  arrive  on  thin  continent.  A  dug  Btanding 
twenty -five  inchies,  fair  mffwuremcnt,  at  the 
shoulder  may  Ijh  cunHitlerei}  tall  eiiuuij;h ;  a  biU'.h 
two  inches  less  wuuU  be  cciiisidtirud  wguully  well 
grown. 

The  following  U  the  official  deaeription  of  tht- 
Old  English  i^ht.>«p-dD};:  The  akvU.  should  be  capa- 
cious and  rather  wjuarely  formed,  giving  plenty 
of  room  for  hrain-in>wer.  The  parts  over  the  eyes 
shuatd  lie  whII  archwl  and  the  whole  well  wvered 
with  hair.  The  Jnir  tdiould  lie  fairly  lung,  fitrunif, 
square  and  truncated ;  the  ntop  nhuultl  bu  dt^fmed  to 
avoid  a  deerhound  face  (the  attention  of  judges  ia 
partipularly  called  to  the  above  properties,  aa  a 
long  narrow  ht-ad  is  a  deformity).  The  rues  vary 
according  to  the  cnlor  nf  the  dog,  but  in  the  glaa- 
cous  or  blue  dH'gs  a  [warl,  wall,  or  cbina  eye  w 
considere^l  typical.  Thu  rinse  is  always  Idack,  large 
or  capaoioud.  The  latk  aru  utrnag  and  large, 
evenly  placed  and  lL*>vel  in  opposition.  The  earx  are 
small  and  carried  flat  to  side  of  head,  and  coated 
modpratt'ly.  The  fore-Wg*  should  be  dead  straight, 
with  plenty  of  bane,  removing  the  body  a  medium 
height  from  Ifae  ground,  without  approaching  leg- 
gineHK :  they  should  tie  well  coated  all  around. 
The  fed  should  be  small  and  round,  the  toes  well 
arched  and  the  p:itla  thick  and  hard.  Tail:  I'uppies 
rerjuiring  docking  must  have  an  appendage  left  of 
one  and  one-half  to  two  incht«,  and  the  operation 
must  be  |>erfonneH)  when  the  pappy  is  not  older 
than  four  days.  The  nrek  .tbould  he  fairly  long, 
arcbiMt  gracefully,  am!  well  coated  with  hair.  The 
ahayddmi  should  lie  sloping  and  narrow  at  the 
point,  the  dog  standing  lower  at  the  .ihoulder  than 
at  the  loin.  Thy  Itoiig  should  be  rather  abort  and 
Twy  compact;  the  ribs  well  sprung,  and  the  brisket 
deep  and  ciipiicio'tjB.  The  bin  should  be  very  stoat 
and  gently  artThed,  while  the  hind-quarters  ahnuld 
be  round  and  mu.<iculHr,  with  well  let-down  hocks, 
and  the  hums  den3ety  coate*!  with  the  thick  long 
jaeket.  ill  exces.*!  of  any  other  part.  The  eoit 
Hhnuld  he  profuse  and  of  a  good  hard  texture;  not 
ncraight,  but  shaggy  and  free  from  curl.  The 
undercoat  shonld  be  a  waterproof  pile,  when  not 
removed  by  grooming  or  xea-ion.  As  to  ctJur,  any 
shade  of  gray,  grizrle,  blue,  or  blue  merled,  with 
or  without  white  marking!!,  or  in  rt^verse,  in  allow- 
able. In  hfhifit.  twvnty-iwo  inchea  and  upwards  for 
dogs,  and  slightly  le«u  for  bitches  is  required. 

Scki£  OP  Points  por  Old  Ekoush  Shebp- 

'~"  Koro 

1.  H*^ad 5 

2.  Bra E 

8.  Color .10 

4.  Bant ,  fi 

Si  Body,  lohu)iUidhiiuU]aart«n 20 

G.  Jaw 10 

7.  Now 5 

8.  TmUi 5 

tt.  Li^ 10 

10.  N«ek  and  iboaldera 10 

11.  Coat 15 

P«rfecti4ii 100 


Bitior^. 

Seventy-ftve  to  one  hundred  years  ago,  tailless 
dogs  were  exempt  from  tai  in  England.  It  was 
supposed  that  he  woulil  be  a  man  of  litt)e  pride 
who  would  own  a  t;LilleH8  dog  in  those  days,  a  sure 
Hign  that  he  wjik  too  poor  or  tou  mean  to  jwy  for 
hi«  eanine  farm  hflp.  SLill,  there  were  other  rea- 
sons. The  game  laws  of  the  native  country  of  the 
Bobtail  have  always  been  very  strict,  and  to  kill  a 
hare  was  looked  on,  until  a  few  years  ago,  a.H  almost 
a  crime  on  the  part  of  a  tenant  farmer.  The  tail 
is  a  nntural  hnlp  to  a  dog  in  turning  iguickly,  aa 
the  hare  turns  when  ct»ursed  and  overtaken.  With- 
out his  tail,  lh»?  dog  is  sadly  at  fault  in  the  wrench 
and  turn,  and  he  loses  much  ground.  For  this 
reason,  the  cut  or  bobbed  sheep-dogs  wure  not 
looked  on  as  dangerous  to  game,  and  their  owners 
were  given  tax  exemptions  for  them  accord- 
ingly. 

From  this  brce«i  of  short-tailed  dogs  anMe  the 
splendid  animals  kept  today  for  bench  shows,  sheep- 
dog triala,  »lie-'p-henling,  general  farm  work,  and 
companions.  They  are  among  the  most  valuable  ot 
all  breeds,  and  the  importations  and  breeding  oper- 
ations in  the  United  States  and  some  parte  of 
Canada  are  extensive. 

The  Old  Knglish  ^^heel^-*l(^g  was  the  old-fashioned 
sheejwlog  uf  the  Kngli,sh  farmer  of  generations  ago. 
But  with  the  advent  uf  Scotch  Cullies  from  the 
North,  which  mo.**tly  accompanied  their  nuistors 
engaged  as  stewards  or  managers, — for  Scotchmen 
have  always  been  note!  agriculturists  and  pastoral- 
ists,  -  these  dogs  Ixjcame  somewhat  generally  and 
widely  distributnl.  8till,  the  IktlttfiiLs  remained  in 
the  hands  of  drovers ;  and  among  dealem  and 
farmers  attending  markets  and  falrx,  they  have 
always  been  held  as  of  the  utmost  value.  Their 
ability  to  drive  strange  cattle  and  sheep  through 
crowded  and  difficolt  thoroughfarce  is  remanc- 
ablc. 

Ia  AmrTten.  —Perhaps  the  first  dog  of  this  breed, 
of  any  note,  to  be  imported  was  Kir  Lucifer,  which 
was  purchased  in  the  middle  "eighviw*"  by  the  Clon- 
coe  Kennelfl,  East  Hethlehem,  Washington  county. 
Pennsylvania,  who  also  owned  ISob  and  Damo  Hoa- 
ter.  About  1S88.  Mr.  William  Wade,  then  of  Hulton. 
Pennnsylvania,  took  more  than  a  ftassing  interwt 
in  the  breed  and  helped  to  develop  it  in  this 
country.  These  imfwrted  Bobtiiils  weighe*!  from 
sixty  jwuntls,  with  the  bitches  of  less  weight,  down- 
ward to  forty-five  pounds.  Today  the  males  and 
femalus  are  much  larger,  and  are  far  more  valuable. 
Twenty  years  ago  in  England  (the  dog  market  of 
the  world),  good  show  specimens  were  worth  $250 ; 
now  $5Cm,1  lo  $1,000  is  no  uncommon  price ;  and 
at  such  figures  some  of  the  present-day  dogs 
have  reached  these  shores.  While  there  were  but 
three  or  four  individuals  in  188C.  no  feww  than 
thirty-three  firat-clujut  upecime'mi  were  registered 
at  the  American  Kennel  Club,  New  York,  1906. 

Never  were  there  more  and  better  Old  English 
BoMail  Sheep-dogs  than  at  the  present  time.  The 
breed  is  strongly  supported,  not  only  by  agricul- 
isrists  who  value  them  for  their  work  and  good 
looks,  bat  other  persons  of  position  in  both  hemi- 


38S 


DOfiS 


BOGS 


spheres,  who  recognize  in  this  Sheep-dof:  the  repre- 
aentative  of  the  old  shepherd  breed,  and  a  pecu- 
liarly saf^acions  and  hantiaome  anitnal. 

VitlritnLtioa. 

Th*  Old  English  Sheep-doR  ia  now  widely  distrib- 
uted in  those  counlri^s  wht-To  iloj{  ^howM  aru  ht>ld. 
The  home  of  the  breed,  and  «f  kinds  cloaifly  rulateil 
to  him,  iH  in  northern  F^orope.  Tho  bc-st  Bobtail 
living  at  the  present  day  is  HandsoRH,*  Itoy,  ownt;d 
by  Mrs.  Tyler  Morse,  of  New  York  and  Bfwton. 
Handsome  Boy  is  a  magnificent  sppcimen.  carrying 
an  enormous  coat.  Hv  \n  blind  in  ono  t^ye,  but  wi 
truly  representative  in  he,  that  judgea  are  inclined 
to  overlook  that  blemish. 

Feedbiff. 

The  fi^neral  scraps  of  the  farmhouse  make  a  good 
and  eijbs.tanti»I  meal  for  the  Sheep-dog.  Cracked 
corn,  well  iKtiled  with  %'eg»tnbleH  and  fat  or  lean 
fle«h,  is  eaten  with  avidity.  With  ttlw,-iyN  arre»H  to 
graaathatlo^  will  kHtphimsnIf  in  the  Inwt  of  hiiMilth, 
the  burbagi'  buing  lin  excullunt  vermifuge. 

Removing  tke  taii. 

Even  in  the  beat  and  most  carefully  bred  littera 
of  Bobtaila,  whotps  ore  to  be  found  with  tails 
of  different  lengths,  while  some  are  tallies?.  AW 
the  tailt  should  be  ImmFMliately  removeil  cbiHa  to 
thtv  rump  with  a  pair  of  nharp  KcisHorH  or  nipiiem. 
A  little  bHlsiim  may  lit;  pliiee<l  on  the  small  biure,  vr 
it  can  lit-  li^ft  tri  the  goud  attt'iiiLiun  of  tho  mother, 
who  will  lick  and  clean  it  while  it  is  healing.  Tho 
earlier  tht;  tAiUcutting  in  accompliBhi-d.  the  more 
forward  will  the  puppy  ihicome,  while  the  pain  is 
next  tn  nothing. 

OrganizatioTi*  and  reeorr/t. 

The  Old  EnglUh  Sheep-dug  Club  oT  F!ngland  w;li 
founded  ia  1HH8,  with  ttnj  i>re.*;nt  writer  as  its  first 
aocretary.  He  drew  up  a  deseription  and  scale  of 
points  of  the  breed  on  which  linus  the  brL'ed  wa*. 
and  is,  generally  judged.  There  xst  an  Old  English 
Sheep-dog  Club  of  America,  organized  in  I'XVA.  At 
all  times  the  nddresMW)  of  the  .secretarips  of  thiew 
claba,  formed  to  proniote  the  intereflta  of  the  breed 
under  notice,  may  be  had  by  imiuiry  at,  the  .Ameri- 
can Kennel  Club,  New  York  City,  and  the  linglish 
Kennel  C'lub,  London,  England.  The  studlKtoks, 
Vfhcrein  these  dogs  are  mentioned  and  the  pedigrees 
of  many  of  tho  best  types  are  given,  are  published 
by  the  Knglish  and  .American  Kennel  Clubs. 

Literature. 

There  is  little  literature  that  is  related  particu- 
larly to  farm  dogs,  although  much  has  been  writu-n 
on  doga  in  general.  The  latest  illuatrated  dt-scrip- 
tion  of  (Md  Knglish  Sheeixiogi*  is  given  by  Lloyd. 
in  "Dofp."  The  Library  Supply  Company  of  Amer- 
ica, New  York  ('ity  (1007 1.  The  reader  may  also 
ccMiault  Lloyd,  TheWorld's  Sheep  and  Cattle  Dogs, 
Dog-Lover'a  Publishing  Co..  Lansdowne.  Pa.;  Baw- 
don  Ijee.  Field,  I»ndon  ;  Hugh  Dalziel.  The  Collie. 
L.  Upcot  Qill.  Ixtndon ;  Lee,  Collie  or  Sheep-Dog ; 
Wickham.  E'ractical  Training  of  the  Shepherd  Dog. 


Sheep-dog  Trials.   Figs.  397-399. 

By  Frederick  Fretmait  Lloyd. 

The  first  public  sheep-dog  trials  ever  held  were 
at  Bula,  North  Wales.  Great  Britain,  in  1873. 
Since  then  they  have  become  very  popular  and  are 
almost  a  national  pastime  in  Wales,  Kngtand, 
Australia  and  New  ZealaniL  There  are  also  com- 
pfititiont!  of  thita  kind  in  Scotland,  in  the  eastern 
t)tute^  of  the  [j'nion,  and  in  ('anada,  the  trialu  at 
the  annual  international  fair  at  Toronto  being 
uaque.'^lionably  the  best  held  on  the  American 
continent.  The  first  trials  to  be  held  in  the  United 
States  Were  at  I'hiliwlelphia.  in  188fJ,  and  at  Pitte- 
liiirg,  in  ISKl.  The  latter  were  under  the  ]iatron- 
age  of  the  Pennsylvania  .State  .■\gricnitural  Society. 
ThuKe  trialH  prove  great  atlractioua  at  fairs  and 
are  on  the  increase  in  this  country,  being  supportwcl 
by  the  Collie  Club  of  America  and  other  institu- 
tionfl  or  aaaociatioofi.  Their  value  and  charm  lie  in 
the  fact  that  they  demonstrate  the  true  utility  of 
the  dog. 

TYiaU  itt  Auitraiia,  England  <ind  Francf. 

In  Auatrutia,  a  snuill,  pri^ck-eared  and  generally 
black  dog  with  a  smooth  or  flat  coat  is  used.  He 
18  called  "the  Barb,"  after  a  ceicbratcd  dog  of  that 
name.  Sheep-dog  trials  la.st  for  days  in  connection 
with  the  annual  show  of  the  Sheep  Breeders'  Arwh 
ciatinn,  at  Sydney,  N.  S.  W„  a  very  important 
HocMety,  whieh  interests  itself  in  the  flocks  and 
.>(h«-[>-doga  of  ptwHihly  the  greatest  shef^iJ-raising 
country  in  the  world.  Valuable  prizes  are  offoreid 
at  nearly  all  Australian  shows;  and,  as  almost  every 
township  and  village  has  its  annual  gathering 
devoted  to  matters  agricultural  and  pastoral,  it 
can  well  bo  gathered  that  sheefwiog  triab  an-  of 
great  account  and  held  in  the  highest  e.iteem. 

in  EnghuiH,  prominent  land-uwnera,  such  as 
Lt^nl  Rothschild,  give  large  sums  for  priies  for 
Hheep-dog  trials.  The  competitions  at  Tring  Park 
each  autumn  are  watched  by  a  vast  concourse  of 
town  and  country  people,  who  are  kept  in  breath- 
less excitement  by  the  interesting  work  of  the  dogs. 
Welih,  Scotch  or  Henlwick  sheep  should  always  be 
used  for  trials ;  the  Down  sheep  are  considered  too 
slow  and  Un*  fat. 

h  Francr,  a  number  of  sheep— say  a  score — are 
used,  tho  dog  being  required  to  fetch,  drive  and 
house  them  in  a  railway  track  at  a  station.  The 
trials  are  held  under  the  patronage  wf  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

The  4offf. 

.'\11  breeds  of  sheep-dogs  are  use*i'  for  this  work, 
the  Hhow  point'*  of  the  animal  counting  for  not h* 
ing.  except  in  the  case  of  special  prizes  given  for 
dog«  of  any  particular  breed  when  merit  is  con- 
sidered, so  far  as  the  l)ench  or  ring  nheep-dog  is 
concerned.  Some  extra  well-bred  Collies  have  been 
known  to  be  %'ery  good  workers  in  these  coDtests, 
but  the  majority  of  the  d"gs  use<l  arc  those  that 
are  daily  at  work  on  farms,  ranches  or  stations — 
the  latter  the  great  Antipoiiean  sheejvnins.  whore 
doga  &K  of  the  aCmost  value. 


DOGS 


DOGS 


389 


The  rtiquirementB  of  the  do^  aru  obvious.  Ho 
ghouW  l»L-  silent  at  hia  work  and  never,  under  any 
cireumstancoB,  bite  or  mouth  his  sheep.  He  rou8t 
be  taught  to  work  in  the  direction  of  the  swing  nf 
the  hand  and  dmp  to  whistle  or  voice,  or  go  on  iut 
rieHired.  The  nn'fit  of  a  dog  is  tuttimated  by  the 
time  he  tiikts  U>  [wn  hia  charRfii  without  maturlalty 
furcinji  them.  Naturiilly,  now  jinii  thyii,  a  doj^  ia 
fuvort-d  with  "luck,"  bnt  the  Ijost  animal  is  nearly 
always  to  ho  found  thf  winner  of  the  stake.  Three 
money  prize-s  are  generally  given,  with  extra 
honorariums  for  the  shepherd  or  handler. 

All  doga,  except  the  working  one,  must  be  held  on 
a  leaxh  (luring  a  trial ;  in  the  event  of  a  dog  get- 
ting loaie,  the  uwRpr  of  it  should  be  pn>mptly 
lined,  or  the  dog  disqualitied  from  competition,  at 
thv  option  of  the  f^tewurds.  The  fine  muat  be  men* 
tioned  in  the  rulwi  governing  the  meeting. 

There  is  no  studhook  for  dogs  that  have  com- 
peted or  won  pt  rtheep-dog  triflla.  Pedigree*  may 
be  given  on  the  entry  form,  but  Iho  age  (if 
known]  must  be  mentitmetl  at  the  time  of  making 


back  tbenuetTefl  and  dog  to  drive  a  hen  into  a 
small  flower-pot  placed  lengthwise  in  the  open  field 
in  a  given  numoer  of  minutes.  The  progeny  of 
domestic  dog8  cro8»ed  with  wild  dogs  cannot  be 


'(C . 

s 

^.^ 

-^  -^ 

f 


PU.  397.  Simple  oydne  tor  tturnvdoii  trial.  A.  8lim>;  B. 
pniirwi.  odlilili'  ii(  iIufAi  C.  iifii,  mail'  nf  Ihrpp  nrultiiLr]i 
hnnlln.  «11h  tiilSi'litnt  rnnm  nt  n[ipn1nK  to  kUoir  enl^«n^^ 
of  nnlyniip  «)>iwp  M  a  llinci  I>.  •hfphorit'*  tint  pnititititi 
on  ipnillitit  flag  la  lli»l  iliorp.  ujr  DUO  ynrdi  airayi  E,  tint 
pooltioii  ot  ]D<94(>«i  i'.  pabUe.  Tlmo  alioood,  Uif  flllMn 
tolntiiM. 

the  entry.  The  fuller  the  particulars  the  more  wide- 
spread bocomes  the  fame  of  the*  dog's  works.  A 
dog  should  be  reckoned  a  puppy  until  he  is  tw«|ve 
monthii  i)ld  on  the  (ir*t  day  of  the  competition  in 
which  hy  is  entered.  Dogs  and  hitches  are  consid- 
ered of  the  Mme  accuuat,  but  in  no  case  may  a 
proud  or  in-neason,  female  be  worked  at  public  trials. 

Hie  thtxp. 

The  handler  or  shepherd  mast  not  touch  the 
sheep  with  his  handH.  and  should  remain  in  close 
proximity  to  the  home  hurdles  and  pen  until  the 
driven  sheep  arrive  in  that  neighborhood.  Strange 
tto  the  dog)  sheep  are  always  uswJ,  a  trio  from 
flocks  before  unassociatod  being  the  charges. 
Strange  wild  sheep  are  wilder  than  ever;  they  will 
not  pack  hut  will  "split"  and  run  in  alt  directions, 
giving  the  dog  the  maximum  of  work  and  try- 
ing hie  temper  to  the  utmost.  A  ewe,  a  wether 
and  a  big  lamb  all  strangers -make  a  difficult 
trio.  Sheep  from  the  same  flock  are  more  easy  to 
handle,  and  it  is  advisable  to  provide  such  for  early 
trials  when  the  doga  have  not  yet  reached  the  per- 
fection of  "professional"  trial  dogs  and  worked  by 
very  exi^rienced  public  handlers.  It  may  bv  men- 
tioned here  that  Austrsliaos  have  been  heard  to 


Pis.  39e.  OmmtmrntHum-Uldaeiioiu.  a.  Sliecp:  B.  Ant 
pulr  ot  »iag]it  hurilW  wltli  rooic  belwcrn  for  only  0116 
iihnwt'  ■■>  lu(»;  ''.  twi'MUof  hunltm  Jwiiii'-.l.  pln'^r-l  twviity' 
Sto  jnrdi  (niRi  K.  itn*1  ■llowinc  same  ri>oin  mm  B:  D.  T>m 
made  of  Ihnvi  hnrrilm,  tnrnir  ynrilii  from  V.  wliti  ronm 
for  tntry  of  our  thtfii  nt  it  Unit-  K,  •lieuliord;  P.  ptiLilit: 
If.  JiuIkcw.    Tlmo  ■lliinml.  tits  ftftnen  mlmittw 

depended  on  for  generations  as  honest  and  non- 
worrying  sheep-dogc 

The  cmrK.   Figs.  397-399. 

Of  the  plans  given,  the  one  represented  in  Fig. 
398  is  recommended  for  medium-trained  dogs. 
The  one  sugge^ited  in  Fig.  S'J3  is  very  complex,  and 
is  suitalde  only  for  dogs  of  considerable  experi- 
ence. It  is  difficult  because  of  the  maltese  cross, 
which  is  hard  to  negotiate.  It  i.s  .tuitabte  for  a 
show-ring  coclowure,  the  judges  acting  from  a 
stand.  The  arrows  indicate  the  course  over  which 
the  sheep  are  to  be  driven,  A  study  of  these  plans 
will  best  indiciite  the  nature  of  the  trials.  The 
sheep  are  turned  out  of  the  yard  at  some  distance 
from  the  course.  The  yard  may  lie  in  sight  or 
hidden,  as  arranged.  From  his  first  position,  the 
shepherd  may  follow  his  dog  and  aheep  to  the 
sheep-pen.  The  public  or  audience  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  placed  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  interest- 
ing work ;  the  onlookers  should  be  kept  away,  at 


S, 

M 

J     ^z^ 

p    ^ 

y 
^u^ 

-4$ 

G 

vV 

^    r  ^' 

y 

B 

c 

a 

FlE.  IK.     Ooiaplex  Murw.     A.  Slipcp;    [).  PonrM.  cmiIhIiIp  ot 
Aait>]  C.  lilnKlA  hanllvxi    T).  MuMeir  emmt  idonlilr  bar- 

dlM);   E.pcDi  P.  Ju<l«««:  (}.[nil>lk:  II,  thrplifril.  who  «iior 

niti««  «iijrnbvrc  tnilil«  tb»  Hav.   Tim*  atlowcd,  anr  *e*m- 
I  MB  minaiiM. 

all  costs,  from  the  actual  arena.  Sheep  are  stupid; 
they  become  more  and  more  so  with  a  straoge  dog, 
and  midst  the  shouts  of  approval  and  groans  of 
disappointment  that  ever  and  anon  arise  from  the 
advocates  at  these  exciting  events.  There  is  not  a 
slow  moment  at  a  good  sheep-dog  trial. 


390 


FISH 


nsH 


FISH.    Pisees.   Pigfl.  400^0?. 

The  a^icultural  utilization  of  ponis  and  streams 
as  «ourc(M  of  food  income  haa  scarcely  yet  began 
in  thia  coantry.  The  time  must  come  when  they 
will  be  as  carefully  utilized  as  the  fields  of  the 
farm  ;  in  fact,  they  themselves  will  b&come  farm 
fietda,  yiehling  their  regTjlar  product  of  food  as  cer- 
tainly as  the  poultry  ya.rd  yields  its  fowla  or  the 
pasture  its  sheep.  There  is  more  or  less  breeding  of 
fiah  at  present,  but  largely  of  game  feth,  from  the 
sportsman's  point  of  view ;  thirt  point  of  view  mu;at 
be  radically  changed  before  water  agricuiture  can 
attain  (Treat  efficiency.  We  have  not  yet  beffiin  to 
domesticate  lish  in  this  country,  although  thiiS  ha« 
proceeded  in  the  Old  World  with  the  carp,  which  ia 
thus  farlhe  leading  agricultural  species.  We  shall 
Home  day  have  domestic  breedii  of  more  than  one 
species  of  fish. 

Aquiadture  \a  the  caltivation  nf  animals  and 
plants  that  live  in  waU^r,  or  whose  habitat  esBon- 
tially  comprises  a  bwly  of  water.  The  animals  may 
be  giU-brealherB,  as  fishes  and  mollnsks,  or  lung- 
breathers,  as  frogs  and  turtles.  The  microscopic 
organisms  that  are  the  fuoii  of  so  many  aquatic 
animals,  such  &a  spongeii,  clam^,  and  the  young  of 
fiflheji,  constitute  the  plankton.  [See  page  39^.j 

It  ia  not  the  province  of  this  cyclopedia  of  agri- 
culture to  discuss  fish  at  length.  Brief  attention 
is  given  to  the  general  subject  of  tiah^culture  and 
fish-food,  and  to  some  of  those  kinds  of  fish  for 
which  artificial  methodi  of  propagation  have  been 
undertaken.  The  reader  ia  referred  to  ShtU-iigft  for 
disCQSfiiona  of  raiding  clams,  cralm,  crayti^h,  lob- 
steni,  oyflters  and  nbrimii.  He  may  al^o  wi»h  to 
consult  the  articles  on  Frogt,  Spvnge*  and  Turtles. 

Fish-culture.   I-'ig.  400. 
By  W.  E.  JHftlvin. 

The  artificiat  propagation  of  fiidies,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Federal  Hure-au  of  Pi»herie.fl  and 
state  commissioas,  has  become  an  extensive  indus- 
try. Rivers,  lakes  and  ponds,  depleted  of  their 
fishes,  are  now  commonly  restockud  with  food  and 
game  fishe-s  from  the  hatcheries  of  tha  state  and 
nation;il  fiith  commiKsionH. 

Fifih-cnltiire  of  flome  kind  was  practiced  by  the 
ancient  Romans  iiiid  also  by  the  ChineKe  and  Jap- 
anese. The  ItornaiLS  built  artilicial  ponds  uftening 
into  natural  waterri,  and  whttn  the  former  were 
stocked,  screens  were  placL'd  at  the  outlets  ?o  that 
the  6sh  could  not  escape.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese 
gathered  eggs  of  wild  fish  from  one  hotly  of  wrtter 
and  carried  them  to  another,  where  they  hatchi^l. 
They  also  engagixl  in  the  sipitlematic  culture  of 
goldfish,  and  by  selection  produced  what  are  now 
known  as  "  faneie«,"  that  is,  liah  with  more  than 
one  tail  and  with  abnormally  shaped  b^tlies.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  condition  was  produced  by  agi- 
tating the  eggH  at  a  certain  stage  of  di^velopraent. 

Artificial  fiah-cultiire  wjis  first  employed  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  by  a  Je«uit 
prtettt,  but  it  wiih  ptiL  to  no  |iractical  use.  It  waa 
revived  again  about  the  lattur  part  of  tho  seven- 
teenth century  by  Jacoby,  &  (lerraan  scientist,  who 


published  a  paper  on  the  subject.  This  paper  was 
afterwiirds  translated  into  French  and  Knglish,  but 
even  this  was  not  followed  by  practical  efforts.  U 
was  not  until  about  1S4U  that  fish-culture  was 
definitely  undertaken.  Its  beginnings  were  brought 
about  through  experiments  made  by  two  Breton 
tishermen,  named  Remy  and  Gehin.  They  made  a 
close  study  of  the  spawning  habits  of  the  trout, 
and  took  eggs  and  davlaed  an  apparatus  for  hatch- 
ing them.  The  attention  of  the  French  government 
was  drawn  to  their  experiments,  and  Gehin  wa8 
made  a  commissioner  to  teach  others  the  art  of 
artificial  fecundation  and  hatching  of  fishes.  A  year 
ur  two  later,  experiments  in  artificial  fei^undation 
of  salmon  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Jacoby  and 
Remy  and  Gehin  were  succcsjifully  undortaben  in 
.Scotland  by  two  Scotchmen.  Later,  the  work  was 
introiluced  into  the  United  States  by  private  indi- 
viduals, who  had  studieti  tho  methods  of  Ilemy  and 
Gehin.  Shortly  afterwards,  Seth  Green,  of  New 
Vork.  who  may  be  considered  the  father  of  fish-cul- 
ture in  America,  established  a  hatchery  and  under- 
took the  propagation  of  trout  on  a  large  Kale.  He 
Bubse(iuentlyexperimented  with  the  artificial  hatch- 
ing of  t^had  and  brought  it  to  a  auccessfnl  i&sue. 
Livingston  Stone,  also  of  New  York,  followed  Seth 
Green's  work  closely  and  estahliahctd  a  hatchery. 

The  rapid  ri'duction  of  Tiaht'S  in  this  country,  espe- 
cially in  the  New  England  and  Middle  states,  caused 
much  concern,  and  about  186G  a  general  con- 
vention, composed  of  delegates  appointed  by  the 
authority  of  the  leginlatures  of  the  several  states, 
wai!  held  with  a  view  nf  deiising  means  to  restore 
the  fmheriect.  The  result  of  the  convention  was  the 
establishment  of  fish  commissions  in  the  various 
status  and  by  the  lTnite<l  States  government.  Both 
tho  national  and  the  i^tato  governments  constracted 
(ish  hatcheries  or  statiouB  where  fish  could  be  prop- 
agated artificially.  The  fni^rgiea  of  the  states  were 
at  first  directed  principally  towards  the  hatching  of 
briiok  trout,  while  the  United  .StaU-s  Fish  Commia- 
sion,  although  niiaking  a  specialty  of  thia  flsfa, 
sought  a  broader  field.  Little  by  little  other  states 
followed  the  exampleof  the  National  Fish  Commis- 
sion, unlit  Bome  of  the  common wealtha,  notably 
Rhode  Island,  New  York.  Pennsylvania,  Michigan, 
Ohio,  WiitconAin  and  Minnesota,  are  propagating 
most  of  the  more  valuable  game  and  food  fishes 
within  their  borders.  Pennsylvania  and  New  York 
are  especially  active  in  this  particular,  the  former 
even  undertaking  the  culture  of  such  fish««  as 
catfish,  pickerel  and  sunfich.  in  addition  to  what 
are  commonly  called  the  higher  forma,  as  tront, 
shrtd.  waiU'yed  pike,  wbitefiDh  and  black  bass. 

The  sciencu  of  fiab-culture  is  advancing  rapidly, 
and,  white  there  is  yet  great  advancement  to  be 
made,  it  ia  now  generally  conceded  that  it  ia  chiefly 
a  matter  of  the  amount  of  money  available  for 
the  work. 

Sjiiitemg  of  Jixh-cttltare. 

There  are  three  distinct  lines  of  work  in  frwh- 
water  flah-caltare :  First,  the  artificial  taking, 
fecundating  and  hatching  of  eggs :  second,  the 
natural  spawning  of  fish  in  artificial  ponds  in  fish- 


rtatchinfr  stations;  and,  third,  the  catching  of  iiah 
from  one  body  of  water  and  transferring  them  to 
oth«n>,  antl  the  Uktng  of  wild  eggs  and  artificially 
hatfihing  them. 

Ariijiciat  ffeuHdation  and  hatching  of  egijf. — In 
th«  Grat  syntKiii,  twu  mathoJa  art)  Brnployt-d. — tlin 
\i»i  of  open  troughs  and  traya  and  the 
)iad  of  jars. 

(1)  Tke  oprn  trounh  and  tray  fysttm 
is  o-sed  largely  for  the  artificial  hatch- 
ing of  nalmon  and  trout.  The  general 
form  of  tht-  tmuKhs  usi-d  by  thi  United 
f^tatuK  Iturfau  of  Fisheriiw  and  l>y  the 
aevoral  ittiitfit  u  lo  all  inLente  and  pur- 
iMjai*  the  aarac,  the  chiot  dilTon-ncc 
being  in  the  eizv.  The  majority  of  thu 
8tat««  ompioy  a  trough  twolvc  to  six- 
teen  feet  in  Ipngth  and  about  thirty 
iochefi  wide,  with  »  diviiiioii  down  the 
center,  and  alioul  eight  inchrat  liuep'; 
but  none  of  ihi?  sLaLf.<,  and  the  L'niteil 
Stittufi  Buaiau  of  Fisheries,  usti  a 
trough  several  feet  in  depth.  Through 
the  first  type  of  trough  nix  to  nine 
quarts  of  water  flow  per  minute.  The 
egga,  aft^-r  being  fecundated  and  thor- 
oughly c)eiine<l,  are  i«;>read  on  wire- 
mesh  trays,  pr^vinuitly  piiiiitod  with 
asphaltum,  or  in  wlrti  tiiutketH  u-i^iteoialty 
designi^td.     In     the    shallow     type    of 

troughs  there  is  set  but  one,  or  at  most  two  tiers 
of  trays,  but  in  tiie  deeper  typea  a.i  many  as  six- 
teen or  more  may  lie  placed. 

.^fter  the  fish  have  hatched,  they  are  often 
retained  in  thiK  troughs  until  the  sac  in  alwnrlied, 
and  then  etthur  planted  in  th«  streams  »r  trans- 
ferred to  outside  pond*  ami  held  until  tho  fish-cul- 
tnrist  deenm  it  proper  to  plant  them.  The  twriod 
of  planting  varies,  some  cutturists  planting  the 
trout  while  the  sac  is  still  attached,  some  when  the 
iwic  is  firHt  absorbed,  others  when  the  trout  arrive 
at  the  lingerling  Htage,  while  othprs  hold  them 
until  tliey  are  atiuut  eight  or  nine  iricmlhs  old. 

(2)  Jar  syatfnu—Thti  jar  work  waa  formerly 
condmiled  under  what  was  known  as  thu  table 
system,  which  is  still  pursuL-d  by  some  states  anil 
tOKome  extoDt  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Pish- 
eriefl.  The  table  system  consiatft  of  a  table  in  which 
in  set  a  tank,  nrouml  which  an?  placed  gias^  jars 
having  hormiHically  senleil  caps.  Water  ift  inlnj- 
ducul  into  the  jan,  by  means  of  rubber  and  glass 
tnbeB.  There  are  two  tuttes  for  each  .far;  one 
reaohcM  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar  for  the 
iDtroduction  of  the  water,  and  thu  other,  tthorter 
one,  csrriee  the  water  into  the  tank  from  the  jar; 
the  latter  is  aleu>  uiwd  to  siphon  out  all  the  young 
hslies  and  (he  di^ad  eggs.  Eggs  are  placeil  In  the 
jars  aod  the  water  kept  constantly  Hitwing,  .«o  that 
the  eggs  will  bt>  In  perjH^tual  motion  during  the 
development  of  the  embryo.  The  |>eriod  of  devel- 
opment of  the  embryo  depends  on  the  species  of 
fish  and  the  temjierature  of  the  water.  Some  fishes, 
as  the  Bharl,  under  certain  conditions  will  hatch  in 
four  or  five  dayn ;  others,  as  the  whitcfish,  will 
require  three  to  four  months. 


The  table  system  ts  being  abandoned  for  the 
battery  system  (Fig.  dOO),  for  the  rca.^on  that  the 
latter  is  simpler  and  a  larger  number  of  eggs  may 
be  hatched  in  a  smaller  xpace  and  with  no  more 
water.  A  battery  consists  of  a  aeries  of  trough.*) 
about  twelve  inches  deep  and  twelve  inches  wide, 


Intflilar  at  a  Ath-tLaictiliix  houM  eijuipixra  wiUi  Uttery  and 
Jan.  laa  utui  stiowlna  ta»  «u>. 

and  of  a  length  corn^spuiidiDg  to  the  size  of  the 
hatching- house,  SrOt  onu  above  the  other  from  the 
tloor  to  near  the  ceiling.  There  is  another  type  of 
battery  in  which  the  troughs  are  set  step-fashion, 
hut  the  former  method  is  in  more  general  u-se.  The 
water  is  introduced  into  the  top  trough,  from 
which  it  flows  to  those  beneath  and  finally  into  a 
large  tank  at  one  end  of  the  building.  Faucets  are 
inserted  at  intervals  on  each  side  of  the  troughs, 
from  which  water  is  carried  by  short  pieees  of 
rubber  hoete  attached  to  the  gloss  or  tin  tube.9  that 
reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  jars.  The  topof  a  jar  is 
open  and  the  water  flows  out  from  a  lip  back  into 
the  troughs,  cjirrying  with  it  the  dead  eggs  «nd 
young  finhes,  which  afterwards  flow  into  the  tank 
just  mentioned.  Several  designs  of  jar^  are  u«ed, 
oceording  to  the  fancy  of  the  fish-cuttoriat,  but 
each  type  holds  about  four  quarts  of  eggs.  The  jar 
system  is  used  f(ir  the  eggs  of  such  fi.ihe3  as  the 
whitefi«h,  ahad,  yellow  perch  and  pickerel,  which 
are  depusiteti  in  vimt  quantities  but  are  much 
smaller  than  the  trout. 

.S/wmniHtf  t'f  ji'h  in  arlifinai  pond*. —The  pomi 
system  is  for  fish  from  which  the  eggs  either  can- 
not be  taken  artificially,  or  from  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  take  th<.'m.  The  principal  sj)ecieR  for  which 
pond  work  is  undertaken  are  the  black  ha.'w,  both 
large  and  small  month.  The  artificial  culture  of 
black  h.T.'M  i.")  comparatively  but  a  few  yeara  old, 
and  is  still  largely  experimental.  Originally  the 
ponds  were  relatively  small,  but  with  growing 
experience  they  arc  being  enlarged,  until  now. 
many  fish  culturists  advocate  bodies  of  water  three 
to  five  acres  in  extent. 

A  baas  pood  for  breeding  pnrposws  should  have 


392 


FISH 


FISH 


a  Bhelf  extending  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
pond  at  an  average  d<:pth  of  a  f»ot  and  a  half  to 
two  fuet,  and  a  kettle  with  a  depth  varying  from 
two  to  eiuht  feet,  according  to  the  climate  of  tho 
roRion,  whether  the  winters  are  very  severe  or  are 
mild.  Th«  shelf  is  fur  the  spawning  grounds,  and 
the  kettle  fur  hibwrnntinn  and  refuge.  The  nesla 
lire  artilicially  madt*  of  coarne  grave!  and  small 
8tone8.  About  the?u;  neals  id  »et  a  wooden  screen 
with  two  Bides  open.   Tho  two  closed  aides  are  to 

grevent  fish  in  one  nest  from  seeing  fieih  in  another, 
'n  theso  nests  the  fish  defiosit  their  egga.  The 
usual  prat'tiee  is  to  permit  thi-f-ggs  to  lie  ineuliated 
under  the  care  of  thi»  titih,  iind  a^  soon  aa  they  are 
hatched,  the  wo'iden  scrt-en  ia  taken  sway  and 
replaced  by  a  crili  having  a  framo-work  of  iron  or 
wood,  and  the  sides  covered  with  cheese-cloth. 
When  the  sac  ia  absorbed,  the  little  fish  are  trans- 
ferred from  the  crib  t(v  fry  ponds,  in  which  there 
is  a  large  amuiint  of  aquatic  plants  of  species  nn 
which  low  form.t  of  aiiuatic;  animal  life  thrive.  On 
thia  vegeUtion  the  young  fish  feed.  When  they  are 
of  a  certain  aize,  they  are  planted  in  the  slreamrt. 

FidJ-ieark.—ihe  third  method,  which  is  uaually 
called  field-work,  is  divided  into  two  diatinct  opor- 
atioftg  ;  one,  the  catching  of  wild  fish  by  means  of 
nets  and  transferring  them  to  other  waters  ;  the 
other,  gathering  the  spawn  or  egga  of  fiah  natur- 
ally deposited,  and  tramiferring  them  to  hatcherieB 
to  be  developed  either  by  tho  jar  or  the  trough 
sratem.  The  gathering  of  wild  egga  for  hatching 
is  looked  on  as  -very  imp>ortaat.  since  it  saves  a 
very  large  number  of  eggs  that  would  otherwise 
be  destroyed  by  spawn-eating  fish. 

Lltf.rature. 

There  is  very  little  important  literature  relating 
to  fieh-cnlture.  Dome.iticated  Troot,  by  Livingstone 
SLone,  is  a  good  contribution  of  the  earlier  daya. 
The  latent  reference  of  valu«  is  th^  Manual  of  Fish- 
Culture,  issued  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
aion,  first  in  1^97,  and  reYia>d  about  two  years 
later.  See  also,  C.  U.  Townsend,  the  Cultivation  of 
Ftshea  in  Natural  and  Artificial  Ponds,  Reprint 
from  Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  New  York  Zoolog- 
ical Society. 

Fish  Food  &nd  Fe«diQg-{round». 

Hy  James  G.  yecdham. 

The  food  of  fmhes  ia  almost  as  diventifiud  as  is 
the  life  of  the  waters  thi^y  inhabit.  Our  be?t  native 
game  fishes  are  carnivorouii.  Some  of  them  (aa 
pike,  black  bass)  eat  chiefly  other  lishe.s  mo«itly  of 
smaller  size.  Some,  as  the  brook  trout,  that  nor- 
mally feed  in  part  nn  other  fiflhefl,  may  thrive  on 
int^ectK  alotie  in  a  pond  wher»  thejie  ar^  ahunilant. 
The  fiheep«hi'ad  of  our  inland  Klri-ams  eat*  rhiutly 
miilluskH.  Ita  broad,  flattene"!  teeth  are  well  aiapted 
for  crushing  Koatl  and  niusfrLd  shidU.  All  our  bottom- 
feeding  lishcA  eat  more  or  less  of  thti  various  crus- 
taceans, insect  lurvip,  snails,  worms  and  the  tike, 
that  occur  in  such  places  :  and  all  fishes,  when  very 
young,  eat  largely  the  free-swimming  life  of  the 
open  water,  that  ia  collectively  known  as  plankton. 


Plankton  organiamfi  continue  to  he  throngh  life 
the  food  of  a  few  fishes,  own  of  some  of  the  larger 
ones,  such  as  the  spoon-bill  [Folyoilvn). 

Fishes  may  take  food  with  the  water  they  inhale, 
if  their  gill-rakers  are  fine  enough  to  strain  out  of 
the  water  the  minute  organisms  it  contains;  such 
fo(wl,  although  it  may  be  considerable  in  (juantity 
and  im[H)rtance,  com««  to  th^m  with  as  little  seeking 
aw  tile  oxygen  diHsolved  in  the  water  for  the^ 
breathing.  l!ut  the  demands  of  appetite  osQally 
impel  them  to  make  conscious  efforts  to  capture 
larger  game,  and  nature  has  endowed  them  vart- 
ou.s]y  to  accomplish  theirspecial  needs :  with  sharp, 
hooked  teeth,  as  the  baas,  for  capturing  other 
lishes  ;  with  griniling  teeth,  as  the  sheepeheud,  for 
crunching  snail  sliells  ;  with  upturned  jaws,  as  the 
gra*s  pike,  for  picking  insects  fp>m  the  Furface  of 
the  water; or  with  down-turned  and  punwd  lips,  as 
the  sucker,  for  drawing  worms  up  out  of  the  ooze 
of  tho  bottom.  Some  mud-eating  fishes  (that  live 
on  the  rich  organic  materials  contained  in  the  mud) 
of  great  reproductive  capacity,  are  important  as 
furnishing  in  their  offspring  a  supply  of  food  for 
the  other  piscivorous  sorts,  as  the  native  giitard 
shad  of  our  gluggir^h  inland  rivers,  and  the  imported 
"tIerraaD"carp.  ^Figs.  401^(jy.)  Almost  the  only 
fresh-water  flashes  that  are  fnlly  protected  against 
being  swallowed  by  others  are  the  catfiahes,  whose 
three  stout  rigidly-erected  spiny  fora  finrays  appear 
to  be  ade<iuate  defenw,  and  the  stickleback. 

But  one  reliable  method  of  determining  what  lishes 
e»t  has  yet  been  fonnd.^that  ia  the  exumination 
of  their  stomach  contents.  By  this  means  it  has 
been  determined  that  the  food  of  our  best  fishes  is 
predominantly  smaller  fishes,  insects  and  crusta- 
ceans; that  the  largest  percentage  of  their  food  ia 
insects,  and  that  by  far  the  most  important  part 
of  their  insect  food  is  the  immature  stage  of  may- 
flies and  midges. 

Very  little  is  yet  known  of  the  conditions  that 
make  for  abundance  of  fish-food.  Plankton  organ- 
isms live  in  the  open  wat^r,  but  different  waters 
vary  wonderfully  in  the  richness  of  their  plankton. 
The  supply  they  furnish  varies  also  with  the  sea- 
son, but  it  is  a  part  of  the  balance  of  nature  that 
the  supply  is  in  all  w,iters  most  iLbundant  at  that 
season  (spring)  when  the  majority  of  tishes.  being 
newly  hatched,  are  dependent  on  it.  Most  of  them 
will  turn  toother  food  whon  they  attain  to  larger 
shv.  On  the  bottom,  in  deep  waters,  there  is  a 
scanty  fauna  consisting  chiefly  of  a  few  forage 
organisms,  aa  "blwd  worms"  flarvw  of  midges  of  the 
genua  Cfiirvnoniun).  "caddis-worms"  flan'»  of  the 
caddii^-fliee),  and  timall  bivalve  motlusks  (V^findium). 
.Sitme  of  our  best  fish«j(.  such  as  whitefish  and  trout, 
forage  largely  there.  The  donse  beds  of  submerged 
waterwoe<ls  that  grow  on  trash-strewn  bottoms  in 
sUck  wattT.are  probably  the  richest  in  organic  life 
of  all  fish-foraging  grounds.  These  shelter  teem- 
ing hosts  of  mollusks.  crustaceans  and  insect  larva*. 
The  smaller  fishes  swarm  here,  to  be  nabbed 
on  the  outskirts  of  these  iH-ds  by  the  larger  pirati- 
cal lishes  that  dwell  in  the  deeper  wat«T.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  these  aubmergeo  meadows  {beds 
of  t^ftara,  CiratuphyUum,  etc)  are  not  browsed  on 


FISH 


nsH 


393 


L'''.'- 


directly  by  water-animals,  as  are  ciover-fii'ldB  by 
cattle ;  on  the  cnntrary,  thty  grow  grpeti,  and 
griiw  nifj  and  diM  almnKt  untnuchii,  and  the  her- 
liivtmKiH  water-organ it^tns  (with  thu  ^xceiitJitn  iiT  a 
ftiw  caililiH-worms,  and  oLhwrM)  eat  tlmm  only  after 
they  are  duad  and  disintesratinfi.  Thu  primary 
source  of  organic  food  tor  the  lar^e  aquatic  ani- 
mals is,  in  the  water,  dead  plantfi  insteail  of  green 
plants,  as  on  land.  The  most  important  pr-xhicers 
of  valotthlo  fish-forage  thu«  appear  to  be  n  few 
herliivnronfl  cmatace- 
ana  and  )ar>'!e  nf  may- 
flies and  midcbs;  and 
th  e  best  foraging 
Kroundit,  thooe  anb- 
merged  meadows  in 
whdsc  shielt^r  and 
nonri-^hment  these 
fiirmfl  develop  in 
)(reatest  abnEtdance. 

LiUralare. 

S.  A.  Forbw,  The 
Food  Relations  of 
Fresh  -  water  Fishes, 
Bulletin  of  the  Illinois 
Stattf  l-alioratory  of 
Niitnra)  Historv,  Vol, 
2.  pp.  475  6138':  J.  G. 
N«vdham,  The  FcxmJ  of 
Brook  Troat  in  Bon© 
Pond.  Bulletin  No.  68, 
New  York  State  Mu- 
Benm. 


ifi  allowed  to  fill  (jradually.  The  water,  having  no 
exit,  becomes  warm  and  remains  stagnant,  and  its 
pLanktijn  increase's.  Thi-n  the  pond.-)  are  tilled,  and 
tlw  ovftters  or  ti.ih  are  introduced.  For  fifth-cultore, 
a  series  of  stich  ponds  are  in  readiness,  are  pas- 
tured Hucciamively,  and  replenished  by  intervolii  of 

re."it. 

Th«  United  Slates  Boreau  of  Fisheries  haa  suc- 
cessfully conducted  experiments  in  the  applicatioa 
of  fertilizers  to  ponds  for  oyster-culture,  and  has 

thereby  so  increased 
thtf  growth  of  oyster 
food  that  three  or 
four  weeks'  sojourn 
of  poor  oysters  in 
such  ponda  haa  fat- 
tened  them  for  mar- 
ket. 


PIC.  401.     SUlCMIp. 


;^ 


Ai^i' 


10 


Plf.  MI.    HIiTDt  carp. 


r 

r 


Plankton-Culture. 
By  Julius  Nelion. 

Plankton  conaisLo 
of  very  simple  or  mi- 
croacopic  organiema 
of  water,  both  plant 
and  animal.  These 
organisms  are  very 
namemus,  and  are 
usually  distributed 
throughout  the  body 
of  water,  being  paj- 
aively  carried  by  its 
currents.  The  plsnt-celU,  nouriahed  by  the  min- 
erals in  solution,  and  bathed  by  sunlight,  multiply 
rapidly,  furnishing  food  for  the  microscopic  ani- 
raals;  and  both  groups  of  organisms  are  the  food 
of  sponges,  mollusks,  polyps,  and  the  young  of 
rearly  all  ofjuatic  animaU,  including  the  fry  of 
fiahea  and  the  tadpoles  of  amphibianiL 

Successful  atu^mpls  have  been  matle  in  France 
in  breeding  plankton  for  both  fish  fry  and  for  fat- 
tening oysters  (which  see).  The  gi^neral  method 
employed  is  as  follows  :  Shallow  ponds  are  chosen 
(or  excav.tt«d>.  into  which  the  (low  of  water  may 
be  controlleii.  whether  freah  or  salt.  For  a  few 
weeks  in  the  spring,  attch  ponda,  or  Wai'rfj,  shonid 
be  emptied,  and  the  bottom  baked  in  the  sun.  Then 
follows  spading  and  raking,  after  which  the  pond 


PLi-  403.    Le«Uer  c«ip. 
71c*.  I01H03.  irkiletioi  of  th«  dam«4tle  mji. 


Carp.  Cyprinnt  Car- 
pio,  Linn.  Cyjrri- 
nidfE.     Pigs.    401- 

4o:t 

By  J.  G.  Nndham. 

The  carp  is  the  one 
food -fish  that  may 
fairly  be  considered 
domeaticated  at  prf»- 
ent.  In  common  with 
most  of  our  domesti- 
cated animals,  it  ia  a 
native  of  Asia.  It 
was  introduced  into 
thi^  coantry  from 
tfermany  over  thirty 
years  ago,  and  is  al- 
ready one  of  the  moat 
widely  distributed 
fuihes  in  America.  It 
has  been  cultivated 
in  ponds  in  Germany 
for  a  long  time,  and 
exists  there  in  several 
improved  cultural  va- 
rieties. There  are  three 
fairly  well-known  va- 
rieties in  our  own 
waters,  all  of  which 
are  German  carp  :  buidea  "scale  carp"  (Fig.  401), 
the  parental  stock,  which  is  uniformly  covered  with 
scales  of  moderate  sine,  there  is  the  "mirror  carp" 
(Fig.  402).  which  has  very  large  scales  irregularly 
disponed  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  the 
"leather  carp"  (Fig.  403),  which  is  almost  scaleleua. 
But  as  theae  forms  have  oft«n  been  liberated  in  the 
sam(>  waters,  unrvtttricted  inter-crossing  has  re* 
sultod  in  all  sorts  of  varietal  intergradations. 

Feeding  kabilt. 

The  carp  is  adapted  well  for  life  in  farm  ponds 
and  mill  dams,  where  there  is  a  muddy  bottom  and 
an  abundance  of  wattTweeda.  It  is  not  well 
adapted  to  clear  streams  or  ei>ring  ponds,  and 
should  not  be  introduced  into  aucK  places  ;  to  such 


394 


FISH 


FROGS 


waters,  our  native  gnme  fiahe^  of  Unor  flavor  are 
better  Buited  and  »re  far  nrnn.-  desirable.  Th« 
young  of  these,  when  ready  fur  planting,  may  be 
obtained  from  the  atatu  thh  hutchbrii'H. 

The  carp  is  omnivoraus  in  it^  fvedin^  habits. 
It  eats  the  roots  and  soft  »tenut  of  H<juatic  phnt^. 
putling  and  tuj^giiig  nt  them  and  tearing  off  sKredn 
that  may  be  swallowed,  and  often  uprootinc  small 
plants  and  loaving  them  floatinff.  In  thb  way 
more  or  les?  dafna(;o  is  done  in  ext<?rminatinf; 
eelgrai!^  [Valilincria)  and  other  aquatics.  It  eats 
th«  soft  parts  of  dead  idanta  also  and  swallows 
considerabio  fiuiintities  of  mud.  rich  in  organic 
remains.  It  "roois"aro'unj  in  the  pond  bottom  to 
disiod}^  bottom  cruiitaceaiis  and  insect  lar^'ie. 
In  conseqnence  of  ih^m  habits,  it  should  not  be 
allowed  to  become  o?er-abandant  in  waters  in 
which  the  native  life  is  to  be  preserved.  The  forag- 
ing; habits  of  the  carp  on  the  pond-bottom  may  be 
likened  to  those  of  hop",  "rooting^  in  a  pasture, 
and  over-pasturing  produceii  like  destructive  results 
with  both. 

Fotnl  valiu. 

The  ileah  of  the  carp,  when  properly  prepared. 
from  fishes  that  havo  had  reasonably  clean  foraye, 
IB  excellent,  althongh  probably  never  so  delicious 
as  that  of  the  best  of  our  native  f^ame  fishes. 
Carp  will  thri»'e  where  these  will  not  live  at  all. 
and  for  the  vaat  areas  of  our  country  that  are 
remote  from  the  seaboard  anil  the  mountains,  will 
furnish,  perhaps,  the  beat  supply  of  table-fiah  avail- 
able. To  prepare  carp  in  thu  be*!t  manner  for  thf 
table,  it  should  be  both  iiikinnecS  and  drawn,  soakfd 
in  salt  water  over  night,  then  boiled,  and  finally 
baked  with  projrer  dreaming. 

St^ickiaif  streujiut  witk  earp. 

Poniht  and  utreams  may  readily  Iw  stocked  by 
inlroilucinj!  a  fuw  adult  fishtw  uf  bcith»esf;»,  which 
have  been  seined  in  the  sprinj,'  before  their  e|iawn- 
ing  season.  The  spawning  time  is  early,  in  May 
and  June.  The  eggs  are  produced  in  vast  numbers, 
oaeh  female  laying  several  hundred  thousand. 
They  are  scattered  over  the  vegetation,  and  on  the 
bottom  in  rthnllttw  water.  They  kiti-h  very  quickly, 
if  they  iMcape  being  eati*n,  and  grow  very  rapidly, 
attaining  maturity  in  almut  thrt*  years.  'VVhiie 
young,  tliey  may  furniBh  an  abundant  fuod-supidy 
locarnivoroui^fishi-s,  a.s  thu  Murk  bass.  The  latter, 
of  entirely  dilTerent  feeding  habits.,  is  a  native  lish 
that  thrives   in  the  sanie  waters    with  the  carp. 

There  is  no  dniiht  that  in  some  of  otir  inland 
waters,  nuch  an  thK  lllinoiH  river,  with  its  h1»w 
current  and  muddy  bottom,  thf<  priHliicti'on  of 
murkutable  fixh  has  buen  greatly  increased  as  a 
result  of  the  introduction  of  the  CJirp,  and  many  a 
lesser  area  of  wat«r  of  similar  character,  now  pro- 
ducing nothing  of  value,  might  be  modo  to  yield 
excellent  food,  if  carp  were  planted  in  it. 

I..  J.  Cole,  The  German  Carp  in  thu  United 
States,  Bureau  of  i^beries,  Waahington,  D.  C. 
(1905). 


PROGS.   Rana  app.    lianidir.    Pigs.  404,  405. 
By  iP.  E.  iltrbaa  and  E.  A.  Aadmim. 

The  Report  uf  the  Fish  Commidsiua  for  1897 
contains  an  eftimste  that  the  nnnual  catch  of  frogs 
in  the  United  Statefl  \n  a  tittle  leas  than  one  million 
frogs,  worth  $^50,000  to  the  hunters  and  $150,000 
to  consumers,  iteference  is  also  made  to  a  "frog- 
farm"  in  Ontario  that  had  been  running  for  twenty 
years,  and  in  I8yG-0  yielded  r>,(>00  pounds  of 
dressed  frog's-lega  for  market  and  7.000  living 
frogs  for  stocking  other  waters  and  for  scientific 
purposes. 

With  reference  to  the  possibilities  of  artificial 
culture  of  frogs  the  report  concludes  aa  follows : 
"While  at  present  it  would  perhaps  be  advisable  to 
limit  practical  attempts  at  frog-cultore  to  stocking 
natural  waters  with  paired  breeders,  experiments 
in  artificial  methodj^  should  not  hv  abandoned.  There 
seems  no  reason  why  methods  similar  to  those  at 
present  puraued  in  fish-culture  may  not  eventually 
be  successful  in  the  case  of  the  frogs." 

The  more  specific  statij^tics  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Fisheries  for  1902,  100:i  and  1904.  show 
an  annual  business  of  .345,759  pounds  of  frogs, 
worth  $26,327,  and  distributed  as  follows:  Mi«- 
sissippi  river,  28£,8U  lbs.,  valued  at  $15,604  ;  Illi- 
nois river,  7,2r)5  lbs.,  valued  at  $2,053 ;  Red  river, 
1,850  lbs,,  valued  at  $279  ;  North  Carolina.  5,990 
lbs.  (11,980  individual  frogsl.  valued  at  $599; 
Virginia,  3,220  lbs.,  valued  at  $690;  Lake  Ontario, 
500  Ibfi..  valued  at  $250. 

While  it  in  douLtlesa  true  that  a  very  great  many 
thousanda  of  dozens  of  frogs  are  annually  sold  to 
hotels  by  a  single  commission  merchant,  many 
thousands  aUo  soM  for  bait  and  perhaps  one  thoiH 
sand  doEcn  to  schools  and  laboratories,  all  thefie 
sales  and  j^tatistics  relate  almost  exclusively  to 
frogs  that  are  hunted  and  caught  in  nature,  and  do 
nrit  indicate  the  existence  of  any  frug-farming 
indiwlry.  .\ttempt«  to  discover  the  namerona 
"frog-farms"  exploited  in  the  newspapers  generally 
show  them  to  bu  noii •existent.  Most  of  the  so- 
called  "frog-farms"  art-  at  best  places  for  holding 
wild  stock  and  are  not  breedlng-placea. 

Prnnnftpania  rT}ierimaitii. 

Until  rec<^ntly  little  or  no  systematic  effort  was 
ma4lB  in  the  United  States  Vn  cultivate  frogs  for 
the  market  in  the  same  manner  as  cerUiin  specius 
of  fishes.  A  few  persons  had  attempted  to  rear 
them  in  a  perfunctory  way,  hut  without  lutein. 
Pennsylvania,  through  its  Department  of  Pl^eriefl, 
was  the  first  to  make  persistent  experimentii  in 
Etcientific  frog-cultare,  and  to  solve  some  of  the  dif- 
ficultii>d  that  lie  in  the  way  of  saccesa.  The  initial 
work  wa»  begun  in  1HS9,  in  one  of  the  State  Pish 
Hatcheries,  but  failures  were  met  with  until  1904, 
when  40.000  young  were  devLdoped  from  wild  egga. 
It  was  not  until  11)06  that  breeding  frogs  were 
carrietl  thnwgh  the  winter  successfully  and  spawn 
taken  from  them  and  hatched.  .As  »  result  of  per- 
sistent ex)>eriments  and  inveiitigatttm^  conducted 
at  all  the  IVinwylvania  hatcheries,  thL-  conclusion 
is  reached  that  the  mortality  among  wild  tadpoles 


FROGS 


PUR-BEARIXa  ANTMAI^ 


393 


■l:->i 


^^ 


mU8i  be  enormous.  It  is  very  heavy  in  the  hatch- 
erieit,  where  the  best  condition!*  for  succeo^ifal 
Karing  prevail. 

EiiihU-  *i)eeit*. 

Thvro  are  thirteen  etlible  Apecien  of  frogs  in 
America,  with  rathttr  more  thim  half  a  dozen  suh- 
species  or  varibtie;^.  In  the  eaaturs  llQited  Stated), 
there  are  at  loaat  thrt-u  8}xsci«M  of  edibles  froffs.  the 

common  Lull* 
frngl/iiiim  oiiejt- 
ftiflwiij. the  preen 
iTu%  [R.  dami- 
6i;mI  and  the 
Bprin;;  or  leojK 
ard  froptft.  n'r- 
tiicem).  The  first 
nutni^  18  the 
I.'irgefit  f rug  anri 
the  I  HHt  the 
smallest,  hut  the 
l*H>|mrd  frogs 
olfur  thf  U'St 
ctiancej*  for  huc- 
cesaftil  cultiva- 
_,  tion  because  of 

Pit.*«.    Bui«.04t(/t«»««/«w««-).    their  grBgarinuB 

chsniRter,  which  the  others  do  not  posseaft.  In  the 
case  »f  nioHt  of  the  smaller  trof^n  the  present 
abundant  BU|iply  of  wii<t  material  makea  atteniEita 
at  rearinK  ibem  unpn^fiLable,  but  in  the  caso  of  tho 
largest  known  fro^,  the  American  bullfrog,  tho 
natural  sngiply  boini,;  ai>|iarently  doomed  to  exhaus- 
tion and  the  market  prices  high,  the  experiment  of 
rearing  for  the  market  in  promiaing, 

PoinU  to  he  oltfemd  in  fros-j'armiaff. 

Experiments  in  the  different  Htate  batcherieo  in 
Pennsylvania  have  demomitrated  that  tadpoles, 
young  frogs  and  mature  frog»  must  be  kept  sepa- 
rate; that  while  tadpoles  will  eat  dead  animal 
food,  frogs  will  eat  only  living  things,  preferably 
inaectfi ;  that  ponds  for  tadpoles  Hhciuld  contain 
gnuMM,  and  th<.)Ke  fur  young  and  old  fruga  mu»t 
he  liberally  provided  with  water-liliea  and  other 
flowurirji  water-plaiita  to  attract  inw-ct  life  ;  that 
all  ponds  must  be  surrounded  by  tight  boards  or 
moaqoito-wire  fenoeft 
to  prevent  frogs 
from  escaping ;  that 
orercrDwding,  even 
in  the  tadpole  stage, 
is  fatal :  that  pondtii 
for  tadpolcti  should 
have  and  th&»e  for 
frogs  must   hare   a 

■oft  mud  bottom  below  the  reach  of  fnwxing,  in 
which  the  creatures  may  hibernate. 

In  the  life-history  of  the  frogs*,  the  early  part, 
tbe  tadpole,  presents  no  dilficuities.  since  they  may 
be  readily  feti  on  cheap  animal  or  vegetable  matter; 
bat  later,  when  they  have  left  the  wat^^r,  the  hop- 
IHiiK  frogs  reiiuiro  live  animal  food.  They  need  to 
be  Icvpt  for  two  or  three  years  before  being  market- 
,Bble,  Ae  yet  no  adequate mbstitnte  for  the  natural 


food,  which  is  largely  insects,  has  been  found,  and 
therefore  'jnly  a  limited  number  of  frogs  can  reach 
maturity  iu  a  large  eocloMure.  The  bullfrog, especi- 
ally, requires  a  larg*'  ranjie  to  obtain  food  enough 
and  to  escape  tho  disease.^  that  come  from  crowd- 
ing, as  well  aa  to  diminish  the  losses  from  frogs 
eating  one  another. 

Frogs  in  the  northern  United  States  spawn  first 
in  April  an<i  &arly  May.  The  egga  hatch  in  a  few 
dayrt,  and  if  the  water  i^  not  too  cold  and  there  are 
rejt  placea,  the  period  of  development  into  a  per- 
fect frog  is,  in  »ome  species,  about  three  months. 
Frogs  mature  in  two  to  three  years.  Eggs  are  also 
Kecnred  in  July  and  Augui^t,  but  the  tadpoles 
hatched  therefrom  do  not  complete  development 
until  the  following  spring. 

Fonda  for  taili>oles  may  be  ,-»bout  sixty  feet  by 
twi>nty  feet,  but  ponds  for  young  and  mature  froga 
Hhould  lie  at  leaxt  half  an  acre  in  extent.  Not  lestt 
than  three  acix-a  is  required  to  assure  the  farmer  a 
satisfactory  income.  Any  swamp  or  other  ground 
iiito  which  watercan  be  introduced  may  be  utilized 
for  frog-farming. 

Liicrature. 

W.  E.  Meehan,  Fn>g-farming,  nnlletin  No.  4, 
DeiMirtmBnt  of  KiBherie*.  HarriKburg,  I'a.i  United 
States  Fish  Coromiasion,  Ruport  1897,  Washington, 

D.  r. 

FUR-BEARIIfG    ANIMALS    OF    NORTH 

AMERICA.    Piss.  4'_x;-414. 

By  E.  T.  D.  Chaudxrt. 

The  fur-bearing  animals  of  North  America  meant 
more  to  its  original  inhaititants  than  do  all  th<> 
flo<;kR  and  herds  of  the  present  day  to  our  agritul- 
tural  community.  They  constituted  their  chief 
source  of  food  and  raiment.  It  was  the  chase  and 
tho  barter  for  their  peltfl  that  drew  the  earliefit 
European  ndventureni  acrtws  the  dcean.  Prom  the 
very  inceptiim  of  ciiloniKitinn  in  the  New  World, 
the  fur  trmte  haa  been  asbociatetl  with  Its  Industrial 
and  cfjmmurcial  deVLdopment.  and  imiirectly  with 
It^  social  life,  its  romance  and  even  itR  early  wars. 

ExUnt  of  the  industri/. 

The  rapacity  of  comparatively  modern  dealers 
in  and  hunters  of  furs  is  responsible  for  the  ail  but 
t<i(-al  extinction  of  the  bulfalnand  the  eea-utter, 
and  frtr  the  vast  diminution  iu  the  numbem  of  the 
Alaska  twal  hurd  :  and  yi--l  despite  th«  steadily 
diminishing  proportion  of  much  of  the  annual  out- 
put of  material  for  furs,  .\mericn'a  fur-trade  is 
more  important  now  than  it  was  in  the  palmy  days 
of  the  oW-time  hunters  and  tmppem. 

[n  many  parts  of  Canada,  as  welt  ns  in  the 
United  States,  there  has  beun  an  enormous  decreaae 
in  the  supply  of  beaver.  The-  sea-otter,  which 
formerly  furniahe*!  KXl.tKM)  skins  nnnunlly,  now 
yields  less  than  -IW,  and  the  average  number  of 
Alaska  sealskins  market*-":!  has  decrpjuwMl  from 
100,000  to  10.i]<X>  per  annum.  Other  fwr-bearing 
animals  have  taken  tiie  place  of  these  to  such  an 
extent,  that  according  to  statistics  fumiabed  by 


396 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 


United  States  Vice-Conmil  Burrell,  Ptaticmed  at 
Ha|^«bur;;,  ition*  imiiiey  is  now  parned  on  skunk, 
mnskrat  and  ftix  Kkins,  than  ever  iK-fore  on  beavern, 
Bea-ott«m.  senlx  ami  tiLh<.'r  rare  furx. 

On  the  American  aidt*  of  the  line,  th<j  volume  of 
the  fur  trade  in  the  larfjiat  ever  known  in  the 
UniU-ri  Status — ^rt-ater  than  in  the  days  whiMi  the 
buffalo  and  the  beaver  had  the  whiile  c»ntinent  as 
a  utamping  EToiind.  Its  annual  value  runs  into  the 
million!^  of  (lotlarM.  Half  a  million  upctsHiim  a\tinn 
are  annually  5hip[M>d  frun  America  to  Kurope.  and 
a  flill  tar^r  number  oT  raciNxm  are  aent  !i.cru!« 
the  Atlantic  frtim  the  northwestern  states  alone. 
Michigan,  Wiscon»«in  and  (ihio,  and  the  ^roup  of 
central-north  western  states  furnish  60().000  skunk 
akin?  annually  to  commerce,  while  50.(XX>  Ataakan 
fox  skins  of  all  sort-*  find  their  way  every  year  to 
the  great  trade  sales  of  furs  at  London,  Leipzig,  and 
Nijin-Novgorod.  The  number  of  American  foxea 
taken  by  trappers  may  be  judged  from  the  fact 
that  Maine  alone  furnij:hesTU.CKjnayt;&r.  Hundreds 
of  thousands  of  rabbits  are  trapped  ytarly  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  millions  of  muskrats  are  contributed 
from  the  swampa  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware,  to 
the  value  of  half  a  million  to  a  million  of  dullars 
annually,  in  addition  to  those  produced  by  the 
fltatea  lying  immediately  to  the  south  of  the  great 
lakea.  Of  the  half  miilion  or  ho  of  mink  skins 
exported  every  year  from  North  America,  the  United 
States  contributes  a  fair  share,  although  the  larger 
number  go  from  (Canada. 

Many  Canadian  furs  pass  into  the  hands  of 
American  traders,  throuj,'h  St.  Paul.  St.  Louis, 
Chicago  or  San  Francisco,  to  either  a  home  or  a 
foreign  market  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  home  market  is  responisible  for  the  consump- 
tion of  an  enormous  amount  of  native  fur,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  importati'ins  of  Peritian  Inmo,  Rusfiinn 
sable,  aatrachan.  moiikcv  and  otlwrs.  The  consumiJ- 
tioa  of  racL-oon  for  men's  coats. especially  iiiCanaila 
and  the  northern  slate?,  of  mink  and  muakrat  for 
linings,  of  mink,  marten  and  otter  for  trimmings, 
in  both  coiictries,  and  of  skunk  manufactured  into 
Alaska  liable,  for  mufT^,  tipiieiM,  lK>as  and  the  like, 
it!  very  great,  and  would  largely  increase  the  total 
of  the  annual  product,  if  added  to  the  figure  of 
North  .America's  actual  oxjiort  of  furs.  It  is 
because  of  the  impossibility  of  esitimating  the  homo 
consumption  that  figures  are  n(»C  available  to  «how 
the  aggregate  annual  value  of  the  North  American 
fur  catch.  Misa  Agnes  T>ftut  stiiten  that  an  estimate 
of  $r.(>i'm,0*>0  placed  on  the  annual  value  of  furs 
north  of  the  forty-ninth  ]>ar;ill«l  would  not  besiilli- 
cient  to  include  what  has  lieen  used  for  the  home 
market.  In  Canada,  as  in  the  United  States,  the 
demand  for  furs  fur  local  consumption  is  steadily 
growing.  The  rapid  increase  in  average  wealth 
places  a  set  of  furs  in  the  cjitegory  of  reasonable 
luxuries  of  many,  whose  parentit,  living  in  an  era 
whttn  raw  furs  were  more  plentiful,  w<iro  mainly 
humespun.  Hut  thejw  must  not  all  be  plarwl  to  the 
creilit  of  local  supply,  for  while,  aw  in  thecaHe  of  the 
Fniteil  States,  many  native  furs  aru  manufactured 
in  Canada  for  doniestieuse.  and  while  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  beat  furaworn  in  the  country  are 


reimported  from  Europe  as  finished  articles,  after] 
having  been  exported  a«  raw  material,  many  finn8< 
annually  Bend  buyers  to  the  Ruwian  and  Asiatic 
market*  to  purchase  raw  furs,  which  are  not  pro- 
curable on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  but  which  are 
made  up  here. 

As  much,  perhaps,  to  the  growing  fashion  of 
wearing  furs  as  to  the  decreased  supply  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  is  due  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
v.'iliie.'*  of  domestic  fura  in  the  last  few  years. 
Canadian  otter,  which  aold  a  quarter  of  a  centnrj , 
ago  for  $2  to  $8  [>er  skin,  and  five  years  ago 
brought  $15to  $18.  isnow  (I'JC'S)  worth  $30 to  $50. 
Mink  skins  sold  freely  in  18H2  at  25  to  75  cents 
each,  and  the  primest  could  be  bought  for  a  dollar. 
At  present,  the  wholesale  manufacturing  establish- 
ment'* will  pay  $10  for  a  prime  skin.  Marten  that 
sold  for  $1  to  W  per  skin  25  years  ago.  and  at  S-'i 
to  $'!!  half  a  decade  ago,  is  now  worth  $10  to  $^15. 
Miiftkrat  skins  only  a  few  years  ago  could  l>e  had 
in  Urge  (|uantitiea  for  3  to  8  cents  each,  and  are 
now  Worth  10  to  50. 

Pruteetion  tjf  fur-bearing  animals. 

With  a  constantly  increaaing  home  demand  for 
furs,  it  iw  satisfactory  to  note  from  the  report*  of 
traders  that  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  last 
great  fur  preserve  in  the  world,  as*  the  northern 
part  of  North  .\merica  has  bev-n  called,  are  by  no 
means  becoming  extinct.  These  hunting-grounds 
are  far  the  most  part  in  the  hands  of  Indian  and 
half-breed  hunters,  who  would  no  more  think  of 
destroying  the  last  Iw-avur,  fox,  mink  or  marten  on 
their  respective  terrilorius,  than  would  a  farmer  of 
killing  of  the  last  of  his  breeding  stock.  They  only 
thin  out  the  animals  which  they  hunt,  in  such  num- 
bers  :u<  to  ensure  the  permanency  of  the  .-supply.  In 
Labrador,  in  the  Mackenzie  river  basin,  and  in 
other  northern  parts  of  the  continent,  the  territory 
hunted  by  eai-h  Indian  family  is  as  much  it«  own 
for  hunting  purpose  as  is  a  farmer's  Held  for  culti- 
vation, fvomo  hunters  have  several  hundred  squaro 
miles  of  territory  in  their  respective  game-pre- 
serves, liearsand  carilmu  and  nuch  roaming  animal* 
are  killer!  wherever  seen,  if  wanted,  hut  beavers  and 
similar  game  and  fur-1it<aring  animals  that  inhabit 
restric'liil  areas  are  the  properly  of  the  hunter 
within  whiwe  territory  they  reside  and  breed.  For 
any  but  their  owner  to  kill  them,  except  in  case  of 
absolute  want  of  food,  would  be  as  unjuslitiablo  BS'^ 
the  shooting  down  of  a  neighbor's  ox. 

Further  protection  is  affonled  the  most  valuable 
furs  by  the  trade  it<ielf  and  by  the  dictates  of 
fashion.  The  trade  doeH  not  care  to  purchase  at  all 
the  furs  of  animals  killed  out  of  season,  so  that  the 
hunting-season  that  pays  doc^s  not  often  extend  more 
than  four  or  five  months  of  the  year.  Fashion  is 
particularly  ficMe  in  regard  to  furs,  so  that  the 
sea-ions  in  which  there  is  but  small  demand  for 
a  certjiin  rliuw  of  skins  afford  opportunity  for  a 
Kitinfartory  inen>a»e  in  the  number  of  the  animals 
proilueing  them,  sinee  the  hunters  are  aware  that 
better  paying  price*  are  to  be  bad  for  other  fnrs. 

Where  they  are  found  in  largest  numl«ers  and 
the  greatest  necessity  for  protection  of  far-bearing 


PUR-BEAI 


FUR-BEARING  AN 


397 


r 


animnls  exists,  thoy  are  usually  afforded  it  by  Ior- 
iftlation.  Nearly  all  the  prnvinces  of  the  Domininn 
of  Canadf),  a«  wt-ll  a^  Newrminiilaiiil,  hjiVL-  enarted 
laws  fi»r  such  imitec'tiini.  In  the  Triilwi  StHtt'S,  tliw 
majority  of  l\n!  slatt'«  in  which  snuirrels  are  fcjurd 
afford  tht-'tn  soihl-  prutfttion  at  k-ast.  Thu  rabbit  id 
loDtecttMJ,  or  partially  prott'cted,  under  the  lawa  of 
Delaware,  l)i.«trict  of  L'oliimbia,  Indiana,  Maine, 
Maryland,  MasHachasetts,  New  HamjwhirL',  Newf 
Jersey,  New  Vtirh,  Ohiii,  Rho<ie  Island,  and  Ver- 
mont. The  otter  ha-s  been  legislated  for  in  lown, 
Minnettola,  MiitHouri,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire, 
North  Dakota  and  Wiuconnin.  l*'or  the  Iieavcr,  pro- 
tective [t>ei»Ialion  haabtjL^n  enacted  in  Idaho,  Iowa, 
Maint-,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Nevada,  New  Hamp- 
shire, New  Mexico.  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Pennsylvania  and  Vermont.  There  are  closed  sea- 
sons for  bear*  in  Al;iska,  New  York  and  EV-nriHyl- 
vania,  and  the  Ilttlu  mink  i.<t  nimilaHy  prott^cted  in 
Iowa,  Maine.  Minneijutu  and  New  York. 

Fur-hunting. 

The  story  of  the  fur-hunt*r  and  trapper  contains 
many  of  the  mo*t  thrillinR  payes  to  be  found  in  the 
realms  of  human  dniring  and  adventure.  Many  lives 
are  Harn(i<vd  in  thp  annual  hiinta  for  skins  of  the 
Sea-otter  and  Altiaku  seJiJ  in  the  no-rthern  Pacific, 
and  for  the  Greenlnnd  or  hair-fleal  amid  the  ice-floes 
of  Newfoundland  waters  and  in  the  i^lf  of  St. 
Lawrence  The  dreary  waste*  of  Labrador  and  of 
other  far  northern  rotriona  of  the  continent  of 
North  America  hold  the  bones  of  hundreds  of  Indian 
hunters  who  have  perishe<3  of  starvation  and  diii- 
ease  on  their  annual  fur-hunts,  through  the  unex* 
pected  failure  of  the  fiame  on  which  they  have 
depended  for  a  part,  at  least,  of  their  food  supply. 
As  late  w*  the  winter  of  lSH^-7,  a  number  of  Mon- 
tagnais  hunters  and  their  families  perished  of 
hunj^er  while  on  their  way  from  the  vicinity  of 
Lake  Mistasi^ini  tothu  Hudson  LUy  station  at  l\ake 
St  John. 

Let  ns  follow  a  farty  of  these  Indian  trappera  ns 
they  start  nut  from  the  UudBon  Bay  post  at  Lake 
St.  John.  Itersimis,  or  some  of  the  other  posts  on  the 
coast  of  Labrador.  The  journey  is  made  by  canoe 
and  portage,  and  the  provisions  and  firearms,  and 
aometimeK  the  traps,  too,  as  well  as  tents  and  other 
•qnipments.  must  all  he  conveyed  to  their  respwt^ 
^^_  ive  hunting- grounds  before  the  winter  sets  in  and 

^^P  makes  the  journey  by  water  impossible.  8ametimea 
^^"  the  journey  is  over  one  or  two  hundred  miles  In 

r  length,  and'  may  occupy  several  weeks,  because  of 

^^_  the  many  portages  and  the  (quantity  f<f  nroviitions. 
^^m  ammanition.  and  the  like,  that  must  oe  carried 
^^^  orer  them.  There  is  the  family  tent,  too,  which 
r  serrM  m  dwelling  on   the  way,  and  sometimes 

^^_  thronebout  the  entire  wiat4>r,  although  some  of 
^^M  the  more  provident  hunters  erect  log  huts  on  their 
^^B  preserves.  Tht-  provisions  carried  are  rarely  .lulfi- 
^^M  cient  for  the  entire  winter.  For  fresh  meat  the 
^^m  trappier  counts  on  caribou,  deer,  hares,  rabbits  and 
^^B  tuirtridfces,  and  perhaps  on  an  occasional  bear.  But 
^^M  nuntinc  is  always  a  more  or  less  precarious  pur- 
^^B  suit,  and  when  there  is  an  entire  failure  of  game. 
^^^^^»  not  infrequently  occurs^  privation  and  hunger 


r 


result,  sometimes  accompanied  by  deaths  from 
actual  starvation.  Im»tani.'i.'»areon  rec-ord  in  which 
starving  bnnds  of  Indian  hunters  in  the  far  North 
have  l«'fn  able  to  maintain  life  only  by  tile  awful 
expeiiient  of  feeding  on  the  flesh  of  the  first  vic- 
tims of  their  sad  pHKbt. 

Arrived  at  their  winter  headquarters,  the  hun- 
ters set  out  their  line  of  traps. — deadfalls  or  steel 
traps,  or  both,  as  the  case  may  be. — and  thereafter 
spend  the  short  winter  days  in  vi.siting  the  long 
line,  sometimes  mriny  milea  in  lenifth.  relmiting 
them  when  necessary  and  securing  the  catch  that 
any  of  them  may  biippcn  to  cimtain.  The  hear  and 
the  beaver  make  luxurious  pristes).  for.  in  addition 
to  the  value  of  their  skins,  the  carcasses  mean  a 
bountiful  snpply  of  delicious  food.  l>en  the  mnsk* 
rat  is  not  despised  as  an  article  of  diet. 

Sometimes  a  succejwful  hunler  makes  enough 
money  out  of  a  season's  trapping  to  pay  off  nil  his 
debts  to  the  company  and  have  a  good  balance  to 
his  credit.  It  more  often  happens,  however,  that 
the  Indian  is  always  indebted  to  the  company  or 
trader  who  outfits  him.  and  to  whom  he  must  bring 
hi.s  catch  of  furs  in  payment  of  a  part  of  the  goods 
which  he  purcba-sed  during  the  last  summer  he  was 
out  at  the  coast,  and  of  the  chtthing,  ammunition 
and  provisions  which  he  took  with  him  into  the 
woods  on  the  approach  of  the  hunting-season.  .\t 
times,  too,  the  hunt  completely  failp.  or  a  carrajou 
(wolverine),  well  called  the  Indian  devil,  falb  on 
the  hunter's  line  of  traps,  after  which  he  may  juwt 
as  well  give  up  the  hunt  altogether,  unless  he  has 
the  exceptional  good  luck  of  entrapping  the  can- 
ning be:i.<«t.  which,  with  almost  devilish  ingenuity, 
has  the  knack  of  springing  the  traps  and  safely 
extracting  the  baits,  or  will  immediately  devour 
any  other  animal  that  he  may  find  entrapped.  When 
the  hunting-grounds  are  only  a  few  days'  journey 
from  the  coast  or  a  settlement,  the  hunter  will 
often  corae  out  of  the  woods  for  the  midwinter 
holiday,  and  take  in  more  fresh  provisions  with  him 
on  his  return.  In  the  majority  of  cases  this  is 
impof.''ible.  however.  In  the  woods  he  has  enough 
to  do  to  keep  him  busy.  There  is  game  to  be  hunted 
for  food  and  wood  to  be  cut  for  fires.  There  are  the 
traps  to  attend  and  to  keep  set.  and  when  the  hunt 
is  good  there  is  the  preservation  of  the  skins  to  be 
attended  to.  When  these  have  been  stripped  from 
the  bodies  of  their  first  wearers,  they  are  stretched 
on  hoops  or  other  frames  to  dry,  it  being  very 
necojwary  that  they  should  be  preserved  from  dt^ 
cay.  Very  valuable  are  some  of  the  otter,  m-trten 
and  mink  furs  secured  in  thtise  northern  wilds,  and 
sometimes  a  cross  or  even  a  black  or  silver  fox  may 
be  taken,  the  skin  of  which  may  easily  exceed  in 
value  that  of  the  hunter's  combined  catch  of  other 
furs. 

Hunting  tta-ottfr  and  neat. 

Sfa-etler.  —The  Ht<iry  of  the  sea-otter  (EHhijtJm 
or  Latax  marina)  reads  like  a  romance.  In  the 
days  when  this  furred  sea-flog  of  the  I'acillc  ocejin 
was  plentiful,  it  could  be  shot  by  still-hunting  in 
calm  weather  as  it  came  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  breathe.   Now  it  must  be  bunted  in  the  teeth  of 


398 


FUR-BEARING  AN'IMAl^ 


tUR-BEARIKG  ANIMALS 


thi!  wildust  Alaakftn  a^lv.  "Tho  native  Alfutian," 
wriU-it  Mi&a  l^aut,  "riiJi?s  uut  in  hie  Bkin'^kilT,  with 
oiled-skin  wrapping  hi»  bnly  ti^ht  round  thv  little 
manhole  where  he  sits  in  the  Hkin  cnvering,  so  that 
the  hold  can  taku  no  wuter.  I>i)i]bl»-h]:ul(<<l  peddle 
plying  fnini  aide  t»  b'u\>>,  tlw  hunlur  moiiiitfi  the 
Seething  wnvL-x  and  ridutt  in  on  the  Iiack  tif  thu 
storm  tti  thu  rL-ufiimit  L-oastB  of  thu  Aluutians.  Huru 
the  sea-otters  huve  ht-en  drivt-n  hy  the  storm,  and 
hide  with  their  heads  buried  in  the  tost^in^,  wave- 
wafihed  Beaweed.  Heaching  hia  Imat,  the  hunter 
runs  from  rock  tn  rock,  slippery  as  glass,  beaten 
by  the  wiml,  afumptimeii  caught  by  the  waves  and 
hurled  to  death.  A  single  bluw  of  hm  galT-|Mi'l<?,  and 
he  has  killed  the  sea-otter  that  aupplii-s  a  fur  more 
valued  today  than  any  other  in  the  world." 

The  iM^ia-wtter  is  in  shape  very  much  liko  a  large 
dog.  Its  tood  consifits  of  lish,  and  it  is  particularly 
partial  to  InlwterH  and  nther  croataceanB.  Its  fur 
wail  first  intrtHbutetl  into  cnmmBnM!  in  172ri  from 
the  Aleati.'in  and  luirile  tMlamlii,  and  in  exceedingly 
fine.  w>ft  and  eloai',  jet-black  in  winU-r,  with  a 
silken  glojw.  The  fur  of  the  young  animal  ia  of  a 
beautiful  brown  color.  It  was  formerly  mot  with 
in  great  abundance  in  (teritig'a  inland,  Kamchatka, 
Aleutian  and  Fox  inlnnds,  jw  well  aa  along  the 
Pacific  coast  of  North  America.  In  1780,  funi  had 
become  !>a  M^aree  in  Sil^eria  tbiLt  the  supply  whm 
insafticipnt  for  the  Amiatic  demand.  It  watt  ut  this 
time  that  the  aea-otter  was  introducL'd  into  tho 
markets  for  China.  The  skins  brought  such  almost 
incredible  prices  as  t«  originate  several  American 
and  Ilritinh  expeditions  to  the  northern  islands  of 
the  I'acitlc.  to  Nootka  Sound  and  to  the  north- 
weatem  coa-st  cif  .America;  and  from  that  time  has 
been  the  rapid  decrease  in  thu  supply.  Otf  parts  of 
the  coa.'itfl  of  Alaska,  and  especially  at  Belkovsky 
bay  and  vicinity,  and  at  St.  Paul,  Kadiac  island, 
6ea-otter-hnnling  .still  furnishes  employment  to 
many  native  hunters.  Here  the  animals  are  taken 
bv  means  of  hows  and  arrows,  rifles  and  gill-nets. 
The  nets  are  fcmrtef'n  to  twenty  fathoms  long,  and 
twelre  fathoms  deep,  with  a  ten-inch  mesh.  They 
are  made  by  the  Indian  women,  and  are  declared 
to  be  very  destructive.  At  St.  Paul,  besides  Iho 
Indians,  there  are  some  twelve  or  fifteen  white  men 
of  varioust  nationalities  who  engage  in  sea-otter- 
hanling  throughout  the  year.  The  white  hunters 
have  small  schooners  of  about  twenty-fire  tons 
burden,  in  which  they  make  long  voyages.  Some  of 
these  hnntera  are  very  skillful,  and  several  thou- 
sand dollars  hare  been  eurne<I  by  a  single  indi- 
vidual in  a  season.  Captain  Anderson,  one  of  the 
moflt  BucceMfu!  hunttTs  of  !?t.  Tuul.  and.  in  fact,  of 
Alaska,  landed  fifty  aea-otter  sking  n»  the  result  of 
one  trip  a  few  seasons  ago,  receiving  for  them  one 
hundred  dollars  each,  which  is  very  far  below  their 
present  vslno. 

SmI.-  So  set  of  far-hunters  enjoy  more  thrilling 
adventures  or  run  such  deadly  perils  as  the  walera 
of  Newfoundland  and  the  gulf  of  St.  l^iwrence. 
Many  are  the  sealing  schooners  and  still  more 
nomeroua  the  men  who  have  gone  out  to  the  seal 
hunt  in  the  spring  of  the  year  and  nt-ver  returned- 
The  risks  that  they  run  are  illtMtraletl  by  the  lom 


of  the  snaling  steamc*r  Greenland,  in  the  ice,  in  the 
niciith  uf  March.  1907.  The  disableii  vessel  bad 
eighty -niuL-  men  on  board,  who  abandoned  the  ship 
after  she  bad  been  crushed  in  the  heavy  pack  ice, 
against  which  she  had  been  driven  by  a  blizzard, 
and  were  fc»rtunately  rewned  by  other  sealers. 
Only  men  of  iron  can  succ^ost! fully  face  and  endure 
such  dangers.  They  are  so  accustumed  to  the  Bea 
and  the  iae-Hoes  that  they  seem  to  have  an  absolute 
contempt  for  their  terrors.  They  leap  fearlessly 
from  pan  to  jian,  and  think  little  of  passing  the 
night  on  the  ice  far  from  the  steamer,  going  off  as 
far  as  four  or  live  miles  in  their  eagerness  to  slay. 
£>hould  a  ftkg  or  anow-storm  set  in,  there  is  great 
ri.4k  of  losing  their  way  and  jierishing  misenibly  Id 
the.'te  i(."u-(ieserts,  or  of  falling  through  the  open- 
ingn  that  are  covered  with  the  snow  ad  it  falls  and 
freezes.  .Sometimes  the  field-ice  on  which  they 
are  at  work  SL-parat*'s  into  fragmi-nta  without  a 
moment's  warning,  and  they  are  floated  off,  to  per- 
ish by  cold  and  hunger,  unless  rescued  hy  a  passing 
vesw-l. 

Healers'  luck  is  jtut  ob  uncertain  as  that  of  the 
average  fiaherman.  One  or  more  crews  may  be 
exposed  to  the  perils  of  the  ice  for  weeks  without 
securing  a  singlo  seal,  while,  under  favorable 
conditions,  five  or  six  hundred  carcasses  may  be 
secured  in  a  couple  of  hours,  by  a  crew  of  eight  or 
nine  men.  Thi.4  is  when  the  .schooners  are  fortunate 
enough  to  approatih,  unobserve*!,  a  large  field  of 
ice  containing  a  herd  of  unsuspi'cting  seals.  The 
herds  often  include  several  thouaands  of  seaK  The 
ice  is  always  approached  from  the  side  which  is 
nearest  to  open  water,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  animals' 
only  chance  of  ei*cape.  Then,  at  a  given  signal,  the 
hunters  leap  on  the  ice  and  approach  as  closely  to 
the  »eaU  as  pos.4ihlH,  without  creating  any  alarm, 
sometimeii  even  crawling  a  considenible  distance 
on  their  hnnds  and  knees.  As  soon  a.'*  they  are 
ohst-rved,  and  can  reach  the  nearest  of  the  herd, 
the  alaughter  begins.  Bach  man  is  armed  with  a 
stout  stick,  six  to  ten  feet  long,  which  not  only 
as.«i»tt->i  him  to  leap,  when  necessary,  from  floe  to 
floe  of  the  floating  ice.  but  with  which  he  effecta 
the  ftlaughler  of  the  defencelesn  animals.  One  blow 
over  the  no«e  suffices  to  kill,  or  at  least  to  stun  a 
seal,  and  as  many  as  possible  are  dii^posed  of,  in 
order  to  prevent  their  escape  ;  the  final  slaughter 
of  the  stunned  ones  Wginning  only  when  all  the 
animals  within  rearh  have  either  escaped  or  been 
knocked  on  the  head.  The  thin  ekall  of  the  young 
seal  is  easily  fractured  by  the  blow  from  the  slick, 
which  may  only  stun  the  full-prown  animal,  and,  in 
the  majority  of  cast.",  the  little  one  feels  no  more 
pain,  death  being  instantaneous.  In  a  moment  the 
knife  is  at  work.  The  skin  and  the  adhering  fat 
are  rapidly  detached  from  the  carcass,  which  is 
left  on  the  ice,  except  when  the  animal  ia  killed 
close  to  the  shore. 

The  catch  of  seal?  varies  con»iderably  with  the 
sea.<ton.  ^Sometimes  it  exceeds  half  a  million  «eals. 
At  others  it  i^  only  a  quarter  aa  good.  Sometines 
a  steamer  returns  home  at  the  end  of  the  season 
perfectly  "clean."  The  Neptune,  on  the  other 
hand,  after  an  absence  uf  only  eighteen  days,  came 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 


399 


into  port  in  the  spring  of  1894,  loadod  down  to  the 
water's  edge,  with  42,(XlO  seals,  valoed  at  $105,- 
000. 

Thetie  loTipn-marinf,  or  Hea-walveit,  »r  the  gulT  of 
St.  Lawrence,  a*  the  Krenrh-Oanadians  call  them, 
must  m>t  be  confoumied  with  th«  fur  &eala  uf  Ala^^ka 
{CalUtrhiaux  Alaseanut,  Fig.  40G),  whoso  nwft  coat 


\ 


FlC.  *06.    Tba  Jlbukji  fui  Mill  (CotJurAiniti  .ttqManeH>. 

if)  oDL>  of  thi;  cherishL^tl  pusatessiont!  of  the  city  iiellu. 
They  are  commonly  known  aa  the  iNewfouctlland  or 
hair  sealrt  {Phtim  Grirnl'iatfica).  Until  the  last  few 
yean  their  nkinR  were  use<l  chiefly  for  the  mann- 
facturaof  acoariuvjjrainnd  hut  expensivH  leather; 
bat  ia  the  last  few  winters,  the  fur  ha.^  been  eicten- 
slvely  dresswi  in  both  NewfouncJIand  and  ranada, 
and  coats  and  other  articles  of  woarinjiai»|iareI  have 
mode  their  appearance  on  the  sti'eeLs  of  Muntrenl 
and  Quebec,  made  from  this  dark,  rouph.  dapph?d- 
(Cray,  nr  fiepper-anil-salt  cnlorefl  fur.  A«  it  is  far 
from  unnij^htly,  and  t»  iininjared  by  rain,  it  in 
altoRt^ther  likely,  in  view  of  ihe  miw  almust  pri>- 
hibitive  price  of  the  Alaska  wial,  that  the  Atlantic 
seal  may  rapidty  pa-ss  into  popularity  and  fashion. 

The  story  of  the  fnarfully  diminished  seal-herd 
of  BeringV  fM'a  is  matter  of  American  history.  In 
Ift7-1,  it  numberei!  rlose  nn  five  millions.  In  less 
than  a  (juarter  of  a  century  it  had  iH-en  reiiiice*)  to 
a  Hin^U'  million.  In  les;.^  than  another  deea^le,  only 
I7r>,0iX)  seals  of  the  herd  remained.  Ten  to  twelvo 
thousand  skins  a  year  are  all  that  c^an  be  depended 
on  from  this  source  until  protection  may  have  con- 
tributeil  to  an  inrniawo  in  the  size  of  the  herd.  On 
th<»  I'riliiliif  iMliindft,  the  Ala.tka  seals  are  ttlau^ht- 
ered  by  hunti-rs  with  stick-s,  munh  iia  the  Imir-fleol 
is  on  Lhu  ice-flues  of  the  t;ulf  of  St.  Lawreneu. 

The  lif*»-history  of  the  aeal.  whether  of  the  Pacific 
or  the  .Atlantic  ocean,  is  more  familiar  to  the  nver- 
a^e  reader  than  is  that  of  the  sea-otter,  or  of  most  of 
the  fur-U^annt;  animals  i>f  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  fur  or  .Vl.iKka  seal,  formally  known 
more  Kenerally  aa  the  South  Sea  seal,  i«  the  most 
perfectly  orsanized  of  all  th«  amphiliians.  It  ia 
obliged  by  its  nature  to  secure  itA  livitijr  in  the 
water,  and  to  reproduce  its  species  on  the  land  ;  it 
Ihttrefore  "hauls  up,"  as  it  is  technically  called,  at 
a  stated  ii»*riod  every  year  nn  thebreedinK-^ounds 
where  it  is  Hlaughterwl  for  its  fur.  It«  for^-feet  or 
flippeni  are  MOaedini^ly  broad  and  powerful,  and 
when  it  comefi  out  of  the  water  it  steps  forwani 

Ith  considerable  rapidity  and  much  j^race.  It  ia 
animal  of  ^reat  inteltiKencc,  speedily  anticipat- 
inji  danger,  and  at  the  name  lime  retwiily  under- 
atandicg  when  the^e  is  a  dis|KMtition  »a  the  part  of 


man  not  to  diatarb  it.  The  full-grown  males  or 
l>n!ls  are  the  earliftst  arrivals  at  the  islands, 
apfiroaohing  ihem  durinff  the  last  days  of  .April, 
and  sleeping  almo»t  without  interruption  until 
toward  tile  end  of  May,  when  they  bej,'ir  to  hHik 
out  for  the  coming  of  their  families.  The  cows,  or 
females,  usually  recognise  their  former  matex 
and  hind  at  their  respective  rookeries.  Owing  to 
the  great  ditference  between  the  male  and  female 
in  regard  to  the  age  of  [luberty,  which  !•(  six  years 
for  thr>  male,  and  two  for  the  female,  this  s|)(>cies 
is  mnri-jwarily  polygamous,  and  an  average  family 
numbers  ten  to  fifteen  cows  to  one  bull.  The  female 
gives  birth  to  her  pup  almost  immediately  on  land- 
ing. By  the  beginning  of  August,  the  breeding  is 
nearly  over,  and  the  season  of  coition  aa  well. 
Many  young  muUw  attempt  to  land,  tut  all  helow 
the  age  of  six  art?  quickly  driven  otf  by  the  old 
hulls,  and  sometimes  even  killed.  The  seal»  that 
an*  sliiughtered  for  furs  aru  carefully  Beparated 
from  the  n!st  by  men  who  walk  between  them 
before  the  killing  begins.  The  females  are  spared, 
and  so  are  the  ytiarting  hulls.  The  best  skins  are 
securefi  from  two,  three  nnd  fou r-yeiirnild  bache- 
lors, and  from  thom*  that  arrivo  first  on  the  islands. 

Fur-bcariny  animah  oftkc  interior. 

The  more  important  of  the  fur-ltearing  animals 
of  the  interior  of  the  continent  are  the  beaver,  the 
otter,  the  marten,  the  fox  of  different  varieties, 
the  hear,  the  lynx,  the  mink,  the  ermine,  the  musk- 
rat,  the  sktink  and  the  racctwm. 

The.  kaixr  yCiutti/r  jiber,  Linn.,  Fig.  407),  which 
watt  formerly  so  abundant  that  its  skin  was  the 
unit  of  currency  for  the  Hudson  Kay  Company  in 
its  dealings  with  the  Indian  and  half-breed  trap- 
jn'^rs,  has  bo  rapidly  disapjieareil  that  the  yield  is 
only  half  of  what  it  was  a  few  years  ago.  In  the 
sha|ie  of  iUt  boily  it  lieara  a  close  rewemhlance  to  a 
large  rat,  although  it  is  inueli  larger,  with  the  head 
prujiortionati'ly  thicker  and  brooder.  It  is  thick 
and  clumsy,  gradually  enlarging  from  the  he,id  to 
tho  hips,  and  then  is  somewhat  abruptly  rounded 
off  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Thi«  Utter  is  very  bro&d 


\IH 


Jt- 


Fig.  407.    CaiudiaB  beant  iCiuior  tiUt). 

and  flat,  t«ngae-«thiipe<il  and  coventd  with  angular 
ficaleK.  The  fur  is  of  two  kinds.  The  upper  and 
longer  hair  Is  cuunne.  smuoth  and  glossy;  the  under 
coat  is  dens*!,  soft  nnd  silky.  Its  geographical 
range  appears  nt  one  time  to  have  been  co-eitten- 
sire  with  the  whole  of  North  America,  although 


400 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMALS 


FOR-BEARTNG  ANIMALS 


the  progreag  of  civilization  seems  to  have  extermi- 
nated thu  animal  in  nearly  all  of  that  part  of  the 
ccmtintnt  which  constitutes  the  United  .Stales  and 
the  settk'fi  jiarts  of  Canadu.  The  remarkable  ^iama 
constructed  by  the  patient  and  industrioue  little 
animals  show  won<ierftit  enBineering  skill.  Cart- 
wright  foiim!  a  heiivcr  that  weighed  forty -five 
pounds,  and  it  is  <tni<l  that  they  have  been  taken  up 
to  sixty  pounds  weight.  The  tail  and  other  partj?  iif 
the  body  are  much  priaed  by  tho  Indians  as  articles 
of  food.   The  animal  is  t-a.-'ily  trapped. 

The  mmhrat  OVkr  zibcihieug.  Fig.  408)  inhabits 
8iimo8t  everj'  part  of  the  Unitwl  States  north  of  the 
30th  degree,  and  all  British  America  to  the  arctic 
seas.  It  was  fuUy  described  from  personal  obser- 
vation, as  early  in  1725.  by  Monsieur  !^arra8in,  a 
correspondent  of  the  French  .Academy,  and  then 
King'fi  Phj-sician  atQuebec.  Its  habits  are  aquatic, 
and  it  spends  the  greater  part  of  its  time  in  the 
water,  where  it  secures  meet  of  its  food.  The  lat- 
ter consists  chiefly  of  fresh  water  mollusca,  the 
roots  of  aqoatic  plants,  and  such  tender  grasses  as 
may  chance  to  grow  at  the  margin  of  the  stream. 
In  addition  tn  trapping  them,  the  Indians  sometimes 
take  them  by  spearing  tht?m  throu^'h  the  wa!l»  of 
their  houyea  in  winter.  The  ahape  of  the  body  is 
almost  cylindrical,  and  the  length  of  head  and  body 
is  about  fifteen  inches.  The  head  is  short,  the  neck 
very  short  and  indistinct,  the  leg;^  ^hurt,  and  the 
tbisha  hid  in  the  body.  The  color  of  the  animal  so 
much  resembles  that  of  the  morldy  banks  of  the 
stream  or  lake  on  which  it  is  often  found  seated, 
that,  when  seen  from  a  distance,  it  is  likely  to  be 
mistaken  for  a  lumpor  clod  of  earth.  On  the  upper 
parts  ol  the  body  the  fur  is  a  third  longer  than 


1^? 


^^      ^^- 

FU.  40«.    K^OmHyityr  tibrthimtt. 

beneath,  and  from  the  roots  to  near  the  extremities 
is  blniah  gray  or  lead-color  tipped  with  brown, 
giring  the  appearance  of  a  general  dark-brown 
color  whun  viewed  from  above. 

J^«  mink  {rtiiorim  viion,  Fig.  409)  is  widely 
diftributed  over  the  North  American  continent, 
but  the  largest,  best  and  darkest  specimens  are 
found  in  northern  Canada.  Sir  John  Richardson 
met  with  it  as  far  north  as  latitude  G6°.  The  popu- 


lar name  of  Putonu»  r/Jion  i«  supposed  to  be  a  cor- 
ruption of  Moeuk,  a  name  given  to  a  closely  &IIi«<d 
species  in  Sweden.  The  body  is  long  and  vermiform, 
the  head  small  and  oval,  the  neck  long,  and  legs 
short,  with  five  toes  on  each  foot.  The  color  nf  the 
fur,  which  is  highly  esteemed,  is  a  uniform  brown 


;?i^n_" 


or  tawny,  with  light  brownish  or  yellow  far  beneath, 
near  the  body.  Some  specimens  are  much  darker 
than  others,  and  there  is  usually  a  white  spot  under 
the  throat,  and  another  on  the  throat.  The  length 
of  the  head  and  b(xly  i-t  about  thirteen  inche.s 
and  of  the  tail  about  seven  inches.  The  mink  is 
an  expert  fisher  and  hunter.  Though  largely  of  an 
aquatic  habit,  it  yet  subsists  much  on  birds,  mice, 
and  other  small  animals.  Fish,  flesh  and  fowl  seem 
alike  to  its  taste.  It  has  been  knon-n  to  catch  a 
trout  of  a  foot  Jn  length,  while  it  is  an  expert  rob- 
ber of  the  hen-roost.  Birds,  mice,  rats  and  other 
;^mali  animals  are  amongst  its  victims.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  a  mink  to  rob  an  angler  of  hia 
catch,  if  ho  leave  it  behind  him  for  a  time  on  the 
bank  of  the  stream.  In  the  southern  states  it  feeda 
largely  on  the  marsh-hen.  The  mink  posse.s.'KS  but 
little  cunning,  and  is  easily  captured  in  any  kind 
of  trap.  It  is  taken  in  both  steel  and  box  traps, 
but  more  generally  in  what  are  called  deadfalls. 
It  ii  attracted  by  any  kind  of  fish  or  flesh,  and  tvaps 
are  baited  with  the  head  of  a  partridge,  duck  or 
chicken,  or  a  piece  of  fish.  Like  the  skunk  and  the 
ermine,  it  emits  an  offensive  odor  when  provoked 
by  men  or  dogs.  When  taken  young  it  is  easily 
tamed,  becomes  very  gentle,  and  forms  a  strong 
attachment  to  those  who  fondle  it  in  a  state  of 
domestication. 

A'rmiin'.— The  common  white  weasel  w  stoat  of 
Canada  {Ptttoriiit  ermin(a)  is  the  true  ermine, 
virtually  the  same  species  as  that  of  northern 
Europe  and  A»ia,  which  in  the  feudal  age»  yielded 
the  fur  for  tlie  choicest  mantles  of  nobles  and  kings, 
although  the  Canadian-produced  fur,  except  in  the 
far  north,  is  inferior  to  that  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
Smaller  than  the  ntink,  but  not  unlike  it  in  form, 
being  but  about  ten  inches  long  from  the  snout  to 
the  root  of  the  tail,  the  weasel  is  fiercer  and  more 
bloodthirsty  than  I'utoriut  vitem,  poasesaing  an 
intuitive  propensity,  says  Andabon,  to  destroy  every 
animal  and  bird  within  its  reach,  some  of  which, 
like  the  American  rabbit,  the  raffed  grouse  and. 
domestic  fowl,  are  ten  times  its  own  fize.  A  single' 
ermine  has  been  known  to  kill  forty  well-grown 
fowls  in  a  single  night.  Notwithstanding  its  mi*- 


FDR-BEARINO  ANIMALS 


FUR-BEARING  ANIUAI^ 


401 


F 


diteTonsand  deAtrnctive  habits  ttiu  ermine  u  rather, 
yeriiapfl,  a  benefactor  than  an  un»m,v  lo  thi*  farmi^r, 
ridding  bis  fluids  and  t:rranarieH  of  manj-  dc>pri-datorii 
ontheproiiuct  of  his  labor,  such  aa  the  whiu-footed 
moiwe.  thi'  pine-mouse,  the  ffrwiJid-stiuirrel,  the  rat 
and  the  common  house  mouse,  which  would  devour 
ten  timeH  the  value  of  the  jxpultry  and  egfp^  that 
at  long  and  uncertain  int^rvaia  it  may  d^Croy. 
The  skin  of  th'e  little  animal  had  hocomo  ]>ractL- 
cally  Ku  valut-ltttw  a  ft>w  yt^ant  a^o  that  tbu  buntent 
Scarcely  gtfcurt'd  more  than  five  cenln  each  for  it. 
Today  it  is  worth  twenty-live  cetiia  to  a  dollar  each. 
Naturalists  do  not  agree  as  to  whether  the  apparent 
change  of  color  from  summiT  hrown  to  winter 
whit*-  u  BiTected  Vty  shedding  thw  old  hair,  the  npw 
coat  growing  another  shadi',  or  whether  the  hair 
actually  t^hang»t  culur  itwlf. 

The  marten  (Muflrln  Amrricana,  Fig.  410),  also 
calletd  thu  pine-niart«n,  and  American  sable,  i« 
targLT  than  thu  mink,  and  almost  always  lighter  in 
color.  The  Uxly  it  slendi^r,  the  head  long  and 
pointed,  legs  short  and  Htoiit,  eyes  small  and  black, 
tail  buAhy  and  cylindrical.  Itii  coat  contains  two 
kind«  (if  hair,  lhi>  outer  long  and  rigid,  the  inner 
«oft  and  xomiswhat  woolly.  Thy  length  from  point 
of  no?e  U)  root  of  tail  is  about  t-ighttfen  inchea. 
The  color  varirn*  conittderab!y  in  ditfLTont  individ- 
uals, but  19  generally  yelbwinh.  shadt-d  more  or  less 
with  lilack.  the  thrift  being  yrdlow.  The  darkest 
Hkinn  art-  the  most  valuiilile.  Iti;  foixl  cunKit^Ls  of 
liirdK,  miire,  r;i)uirn^lK  and  other  xiuall  ariinialtt,  and 
it  climliii  trii'A  with  gn-at  facility.  It  \»  fo  i-asily 
caught  in  traps  that  it  has  been  extorminated  in 
many  parts  of  Canailn  and  the  northern  states 
where  it  was  once  abundant.  Where  the  Indians 
have  properly  preserved  hunting-gronnds.  this  val- 
uable fur-bearing  animal  lis  an  ciLrffully  prcj^rve-d 
ait  is  the  lieaver.  It  it)  by  no  means  unuHiial  for  a 
good  marten  to  sell  for  $ft.".  Ia-ss  than  twenty 
years  ago  martens  could  be  ha^l  for  fSt  or  $B  each. 

The  Jither  or  pekan  {MtttUla  I'fnnauii),  also 
known  as  Pennaut's  marten,  is  a  kind  of  marten, 
about  the  size  of  a  small  fi>s,  of  a  general  dark 
brown  or  nearly  black  ccdor.  It  is  somRtimiat  known 
as  the  tilarkail.  It  frei^Denta swampy  lands,  preying 
on  fish,  frogs,  flquirrels,  mica  and  other  small  ani- 
mals. It  is  found  all  owr  thi>  continent  as  far 
south  as  the  Carolina.^,  except  where  it  has  disap- 
peared before  a  dense  population.  It  is  mic-turnal 
m  itH  habittt,  will  rob  a  line  of  tnips  nf  bait,  like 
the  carcajou,  and  has  even  liet>n  known  tn  U^ar  in 
pieces  a  pine-roarti-n  that  had  been  caught  in  a 
trap.  In  the  early  part  of  tlw  last  century,  when 
theM  animals  were  more  common  in  the  slate  of 
New  York,  the  hunters  used  to  gi-t  them  by  follow- 
ing their  tracks  in  the  snow,  when  they  had  been 
out  in  (juest  of  food  im  the  previous  night.  They 
would  ttius  tniTp  them  to  the  hollow  trees  in  which 
tbey  were  conoi^ah^l,  which  the  hunters  chnjipt'd 
down.  It  is  said  that  a.^  thu  treu  wan  falling,  thi> 
fishers  would  dart  from  thu  hollow,  which  was  oftirn 
fifty  feet  from  the  ground,  and  liiap  into  the  enow, 
when  the  dogs  usually  seized  and  killed  them, 
although  not  without  a  Lird  straggle,  as  they  are 
much  more  dangerous  tu  dugs  and  huunda  than 

C26 


either  the  grfty  or  the  red  fox.  An  ordinary  sp«i- 
men  measurei  twenty-three  inches  from  the  pmnt 
of  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  weighs  eight 
or  nine  ponnds. 

The  otter  (Luira  Canadentis)  is  in  appearance  a 
magnified  mink.  It.i  walk,  fur  and  color  tear  strong 
resemblance  to  thode  of  the  latter  animal,  and  the 
lightening  of  the  tints  of  the  th-lage  in  old  age  ia 
tho  same  in  both.  Its  fur  is  snort  and  thick,  the 
under  part  being  of  a  silvery  white  shade,  slightly 
waved  and  silky,  and  of  simitar  texture  to  that  of 
the  beaver,  but  not  so  long.  The  color  of  the  over- 
lying hairs  varies  from  a  rich  and  glossy  brownish 
black  to  a  dark  chestnut.  In  Aummvr  the  color  \a  a 
rusty  hrown.  and  the  fur  is  nhorter  and  thinner. 
Its  habits  are  aquatic.  From  the  shortness  of  its 
legs,  its  motions  on  shore  are  not  so  quick  as  when 
in  the  water,  and  as  its  food  is  principally  fish,  it 
ffstdes  in  winttT  near  some  lake  or  river  where  it 
kevps  a  hole  np«n  in  the  ice  all  the  sea.ion.  During 
this  period  of  the  year  it-i  migrations  on  land  in 
high  latitudes,  where  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow,  are  toildome.  and  it  leaves  a  deep  furrow  or 
path  in  the  snow,  which,  when  seen  by  the  trapper 
Koun  aftut  the  animal  has  passted,  invariably  leads 
to  its  destmction.  If  a  trap  be  set  on  this  road 


f^ 


FlK-  4^0.    THe  nurten  (J/iufrla  Ai<i4riniaa>. 

tho  otter  is  almiwt  certain  to  be  caught,  as  tt  haa 
a  strong  objuction  to  opening  new  paths  through 
the  deep  anow.  In  firing  at  an  otter  in  the  water, 
care  must  he  taken  not  to  shoot  it  in  an  immedi-  ' 
at<>ly  vital  part,  ai^  the  body  sinks  like  a  stone 
immiMiialvlv  after  death. 

F(jj<ji,— In  tn-ating  tho  different  varieties  of 
foxes,  it  is  extremtdy  dit^cnlt  to  mark  the  line 
whureone  ends  and  another  birgins,  for  every  shade 
of  color  from  a  bright  tlame  tint  to  a  perfectly 
black  pir'It  may  occasionally  be  seen.  Vutpfg  fuh-us 
is  the  common  red  fox,  variety  deeuntatut  the 
cruoa-fox,  and  variety  arijentaiai  the  silver  fox. 
The  appe:trancu  of  the  common  red  fox  is  too  well 
known  t4)  rei|uiru  description.  In  tho  croAs-fox,  Che 
legs,  the  muzzle  and  the  under  parts  are  hlack.  and 
the  tail  is  blacker  than  that  of  the  common  red  fox. 
A  dark  band  runs  down  between  the  shoulders, 
oro8Se«I  by  another  over  the  shouldere.  The  silver 
fox  is  entirely  black  except  on  the  pottteriur  part 
of  the  back,  wheru  the  hairs  are  annulattni  with 


402 


l■^IR-BEARI^TI  ANIMALS 


FnR-BEARIXG  ANtUALS 


gray,  althooch  this  feature  is  occasionally  wanting. 
The  tail  ia  tip;x;d  with  white.  Experiinenta  ha%'ing 
prored  that  the  otfaprinjr  of  a  pair  of  silver  foxes 
are  not  always  colored  like  their  parents ;  there 
are  those  who  conteniJ  that  the  silver  la  not  a  spe- 
cies but  a  freak.  Whiitever  be  its  origin,  it  ia  the 
most  valuable  fur  known  after  that  uf  the  sca^otter. 
As  a  rule,  only  a  few  .(icore  are  taken  each  year  in 
any  district.  The  annual  American  output  does  not 
exceed  a  thoujiand.  An  exceptional  akin  has  sold  as 
high  as  $^tH),  but  the  uaaal  price  ia  $2r>0  to 

$1,000.   Foxes  are 


i^- 


^f*#^fc 


# 


PIC.4lt.     Skunk  (J(<^if^ 

mejiltiiUa). 


by  nomeanachoico 
about  thuir  food. 
Mice,  birds,  haree, 
fish,  carrion,  all 
comealiketothem, 
and  they  will  even 
make  a  m(-al  of  a 
fellow  fox  if  one 
is  found  dead  in  a 
trap.  They  are 
killed  by  hantlni:;, 
by  3  n  a  r  i  n  g ,  by 
trapH.  by  unearth- 
ing and  by  poiaon- 
ing. 

The  think  tMt- 
phxlis  mq>fiitica. 
Fig.  411)  is  found 
throughout  the 
Domiaion  of  Canada  as  far  aa  57  degrees  north, 
and  ranges  eoiith  to  Kentucky,  Carolina  and  Ala- 
bama. It  w  about  thtt  size  of  a  large  cat.  hua  a 
broad,  tieshy  body,  wider  at  the  hips  tlian  at  the 
shoulders,  long  coarse  fur  and  short  legs.  The 
general  color  is  blackish  brown,  with  white  longi- 
tudinal Rtripes  on  the  back.  It  18  carnivoroua,  iti 
prey  being  small  birds,  eggH.  in«ectfl,  mice,  frogw 
and  the  like,  and  it  is  particularly  de-ttnictive  in 
the  poultry  yard.  In  northern  reirioiis  it  hiburnatus 
in  winter.  Although,  in  SL-lf-dufeiiae,  capable  of 
emitting  an  odor  perhaps  the  most  ofF*;nsive  in 
iiatare,  the  skunk  it4  an  exceedingly  clean  animal ; 
a  dozen  may  sometimes  be  concealed  in  a  single 
burrow,  .and  yet  not  the  eligbte.Mt  unpieaaant  ftmell 
can  be  detected  at  the  entrance.  The  flesh  is  eaten 
by  the  Indians  and  pronounced  by  them  superimr  to 
tbat  of  the  raccoon  or  o[jossiiro.  Its  fur  is  vi-ry 
much  in  demand  for  dressing  and  dyeing,  for  the 
production  of  what  is  known  as  Alaska  sable.  In 
recent  years  it  has  become  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  North  American  fur-bearing  animala. 

Heart. — Of  the  bear  there  are  several  American 
itpectes,  chief  among  which  are  the  very  cummon 
black  boar(f'r«i/»,4i/wTtVrtin/^.  Fig.  4 12), which  some- 
times attains  a  weight  of  GOO  potinds,  the  grizzly 
W.horrilfUit),  the  white  or  Polar  bear(r'.m*iri((mw) 
and  the  cinnamon  be.ir.  The  last-mentioned  is  a 
native  of  the  Northwest :  the  grizzly  ia  found  in 
the  Rocky  mountains;  the  Polar  bear  is  a  native  of 
the  arctic  regions,  while  the  black  bear,  which  is 
most  exl«npivf?Iy  trapped  for  thu  sake  of  its  fur 
for  cummercial  purposes,  inhabits  all  the  wooded 
parts  of  North  America.   It  has  very  stout  legs,  a 


somewhat  bulky  but  flexible  body,  and  long,  $oft, 
glossy  fur.  The  general  color  ia  black,  but  it  some- 
times varies  to  brown  or  yellowish.  Its  food  is 
principally  vegetable,  consisting  of  roots,  berries, 
nuts,  and  the  like,  and  it  will  even  catch  fish  out 
of  shallow  water  for  food.  It  will  devour  eggs  and 
small  birdij,  and  will  carry  off  and  devour  hogs. 
When  driven  to  extremities,  the  hear  will  stand  on 
its  hind-legs  and  mako  a  tcrriblo  battle  with  its 
powerful  paws.  The  bear  is  often  shot  in  burnt 
lands  and  while  swimming  in  lakes,  bat  is  more 
often  captured  in  d«adfalU. 

The  rat^it  ia  too  well  known  to  require  de«rip- 
tioQ  (see  article  on  Feh],  and  space  will  permit  only 
brief  accounts  of  the  raccoon,  the  wolf  and  the  lynx, 
which  nnpply  a  number  of  skins  annually  in  the 
United  Statea  and  Canada. 

nie  raccoon  (J'rcx^on  iotttr.  Fig.  413)  was  classed 
by  I.innfeus  among  the  bear^,  under  the  genus 
Vrfiu,  its  feet  being  plantigrade  with  naked  aolee. 
When  it  sits,  it  often  brings  Che  whole  hind  sole  to 
the  ground,  resting  in  the  manner  of  the  bears, 
although  it  walks  on  its  toes.  Its  body  is  rather 
stout,  the  legs  of  moderate  length,  its  color  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  grayish,  mixed  with  black, 
Ihti  ears  and  under  part  whitish,  with  a  black 
natch  across  the  eye.  and  its  long  and  bushy  tail 
having  four  or  five  annulations  of  black  and  grey. 
While  not  intended  for  great  speed,  it  is  capable  of 
a  tolerably  rapid  race  and  is  able  to  climb,  and 
although  not  with  the  agility  of  the  Kiuirrel.  yet 
with  greater  alacrity  than  its  near  relative,  the 
bear.  In  the  United  States  it  Is  found  as  far  suuth 
aw  Mexico.  In  Canada  it  has  been  taken  as  far 
north  as  Winnipeg. 

The  raccoon  usually  brings  forth  four  to  six 
young  at  a  time.  It  may  almost  be  called  omnivor- 
ous. Gn^'ncorn  and  oysters,  fish  and  poultry,  eggs 
and  freiih-water  «hi.4!-fiah,  honey  and  chestnuts  are 
all  acceptable.  Like  the  bear,  the  raccoon,  in 
northern  latitudes,  hibernates  for  some  montba 
during  the  winter. 


yL 


■^- 


Pl£.  411.    ABMti««a  m  blAck  bew  iCrgus  Am*rietmiu). 

II'W/.— There  are  several  varieties  of  the  AnMri- 

can  wolf,  all  of  about  the  same  aixe.  Sometimoe 
they  band  together  in  the  same  pack,  black,  white, 
grey  and  red  wolves  being  seen  occasionally  in  the 
same  company.  The  grey  wolf  (Canit  lupiu)  is  the 
,  variety  most  common  in  Canada  and  the  northern 


FUR-BEARING   ANFMALS 


Fim-BEARINC  ANIMALS 


40S 


stuturt.  U  hiia  a  thick  heail,  tonj:;  noM^  erect  and 
conical  oarg,  aod  a  muzzLc  elongated  and  Bomewhat 
thicker  than  th^t  of  the  PyrentMin  wolf.  Thu  gen- 
eral a[t)x>»ranri'  of  the  upper  Hurface  of  tliuaniiiml 
IB  ttark  brindli'i)  ti^ray,  wiUi  an  hidititmct  durrial 
lini",  a  little  iliirker  than  tlw  color  of  the  sidt-H. 
The  UDduf  jiarts  are  of  a  dull  white  color.  Tlie 
wolf  is  a  cmel.  savaffe,  cowardly  animal,  and  very 
destructive  of  deer,  which  it  hunts  cingly  or  in 
packs.  All  the  varieties  nr«  estri'mply  swift  c»f 
foot,  and  it  in  difficult  ti>  run  them  down  for  the 
purpose  of  ohwiliiif^  thttm.  They  arts  usually  uithur 
taken  in  traps  or  killed  with  strychnine.  In 
WLnt«<r.  when  thi>n>  m  no  cruet  on  the  snow  in  the 
north  for  some  time,  Buflici«ntly  ptrwng  to  carry  a 
wolf,  many  of  the  afiimals  perish  from  hunger. 

The  American  wolf  hiirrowH  and  lirinj^  forth 
it»  young  in  ntrtha  huvin;;  tievurat  ontbtu.  The 
numbtr  in  a  litttr  varius  from  four  or  five  to  ei^ht 
or  nine.  The  akin  of  tho  wolf  ia  iwed  chiefly  for 
sleigh  or  carriage  tuIkis  and  for  floor  mats  and 
rugs.  Rough  driving  coats  also  are  Btrnietimea 
made  of  it,  although  the  hair  on  the  back  is  three 
to  four  inrhefl  Utng. 

f.ynx.  ThBTB  are  two  diatlnct  varietiw!  of  tho 
lynx  in  North  America,  the  Loup  (Vrvifr  or  ("ana- 
dian  lynx  {Lynx  Canadrnti*,  l-'ig.  41-1)  and  the 
Bay  lynx  or  wildcat  of  the  United  States  iLynx 
rvfat).  Thia  genus  has  been  separated  from  the 
old  genas  FrSU  because  of  the  tufteil  ears,  nhnrter 
bodies  and  tailn  in  proportion  to  their  much  larf^er 
bulh,  and  alnn  of  the  Hliglit  ilifTerunet-R  in  thu 
teeth,  the  lynx  having  one  tooth  leas  on  each  side 
of  the  upper  jaw  than  the  tamo  cats.  Although 
both  of  the  American  wildcats  are  found  in  Canada, 
the  so-called  Canada  lynx  is  larger  than  I.}jnx 
ntfut.  The  latter  is  of  a  yellowiah  ur  reddi^^h 
brown,  while  the  larger  variety  is  generally  grey 


fltatc,  tinlesa  hy  tho^  sportsmen  or  others  who 
]:>enetrate  into  the  more  retired  recessRH  of  tho 
forest.  The  i^ttlumunt«  are  not  ofU-n  vtHtttnl  by 
this  beaat  of  prey,  for  it  can  generally  find  a  aufli- 
ciency  of  food  in  the  woods  and  ia  not,  therefor^ 


KMeeaoa  iProfyon  LtUir). 


and  cloude*!  with  irregular  darker  spota.  Although 
the  akin  of  this  latter  may  be  seen  in  the  cotlec- 
tioM  of  almost  evnry  extensive  fur-dealer  in 
Canada,  the  animal  ia  aeUom  met  with  in  itft  wild 


FIS.  414.    Caiuda  lynx  (/.#nz  Oamad*»Mt»). 

very  often  compelled  by  famine  to  forage  in  the 
farmyard.  Its  prey  consista  largely  of  such  small 
animiils  as  the  northern  hare,  the  gray  niblut, 
ai]tiirre1n,  miire,  grouKe  and  birda  of  various  kinda, 
although  it  ia  thought  that  the  wolf  ia  anm^timeA 
blainod  for  carrying  off  a  lamb  whifh  has  fi-aeted 
tliu  lynx.  When  it  enters  a  place  frequenti-d  by 
rabbits,  it  netdom  leaves  the  locality  until  it  has 
killed  them  all.  From  the  great  fli?.^  of  ita  claws 
and  teeth,  and  its  fdrmidable  appejirance,  the 
f'am^da  lynx  h;m  acquirrd  a  n'lmtalion  for  ferocity, 
cunning  and  daring,  to  which  It  ij;  nut  entitled. 
Although  strongly  built  and  capablo  of  climhinff 
troca  with  u;lsu,  the  Ijnx  is  timid  and  even  cow- 
ardly at  the  Bight  of  man,  and  a  very  small  dog 
will  instantly  put  it  to  flight.  It  swims  well,  breeds 
onco  a  year,  having  two  young  at  a  time,  ia  easity 
taken  in  traps,  and  aome  of  the  Indians  eat  its 
flesh.  When  cornered  liy  doga  it  flghta  like  a  cat, 
spitting  and  atriking  with  ila  abarp  claws,  with 
which  it  can  inflict  aevere  wounds.  Its  ftx;t  are 
complett«ly  cown-d  with  long  woully  fur,  so  that 
its  tracks  on  the  »now  are  vary  largo  and  do  not 
show  any  impressions  of  the  toea.  Most  of  what 
has  been  saiil  of  this  variety  applies  equally  to  the 
common  American  wildcjit,  except  that  the  latter 
has  never  been  known  to  attack  any  but  animals 
smaller  than  itself. 

Handling  tht  fur$. 

The  American  furs  which  find  their  way  U>  tho 
great  auction  marts  of  the  Old  World  are  received 
and  ftold  in  their  raw  atate,  much  in  the  same  con- 
dition in  which  they  left  the  hands  of  the  tnip|>er. 
I'ntil  comparatively  recent  times,  Germany  had  the 
monopoly  of  the  dyeing  and  dressing  of  certain  furs, 
particularly  of  Mjuirrel  8kins  and  of  while  fnra. 
such  as  the  ermine  and  Polar  bear.  Almost  all 
Alaska  seal  skins  are  dressed  and  dyed  in  I^ndon, 


FUR-ItEARING  ANIMALS 


FUR-BEARING  ANIMAI^ 


not  beOADM  of  <i  lack  tif  expert  workmen  in  the 
United  States,  for  uume  seal  Kkinn  are  »kilifully 
manufacttirvd  in  N«w  Yurk,  but  becHuse  of  thw 
favorable  linancial  urrunt^L-nu'iit^  aru3  hiknnunLuiis 
coiiperation  existing  in  London,  where  the  raw  furs 
are  sold,  between  fur- brokers.  fur-drc-Bsere  and 
bankf  rs,  whereby  most  nf  tke  purchase  money  may 
ln'  withheld  until  thu  wkitis  have  bwn  dresned  and 
dyed,  six  or  wight  munthH  later.  In  the  prin- 
cipal citiett  of  Canadii  and  alnu  in  Aeveral  in  Uit! 
United  Stat<'3,  there  ary  ejitabliHhinents  for  tho 
dreftding,  dyeing  and  manufai^ture  of  niitivo  far^. 
The  great  American  center  of  this  indurtry  is  the 
city  of  New  York,  which  leads  the  world  as  a  con- 
sniner  cif  furs,  the  fljiles  t»  individuals  there  exceed- 
ing  thtise  of  any  other  city  in  the  world.  Many 
firitis,  long  e»tabliuliud,  with  lar>;i>  capital  and  of 
international  repulatiun,  conduct  lh«  Inwiness. 

Much  space  mi^ht  be  devoted  to  an  aeemint  i>f 
the  interesting  procoa-ws  followed  in  thu  prepara- 
tion of  dressed  ftirs  from  the  raw  skins.  The  hnest 
qiialilie!^  of  fura,  with  the  evcepttim  nf  the  Alaska 
Eeal,  are  seldmn  dyed.  The  ]irwesH  of  dreswing 
diffarH  for  various  kinds  of  fur.  but  there  are  many 
features  of  the  industry  common  to  alnioyt  all  uf 
them,  such  as  the  removal  of  greatw  and  dirt,  the 
conversion  of  the  jwlt  or  membrane  into  a  sort  of 
soft  and  pliable  lenther,  and  a  paring  down  of  its 
texture.  Some  of  these  opt^rations  are  newissarily 
very  delicate  ones.  Very  greasy  skins,  as  th'>se  of 
the  mink,  are  first  of  alt  scraped,  and  then,  like 
otht^nt,  are  ttuaked  in  water  over  night  for  soften- 
ing and  ojifning  tiie  textun*  preparatory  to  the 
unhniring  and  leatliering  processes.  Heavy  pelts, 
as  those  of  the  lienvernnd  otter,  are  then  "beamwd," 
for  the  purpose  nf  breaking  up  the  texture  of  the 
membrane  and  softening  it.  If  the  overhairs  are  to 
be  removed,  that  prooess  is  next  in  order,  except  in 
the  dresHing  of  mu^krat  skinH,  when  it  is  usually 
postponed  until  after  thedrefwing.  After  plucking, 
beavy  skins  are  shaved  to  a  thin,  even  snrfact?,  with 
a"Bkiving"knife.  Next  comes  the  leathoring.  The 
pcU  side  is  dampened  over  night  with  cold  salt- 
water, and  the  following  day.  hatter,  or  other  ani- 
mal fat,  is  mblted  on  the  membrHne.  This  greasing 
is  omitted  indreAsing  mink  or  other  very  oily  skins. 

Then  follows  thiC  tubbing,  one  of  thumost  curioua 
processes  of  the  trade.  In  order  thoronghly  to 
soften  or  "leather"  the  nelt,  a  number  of  skins  are 
placed  in  large  tubs  with  mahogany  sawda.st,  each 
tub  being  (K-cupied  by  a  workman,  who  for  two  or 
three  hours  is  engaged  in  trampine  the  skins  with 
bare  feet.  The  skins  are  subsequently  pla<.'tHl  in 
revolving  cylinders  with  clean  sawdust,  this  in 
order  to  extract  alE  the  greiise.  which  adheres  to 
the  sawdust.  After  this  the  sawdust  ia  bc-aten  oat, 
and  the  combing  of  the  furs  completes  the  opera- 
tion of  dre^'iing.  The  proce^is  is  subject  to  many 
variations  for  different  kinds  of  fans. 

Fur-jariaing. 

Many  experiments  in  fiir-farming  have  been 
attempted  from  time  to  time,  but  Uv.  if  any.  have 
proved  a  BUcceBo.  A  okunk-farm.  which  has  been  in 
operation  for  a  number  of  years  in  Ontario  oc  a 


aniall  scale,  has  given  some  fair  result'^,  many  of 
the  animals  having  become  partially  tampil,  .Similar 
farm^  hiivu  lieen  establiijhe<l  on  a  large  se^le  In  Hime 
of  the  Western atatm,  but  are  still  in  the  eX[H!ri!nental 
stage.  The  proposition  has  l»een  rnure  than  once 
made  to  stock  Hudson  bay  with  the  Aht^ka  seal. 
The  conditions  a.**  to  food,  teniperatnre.  and  the  like, 
are  derlareil  tn  be  favorable,  and  different  varieties 
of  the  hair-seal  thrive  admirably  under  .similar 
conditions.  The  project  in  quei^tion,  which  invoh'wl 
the  purchjise  and  transfer  to  the  bay  of  one  hun- 
dred cow  8oalH  and  tifteen  bulls,  was  submitted  to 
the  Dominion  government  some  time  a^o,  but 
nothing  came  of  it.   It  may  be  revived  later. 

An  extensive  system  of  otter-farming  in  the 
swamps  of  Florida  was  eerinnsly  propcwed  some 
years  ago.  Beaver-farming,  !is  attempted  in  a 
restricted  area  on  the  north  of  Ijike  Suiwrior, 
proved  a  failure.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why 
thy  introduction  of  beaver  from  the  Yellowstone 
National  I'ark  into  parts  of  the  Adirondacks. 
where  they  were  once  plentiful,  should  not  be  fid- 
lowed  by  good  results,  if  the  animals  are  protected 
from  niole.stsition  ;  for  no  etFort  h.is  lieen  made  to 
confme  them  within  unnatural  limit:itiuns.  It  ia 
the  change  from  natural  eonditions,  accompanying 
almost  every  attempt  at  fur-farming,  that  dooms 
it  to  failure.  Beavers  and  foxes,  as  wet)  a.s  big 
game,  liberated  by  Mr.  .Menier  on  his  island  of 
.4nticosti,  are  apparently  multiplying  and  doing 
well.  Fur-liearing  animals  of  all  kindit,  on  the 
other  hand,  kept  in  ■cbi.'se  captivity,  have  deterior- 
attsl  in  the  (luality  of  their  fur,  often  pining  away 
and  dying.  A  few  silver  foxesare  reported  to  have 
been  raised  successfully  in  captivity  by  a  trader  on 
the  Labrador  coast,  but  the  experiment  wa.^  nut 
repeated  successfully  through  a  second  generation, 
and  the  furs  were  of  an  inferior  and  !>pdraKglBd 
character.  They  come  to  their  great*'at  excellenco, 
a»  u  matter  of  fact,  only  when  the  animal  enjnva 
that  wule  ranging  of  its  natural  state  which 
ensures  robust  health. 

Literature. 

The  literature  of  the  fur  trade  w  very  exhaua- 
tive-  On  North  American  fur-l>earing  animals  see  : 
Sir  John  Richardson,  Fauna  Boreali-Americana; 
rieorg©  C'artwright,  Journal  during  a  residence  of 
nearly  sixteen  years  on  the  coasts  nf  Ijahrador; 
The  Canadian  Nataralist  for  18^7  and  following 
years  ;  H.  de  Puyjalon,  Hi.stHire  N'aturelle  a  rustage 
des  Chasneiirs  Canadiens,  et  deseleveurs  d'animaux 
a  fyumjre ;  The  Fur  Seal  and  Other  Fisheries 
of  Alaska,  i)ubli.>*hed  by  the  Houbc  of  Representa- 
ti%"c«,  Washington  (]88!)t;  Florida  Fur  Fanning,  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Unit«l  States  Fisib  fommLwion 
(1897);  various  articles  on  the  wild  animals  of  the 
United  States  in  the  annual  repnrta  of  the  Dejiarl- 
ment  of  Agrinilture,  VViwhington  ;  The  Seal  Hunt 
of  the  Gulf.  E.  T.  IL  Chambers  in  Kiwt  and  Wert, 
Toront^j.  May.  1W7  ;  descriptions  of  the  Newfound- 
land Aeal  hunts  in  books  on  Newfoundland,  by 
Judge  I'rowse  and  Itev.  Moses  Harvey  ;  A.  K  Imv, 
Trail  and  Camp-fire.  On  the  Indian  fur-hunters, 
the  trapping  of  fars  and  the  fur  inda!;try  in  ig^a- 


GOAT 


GOAT 


406 


era],  consult  histories  of  the  Northwe^it  an<\  of  the 
HuJaon  Hay  Company ;  Miss  Laut,  Story  of  the 
Trapper,  and  Fur  Trade  of  the  World,  in  the 
Worid'3  Work  of  Mfiy.  1907 ;  0«.  Hird  C.rinnell, 
Story  of  the  Indian  ;  Ttind.  Labrador ;  E.  T.  D. 
Charaliers,  Thu  M«ntaj,'n:ua  Indiana  and  Their  Folk- 
lore ;  II.  d«  Puyjalon,  Pftit  Oaide  du  Chasseur  de 
IVIIetarie  ;  Horace  T.  Martin,  Castorologia.  or  the 
History  and  Traditions  of  the  Canadian  Beaver ; 
CtmrluH  K.  i^hiveruton,  Utilization  of  th«  Skins  of 
Aqaatic  AnimaU.  in  the  refwrt  of  the  United  States 
Coramiuflion  of  Fiah  and  Fiflheriies  (1902). 

GOAT,  (kpra  app.  Bovid<i.   Pigs.  415-119. 

The  goat  i»  a  (jonua  of  quadrupeds,  vury  closely 
allie<l  to  the  she«p.  It  BiHima  probable  that  the  do- 
mestic )^at  \»  descended  from  the  Persian  paaan^ 
(Capra  (egagras),  which  is  the  moet  characteristic 
specie*  of  the  wild  gnntt*.  The  types  of  d(>nie»tic 
goats  that  have  been  devehtped  under  their  Ioiik 
perio<i  of  diimesti nation  are  very  numerous,  but 
comjiaralively  few  are  of  eecinomie  value  in 
America.  Ferhaps  the  AiiRora  [Capra  angorenfin) 
is  the  be^t  known  in  this  conntry,  althou{;h  the 
JDterwt  in  milch  goats  ii^  increaiting.  The  zantogi- 
cal  origin  of  the  .\ngora  gont  is  not  known.  The 
prevailing  opinion  seems  to  iw  that  the  foiindHtiim 
Btiicif  ia  some  derivative  of  Capra  infjayrtis,  perh8|is 
with  crcMstw  from  the  markhor  (C  fideoaeri)  or 
othor  wild  Asian  species.  The  goat  has  never  been 
held  in  high  esti'-cm  in  America.  1>ut  this  condition 
may  change. 

Mention  tihoultl  i»e  made  of  the  Cashmere  or  Shawl 
goat  of  India,  which  ia  valued  for  its  line,  h ilk-like 
under-wool,  nrnt-h  prized  in  Hhawls.  "  Mountain 
goat"  ia  mentioned  under  Sheep. 

Angora  Goat.  Figs.  415,  416. 

Hy  /?.  /-.  Skaw. 

The  Angora  is  rained  primarily  fnr  its  mohair 
and  meat.  The  male  gi).it  is  calle*)  a  Ituck,  the 
fenwle  a  due,  the  castrated  male  a  wether,  and 
the  young  a  kid. 

Dtteription. 

The  .Angoni  goat  was  formt-rly  dcacribed  as  a 
Hmall  animal,  but,  owing  to  favorable  conditions, 
its  flize  has  lieen  greatly  increased.  It  is  smaller 
than  thecommtin  gout,  weighing  sixty  to  one  hun- 
dred ponmhi,  although  KpHcimenH  are  fretiiiently 
found  that  weigh  cunjiiideraMy  more.  Both  male^t 
and  females  have  hom^  and  beanln,  but  in  rare 
^  inatancea  an  animal  without   bom»  may  be  sei-n. 

^H  The  horns  of  the  male  grow  to  a  hmgth  of  fifteen 

^^L  to  twenty  inchos  and  turn  upwant   and  outward 

^^B  with  a  backwani  twiot,  while  those  of  the  Female, 

^^H  which  grow  Ut  a  length  of  eight  to  ten  inches,  grow 

^^V  upward  and  point  backwani.  with  only  a  vlight 

^^B  inclination  to  twist.  The  horns  aregrayinh  in  color, 

^^H  never  hiack.  The  body  shoald  be  round,  the  hack 

^^V  straight,  with  shoulders  and  hips  nf  equal  height. 

W  The  ehest  shrmld  he  broad  ;  legs  nhort  and  strong  : 

^^^^^^    head  bniad,  with  a  wide  muzzle  and  bright  eyes; 


ears  either  ipartially  upright  or  distinctly  pendent, 
and  six  to  eight  inches  long.  The  fleece  should  be 
pure  white,  covering  all  parts  of  the  body,  a^  dense 
on  the  iKilly  ani  neck  as  on  the  back  and  sides,  and 
!t  shonld  extend  to  the  ears  and  the  jaw.  Many 
Angoras  liavu  mohair  on  the  forehead,  face  and  lega< 
The  mohair  should  make  an  aimnal  growth  of  not 
lesf^  than  eight  to  ten  inches,  and  weigh  three  to 
five  pounds  per  fleece.  Itshouldhangin  well-formed 


y.-'nl'^. 


>f^/i 


'lff>. 


'^^M- 


!*?■'- 
'c"^ 


w 


■M 


I 


l<i\\ 


^Ji 


J7" 


He.  415.    Aonra  BMtf. 


ringlets  from  all  parts  of  the  b(K)y,  and  should  be 
fine-,  soft,  lustrouH  and  wtrong.  The  fleece  should  be 
fnte  from  kemp.  Thu  fibers  become  eoaraer,  thin- 
ner and  »traight«r  as  the  animal  grows  older.  The 
best  mohair  grows  on  goats  of  the  best  blood  ;  and 
among  these,  that  on  the  kids,  j'oarling  wethers 
and  doefi  is  superior  in  the  order  named. 

The  offensive  odor  from  the  bucks  of  the  com- 
mon goat  is  entirely  aljHent  in  th»  Angora  breed, 
except  at  the  rutting  !«i:ai«m,  and  then  it  is  notice- 
able only  in  a  slight  degree.  The  odor  in  a  Oeece 
of  mohair  is  milder  than  that  in  a  fleeco  of  wool. 

The  Angora  goat  derives  its  name  from  the  vilayet 
of  Angora,  in  .^sia  Minor.  The  city  of  Angora  is 
the  capital  of  the  vilayet  of  .Angora,  and  is  located 
aiinut  two  hundred  miles  south-by-Hoiitheast  from 
('<Mi»tantin()pLe.  The  province  is  muuntaimius  to  a 
con^^iderabli)  extent  and  furn^wed  by  deep  valleys. 
The  climate  is  extreme.  Some  writers  have  ven- 
tnreil  to  say  that  the  Angora  goat  originated  in 
this  district  over  2,400  years  ago. 

It  is  said  that  the  pure  Angora  goat  was  nearly 
lired  out  in  1863.  The  rea-ion  f^ir  thi.i  was  the 
extensive  crossing  with  the  common  Kurvl  goat. 

/«  yJwerim.  — The  first  importation  of  Angora 
gout.s  to  Amorica  was  made  in  1JU9.  During  the 
admin i.stration  of  President  Folk,  says  Colonel 
Richard  Peters,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  retjuestcd 
that  a  suitable  person  be  xent  to  that  country  to 
conduct  some  experiments  in  the  culture  of  cotton. 
Dr.  .Tames  B.  nnivis.  of  Smith  Carolina,  was  dele- 
gated. iJn  hitt  return  to  the  United  Statw  in  1849, 
the  Sultan  |)n>.<tenU-d  to  him  nine  choice  Angoras. 
Thew  animab"  wen.>  imported  as  Cashmeree,  and 
were  so  regarded  until  after  thoy  were  purchased 
by  Colonel  Richard  Peters  in  lSr>3.  This  importa- 
tion was  frequently  exhibited  at  fairs,  and  lUwaj's 


406 


GOAT 


GOAT 


attract(>d  miK^h  attuntion,  Culonel  Peters  is  gen- 
erally  r«f^anleii  as  the  ira!  fiitiiider  of  the  Angora 
goat  industry  in  America. 

Thoro  havo  been,  frurri  time  to  time,  various  other 
importations  of  Angnras  fnini  Turkey  an<l  Suuth 
Africii.  The-te  .ire  widely  dttteiL'minat^d,  anti  the 
blwil  fjf  raiiHt  of  them  haa  he<.'n  beneficial  tt>  the 
initustry  in  this  country.  The  Civi!  war  was  dis- 
aatrouH  in  its  effnctii  on  the  infiiistry,  an  1  the 
Angora  }CoaU  iti  the  HOuthem  and  tijiatern  set^tionrt 
of  the  country  wyrt  practically  extorminatt4.  The 
westtirn  men  who  aiiopted  thu  inilustry.  aod  RniiUy 
saved  it.  were  Williiim  M.  Lanilrum.  C.  1'.  Builey 
and  John  S.  Harri.^. 

Viitribation, 

Angtira  gnnta  are  widely  diBtributed  throughont 
America.  Th^ey  are  found  in  atmiwt  every  state  and 
territory  in  the  Union,  the  largest  numbers  being 
in  Texas,  New  Mexico,  California,  Arizona.  Oregon 
and  Montana.  They  are  found  in  large  nambera  in 
Cape  Colony.  Tht*  census  report  for  .A,pril,  lyOJ. 
gives  the  ntim!tM?r  in  Cape  Colony  as  2,«  f 5.927,  Et 
U  estimated  that  in  1801,  there  were  over  1,230.- 
CKX)  An^urtu  in  A^ia  Minor.   [See  page  409.] 

Types. 

Some  stratna  of  Angoras  have  fox-like  ears,  bat 
those  with  the  pendent  oars  are  preferred.  In  this 
coantry,  cara  mast  always  b^  exercised  to  cull  th& 
off-colored  kids  from  the  rtock.  Thea©  may  he  the 
result  of  ataviitm.  from  a  croa^  made  on  a  common 
goat,  either  re4  or  black.  Jt  ia  reported  that  dif- 
ferent colors  are  found  in  the  province  of  Angora 
among  what  were  supported  to  be  pure-bred  animalti. 
Some  .'Angoras  have  very  little  or  no  mohair  on  the 
forehead  and  legi".  while  othora  have  a  tuft  on  the 
forehead,  and  the  legs  are  well  covered  down  to 
the  fdet. 

firefrdins. 

(;oat§  of  both  Bexea  will  .lometimes  breed  when 
thoy  are  five  or  six  months  old,  but  from  the  fact 
-that  at  thii!  age  they  are  but  a  month  or  two  from 
weaning  time,  and  are  not  fully  grown,  it  is  obvious 
that  they  ahnuld  not  be  permitted  to  bre«d.  Th«y 
reach  maturitv  when  about  sixteen  or  eighteen 
months  old,  :in<i  they  ehould  not  lie  bred  before 
this  time.  If  bred  earlier,  the  kidn  will  not  be  ao 
strong,  nor  so  well  developed.  The  goata  are  in 
their  prime  when  two  to  six  years  old.  Does  shonld 
not  be  kept  until  they  are  very  oEd,  unless  they 

Cduce  kids  of  exceptional  merit,  for  their  mohair 
oraes  coarser  and  Ioas  valujible  as  they  mature. 
The  average  life  of  goats  ia  about  twelve  yeiim. 

Bucks  unually  come  in  heat  about  the  middle  of 
July,  and  continue  ao  about  six  months.  DoHit  do 
not  usually  come  in  hi^at  until  the  latter  part  of 
August  or  thu  firnt  of  September.  Thu  period  of 
gestation  is  HI  to  ITi'j  days.  Th>t)  kids  shuuld  not 
come  before  the  warm  days  of  spring,  or  when 
Tflgetation  begins  to  put  ont  vigoron!»ly.  The  only 
objection  to  early  kidding  i.s  theextra  care  required 
to  preaerve  the  life  of  the  kidA,  for  they  are  deli- 
eata  for  the  first  fev  dajrtt. 


A  back  should  be  in  the  best  po!»ible  condition 
when  put  to  inervice,  and  should  tie  fed  some  grain 
during  the  breeding  seikton.  For  the  best  results, 
about  forty  or  fifty  does  shuuld  be  allowed  to  a 
buck.  The  pure-bred  .\ngora  does  rot  oftvn  drop , 
niflro  than  one  kid  at  a  time,  while  the  common 
goat  nearly  nlways  drop»  two.  The  kidding  aeaston 
is  the  mrjat  important  in  the  life  of  the  gwits.  for 
several  days  after  the  kidn  are  dropped,  they  natu- 
rally demand  gcutd  care.  Aflera  fww  weeks  ifaeyare 
able  to  care  for  themselves,  and  can  follow  the 
flock. 

A  few  days  before  a  doe  is  due  to  kid,  she  should 
be  Bcparated  from  the  flock.  Some  breeders  would 
put  her  alone  in  a  pen,  while  others  would  pnt  as 
many  as*  twenty  in  one  pen.  If  the  facilities  arc  at 
hand,  a  .nmall  pen  for  each  doe  i.q  better,  fiir  the 
reason  that  the  doe  will  own  the  kid  sooner,  and 
there  will  be  less  danger  of  injury.  If  kidt»  are 
dropped  on  the  range  or  in  the  pasture,  they  must 
be  carried  home  and  special  care  given  to  see  that 
the  does  are  made  to  own  them,  for  many  times 
they  will  refuse,  especially  if  they  h;iv.}  no  milk. 

There  are  in  use  two  methiMb  of  handling  the 
does  and  kidi  at  kidding  time,  namely,  the  corral 
method  and  the  staking  method.  Kach  of  theM 
methods  ha.4  its  advant^es. 

(1)  The  corral  method  may  be  used  with  any 
number  of  goats.  When  a  large  number  of  doea 
are  expected  to  kid,  it  is  neceswary  to  have  one  or  j 
two  large  corrals  and  eevcral  smaller  onea.  Thai 
does'  expected  to  kid,  or  thcwe  that  have  kidded,  are 
put  in  the  small  corrals,  and  after  a  day  or  so  are 
removed  to  one  of  the  larger  one^.  This  procedure 
w  repeated  until  all  the  does  have  kidded. 

(2)  The  other,  the  Mexican  or  "staking  method." 
is  used  largely  in  Texa.?  and  New  Mexico.  When  a 
kid  is  born,  it  it§  taken  to  a  convenient  place  to 
"dtake"  and  the  mother  is  coaxed  to  follow,  and  the 
kid  is  "staked"  or  "toggM"  with  a  atring  about 
twelve  inches  long.  Thi:i  string  \a  tied  to  one  leg, 
being  changed  occasionally  from  one  leg  to  another 
to  avoid  lameness.  The  string  should  have  a  swivel 
in  it  to  prevent  twisting.  Kids  are  usually  st^«d| 
for  a  week  to  ten  day-i. 

Kids  should  not  be  weaned  until  they  are  about 
four  months  old.  The  buck  kids,  not  intende<I  for 
breeding  purpoiaes.  should  be  castrated  when  about 
two  weeks  old.  The  earlier  it  \s  done,  the  better 
■will  be  the  meat  and  mohair. 

No  amoont  of  cold  will  prove  injariooa  to  goats 
if  they  are  kept  dry.  A  i^hed  of  easy  access  is  one 
of  the  essential.s  of  goat-raising.  Angoras  are  able 
to  with-ftand  both  extreme  heat  and  extreme  cold 
if  proij'tir  shelter  and  feed  be  provided.  Th«j  require 
a  large  amount  of  fresh  air  and  exercise. 

The  browsing  habit  of  goats  i»  an  important  fac- 
tor in  their  feeding.    In  some  s<tctions.  they  secure 
browse  all  through  the  winter  sea.<>>on.  as  in  the 
Southwest,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  live-oak. ' 
Com  fodder,  cowpea  hay,  clover  hay.  and  alfalfaj 
are  all  excellent  coarse  feeds.  Oats,  corn  and  braa' 
are  valuable  winter  rations.  Goats  require  mc 


r 

F 


Bait  than  do  shavn,  owinj{  to  thu  niori!  astrin^nt 
character  of  their  foud.  .\  running  stream  in  a 
pasture  is  vnlaahle,  tiut  if  it  is  not  prtssent,  good, 
trvah  water  should  benappliad. 

Marking. 

SioVBral  ddvices  for  markinf;  (znalu  an*  in  use, 
but  the  muta]  tat;  in  the  ear  in  jmihiibly  bei^t 
known.  A  practifc  which  appears  ti>  giva  Aalisfac- 
tion  i<)  to  tattoo  the  nnmbors  into  the  ear,  using 
indelible  ink.  It  in  found  that  the  metat  is  some- 
timeA  pulled  out  \ty  brush. 

;SAcariiij7. 

In  Ti>sii8,  New  Mexico.  Arizona,  and  i^omi^timeti  in 
California,  shearing  is  done  twice  a  year,  usually 
in  the  months  of  Marc:h  and  April,  and  in  Septem- 
ber or  October.  The  reason  for  thi.s  pr.ictice  is 
that,  owing  tvi  the  warm  climnte,  the  fleece  will 
often  shell  in  the  fall  if  notclippf^d.  En  other  parts 
of  the  country,  shearing  is  done  but  onee  »  year, 
and  that  in  thu  inunthti  of  Mar<.'h,  .\pnl  and  May. 
The  shuarinj,'  machines,  largely  employed  among 
sheep-raisers,  are  coming  into  general  use  among 
goat-breeders. 

Goats  are  not  so  gentle  in  the  hands  of  the 
Bhearer  as  ttheep,  and  many  men,  e.'fiM'rially  among 
Iwginners  in  the  industry,  fkwiro  tn  knmw  hew  best 
to  handle  them  during  the  ojjeratiiMi  of  sheiiring. 
For  this  purpwie,  a  fiimple  cumbinaliun  trough  and 
table  (Pig.  4HjJ  was  devised  by  F.  W.  Ladlow,  of 
Lake  Valley.  New  Mexico.  This  Ubio  is  first  nsed 
in  the  shnpe  of  a  trmigh.  The  goat  is  placed  in  it 
on  itH  back  and  held  down  by  means  of  a  strap 
auniss  itH  throat.  While  in  this  (Hisition  all  the 
undarpart^,  sides  and  lugs  may  be  worked  on.  In 
naaehine  shiiaring.  it  is  a  good  practitie  to  start  at 
^  the  brisket  and  shear  uN  the  belly  as  far  back  as 

pMsibio  ;  then  shear  the  front  legs  and  neck  ;  then 
Htart  at  the  hecks  anil  shear  up  the  hind-legs  and 
alnng  the  sides  to  the  point  nf  lieginning.  After 
ehearing  one  of  the  sides  allowi^d  by  the  trough, 
the  guat  is  tiL-d  - "  hog  tiwl,"  to  use  a  western 
expression  -  that  i.-*,  all  four  feet  are  tied  together. 
The  sides  of  the  trough  are  now  dropped,  forming 
a  tible  on  which  to  finish  the  operation.  There  is 
new  free  acrcess  from  the  tail  tn  the  head,  and  the 
goat  remains  hp]ple.>^.  The  proper  course  is  to 
leave  all  the  fleece  un  the  table  until  the  goat  is 
liberated,  and  then  ndl  it  up  inside  out. 

Mr.  Ludlow's  description  of  this  tablo  is  given 
herewith  :  "The  table  is  simple  in  eonstrnction.    It 

Lis  about  22  inches  high,  2  feet  10  inchca  long,  and 
21  inches  wide.  The  top  is  compiled  of  two  lUnch 
Hides,  which  are  hingetl  to  the  -S-inoh  centeqiiece. 
On  the  lower  side  of  these  movable  fla|M  is  a 
narrow  piece  fi  inches  long,  which  catches  on  the 
framework  of  thy  table  when  the  sides  are  liftefl 
and  holds  them  stationary.  When  the  sides  are 
elevated,  the  top  of  the  table  forms  a  trough  3 
inchea  wide  at  the  bottum  and  iHiRsiblya  foot  wide 
at  the  top.  Into  this  trough  the  goat  to  Iw  shorn  is 
thrown,  feet  up.  A  small  strap,  which  hangs  From 
the  end  of  one  of  the  sides,  is  run  over  the  goat's 
neck  and  fastened  to  the  other  side.  The  eoat'a 



head  is  hant;ing  over  tho  end  of  the  table  and  the 
strap  previ:tnts  it  getting  free.  The  belly  and  legs 
are  then  shoro.  Tho  legs  of  the  goat  are  then  tied 
together,  the  strap  removed  from  the  neck,  and  tho 
sides  of  the  table  droppetl,  so  that  one  has  a  plane 
surface  on  which  Ui  shear  the  rest  of  the  animal. 
.\n  untrained  man  can  shear  100  goats  a  day  with  a 
shearing  machine  and  suiih  a  table." 

Few  breeders  wash  thoir  goats  before  shearing, 
and  if  the  animal  has  been  properly  cared  for  dur- 
ing the  winter  and  early  .-ipring,  wa'^hing  is  not 
neceivary.  Breeders  find  it  to  their  advantage  to 
ship  tho  mohair  in  as  clean  a  condition  as  pos«ib!e. 
Colored  fleaces,  tag  locks,  mohair  that  ia  cltitted 
and  that  which  is  dirty,  should  be  packed  separately. 
As  kid  hair  is  usiually  the  finest,  it  should  he  packed 
by  itself:  the  drw  hair  and  that  from  the  wethers 
may  be  placed  together.    Fleecej*  should  not  lie  tied 


Pi<.  tl6.    A  sbMilnf  trouKit  and  t«l>]»  comblDod. 

with  twine,  as  parts  of  it  are  likely  to  adhere  to 
the  fleece,  and  can  be  removed  only  by  great  care 
and  effort.  Fleeces  fmm  Turkey  and  Cape  Colony 
are  not  tied  at  alt,  but  are  simply  relied  up  insidu 
out  ;  this  in  the  condition  in  which  the  mills  desiru 
to  receive  them. 

Uaeg. 

The  Angora  goat  is  considered  one  of  the  moat 
useful  of  the  domestic  animals,  and  has  been  so 
held  from  remote  times.  This  usefulness  is  mani- 
festeij  in  many  way.". 

5V  m'*A(i]r.'-The  fleece,  called  "mohair,"  is  used 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  plushes.  It  is 
not  generally  known  that  practically  all  of  tho 
pl«.shes.  nsed  in  railway  piLssenger  conches  and 
street  cars  are  made  of  mohair.  Besides  these 
plushes,  which  are  usually  plain,  large  quantities 
of  frieze  and  crush  plusbeiiare  used  in  apbolstering 
furniture.  Tho  deaignsi  for  the^friese  pluahejt  are 
limitLxl  only  by  the  ingenuity  of  man.  The  carriage 
robes,  couch  covt-rs,  sofa-pillow  covers,  and  ruga 
arc  distinguished  by  their  high  pile  and  rich  color- 
ing. M(wt  (if  the  Ro-i^alled  astrachan  now  in  use  is 
maile  of  m<ih.-iir. 

Besides  plui^hes,  which  form  the  princijml  item, 
there  muy  be  menkiuned  dress  goods  of  various 
designs,  conts  and  coat-linings,  tahlo  co\-ora,  knit 
mils,  mittens  and  gloves,  maile  from  mohair. 

In  addition  to  the  mohair,  there  grows  on  the 
Angora  goat  coarse,  chalky  white,  stiff,  straight 
hair,  varying  in  length  from  half  an  inch  to  four 
inches,  technically  known  :ih  "  kemp."  It  is  gener- 
ally thought  that  kemp  is  a  relic  »f  tho  oummon 
goat  blooiti  in  tho  .\ngora.  as  it  is  a  matter  of  bis* 


408 


GOAT 


GOAT 


tory  that  the  Angora  flocks  of  America,  as  well  as 
those  of  Asia  Minor  and  South  Africa,  have  been 
larf^ely  incr«ae«d  by  crossing  does  of  common  blood. 
It  in  objectionable. 

The  hA-ih*.— The  Bkina  of  the  AnRoras,  if  taken 
whwii  the  hair  is  about  four  inches  Ioek.  make  very 
bandsomo  rujics.  The  hair  retain  its  original  luster, 
and  may  h&  uaed  in  the  natural  white,  or  dyed  any 
color  denired.  Carriajiie- robes  are  freifiuently  manu- 
factnred  from  the  »kin&.  Tho  smaller  stkinK  of  the 
tloe«,  Wttthcn*  and  kids  find  a  hab  as  robea  for  hiihy- 
carriagess,  and  are  extremely  attractive.  The  skinB 
are  also  iwwi  in  tho  manufacture  of  childn-'ii's 
roafTs,  and  a^  trimmin}^  fur  coata  and  capes.  The 
finest  kid  ftec-ces  adorn  the  collar  and  border  of 
some  of  the  Udietf'  opera  cinakx. 

To  dear  bruith  land. — Guatit  are  browsers  by 
natnre,  and  there  itt  no  vttgoLation  they  will  eat  in 
liDeferencB  to  Ii-avw  and  twt^  of  bushetit.  The 
Angora  has  been  used  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
for  clearing  land  coven-d  with  brushwood.  In 
localities  where  valuable  land  is  complcteiy  over- 
grown with  brushwood,  the  goats  are  con-sideritd  of 
more  value  for  clearing  it  than  for  their  mohair  or 
meat. 

Thf  rnt/t.— The  Angora  ix  nut  primarily  a  milch 
goat,  and  is  not  often  employud  for  that  purpoi^e. 
Information  at  hand  shows  that  thu  i;uantity  of 
milk  given  by  an  Angora  <Iou  is  uncortain,  and  in 
exceptional  capes  only  does  it  approach  in  quantity 
that  pr<«luceil  liy  the  established  breedj'  of  milch 
goati^,  mch  OR  the  Toggdnburg,  Saanen,  Maltese 
and  Nubian. 

714c  Jiwu/. — Thu  flesh  nf  An},'ora  goaU  is  exceed- 
ingly nutritious  and  palatable.  When  tiroperly  fat- 
tened, tliey  produce  a  meat  so  nearly  like  thu  iK'^st 
lamb  that  it  takes  an  expert  to  detect  the  ditfer- 
ence.  A  large  number  of  .\ngoras  are  slaughtered 
anjiuaily  in  Texan,  Arixona,  New  Mexico  And  Cali- 
fornia. !n  Cape  ('olony,  it  is  «aid  that  nUl  diwn  aro 
Blriughterwl  to  furnish  meat  f(»r  farm  hands,  and 
yming  wethers  are  sold  to  butchers  in  the  towns. 

Kansas  City  is  the  leading  goat  market,  over 
sixty  thousand  head  having  been  sold  in  this  one 
market  in  19t)7. 

Prvteetion  fur  fherp. — There  is  very  Httle  com- 
plaint beani  fnim  breeHnr3  of  Angora  goaU<  cnn- 
ceming  the  ravat^eii  nf  di»g».  Bucka  can  In*  trained 
to  fight  degs  and  thus  Iw  a  prutt>ctiun  to  Khet-p.  A 
few  gtjatrt  will  stay  with  a  Bock  of  sheep,  but  if 
there  are  many  of  them  they  will  bo  likely  to 
sepamtc. 

Fei«. — As  pets  for  children,  Angora  goats  are 
impiilar.  They  are  remarkably  intelligent  and  are 
easily  trained.    They  are  often  harneased  Ui  carta.. 

Orffani^aliont  and  recordt. 

The  .American  .Angora  (Joat  Breeders'  jVaaocia- 
tion,  organized  in  1900,  maintains  the  only  record 
of  pure-brod  .Xngora  goats  in  America.  This  or- 
ganizntinn  has  a  membership  of  over  five  hun- 
dred breeders,  representing  nearly  every  state 
and  territory  in  the  Uniim.  Over  sixty-live  thuu- 
»and  anima1.H  are  recorded  in  the  Angora  Goat 
Record. 


Litrrafare. 

George  Fayette  Thompson,  Angora  Goat  Raising 
and  Milch  Goats ;  William  L.  Black,  A  New  Indus- 
try ;  C.  r.  Bailey,  Practical  Angora  Goat  Raising ; 
(Justav  A.  Hoerle.  The  Angora  Goat :  Its  Habits 
and  C'ultiire;  John  L.  Hayes,  The  Angura  Goat: 
Its  Origin,  Culture  and  Products  ;  S.  C.  Cronwriglit 
Schreiner,  The  Angora  Goat;  George  Edward  .Allen, 
Angora  Goats,  the  Wealth  of  the  Wilderness;  G. 
r.  Bailey,  California  Angoras :  E.  H.  Jobson, 
Angora  Goat  Raising;  George  Fayette  Thnrnpson, 
Information  concerning  the  Angora  Goat,  Bulletin 
Nu.  27,  Bureau  of  .Animal  Imlustry,  I'nited  States 
Department  of  Agriculture;  George  Fayetttf  Tbomi>- 
son.  The  Angora  Goat,  Farmers'  Bulk-tin  No.  137, 
United  Stat^^8  Department  of  Agriculture.  This 
article  is  largely  adapted  from  the  bulletins  on 
.Angora  goats  preparw)  by  the  late  George  Fayette 
ThumpHon.    [See  also  page  411.] 

niilcb  Goats.   Capra.  kircua,  Linn.   Figs.  417-419. 

By  WiUiam.  C.  Clo$. 

The  breeding  of  goats  for  the  production  of  milk 
is  a  growing  industry  in  some  parts  of  America. 
In  the  development  of  the  dairy  tyjie,  numerons 
bnwls  and  varieties  of  goats  have  been  produced, 
adapted  to  meet  different  conditNQs. 

Di'xrripf  ion. 

According  to  the  best  authorities,  the  following 
general  pointif  and  qualities  are  applicable  to  all 
tyi>TOof  miU-.h  goats.  They  must  noSMosagiHid  forms, 
itidi<'j[ling constitutional  slrengtii  and  high  pniduc- 
tivenefK.  The  hL-ad  must  be  light  (dry),  eyt-a  fresh 
and  lively,  horns  (in  all  horned  breeds)  smalt,  neck 
broad,  breuHt  wide,  ribs  well  spmng,  back  long  ami 
straight,  hips  broad  and  strong,  legs  ninewy  and 
straight.  Healthy  claws,  a  line,  thin  skin  and  a 
wpll-tievclopfHl,  but  not  tcMi  pendent  udder  and  guo<t 
tutith  are  also  necessary  requisites. 

Hi*torif. 

Goats  are  among  the  oldest  domestic  animals, 
and  have  contributed  their  share  to  the  subsifltence 
nf  mankind  as  far  luiok  as  historic  evidences  reach. 
Rutimeii-r  diHcovered  their  remains  among  the 
riiinwi  ]iiltw  of  thu  ancient  lake-ilwellers  in  Switzer- 
land. GoaU  and  their  products  are  mentioned  fre- 
quently in  the  Bible,  and  by  llL-rodotus  and  Homer, 
and  have  maintained  their  popularity,  especially 
among  oriental  nations,  to  this  day. 

The  (luestitin  of  their  origin  is  still  In  dispnte. 
Accimling  tti  Julmy,  a  m.-ijority  of  Rii'dogistit  main- 
lain  that  the  Kuro|)i.'an  gout  is  deisi^Tided  from  the 
PerHian  patuing  or  Bezoar  goat  (Capru  agagrvs), 
while  others  seem  to  trace  it  to  the  Alpioo  ibex 
[C'lpra  ihrx). 

Whatever  may  have  l»een  their  origin,  they  have 
exerted  a  strong  inttuence  on  the  economic  welfare 
of  the  pe(i|de.s  Jimong  whom  they  have  been  found. 
Their  growth  in  numln'r.'t,  onlj^ide  of  .Amerii'-a,  has 
Wim  notuwnrthy  ;  and  in  this  country  their  popu> 
larity  may  be  said  to  be  increasing,  the  following 


GOAT 


GOAT 


F 


fltstisUca  indicate  their  piniijlarity.  G.  F,  ThnmpsriTi 
statufl,  in  hiH  "Information  Concerning'  CnmincHi 
Goata,"  jiublisheil  in  190:i,  that  there  were  1,871,- 
252  KoaUt  i>f  all  kinds  kept  on  farms  in  the  United 
Staten,  ad  rflptirted  in  the  cenans  for  liMK),  rejira- 
Bontiiig  a  total  value  of  $3,2GG.080.  Resides  theae, 
there  wore  78,35li  Roatu  reported  for  cities  and  vil- 
lages, which  wnalti  liring  the  total  np  to  l,94it,G05 
head.  He  e8tim:it4>H  iha  nnmlxtr  uf  Angoran  At 
700,000,  and  the  rHmaimier,  he  says,  "are  ail  surts 
of  animals  except  reeugnued  broods  of  milch  Riiata, 
of  which  there  are  so  few  aa  not  to  affect  the  trjtal 
materially."  This  ia  indeed  a  snail  Jiuniber,  but  it 
indicatc-s  the  need  as  well  as  the  possibilities  of 
improvement. 

Burupean  statistics  give  far  more  satisfactory 
resultii.  Germriny  had  (in  1883),  acconling  to  Dett- 
weiler,  2,B39,W4  milch  piata ;  Switzerland  (in 
1896)  ptwseiwed  41B,:i2:i  he:ul  (Steblef).  Pegler,  in 
his  wurk  (TIkt  Book  of  the  Gcat),  gives  th&  follow- 
ing figures:  France.  I,794.><:i7  ;  Russia,  1.700.000; 
Aostria.  970.104;  Spain,  4.531,22S ;  Italy.  l.tJOO,- 
478,  and  the  grand  total  for  continental  Kampe  as 
17,198.587  head.  The  Yearbook  of  the  United 
States  Department  (if  AgrieuHure  fur  1906,  in  its 
statLitical  columns,  yive*  the  tofeiil  number  of  gouta 
for  South  American  f  ountries  as  5,f)62.2;iy  ;  North 
and  CVntral  America.  6,2'W,1H2;  Africa.  17,S57,- 
590;  Asia.  40.5r>7.402,  while  Australia  (total 
Oceanica)  is  marked  down  to  a  total  of  only  114,- 
865  head. 

/ft  .IfTUTira. — As  haa  been  »aid,  little  effort  has 
been  put  forth  to  improve  the  common  goat  of 
America,  and  no  important  milking  strains  or 
families  have  been  produced.  It  is  only  under  the 
stimutns  of  re('4^nt  importations  of  some  of  the  best 
European  types  that  intereat  in  goats  for  milk- 
priwinction  has  sprung  np.  The  first  importation 
wa.s  that  of  W.  A.  Shafor,  of  Ohio,  who  brought 
over  four  Toggenburg  goats  ia  18^3,  The  next 
important  impiTtation  was  made  by  F.  8,  I'etr.  of 
Ithaca,  New  York,  in  the  Bpring  of  1904,  when  he 
brought  over  a  largo  numbc-r  of  Toggenburg;  and 
White  Saanen  goats  for  individuals  in  Massachu- 
Mtto,  New  York.  New  Jersey  and  Marybnd.  In 
1906.  the  Uni'tefl  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
becnnie  interested,  and  through  G.  F.  Thompcon 
imported  sixty-eight  maltose  goats  for  experimen- 
tation in  America.  The  results  of  this  experiment 
were  not  satisfactory. 

DUlribution. 

At  the  present  time  goats  are  distributed  over  a 
large  part  of  the  globe,  but  it  is  to  be  regretted 
that  statistics  furnish  but  very  meager  informa- 
tion Ir  regard  to  their  disiiemination.  Such  ntatii^- 
tics  as  sre  available  indicate  that  they  are  found  in 
larger  or  smaller  numbers  in  nearly  every  inhabited 
land.  In  America  they  are  widely  scattered.  An 
idea  of  their  geographic  distribution  will  be  gained 
by  reference  to  the  Btatisttoi  given  above, 

BrttcU  and  tjfpef. 

Following  are  brief  notes  on  the  moflt  promi- 
nent breeds  and  types. 


The  .\'vbian  mileh  gmJ  is  a  long-legged  goat, 
with  generally  a  pnlli>d  heail,  sunltt-n  noHtril.t.  pro- 
jecting lower  jaw,  long,  hanging  earn  in  most3f>eci- 
mens,  large,  well -sliaiwl  udder  and  teats.  The 
ctdnr  is  brown  or  b]a<rk.  The  hair  varies  in  length. 
It  ia  native  in  Nubia,  northern  Egypt  and  Abys- 
sinia. Huart  du  Pleasia  and  Pegler  recommend 
this  breed  very  highly  because  of  its  large  size  and 
unsurpjisHed  milking  f|nalrtie»,  giving  four  to  twelve 
qnartf  per  (Eay.  However,  it  is  very  sensitive  to 
ciild  and  for  that  reiwon  is  not  ndaptetl  for  northern 
ctiinatert.  [Ia  jimeliorative  value,  however,  is  not 
to  bu  lost  Bight  of  in  croes-hriieding  exjwrimenla, 
especially  with  southern  varieties,  as  the  New 
Mexican. 

The  Maltese  gnai. — According  to  Thompson,  this 
type  is  about  two  feet  and  six  inches  in  height  and 
will  oft«?n  weigh  100  pounds,  ft  in  tutunlly  hornless, 
and  the  ji^retlomlnatingcidor  is  white,  aJthnugh  there 
are  many  othi^r  colors,  as  red,  brown  and  black.  The 
eara  are  moderately  long  and  horizontal.  The  body 
is  low  and  stocky.  It  is  said  that  the  milking  quality 
of  the  breed  has  been  bo  perfectly  developed  that 


f:^ 


•39  V. 


-  ?^*-** 


■.^■^r- 


m 


■XJ^ 


FlC.  417.    MUdi  XHti.  wltli  udders  too  ptn-Uot.    vwmd 
bj  J.  V.  Ziiin.  I'liu-nls.  Ariiuun. 

nearly  every  doe  kid  becomes  a  good  milker.  The 
udder  is  large  and  is  carried  low,  and  yields  two  to 
four  <]iiarts  of  milk  daily.  In  Malta  it  is  asserted 
that  .Maltese  goats  never  do  well  when  exported. 

TTftf  \':w  Mfj-knn  goat.—Uy  this  somewhat  arbi- 
trary name  in  distinguished  the  only  real  American 
breed  of  goats  known.  They  are  common  in  New 
Mexico.  Texas  and  the  Southwest,  where  largo 
numbers  of  them  are  kept  by  the  Spant»h-speaking 
populace.  They  are  not  uniform  in  color  and  size, 
but  hare  the  reputation  of  being  fairly  good 
milkers. 

Tftf  Spanhfl'MaUfK  ^oat.  —  B.  H.  Van  Raul),  of 
Van  Raub.  Texas,  is  the  most  prominent  breeder  of 
this  type,  and  his  efforts  in  Improving  and  develop- 
ing this  variety  are  said  to  have  given  to  the 
United  States  tha  first  pure-blooded  breed  of  milch 
goats  of  its  own.  .Mr.  Thompson  indicates  that 
these  Spinish-Ualtese  represent  several  varieties. 

TOf  Tojjgrnhurg  mtlfft  poatt  (Fig.  41SJ  are  one  of 
the  oldest  and  Iwst  known  of  thft  numerous  breeds 
of  milch  goats  in  Switurland.  lliey  are  hardy  and 


410 


GOAT 


GOAT 


faornleaa,  ami  their  Hlentler  liodies  are  covered  with 
giJky  hair  of  a  pccoliar  brown  color  that  variea  much 
in  loniith.  The  malos  carry  a  hu-avy.  t-oarse  bean]. 
The  logs  and  oars  arc  white,  tho  latter  of  medium 
length  and  well  carried.  The  brt«d  is  further  dis- 
tinguished hy  two  white  stripes  on  their  he^ads. 
running  parallel  on  each  side  of  the  face  from  the 


felt 


f 


pig.  418.    TogaenbuEK  mllcb  Roat. 


.V- 


ears  to  the  mouth,  and  also  by  two  peculiar  amalil 
cartiUjfiaouii  a[>pendages  or  ''wattles"  on  the  side 
of  the  neck,  called  roetteli.  These  "wattles"  are  not 
peculiar  to  Tojrgenburgs,  but  are  found  in  nearly 
at!  breeds  of  poata.  Tliey  are  very  common  tn  Mal- 
tese breeds.  They  are  splendid  milkers,  yielding  four 
to  six  quarts  daily,  and  carry  the  well-developed 
udders  rather  high.  They  bear  confinement  well,  a 
fact  that  should  not  be  underestimated  in  consider- 
ing this  hreed. 

TTic  White  Appf-iueUrr  goat  may  he  regarded  sn  a 
white  variety  of  the  Toggenburg  breed,  and  \s 
native  in  the  Toggenbur);  valley  in  Switzerland. 
Like  the  latter,  it  is  large,  hardy  and  productive. 

The  WhUf  Saancn  goat  (Fig.  410)  is  another  very 
popular  t^wiss  breed.  It  is  ^ncTally  hiToIt-ss  and 
of  large  size.  It  is  a  good  milker,  and  has  been 
exported  extensively  from  Switzerland  for  amelior- 
ative pnrp<M!*fl. 

7%e  Btack-mcked  Vataitan  goat  la  a  very  pretty 
and  attractive  variety  covered  with  long,  nilky 
hair,  black  on  the  head,  neck,  breast  and  front  legs, 
and  wnow-whitu  on  the  entire  middle  and  rear  parl*i 
of  the  bcly.  It  is  a  fairly  good  milker,  has  a  splendid 
constitution,  but  doe^  not  thrive  under  continuous 
confinement. 

Manaffemtnt  and  ftrdiag. 

Milch  goats  are  very  prolific,  mnch  more  so  than 
Angoras  or  fihwp.  They  usually  drop  twins  and 
often  triplcUi,  and  as  their  pi^riiMl  of  g<>Mlation  is 
only  aliuot  Cve  m<»nthH,  they  increauB  very  rapidly, 
becau!*u  they  will  brt-vd  sliortly  after  kidding,  and 
yearlingdoea  are  fit  for  reproduction,  Uiicksnhoald 
iio  chorten  rarofully ;  only  thoee  descended  from 
good  milking  dams  fihould  be  ojied,  and  then  only 
when  they  are  of  good  form  and  conntitutional 
vigor.    Becauae  of  their  n-puUive  amdl,  bocka 


should  bo  kept  entirely  separate,  and  as  far  awa7 
from  the  does  aa  possible. 

Milk  froJii  rutting  dod»  should  not  be  used  for 
domestic  purpow*.  Observance  of  this  rule  will 
effectually  prevent  the  complaints  that  goat's  milk 
has  a  bad  taste.  Breeding  should  be  so  managed 
that  does  will  kid  thre*  times  within  two  years,  and 
if  several  animals  are  kept,  their  lactation  periods 
may  be  easily  arranged  so  as  to  provide  a  steady 
and  even  snpply  of  milk  for  their  owners.  The  lac- 
tation period  i»  about  five  or  six  months  in  the 
milking  families. 

Cleanliness  is  absolutely  necessary  when  goats 
are  confinvd  in  stables.  These  animals  are  sensilivo 
to  cold  and  damp  and  therefore  should  be  kept  in 
warm  but  light  stables,  with  always  dry  bedding. 
They  like  variety  in  their  feed,  and  this  peculiarity 
should  not  be  overlooked.  They  ahould  be  given 
clean,  sweet  hay,  and  the  good  vegetable  trirominga 
from  the  kitchen.  A  handful  of  oats  or  a  little 
bran  is  a  very  good  addition  to  the  ration,  especi- 
ally during  the  ptriod  of  heavy  lactation.  They 
moat  have  salt  regularly,  and  as  much  clean  water 
as  they  will  drink.  In  the  winter  they  should  have 
provided  for  them  occasionally,  if  po-tsible,  soma 
h-izel-brash.  birch,  maple,  box-elder, or  similar  twigs. 
They  like  to  nibble  such  things  and  will  pay  for  the 
trouble.  Willow,  oak,  or  any  other  bitter  or  acid 
harks  should  not  bo  used  for  this  purpose,  because 
they  impart  impk-a^ant  tastes  to  the  milk.  In  the 
summtT  a  good  pasture  having  a  variety  of  forage 
and  fresh  water  is  a  splendid  place  for  them.  If 
the«e  directions  are  observed,  goats  will  gire  good 
wholesome  milk  plentifully.  If  the  milk  has  an 
uncommon  f1.i;vor,  the  cause  is  usually  in  the  fe«d, 
unUss  the  animale  are  sick. 

If  pasturage  is  not  available,  then  they  should  be 
let  out  into  a  clean  yard  daily,  for  they  must  have 
exercise,  as  in  their  natural  environments  they  like 
to  romp  and  play.  Pences  must  be  tight,  otherwise 


Fts.  419.    While  Sjiann  r^t. 

the  goats  will  got  out  evun  in  places  where  it  wooH 
soom  almost  impossihio  for  Lhem  to  crawl.  All 
bracefl  shonld  be  on  the  out«ide.  .and  no  boards 
should  be  aIIow[>d  to  lean  against  the  fenc<\  other- 
wise the  gniits  will  climb  ovpr.  Itreechy  goats  should 
be  provided  with  so-called  "  pussies"  or  frames. 


GOAT 


GOAT 


411 


Kids  shotiM  Vm?  separatcM)  frnm  thpir  mtithvrs  ani] 
fed  from  a  nuraing-Jinltle,  Kwaunw  thwir  muther's 
teats  are  UHunlly  liio  targv  fur  tli^ni.  Tlicy  should  Ih> 
ireaned  graduully,  and,  when  thoy  aa-  accust*:inn.-d 
'to  cat  wall,  they  will  ruadily  take  cart?  of  thuni- 
aulvt!a,as  long  as  they  have  plenty  before  them  to 
eat.  YounR  bucks  that  are  nnt  neeilml  afl  repro- 
ducers shnald  )«  rastratifd  «arly  and  t)Utchi;rud 
when  a  few  months  old.  Their  meat  is  then  even 
mure  of  a  delicacy  than  Iamb. 

Uta. 

Omtrary  to  common  opinion,  goate  have  decided 
virtuw!  and  capabilities  that  will  eventually  Kain 
for  them  a  prominent  place  in  the  catimation  of  the 
peopk'.  especially  among  the  working  cLmses  in  the 
soborbs  of  targe  citiiu,  and  it  i»  not  at  all  imprnli- 
able  that  th*'y  may  win  favor  evt-n  with  tho  ricb. 

For  miiit. -The  principal  value  of  thy  niiich  goat 
is  its  eminent  milk-producing  quality.  While  it  ht\s 
thus  far  been  of  relative  unimportance  in  this  coun- 
try for  its  milk,  thin  \n  m*t  trae  in  many  other  lands. 
In  Switzerland,  milch  g«at«  are  commiinily  called 
the  "  poor  mnn's  cows,"  and  wyU  thi^y  muy,  as 
they  take  the  place  of  cowa  not  only  because  of 
their  cheapni>!M  and  thu  comparatively  low  co«t 
of  their  kyep.  hut  also  because  thoy  enable  poor 
persotifl  to  enjoy  the  advantjige«  usually  derived  by 
the  better  situated  c^laispj*  from  their  cattte,  nndor 
conditions  abaoltitely  prohibitive  to  the  successful 
maintenance  of  milch  cnwu.  In  that  mountainous 
land,  three  or  four  well-kept  mii*rh  goat'*  of  good 
breeding  arc  commonly  ratod  tHjual  in  milk-produc- 
ing qualitien  to  an  average  cow,  and  six  to  eight 
goats  may  be  kept  on  the  (juantity  of  feed  retiuired 
for  one  cow.  It  should  aUn  be  borne  in  mind  that 
two  or  three  goats  properly  man-iged  will  pmvicle 
&  steady  supply  of  milk  the  year  roiind,  while  the 
single  cow  does  not.  GouIa  iibn  are  not  nearly  so 
OTSccptible  to  tho  diseawa  that  have  proved  U>  be 
such  dangerous  enemies  to  mankind,  from  the  fact 
that  they  can  he  transmitted  by  cow's  milk.  It  is 
generally  held  that  goat's  milk  is  much  more  whole- 
some than  cow's  milk.  Gijat's  milk  may  be  used  fr«sh 
or  cooked,  just  as  cow's  milk,  and  is  rwommendwl 
as  preferable  finr  infant.-?  and  InvalidH  by  the  l>eat 
medical  anthorities.  Milch  goata  are  most  pro- 
ductive at  four  to  eight  years  of  age,  and  may  live 
to  be  twelve  or  more  years  old. 

Dr.  Kohlachmidt's  experiments  on  the  Tnilk-yttOd 
of  goata,  conducted  with  twenty-four  animaU  in 
Saxony,  demonstrated  an  .^veragl?  yearly  quantity 
of  726.7  litres  per  head.  The  highest  yield  ascer- 
tained by  him  was  1,077.5  litres ;  the  lowest,  G13.37 
litree:  the  average  per  cent  of  butter-fat  obtained 
yras  3.43  percent  {maximum  4.41  [wr  cent).  Ilunrt 
du  I'lewis  cites  the  example  of  a  pure-bred  Nubian 
goat  giving  an  average  of  ■1.5  litres  per  day.  with 
8.5  pc<r  cent  batter-fat.  Thi.-*  author  estimatoi*  the 
capacity  of  a  good  milch  goat  at  two  litres  per  day 
for  270  days  each  year.  I*rofessor  Anderegg  say.s 
that  there  ?»r€  four  breads  of  Swim  goats  capable 
of  a  daily  yield  of  fwur  litres  per  head.  SteWer 
stated,  on  the  aothority  of  a  Swiss  farmer,  that  the 
total  yearly  expense  for  keeping  a  common  goat. 


exclunive  of  summer  pattturage,  is  a  trifle  over  $2 
in  American  money,  against  a  yearly  income  of 
above  ^\  or  a  profit  of  over  $3  per  year  on  aa 
investment  uf  about  $7, 

For  batter.  —  Butter  may  be  made  from  goat's 
milk,  but,  owing  to  the  irregular  size  of  the  fat 
globules,  the  cream  is  very  rIdw  to  rise.  The  milk 
Hhoulct  be  carefully  and  Vtiry  slowly  heated  iin  the 
back  of  a  stove  until  a  wrinkled  ftcum  forms,  and 
then  tie  removed  to  tho  pantry  for  further  rising. 
The  longer  time  it  takua  to  heat,  the  more  cream  ia 
secured.  In  churning,  coloring  must  l>e  added,  or 
elso  tbo  product  will  he  as  white,  as  lard,  owing  to 
the  whiteness  of  th«  milk.  Perfect  cleanliness  and 
ai>ecial  care  are  necetwary  or  the  butter  wilt  develop 
a  hitUr  taste. 

Fitr  cheeiK. —^Caat'n  milk  makes  most  excellent 
cheese,  as  all  who  have  ever  been  treated  to  "tome 
de  chfvre"  or  "Geisskaea"  in  Europe  will  admit. 
Tho  milk  of  goats  is  an  ingredient  that  enters 
largely  into  the  manufacture  of  very  exjiensive 
kinds  of  cheese,  as  the  famous  Rmjuefort,  Mimt  d* 
Or,  I^vrmix,  SasM>nagR  and  others.  Goat  cheese 
hus  the  disailvantage  that  it  will  usually  not  keep 
well  unlesti  extra  care  and  pains  are  taken  in  it« 
manufacture  and  cure.  For  ordinary  use,  however, 
the  process  is  as  simple  as  that  employed  in  the 
making  of  any  common  home-made  curri  cheese. 

Ft  mral. — As  their  name  indicates,  milch  goats 
are  not  intendetl  as  meat-producers.  The  Hiwh  of 
older  animals,  therefurn?,  is  of  minor  quality, 
although  capable  of  great  improvement  by  proper 
fattening.  The  flesh  of  well-fattened  older  goats 
may  be  rendered  very  toothsome  by  smoKing  and 
drying.  Kid  meat  in  esteemefl  as  a  popular  delicacy 
in  Kiirnpi?  and  el-iiewherp. 

For  ikinx.  The  .•^kins  of  milch  goats  are  impor- 
tant articles  nf  commerce,  furnirthing,  as  they 
do.  the  raw  materia!  for  the  fini-at  leather  (kid, 
morocco,  aalllan,  and  tho  like).  At  present,  most  of 
the  hides  ««ed  for  this  purpose  are  imported.  This 
may  very  readily  tie  made  an  important  source  of 
income  wherever  goats  are  kept  in  numtx^n^.  It  is  a 
means  of  profit  that  hax  been  underestimated  in 
this  country. 

Orsanxzationi  and  rtcords. 

In  Noremlwr.  IWW.  The  American  Milk  Goat 
Record  Association  was  organized  to  care  for  tho 
interests  of  milch  goata  in  America,  and  to  pn>- 
mote  the  importation  of  gn«i  tyjws.  A  registry  is 
maintained,  entrance  being  liai«ed  on  milk-pni- 
dnction  and  satisfactory  ancestry  and  individual 
qoalities. 

i.ileralurr. 

Prof.  Anderegg,    Pie  Schwsiwr   Ziegen,   Bern 

(1887);  Fr.  Hettweilor,  Die  IWeutung  der  Ziegen- 
xucht,  etc.,  Ilpemen  (189-2);  Hiiart  Du  Pleasis,  La 
Ch^vre,  Parw,  4me  edition;  Felix  Hilpert,  Anlcit- 
ung  zur  Ziegenzuckt  tind  Ziegen  ha  Itang,  Berlin 
(1901);  Bryan  Hftok.  Milch  Goats  and  Their  Man- 
agement. London  (L@l>6>:  N.  Jalmy,  I^es  races  de 
t'h^vres  de  la  Suisse.  Bern  (1900);  l>r.  KohlschmMt, 
Untersaehaagen  oeber  die  Milchergiebigkeit  des 


412 


HARE 


xm  oesti.  Erzgebiri^e  verbreiteten  Ziegenschlages  in 
Landw.  Jahrbuecher  Bd.  XXVI ;  S.  HoSmes  Tegler, 
The  Rook  of  the  fioat,  Undon  (1S86);  Dr.  F.  G. 
Stebler,  Ziegenweitii^n  und  Ziegenhaltung  in  Alp 
and  Weidewirlgchaft.  Uerlin  (1903);  G.  F.  Thomp- 
son, Angara  Goat  Raising  and  Milch  (roata.  ('bicago 
(1903);  G.  F.  Thompaon,  Information  CoaceminR 
Common  Goats,  Circular  No.  42.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Affricultnre 
(1903);  G.  F.  Thompson,  Infarmation  Concerning 
the  Milch  Goat^.  Dulltitin  No.  G8,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  United  Statea  Department  of  Agriculture 
(190r-.). 

HAR£,  BELGIAN.    Lq>us   8p3>.   U-poridte.    Fig. 

■i2i). 

By  i'.  G.  Coiunrr. 

In  Ami^rica  thu  oamiw  haro  and  rabbit  are  used 
somewhat  indi34.'riininate!y  for  various  spt-cies  of 
rodents  of  the  family  Leporida?.  Han-  is  the  gen- 
eric term,  while  rabbit  is  Eipplieil  properly  to  a  short- 
legged  -specie-s  of  essentially  burrowing  babita, 
whose  naked,  blind  nml  hnlpleHsyining  are  nurtureil 
in  undert^ruund  th-bI».  The  Kn-ealltMi  Belgian  haru 
is  not  »  hare  at  all,  but  is  a  true  rabbit.  It  derives 
ito  name  from  the  fact  that  broudfrs  imitate  closely 
the  uhapu  and  habit  of  tbt>  hare.  From  an  economic 
standpoint,  the  Belgian  hare  is  thti  most  important 
of  the  rabbit  family,  aa  it  has  become  very  popular 
with  th*^'  fanciers,  iis  well  arf  with  utility  brt^edt^rs 
who  raiiw  it  principally  for  niBfit  purposes.  U  is 
thoroughly  dnniwlicated,  reyponds  i|uii-kly  to  kind 
treatment,  and  is  a  very  jirolUable  animal  to  the 
raiser.  [Other  Hpecics  unci  varietie«  of  rabbita  are 
di»cu8sed  under  J'ei*.] 

Detfcription. 

The  body  of  the  Belgian  hare  is  long  and  slim. 
The  fore-feet  and  legs  are  small,  the  hind-feet  and 
legs  large  and  powerful.  These  characteristics, 
togi^ther  with  the  long  head  and  fine  ears,  give  the 
Btilftian  hare  a  \*ery  racy  appearance.  The  color  is 
described  as  "rufus-red,"  and  is  rather  a  fox-color 
or  deep  golden  tan.  It  is  not  dintributed  equailv, 
but  is  richest  on  the  shoulders  and  top  of  the  neck. 
The  hair  id  tipped  with  black,  which  ia  called 
ticking.  Th«  proper  distribution  of  licking  adds 
greatly  to  th>fl  bi^^uty  of  the  animal.  It  should  be 
confinud  largely  to  the  back  and  flanks.  The  weight 
of  tht*  standard-bred  Belgian  hare  i.t  about  eight 
pounds.  There  is  the  so-called  heavy-weight  Bel- 
gian, which  is  of  a  much  grayer  color,  and  often 
attains  a  weight  ait  great  as  flixteen  pounds.  This 
heavy-weight  type  is  Buppowd  to  have  been  crossed 
with  the  Fiemisli  Giant  rabbit,  which  is  of  a  dark 
grav  color  ami  woighit  as  much  as  eighteen  pounds. 

The  following  American  standard  of  exf^Ilence 
for  the  Belgian  hare  shows  what  is  de«ir«d : 

Di$tjuiili^cat\oTii.—  fl)  Loppud  or  falltn  «ar;  (SI 
la'biW  front  feet  or  wh!t^  bar  or  bars  on  s«ne :  (3) 
decidedly  wry  fmnt  f^t :  44)  wry  tail.  A  spAcbnen  should 
have  the  bmnfil  of  any  doubt. 


HARE 

1.  Color.— Rich  nifiM-r»d  fnot  dark,  smudgy  color), 

carried  well  down  sides  and  hind-quarteTs,  and 
03  little  whit»  und4>r  i'no  jnwit  lu)  putigibk  .   .    20 

2.  Ttckldg. — EiaUier  wuvy  appeiirance  and  plenti- 

ful on  btjJy 15 

.1.  Shape.  —  Hotl)-  long,  thin,  well  tur:kod-u[i  Hank 
and  wi'11  ribbud  up ;  buok  slightly  urclMd  ; 
loblt  well  rounded,  not  choppy:  huad  rather 
lengthy;  miuculur  vhesl;  tail  Btrntght,  not 
Hcrawed;  and  allugethur  of  a  racy  ap[>«ar- 
ancB 30 

4.  Ears.— About  five  inches,  thin,  well  laced  up  on 

tipo,  and  aa  far  down  outsidtf  >t!dgeA  a.4  )M».»hhlr^; 
good  color  \m\A<i  and  outitide,  and  well  set  on  .     10 

5.  Byes. —  Haie]   rolor,  largp,   round,   bright  and 

bold 10 

€.  Legs  and  (««t.— Puru-foot  and  luga  long, 
strait;hc.  slonder,  well  colored  and  free  from 
white  bars;  hbd-fuot  oM  well  colond  aa  pos- 
sible      10 

T.  Size. — Aboat  eight  poiindtt 5 

8.  Conditloa.— Not  fat,  hut  fl^sh  firm  na  that  of  a 

rjic«  horse,  and  good  qu&lity  uf  fur o 

Without  dewlap 5 

P«tfeciion 100 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

B. 

7. 

8. 

». 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
\h. 
Ifi. 
17. 
18. 
1ft. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
2». 
24. 
2S. 
26. 
27. 
28. 
29. 


Scale  of  Points  pob  the  Brlciam  Bakk    ivrr»rt 

i^ror* 

Stray  baira 

Color  uf  tiody 

Color  of  sides 

Color  of  hind-quartent ,   . 

Color  of  jaws 

Ticking IS 

Symmeitry  of  h<jdy 

Symmetry  of  flank  and  rib 

SyrometTy  of  back 

Symntr.itrjr  of  ioino 

Syininatry  of  head 

Liwing  of  «ars 2 

Sixe  of  earH 2 


Shape  of  ean 
Color  of  eara 
Quality  of  ears 
Site  uf  e-yen    . 
Shape  of  eyes 


2 

2 

2 

2ft 

2ft 


Color  of  oyi-s 21 

Quality  of  ey« 2ft 

Siie  of  foTv-k-ga  and  foot 2 

Shape  of  for^lens  and  feet 2 

Color  of  fon»-]«git  and  fp*t 2 

Quality  of  font-Tfj^a  and  feet 2 

Color  of  hind-feet 2 

SJti>  of  Api^rlmcn I> 

Condition  uf  flesh 21 

Condition  of  fur 2| 

Shape  of  neck & 

P«rfectii>n 100 


Hiitory. 

The  Belgian  hare  in  said  to  have  originated  in 

Itelgium,  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  where  it  is  now  found,  small  in  sise, 
but  perfect  in  form,  color  and  markings.  The 
modern  Belgian  hare,  an  animal  of  singular  chorm 
and  great  utility,  combining  the  l.>eauty  and  tootti- 
Bomeneiss  of  the  old  domestic  hare  with  the  grace 
and  fecundity  of  the  wild  rabbit,  is  the  result  of 
a  process  of  breeding  that  has  been  pr«ctic«d 


r 


for  tbe  pant  fifty  yeara  or  more.  BaL^tB.  bUH 
weT-e  introdnced  into  England  about  IwO.  When 
they  fiTst  came  int^  England,  there  was  no  rocog- 
nized  standartl  to  which  to  broed,  and  there  eoon 
came  to  be  two  classes  of  breeders,  one  das*  trying 
to  prodace  aire  for  meat  stock,  with  little  regard  to 
otber  points,  and  the  other  breeding  for  points 
accopJing  t'>  their  own  ideas  jw  to  what  constituted 
an  ideal  animal.  About  1H82,  the  dilfarences  be- 
-caine  50  great  between  the  two  classes  of  breeders 
that  it  became  necessary  for  them  to  get  together 
and  (leviae  and  adopt  a  standard  for  their  guidance. 
The  first  standard  required  the  iinimal  to  be  some- 
what racy  in  appearance  and  evenly  licked  from 
toe  to  tail.  The  lacing  was  a  den»e  black  block 
OB  the  ootside  of  the  ear  near  the  point.  In 
18S9,  the  standard  was  revised,  and  the  new 
standard  confined  the  lacing  to  near  tbe  edge 
of  the  ear.  discarded  the  ticking  from  the 
breast,  ears,  ahouldera  and  front  feet,  and  re- 
quired a  very  racy  appearance. 

In  .4mcrffa.— The  Belgian  hare  was  intro- 
doced   into   thus  country  probably  early  in 
18G0,  but  its  merits  were  then  little  known, 
as  it  was  by  no  means  the  perfect  animal 
that  we  find  in  the  hutches  of  American  breed- 
era  and  fanciers  today.   It  is  only  in  the  past 
few  yi-ars  that  it*  valuo  as  a  fur-  and  nivat- 
prodacing  animal  has  become  generally  known, 
and  in  this  short  time  it  has  made  for  itself 
5uch  a  record  in  this  respect  that  the  rai-sing  of 
Uelgian  hares  for  the  market  and  for  the  fancy  is 
recognized  today  as  a  distinct  indngtry.  There  is 
demand  by  good  hotels  for  the  hares. 

Di^rHrulim. 

The  Belgian  hare  is  raiBed  in  ma,Dy  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  aa  well  as  in  Belgium, 
England,  Germany  and  Mexico. 

lirmlin-ff. 

Belgian  han^^  will  usually  bree<l  at  the  age  of 
six  moilha,  but  this  is  not  advisable.  When  they 
arc  hred  bo  young,  their  offsping.  as  a  rule,  will  not 
be  80  large  and  strong  as  when  one  waits  until  tbu 
doe  is  aV>ut  eight  months  old  before  breeding.  The 
buck  should  be  at  least  eight  months  old.  and  if  he 
iH  gncxl  he  can  Iw  umhI  for  two  or  three  years. 

Every  stud  buck  is  able  to  M;rv«  a  dozen  does  if 
the  services  are  not  tcxi  clows  togetliRr.  Every 
breoder  should  keep  two  stud  bucks,  au  as  to  fur- 
oish  st^ck  n<^t  rulat*-d.  Somt*  authurilji's  assert 
that  an  old  buck  and  a  young  dou  bugt-t  the  largest 
and  bent  young.  It  should  be  rememberwi  that 
the  back  is  half  of  the  herd  or  tlock.  and  no  one 
should  try  to  get  along  with  ii  pnnr  one.  In  breed- 
ing, we  look  to  the  doe  for  aize  and  shape  and  to 
tbe  buck  for  color.  Pn>in  a  gowj  ilof.  pn^wrly 
matwl,  one  will  bH  certain  to  get  good  youngsters. 

The  doo  should  always  bo  put  in  thu  buck's  hutch, 
and  not  vice  vents.  If  she  is  not  in  heat  she  will 
make  a  plaintive  tittle  noi^e  and  run  from  him. 
After  waiting  a  few  moments,  remove  the  doe  to 
fcer  Own  hutch  if  she  i«  still  unwiUing,  and  try  her 
again  the  next  day,  and  so  »n  until  sbu  is  aerved. 


Better  results  follow  one  good  sen'ice  than  several. 
When  the  doe  iii  bi^-d.  ahc  should  be  plact«l  in  tbe 
hatch  where  she  is  expected  to  raise  her  family. 
The  little  ones  may  I*  expected  in  thirty  days 
from  date  of  service.  A  ne*t-box  should  be  placed 
in  the  remotest  comer  of  the  hutch,  in  aa  secluded 
a  spot  OS  pussilile.  This  box  can  be  about  eighteen 
inches  long  by  twelve  inches  high,  with  a  cover  so 
that  the  top  can  be  removed  and  the  youngsters 
examined  after  the  doe  has  littered  ;  and  should 
any  dead  ones  be  found  they  should  be  removed 
and  the  rest  disturbed  as  little  a^  poasible.  After 
kindling,  and  for  thut  matter  all  through  preg- 
nancy, the  doe  should  be  kept  as  quiet  as  possible. 


.X 


>.-i 


Flu.  410.    Bdelu  biiM. 


^-^ 


As  the  period  of  gestation  is  only  thirty  days, 
and  with  an  early  return  of  the  sexual  passion  in 
the  rabbit  family,  many  breeders  are  led  to  breed 
their  does  too  frequently.  In  order  to  secure  the 
be«t  retfults,  the  writer  would  nut  advixe  breeding 
the  does  until  the  young  are  two  months  old,  and 
in  tbia  way  raise  four  litters  a  year  and  keep  the 
due  in  good  shapv.'.  Too  frequent  breeding  will 
have  a  tendency  to  impoverish  the  doe,  thereby 
(causing  the  young  to  lack  vigor  and  strength, 
which  otherwise  she  would  have  been  able  to  give 
them. 

A  doe  supporting  a  large  litter  of  young,  must 
give  forth  a  large  amount  of  the  food  she  con- 
sumes tu  her  young,  and  it  fteeme  almost  imposaible 
that  a  dot!  can  support  a  litter  of  a  dozen  yonng 
and  make  them  all  grow  as  fast  as  they  do.  Bel- 
gian hares  will  double  in  size  in  a  very  short  time, 
and  this  rapid  growth  continues  until  they  are  six 
to  seven  m«nttw  nld,  whu-n  Ihey  grow  l(««  rapidly. 
Thav  mature  in  ten  to  twelve  months. 

l^uiuHlff.—ln  point  of  fueundity,  no  other  dorae«- 
tic  animal  can  comi>eti!  with  Belgian  hares.  One 
doe  and  her  offspring,  if  allowed  to  breed  at  will, 
may  raise  in  one  year  about  one-hundred  and  thirty- 
six.  To  allow  them  to  breed  at  will  is  not  advisable, 
but  this  sfn'es  In  show  that  they  are  very  prolific 
and  may  lie  very  pr»]itabl«. 

Cnrittii  fur  Me  young.-  Many  persons  who  are 
not  aequflintwi  with  Belgian  hares,  may  think  that 
the  care  of  the  young  iii  difficult,  perhaps.  This  is 
not  so.  The  mother  doe  takes  nwrly  all  the  care  of 
the  young,  so  that  very  little  responsibility  re^ts 
on  the  nwrer.  .All  that  is  needed  is  to  give  the  doe 
an  extra  allowance  of  feed,  for  she  will  eat  con- 


414 


HARE 


HARE 


siderabla  raoro  at  that  time ;  and  bsr  food  ghonld 
be  of  a  mi[k>pradacine  kind,  so  that  she  will  p'ruviJe 
plenty  of  nourishment  for  heryonng.  If  it  can  be 
afforded,  feei.1  the  young  a.-i  aoon  an  they  cuttm  nut 
of  the  nest-box  ;  brvad  and  milk  (not  r^loppy)  and 
other  food,  such  as  oata  and  clover-hay,  should  be 
given  at  the  same  tim*. 

The  little  one?  make  their  appearance  about  three 
weeks  after  birth,  and  are  very  timid  at  first. 
When  they  are  six  weeks  or  two  months  old,  they 
should  btt  Weaned  from  their  mother.  After  a  few 
days  re«t  the  doe  cao  be  bred  again.  The  mortality 
among  hares  is  very  slight. 

Feeding  and  care. 

This  13  an  important  part  of  raiMing  the  Relgian 
hare,  and  on  this,  topfether  with  housing  and  brtMKt' 
ing,  hinge  most  of  the  eucce«u«c»  and  failures  of 
the  Belgian-hare  bufiiness.  Bt^lgian  hares  should  be 
fed  jnst  as  njgularly  aa  the  best  horwe  or  cow, 
with  the  exception  that  two  mealH  lie  given  inHtead 
of  thrt-e.  This  gives  the  hare«  ample  time  to 
digest  their  food,  and,  if  in  gotid  condition,  thuy 
will  bo  hungry  and  ready  for  caah  meal  if  thuy 
are  not  over-fed.  The  attendant  ehould  never 
give  more  grain  than  they  will  eat  up  L^lean  within 
a  half  hour  after  feeding.  When  feeding  clover  hay, 
enough  can  im  put  in  to  la^t  a  couple  of  days.  It  i>^ 
best  to  feed  about  the  same  hour  morning  and 
evening. 

Hares  eat  anything  that  aheep  will.  Ir  the  sum- 
mer one  can  feed  many  dilferaut  things  in  green 
food,  snch  as  clovt-r  hay,  corn  blade.**,  Borghum, 
together  with  miu^t  kindx  of  weeds  thiit  grow  except 
tha  poisonouK  mmB.  In  graiiut,  one  may  chontie  from 
oate,  corn,  wheat  and  rye ;  in  vegetables,  either 
cabbage,  carrots,  parsnips,  turnips,  or  potatoes. 
A  variety  of  foinl  is  relished  by  them  both  win- 
ter and  Hammer,  bnt  their  main  food  should  be 
clover  hay  nicely  cured,  and  go<id  sweet  oaL9  that 
have  not  biK^oEnt?  musty  nr  damaged  in  any  way. 
HaroB  are  rather  dainty  eaters,  atiJ  they  dej^ire 
everything  clean.  In  fact,  their  eating  ih  almiwt 
identical  with  that  of  a  slieep.  Fur  the  winter,  it 
is  well  to  provide  for  them  in  advance  with  regard 
to  the  vegetables  it  is  expected  to  feed.  Winter 
tnrnijis  can  he  raised  after  the  early  potatoes  have 
been  dug,  or  a  small  plot  of  »tm'.k-beetK  can  l>e 
planted  in  the  spring.  The  ttirnips  or  tiiietit  with 
the  regular  grain-feed  make  an  ideal  ration  fi^ir  the 
winter  months,  and  are  greatly  relishwl  by  the  liarea. 
The  hares  should  be  watered  every  day.  A  large 
lump  of  rock-fialt  should  be  placed  in  each  hutch. 
Each  hare  has  an  indivirlujil  disfimition.  and  the 
breeder  should  study  their  habits  and  likes  and  dis- 
likes, and  try  Ui  give  them  what  they  desire.  .Some 
cat  more  hay  than  othL'r»,  while  some  want  more 
grain.  For  breeding  doect  and  their  youn^,  nothing 
is  so  good  as  bread  and  milk.  The  bread  should  not 
be  musty,  and  the  milk  should  be  sweet.  This 
makes  the  youngsters  grow  fast  and  the  di>e  gives 
more  milk. 

Honging  tiie  karta.  —  No  special  buiMing  is  re- 
quired. A  Imrn,  stabli',  or  shetl,  reasonably  warm 
in  winter  and  permitting  thorough  ventilation,  but 


free  from  draughts,  is  all  the  shelter  that  is  necea- 
sary.  Almost  any  building  can  be  ^tted  very 
quickly  by  one  who  is  handy  with  tools.  The  writtt 
has  erected  a  special  building  for  housing  his  hares* 
after  the  following  general  plan:  The  building  U 
40  feet  long  and  8  feet  wide.  It  is  9  fei.^t  high  in 
front  and  8  feet  high  on  the  bark.  This  btiiiding  is 
placed  on  sewer  tile,  10  inches  in  diameter,  which 
is  filli-it  with  Portland  cement  and  placed  in  the 
ground  about  12  inches,  on  a  cement  foundation 
below  the  freezing-point.  There  are  eight  of  the 
tile,  filled  with  the  cement,  placed  at  proper  dij»- 
tances  for  the  hnilding  proper  to  rest  on.  The 
purpose  of  having  the  building  about  eighteen 
inches  from  the  ground  is  to  make  it  rat-proof. 
Old  rats  are  very  destructive  to  young  Belgian 
hares  when  they  have  access  to  them.  The  writer  _ 
has  known  rata  to  destroy  a  whole  litter  in  ona  I 
night.  " 

This  building  is  divided   into  twenty  separate 
rooms  or  hutches  by  a  "double-ileck"  rurangement, 
eai:h  hutch  tieing  eight  feet  long  by  four  feet  wide. 
The  lowur  tier  of  hutches  i«  lhri*H  feet  in  height 
from  the  ground  floor  to  the  fio'ir  of  the  upper  tier. 
In  the  lower  tier  all  the  partitions  are  made  of 
lumber.   The  writer  has  found  o.ik  lumber  to  be 
the  most  satirtfatTtory  for  the  entire  construction. 
This  doHS  not  mnke  so  attractive  a  house  as  would   J 
pine,  but  it  will  be  renieniberHd  that  Iteigian  harea   l 
seblom,  if  ever,  gnaw  oak  lumber,  which  is  not  the 
case  with  pine  or  softer  woods.  The  partitions  in 
the  up;>er  hutches  are  made  with  lumlier  for  about  k 
three  feet  from  the  floor  ;  then  the  upper  part  is    i 
made  with  poultry  netting,  which  bi  cheJiper  than 
lumber,  and  gives  the  top  hutidies  tietlrr  ventilation. 

The  roofing  of  this  building  is  of  galvanized  iron, 
which  seems  to  be  better  and  more  economical  than 
shingles.  The  doors  in  the  hutches  are  three  feel  J 
long  (the  long  way  of  the  Wilding)  and  two  feet  " 
high.  The  frame  is  made  of  oak,  and  the  remainder 
of  line-inch  pimltry  netting.  The  doors  are  hung 
with  six-inch  hinges,  and  luisps  are  used  to  fasten 
them.  Tile  building  faci-a  the  soulli.  Revural  treea 
are  so  planted  as  to  k'vo  it  shiule  in  the  hot  days 
of  summer.  The  building  is  enclosed  in  a  yard  aa 
described  below.  J 

Yaeti*  and  parks.— \  saitabic  site  for  a  jraid  or  " 
park  for  Relgian  hares  .ihould  be  slightly  sloping, 
so  a.<i  to  secure  gotnt  drain:ige  when  heavy  rains 
come.  There  should  be  a  tree  of  some  kind  for  each 
separate  eneWure,  to  give  the  necessary  shade  in 
the  hut  sumrnvr  days.  The  writer  does  not  recom- 
mend fruit  trees  for  this  purpose,  as  when  the  frail 
falls  the  hares  may  eat  too  much  ami  get  sick  or 
die.  .apples  and  |«earH  are  not  harmful  to  them  if 
fell  in  small  tiuantities.  The  writer  has  what  he 
considers  an  iiieal  park  for  the  raising  of  Belgian 
hartw,  mjwle,  in  j-eneral,  as  follows:  The  park  is 
laid  otf  liftL't-n  rods  long  by  five  rods  wide.  The 
outride  is  made  of  aix-foot  Page  poultry-fence,  so 
as  to  keep  out  all  dogs  and  other  animals  that 
would  be  likely  to  harm  the  hares.  The  inaide  par- 
titions may  lie  poultry -netting,  four  feel  high.  The 
park  is  divided  into  fifteen  di^erent  yanls,  making 
each  yard  nearly  fu-e  ruds  long  by  one  rod  wide. 


i 


HARE 


HORSE 


415 


lere  is  an  eiffht-foot  aisle  nmninf*  the  lonf^  waj' 
of  the  park,  so  as  to  make  feeding  easy  for  all  the 
yanli*.  Before  erecting  the  fence  and  nettiog,  a 
farruw  fthould  be  plowed  in  each  pbf«  the  netting 
is  to  bo  stretched  and  also  for  the  outside  fence. 
After  the  fence  and  nettinu  hav«  been  properly 
stretched,  thodirt  should  be  filleil  in  a^ain  around 
the  netting  and  fence.  The  burying  of  the  fence 
And  netting  is  to  keep  the  hares  from  digging  out, 
and  anything  else  frum  digging  into  the  park. 

Ukb. 

Fur  nuni. — The  principal  valua  of  the  Belgian 
hart-  ia  for  it«  roeaL  The  littla  care  rw|uired 
in  its  raising  in»kL>8  it  a  source  of  profit  even 
to  the  person  who  raises  only  enough  for  hiA 
own  use.  The  meat  is  white  like  the  breast  of 
chicken.  The  Belgian  hare  will  drtsfls  a  pound  for 
erery  month  of  ils  age  up  to  fix  mimthR,  and  it  will 
furnish  ftHid  for  the  tabl«  any  time  after  two 
months  old.  The  moKl  prufitable  age  to  kill  for 
market  ia  about  (he  fifth  month.  All  the  flesh  ia 
edible,  so  there  ia  practically  no  waste  if  the  ani- 
mal has  been  prnpirrly  dreased.  It  has  been  eati- 
tnated  that  one  hreefling  doe  will  produce  over  3tH) 
poundit  of  meat  in  one  year. 

FftT  fur. — Mention  Hhould  be  made  of  the  fact 
that  Belgian  haroN  are  valiin)  tii  mmo  extent  for 
their  fur.  This  curapriseji  much  of  their  Interest  to 
fanciers. 

Dinenteit. 

When  proper  attention  is  given  to  feeding  and 
houfting,  and  cleantineKS  of  the  hutches)  miule  a 
matter  of  Rnl  im]>»rtam;e,  and  a  goiKt  diainfectant 
intelligently  used,  no  truublu  will  l>e  experiencttd 
in  keeping  Belgian  hares  in  good  health  and  condi- 
tion. Cold  and  catarrh  are  truublairiRiL',  and  should 
be  treated  with  human  rempdiea  in  proportion  to 
Weight.  Indigiifitiim  ia  best  cured  by  proper  feed- 
ing— by  the  addition  of  pepsin  or  other  remedy  to 
food  that  is  easily  diganted. 

The  miMt  i^ummun  diifuaae,  and  perhB{>B  the  worst 
to  which  the  BcdgiiLn  haru  ia  aubject,  in  itnuf- 
Aca.  The  tre-atment  of  this  disease  is  to  build  op 
the  system.  Pood  that  is  extra  nonrishing,  and 
a  little  tincture  of  iron  in  the  drinking  water,  may 
bo  til  that  the  animal  will  n4<ed  to  be  able  to  throw 
off  the  diiwaxe.  If  a  tnuah  ia  fe<A,  about  a  Kpnonful 
of  flaxseed  may  bo  put  in  it,  and  if  it  iu  Hiniply  a 
case  of  anoezing  and  discharge  frum  the  noae 
rceulting  from  a  slight  cold,  nothing  more  in  the 
way  of  treatment  will  be  recioired.  It  will  be  well 
to  spray  the  nose  with  lukewarm  water,  to  which 
a  little  salt  haa  been  added ;  after  spraying,  wi|ie 
dry. 

Organitaiient  and  rtfords. 

At  present,  the  American  Fur  Fanciers'  A'aaocla- 
tion,  with  heAd^junrtJiTB  at  'Jreat  Neck,  New  York, 
is  the  only  nrgnniiuition  devoted  to  the  Be)gian  hare 
tadnstry  in  Am.-ric.i.  A  few  years  ago,  when  the 
railing  of  Belgian  hare.<  wafl  a  fad,  there  existed 
the  National  Itelgian  Hare  Club  u{  America,  with 
beadqaarters  in  Denver,  Colo.,  and  the  American 


Itelgian  flare  Asaociation.  Both  of  these  faa^'o  did- 
continaed. 

LUeraJun. 

Books  treating  on  the  Belgian  hare:  Eph.  Rath, 
American  Belgian  Hare  Culture ;  Eph.  Ruth,  Bel- 
giait  Uare  Breeding  and  Management ;  P.  C.  Crab* 
tree,  Belgian  Hare  Courw  of  Ini^tniction  ;  Jacob 
Biggie,  Biggie  Bet  Book,  illustrated  ;  U.  G.  Conover, 
The  Belgian  Hare  for  Pleasure  and  Profit;  The 
Belgian  Hans  Guide,  illustrated ;  Cuniculus,  The 
Tractical  Rabbit  Keeper ;  W.  N.  Richardson,  The 
Rabbit :  How  to  Select,  Breed  and  Manage,  sixth 
edition. 

HORS£.    Eqiius   eaixillax,   Litm.    Equida.    Figs. 
4i;i-l95. 

As  a  domestic  animal,  the  horse  has  had  an  nria- 
tocratic  history.  In  the  earliest  histuric  timeti  he 
was  usod  chielly  for  [>urEio8es  of  war,and  littTalure 
abounds  in  allusions  to  this  fact.  He  was  the 
animal  of  emperors  and  of  persons  of  noble  birth, 
associati>d  with  chariots  and  with  great  occa-iions. 
With  certain  nomadic  peoples,  he  early  became  the 
agent  of  speed.  Gradually,  he  wjis  preiwed  into  the 
viimmMii  work  of  the  world  and  l)el^ame  one  of  the 
|jea«trt  of  burdi'n,  gradually  supplanting  the  ox. 
Today,  with  the  cuw,  the  Wr^o  is  one  uf  the  in- 
d ispi-Riuible  agents  of  the  agriculture  of  the  western 
nations. 

The  horse  is  now  bred  chiefly  for  five  typee  of 
ufleii :  (1)  For  speed,  as  in  the  tmtters,  pacers  and 
ninnHrs;  (2)  for  sport,  fancy  and  fiishion  ;  (.S)  far 
family  driving;  (4)  for  draft  purposes,  largely  in 
citiiw  and  towns;  (n)  for  general  farm  usea. 

It  is  in  the  tafit  of  theite  usi-fi  that  the  horse  is  of 
gre^ttest  real  value  to  man.  and  yet  it  in  this  very 
rcspL>M:t  that  he  has  rec«ived  the  leatit  definite  in* 
telligent  breeding.  There  is  no  real  farm  horse  ia 
this  country,  except  as  animals  of  mixe<il  and  mia^ 
rellaneouH  breeding,  or  of  no  breeding, are  used  for 
generul  fann  puqiofli-s.  Of  cuurfip,  the  farm  puT^ 
poHes  are  nut  single  or  uniform,  for  in  some  farm 
business  heavy  draft  animals  may  be  needed  and  in 
other  businoss  light  roadsters  may  be  needed  ;  but 
it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  when  the  farmer 
breeds  definitely  to  raoe-type  or  breed-type,  he  ia 
thinking  uf  horaea  (o  sell  to  men  in  other  business 
rather  than  to  sell  t^]  farmers  or  to  produce  the  best 
type  for  bin  own  farm  umui.  Priucticully  all  th« 
farm-work  horses  are  mongrels,  with  no  such  care 
having  been  devoted  to  their  parentage  and  [ledi- 
greo  as  is  devoted  to  dairy  cows,  beef  cattle,  bacon 
hogs  or  egg-laying  fowls.  The  books  usually  con- 
aider  the  hnrse  least  of  .ill  from  the  farm-utility 
point  [if  view.  The  sportsman,  fancier  and  city 
trucker  have  thu.^  far  had  the  greateat  influence  in 
the  breeding  of  typea  of  hursea.  All  this  must 
change  if  agriculture  ia  to  reach  Ita  highest 
etliciency ;  for  the  horae  ia  to  remain  an  indispen- 
sable factor  in  country  life,  despite  all  that  ia  aatd 
and  done  about  automobiles  and  mechanical  power. 
Heavier  horses  are  needed  for  the  Iwttcr  and  deeper 
fitting  of  the  land ;  mnch  of  oar  apiculture  has 


«L6 


HORSE 


HonsG 


been  weak  because  there  haa  twen  inaulTicient  horse 
power  priipurly  l<i  fit  the  land.  But  t)iu  gennral 
form  honw,  particuiariy  on  hilly  farms,  must  bo 
rot  mort-l_v  a  hwivy  draft  nnirnut :  he  must  have 
es^  und  alacrity  of  motii^n  and  not  such  size  and 
weight  as  will  make  him  clumay.  It  is  not  liltely 
thiit  a  distinct  rcKii*tered  hri'tMl  of  special  farm 
horsuH  will  itriHe  ;  but  il  is  eminentlydyHiralilu  Uiat 
iduaU  be  fornifil  and  tliat  tliuy  Iw  n^iatud  tu  Tarm 
neccsaitii'S  and  the  animals  bred  definitely  for  auch 
vscs. 

Aside  from  the-  dog  and  cat.  the  horso  \a  rooru 
cltwely  associated  with  man  on  the  pergonal  aiJe 
than  any  other  domestic  animal  of  tcmj>erate  coun* 
tries.  He  becomes  an  object  of  personal  reffard  on 
the  [>arl  of  members  of  the  hoiigchold  ;  and  he  has 
been  provided  with  betterquarters  and  given  greater 
cart-  than  any  other  animal.  He  is  the  only  farm 
animal  of  this  country  with  whom  human  beln^^ 
share  living  quarterti  under  the  same  ro<if ;  it  in 
common  for  care-takers  to  live  over  stables,  and 
some  of  the  most  artistic  of  suburban  and  farm 
buildingd  are  devoted  to  such  dual  purpose.  (Pig. 
421.)  The  attention  given  to  horse-Btable  construc- 
tion and  to  hames-s  and  other  eqtiipage.  as  well  as 
to  breeding  for  personal  porpooes.  haa  resiulted  in  a 
larKe  special  literature  on  the  horse. 

The  number  of  horsfts  In  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  practically  equivalent  to  the  number  of 


[?*^ 


Hoy  Mow  15.2-4 


Obu 


^ry: 


nan^Roani  iSb'tra' 


^— 

■ SO- 

— • 

— 

1 

1 

UalbJ 

&M   ICt-IS 

Ca»i«y  Rssm  MWe' 

E 

— .            r 

,    ^ 

— )               ' 1 

u                ti 

lijma*^ 


dairy  cows.  .According  to  the  Yearlwiok  for  1906, 
UnittfJ  Statc3  IV'partment  of  Agriculture,  the 
number  of  horBes  in  America  wa»  aa  follows : 


YMr 


r.MTEO  States: 

On  farms  

Not  on  farms    ....... 

Nrpn  -c  ontijru  (H» — 

Aiasl^a  (on  funm) 

Itnwnii  <on  ttirm») 

Porto  Kico      

ToUil  Tniled  Sutut  (fic«pt 
Pliililiptaee  Iti.) 

Canada : 

Ni'w  BmnBwick 

Ontftrio 

Manitoba 

Saskatchewan 

Alherta 

Oth«r 

Total  Caaada 


1907 
L900 

1900 
1900 

18»9 


1905 

1906 

VM6 
190S 
1901 


Total 


19.747 J 
2,936,1 


22,755,532 


62.000 

688.  U7. 

£2t>.534] 
1,964,315 


The  same  Yearbook  gives  the  nomber  and,  farm 
value  of  hrir!u>s  in  thg  United  .States : 


January  KlRTiT 
Junuary  1, 1907 


Niintlier 


fi.40 1,263 
19.746.583 


PriM 


$69  05 
m  51 


Parra  Vftlas 


$318.9-.M,085 
l,84fi.r.78,412 


He.  4U,    Ptu  ud  rimuoe  al  tent  ban.  vrttfe  hatOm'*  «Hrtet* 


The  Canada  Yearbook  for  1905,  givw  the  value 
^^f  horsw  in  Canada  in  1901,  a»  $U8,279,419.   Th*1 
number  of  horaea  over  three  years  of  ago  in  Canada] 
in   1871,   ia  given  as  643,171,  and   in  1901,  i 
1,804,910  ;  thu  number  of  huntes  under  three  yeMi*' 
of  age  in  1871.  is  given  as  193,572,  and  in  1901, 
as  272.083. 

Literature. 

The  littTiiture  relating  to  horses  is  more  almndanl, 
perbapfi,  than  is  ihe  uase  with  the  other  clasws  of 
farm  live-stiHik.  Yet  there  are  few  roonographu ; 
some  of  tho)«e  that  have  appeared  are  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  discussions  of  the  breed  or  type 
t«  which  they  refer.  Plomn, 
Type.H  and  Hrwds  of  Farm 
Animals,  Oinn  &  fo.diKJG); 
Kolierta,  The  Horse,  Mac- 
millan  Company  (190(i); 
\V'allact_\  t'^arm  Live -Stock 
of  firuat  Britain.  Orange 
Judd  Company  (I90MI ; 
Craig,  Judging  Live-Stock, 
The  Author  (I90L'):  Youatt, 
The  Horse,  Philadelphia 
(1848);  Walsh.  The  Horse 
in  the  Htabiu  and  in  the 
Field.  Undon{1871):  Speed. 
The  Horse  in  America,  New 


418 


HORSE 


York  {1905>;  Sidney,  Tho  Hook  or  the  liorpe,  Xew 
York;  Sanders.  Horse  llre^-ding,  t'hic.ifro  (1893); 
Andernon  ami  Collit;r.  KHing  and  Uriving,  New 
York  0906);  Blew,  I-ipht  Hnrs^i:  Uroeda  and 
Management,  Ixindcin  (1X94);  Busby,  The  Trotting 
anil  Pacing  Hi»rae  in  America,  New  York  (1904); 
May,  The  Horw,  Undon  { 1890).  and  The  Race  Horee 
in  Traininjf.  London  (1K92);  Gllbey.  Hiding  and 
Driving  Horses,  London  (1901);  Fowler,  The  Horae, 
London  (1891);  Hayea,  Points  of  the  Horse.  London 
(1897);  Helm,  American  Koadak-rs  and  Trottinc 
Horscj',  Chicago  (1S78);  IHmon,  American  Horses 
and  Horse  Breeding.  Hartford  (1895);  Herbert, 
Frank  Forester's  Horse  and  Horsemanship  of  the 
I'nited  States,  2  volumes.  Xew  York  (1871f;  Heavy 
fiones:  Breeds  and  Management.  London  (1895). 

Inokx  -to  Hoksk  AsTiajca 

OriRin  of  the  Donmstie  Horn 418 

Thv  BducatioH,  Ilnnieming  and  Gaits  of  tho  Hotm  .  421 

Vratitical  Horae-training  and  Handling 424 

Fmdin^  tbi-  ]lon<i    . 428 

r)p(.erniim'nK  the  Age  of  UoroeB 433 

Cniamon  Ailments  of  Q'inea 436 

Arab  H'trse 44R 

Barb  and  Turk  lIoniM 449 

EelgiaD  Draft  Horse 401 


Bk 


«■  A. 

PIc  423.    iniutiattiii  ttaf  Increaw  la  sIh  of  ihe  Borav.    .t. 

B,  ih*  Or^hifpHt.  111!'  Ml'I'lk  Eiiri-iir  lir.t»e;  C.  llir  ifrtu' 
kipptu.  (he  liowpT  01lEnrpii«i  hnr««.  fnur  niid  »n#  hnit 
htiniU  hl|l>i  D,tU»  ngp»liippuioT"totrathanr.'  (ATlvr 
Oabom.) 


HORSE 

Pmn 

(']i>v<^lanil  hiiy  and  Yark&hire  Coaeii  Hnnt  ....  463 

Clydesdale  llDrse 456; 

Fn-nth  ('oiwh  Honte 4B8| 

French  Draft  Horse 460 

Gerioaii  Coutli  Hurse 462 

Ha<^kney  Hor»e 464 ; 

Huntor  Ht^nv 4681 

^te«'pk-.i'.hn«er 47f) 

Militun,-  [lorso 47'> 

Orlftflf  TroUing  Hiirw 474 

racing  Hune.  ^tandanlbrviJ 476 

PsrirhiTijn  HoriFie    , 478 

Ponies 481 

Saddle  Harw>,  ARi«rican 489 

Shire  Horse 493 

Sulfidk  »i  Suffolk  PuDch  Horra 4M 

Thoroaehbred  Hirse     496 

Truttine  aad  Pacini;  lloree,  AmenraaStjuidanlbred   .  liOO 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Horse.   Figs.  422-128. 

By  Frederick  B.  yUimford. 

In  a  aoolii'gicul  Dense,  the  horse  \s  a  vertebrate 
animril  bulon^ingto  thucla«u!  Manimiiiiii,  th»  family 
FxjuidfB  and  the  genuB  Eqnu».  In  a  broad  aenae,  the 
word  home  applies  to  all  moRil>ers  of  the  family 
Equida;,  andatl  theexisting  members  of  this  family 
are  included  by  Linnueu!*  in  the  E^nns  Bqana.  The 
represontativeti  of  thiA  t*EasR  aw.  diittingiiii;hed  by  a 
ainglu  hoof,  a  Kimiiln  ittomach,  lon^.  muscular 
legs  anil  a  very  iiigh  onler  of  intelligence. 
They  all  hnvo  hair  on  the  nock,  forming  a 
mane,  and  tho  tail  terminates  with  or  is  cov- 
ered with  long  coartie  hair.  The  voice  in  loud 
and  often  hareh.  the  ears  are  movable  and  the 
hearing  very  acute.  Most  members  of  the  home 
family  are  gntgarinua. 

I'rthigtork  korst. — Tl'e  evolution  of  the  horse 
through  various  lower  fonna  to  the  [(■resent  useful 
and  univursally  admirod  form  m  onaof  great  inter- 
e.«it  to  all  etudenttt  of  the  progresjuive  development 
of  aninial.i.  From  fossil  remains  twattertHl  over 
widely  separated  regions  of  the  earth,  we  know 
that  the  extinct  horse  became  world-wide  (except- 
ing Australia)  in  it?  geographical  dL>itribution. 
Although  tliB  mtnltirn  furm  of  the  hurw  did  not 
exist  on  the  American  continent,  many  foKHil 
remains  of  the  prt-hiatoric  horse  liavo  been  dittcov- 
ered  in  New  Jersey,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota  and. 
notably,  Wyoming.  The  gradual  modification  from 
the  varioH'^  prehistoric:  forms  to  the  modern  horse 
hai occupied  millions  of  yearn.  The  more  important 
linkn  in  the  chain  of  descent  have  lieen  deacribed 
both  as  to  jieridd  of  existence  and  general  form  by 
H.  F.  (Isborn  (iVnttiry  Magaiine,  November.  1904), 
whustt  research L-s,  partly  following  the  early  studies 
of  U'iily  and  Marsh,  have  been  drawn  on  for  the 
facts  given  below. 

The  earliest  prehistoric  horae  existed  in  the 
Lower  Eocene  [)erio*!,  ranging  from  Mexico  north- 
ward, and  inhabiting  pjirts  of  eonlinentnl  Kun>pe 
and  Great  Britain.  (Fig«.  4^2,  42H.)  This  early 
horse  was  no  larger  than  a  small  dog,  which  it 
resembled,  llie  color  was  pnibably  dun,  with  incm* 
spiciioufl  sptvt'^  or  stripes.  The  Kohippus  (Marsh)  or 
"dawn  horse."  as  thLs  form  was  called,  poBfleHBwl 
four  toes  on  the  front-,  and  three  on  the  hind-foot. 


HORSE 


HOnSE 


419 


In  Ihtf  next  higher  form,  thf  Orikhifipus  (Marih), 
of  the  MMilte  K<»ctr!ie  ptfriixt,  thm  sjitintH  hinv  disu[>- 
pearvd,  k'aviiif;  Tuur  lo&.  Thu  animni  i»  iilill  Htnall, 
being  about  fourtoen  inches  high.  Thia  fi.>rm  was 
itiacovered  in  the  Big  Horn  mountains  of  Wyoming 
in  1880.  There  opjMJsired  later  in  point  of  develop- 
ment the  Mes<)hip[>us,  from  the  01ijj<x:ene  periicul. 
whiirh  exhi))it«4l  unmislHkahlf^  evidt'noeii  of  rapid 
prof^raasion  toward  the  modern  hor»3.  Thi»  furm 
WM  eightwn  inches  in  height,  and  liad  virtu- 
ally lost   all  but  three  toes.   Tbe  middle  toe  a 


■ir. 


.rC- 


•y- 


Pig.  4Z4.    Pisjrtllky  borie  le-juu  PnifaUkii). 
AflM-  <>*l*>m. 

enlarged,  and  bears  more  of  the  weight  of  the 
toimal,  althoiigh  the  tvo  remaining  toe»  still  tonch 
the  ground. 

Aa  important  side  line  was  discovered  in  the 
Hypohippus  (Ijeidy)  or  "foresit  horse,"  in  eafltwrn 
Colorado,  in  lifOl.  Thia  form  waa  forty  inchwt  high, 
provided  with  large  lattTa!  toea  which  supportud 
the  animal  on  the  soft  marshes  of  that  period. 
During  the  same  year,  the  explorers,  working  with 
the  aid  of  the  Whitney  fond,  dbwovered  the  re- 
mains of  Keveral  throe-tiied  hora^^s,  aome  of  which 
were  widely  different  from  the  *' forest  horneft." 
Thia  form,  calk-d  the  Hipparion  (Newhipparion), 
W38  distinguished  by  a  remarkable  dec*r-likd  coiw 
formation  which  indicated  the  development  of 
great  speed.  Osbom  says,  "Ncohipparion  was  pro- 
portioned like  the  Virginia  deer,  delicate  and 
extremely  fleet-foot«d,  «urpai»ing  the  moitt  highly 
bred  naaern  race  horse  in  its  speed,  and  with  a 
frame  fashioned  to  oatKlrip  any  type  of  mtHlcrn 
banting  horse,  if  not  of  tht-  Thorouf'hhred."  These 
somewhat  extreme  developments  of  strticturu  soon 
became  extinct,  while  the  Protohippu-t  of  interme- 
diate form  became  tbe  direct  progenitor  of  the 
miMiem  horne. 

Tn  thin  type  we  find  but  one  toe  touching  the 
ground,  with  two  lateral  and  rudimentarj'  tuOK 
corrtssponding  tothu  splinbt  in  the  modem  horse. 

The  last  stage  in  the  development  is  reprcnented 
by  Bi|au8,  the  modern  horae,  which  is  characterized 
by  graceful  limbs,  terminating  in  a  dense  hoof  cov- 
ering  the  single  middle  toe.  The  remaining  toes 
have  di.*)app<'ared.  but  ve-stigen  of  two  U.k«  are  to 
be  found  in  the  itpiintx  on  both  fore-  and  hind'tegs. 


The  pr<'i3e-nl  horae  is  much  hirgcr  than  any  of  the 
prehistoric  forma.  The  gradual  development  of  the 
giant  draft  horse  of  today,  from  the  early  Eohip- 
pus,  a  small  dog-like  animal  no  larger  than  the  fox 
terrier,  ia  a  roost  interesting  phenomenon. 

Connecting  and  side  brancheH  of  the  modern 
horw  and  the  prehistoric  fnrnm  de!**:ril>ed  aWvo 
are  probably  to  be  found  in  the  zebra,  the  wild  aas. 
and  an  interesting  form  of  the  wild  horise  culled 
Prejvalsky  horse.  (Fig.  424.)  The  latter  was  dis- 
covered on  the  Urungaria  de-scrt  in  wt«tem  Mon- 
golia, in  1881,  by  Poliakoff.  This  horse  very  much 
resembles  the  drawings  found  in  the  French  caves, 
along  with  other  relics  of  the  stone  age. 

}foiirrn  Equiila:  -The  present  living  forms  of 
tbe  Efjuida;  include  three  tyites :  f)quiu^  oihal- 
bit,  the  home  prosier :  E.  aritvu*,  or  tbe  wild  as8, 
ami  the  E.  irtra,  related  to  the  various  striped 
forms  of  zebra.s  and  ijuaggas. 

The  E.  eahaiiug  fs  distinguished  by  long  hair 
growing  thickly  on  all  parts  of  the  tail,  a  callcsity 
on  the  inaide  and  below  tbe  hock  an*!  kniw,  mane 
long  and  Howing.  eara  short,  limbs  long,  feet  broad 
and  head  small.  The  wild  horse  is  dan  colored  and 
sometimes  faintly  striped.  Wild  horses  are  «t 
present  found  in  but  a  very  few  remote  localities. 
Feral  horses,  calIe<J  Tarpanif  (Fig.  425),  are  foand 
on  the  steppes  north  of  the  sea  of  Azoff,  between 
the  Dneiper  river  and  ('aspian  sea. 

The  E.  arinuf,  or  wild  ass  (Fig.  306),  is  charac- 
terized by  long  eara.  narrow  hoofs,  rather  sharp 
back,  an  absence  of  callosities  on  the  inside  of 
legs,  and  a  tail  "tuft."  In  a  wild  state,  tbe  ass  is 
very  alert,  vigilant  and  fleet,  There  exists  no 
authentic  record  of  the  time  when  this  animal  was 
first  used  by  man  ai  a  beast  of  burden,  but  the 


'>B-'- 


-■^' 


Fig.  4ti.    TtrVfJl  (S'jtutA  tamant. 

domestication  of  tbe  ass  antedated  that  of  the 
borw. 

Tht;  zebra  (Pig.  426)  and  (luagga  (Fig.  427)  are 
much  like  tbe  ass  but  are  bi-autifully  striped  with 
black  on  a  dun-  or  drab-colored  foondatton.  They 
breed  Bucceasfnlly  with  the  horse,  and  the  progeny, 
called  a  zebroid  (Fig.  42S),  redembles  the  mul'e  and 
is  sterile.  The  zebr.-i,  which  was  long  considered 
untameable,  hafl  been  sucoewfully  broken  to  har- 
ness. The  zebniid,  zebrule.  or  zebra  mule,  has 
recently  claimed  much  attention  because  of  the 


420 


HORSE 


HOR^ 


success  attained  in  breedioK  it  by  Professor  Bwart, 
of  I'dncuik,  Midlothian,  Sootland.  Tht>  zebroid  is 
strong  and  can  be  broken  to  bamefut  uml  tcr  middle. 
T/ie  domatieated  horse.— The  value  of  the  horae 
as  a  powerfnl  aid  to  man  in  hia  conquest  of  the 


3*P 


Fit.  416.     Zebrft  (ffftHM  icllini]. 

earth  did  not  at  first  appeal  to  primitive  man.  It 
appears  that  the  horHe  was  first  uflcd  fur  food.  Ha 
was  later  driven,  then  ridden,  and  liutly  emtiloyed 
as  a  beast  of  harden. 

The  firut  authontic  e\"idence  of  the  use  of  the 
horso  by  man  was  discoverttd  in  the  cave  of  La 
Hoatbe  in  France.  In  this  cave,  among'  the  inter- 
eating  relics  of  the  stone  age  are  drawingn  which 
represent  the  horse  as  varying  somewhat  in  size 
and  character  hut  resembling  cloi*ely  the  present 
wild  forma.  Prom  other  aoarces  it  fteemw  certain 
that  there  exiated  a  larger  type  in  the  south  of 
Barope  and  a  much  amaller  form  in  the  north. 

The  progenitors  of  our  present  horse  can  not 
alwaya  be  clearly  traced.  According  to  Ewart, 
nidgeway,  Oaborn  and  othera  there  may  have  been 
aeveral  diatinct  wild  forma  directly  preceding 
the  modern  horse.  Ewart  has  described  the  Celtic 
pony,   a  small  dan-colored    horse    found   in  the 


Pic.  427.     OiuiEKA  I  fcrtf-f  •ttaaaa). 

iilaods  of  the  Hebrides  and  in  Connemani,  Ireland. 
This  hardy  animal  rL-sembles  closely  some  of  the 
illtutrationa  found  in  the  cave  of  LaUoathe  and 
may  have  been  the  progenitor  of  the  numerous 


pony  hreods.  A  second  form  ia  much  larger,  over 
fourteen  hands  high,  also  of  a  dun  color,  with  large 
coarse  head  and  thick  limbic.  This  form  is  widL<ly 
distributed  over  Europe  and  Asia.  The  moctt  ancii-nt 
horses  of  the  Asayrian-s,  PersianH,  Greeks  and 
ancient  Britons  were  of  this  type.  It  is  also  prob- 
able thut  the  hnr»eH  of  the  ancient  Chioese 
resemblBd  very  closely  this  unimpniv«d  hnrse. 

f^till  anuthor  dintinct  tyjie  Mtiemti  to  have  existed 
in  the  iiouth  and  later  became  thu  foundation  etock. 
of  the  beautiful  hoi-sus  of  Teraia,  Arabia  and  the 
Barbnry  stalui^  in  northern  Africa.  It  now  aeems 
probable  that  it  i»  principally  to  this  form  that 
we  moat  look  for  the  original  stock  of  the  modem 
Thoroiighhred  tnitting  hnrse,  saddle  horse  and 
othtT  race-H  of  speeil  horsBS. 

Thi^  ancient  stock,  80  fruitful  in  ultimate  rexults 
as  exhibited  by  these  highly  improved  blood  horaea, 
probably  hod  its  origin  in  thu  dry  desert  regions 
of  northern  Africa.  The  moro  modem  reprcst-nta- 
tive  of  this  race  is  called  the  "Hnrb."  and  it  is  the 
horse  that  was  prim-fpally  employed  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  Knglish  Thoroughbred,-  a  breed 
of  such  remarkable  endurance,  great  spved  and 
beautiful  symmetry  that  it  haa  be«n  imported  into 


Fti.  4JI.    Zebtul  «  tebroid.   ('rom  of  A  liutvliBll  twbrm 
•m  Itifti  uiarc.    (Aftvr  WmIImo.) 

every  civitiiod  country  in  the  world,  and  has  con- 
tributed to  the  founding  of  every  important  breed 
of  light  or  aiwtMl  horses  in  existence. 

A  great  vuriuty  of  domesticatod  races,  called 
breeds,  have  been  devclopLid  from  the  wild  forms 
described  above.  These  various  type«  may  be 
claasitie-d  as  draft,  coitch,  roadst^T.  speed  and  saddle 
horseB  and  ponii>s.  The  principal  draft  breeds  in 
America  are  the  Pen-heron,  Clydesdale,  Shire,  Bel- 
gian and  Suffolk.  The  coaeh-horse  type  is  rvpre- 
sented  by  thy  Hacknt.'y,  F>eneh  coach,  German 
coach,  ('level&nd  bay  and  some  etmins  of  the  Amer* 
icun  trotter.  Tho  roadster  is  a  light  driving  horse, 
developed  from  the  American  trotter.  The  sjieed 
horses  are  the  Ameripan  trotter  or  pacer,  the  Orloff 
trotter,  and  the  Thoroughbred  or  English  ninnjng 
hnrst;.  The  saddle  hornes  are  the  American  or  Ken- 
lucky  aa<ldle  horse,  the  hunter  and  the  cavalry 
hor84..  The  pony  breeds  are  tho  Shetland.  Welch, 
Exmoor,  Mustang,  Indian  pony,  and  others.  More 
recently  the  effort  has  been  made  to  develop  a  par- 
ticular carriage  type  of  the  American  trotter,  and 


J 


HORSE 


it  ia  suKKeal«d  that  this  hbw  type  of  sub-briseil  tw 
callud  tliL-  American  carria>:^  horifhe.  In  atliiitJao  to 
the  brL-etU  nfvmwi  tibove,  of  apeciai  interest  tu  Ameri- 
can rewlere  will  he  the  mention  of  theoldronentoga 
draft  horse,  which  ori^inatW  nn  the  banks  of  the 
ConeKtoga  river  in  southwistern  Pennajlvania.  This 
hnr»e  was  of  mi^iiiiiiii  she,  of  ruf^^ed  constitutiun, 
pl«asiti)i;  conftrrriiatmti  ami  of  great  t-nd uraiice. 

The  won!  "typ«"  ufieil  aliuve  ih  u  generic  terni, 
eraploywd  to  deaiirnaiu  a  ^roup  conipost'd  of  Irt't'da 
or  races  of  similar  aizo,  conformation  and  utility. 
The  word  "breed"  is  a  spccilic  term  and  applies  to 
smaller  gronpa  of  animalH  more  ctnaely  resembling 
one  another,  and  asually  taking  their  name  fnim 
the  Iix^ality  in  which  they  orininat<'d.  "GraiW  is 
a  torm  widely  u.>uxl  tci  apply  t<i  animals  having  a 
prepdmierancfl  of  the  blootC  uf  a  wdl-recugniay) 
improvecJ  breed.  A  "crcBS-brw!"  is  an  animal  renult- 
ing  from  the  mating  of  animals  of  distinct  hrcedH. 

The  Education,  Harnessing  and    Gaits  of  the 
Horse.   Figfl.  429-435. 

By  THomnjr  F.  Hunt. 

The  edocation.  harneRstng  and  gaits  of  the  Horse, 
in  their  practical  ai^pects,  involvu  many  problems 
and  much  d«tail  that  cannot  b«  given  htsf'O.  A  few 
of  these  practical  problems  are  indicated  in  the 
succeeding  article  by  M.  \V.  Har|>er.  Thi;  referen- 
ces to  literature  at  the  end  of  this  article  will  aid 
the  reader  in  finding;  .tiimt^  of  the  moxt  valuable 
puhlifthed  information  on  horso-training.  In  the 
great  iriass  uf  lileraluru  relating  to  thiH  subjoct, 
one  ni'eds  to  choose  carefully  between  what  is 
roally  worth  while  and  what  is  largely  sentiment. 

Etiueafinn. 

It  is  not  the  purpoec  to  diACoss  the  education  of 
the  horse  in  detail  nor  to  give  methods  by  which 
it  may  be  acoomplitthtKl,  hut  rather  to  state  briiifly 
some  general  principleH  that  miiKt  underlie  any 
succesflful  training.  For  mttthtxlH  of  training 
hordes,  as  well  us  for  the  proper  manner  of  riding, 
see  .\nderHon'8  "  Motlern  Huri*umanship  "  and  Hayes 
"Illustratwi  Horse  Breaking." 

It  ia  necessary  to  understand  the  mental  pro- 
cesses of  the  htirse  in  order  to  train  him  ration- 
ally. Hit*  mental  prnce-t-sen  can  Ih*  iletwrminec!  only 
by  inference  ;  ami  it  may  aeem  unjust,  hut  if  the 
matter  is  considi-n^d  candidly  and  witlicmt  senti- 
ment, it  must  be  cuncludMl  that  the  home  \»  a  rather 
stupid  animal.  He  appears,  also,  tn  have  little 
affection  furotherspwjii'a  of  animals,  min  included, 
and,  so  far  as  man  is  concemex),  hiis  little  love  of 
admiration.  The  dog.  for  example,  will  do  many 
things  to  ptea.se  Wause  he  loves  to  be  admired.  It 
i.s  doubtful,  therefore,  whether  any  system  of  pet- 
ting ur  cajoling  as  a  method  of  honie-training  i.<i 
of  mm-h  avail. 

Apparently,  ibe  hon*e  hiw  but  limited  reason 
(using  the  word  for  whatever  mental  processe*  are 
prwtent  with  the  horse),  much  more  limited  than 
that  of  the  elephant  or  the  dog.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  horn  seems  to  have  an  esceltent,  per- 
haps rather  extraordinary,  memory.   If  a  horse  is 


coni|nered  by  meana  of  properly  arranged  BtrajKi 
and  ropc'H,  be  does  not  acem  to  be  able  to  reason 
that  when  the  stra[is  and  roped  aru  taken  off  he 
could  run  av.'ay  if  he  chose.  While  he  seems 
always  to  rememl>er  that  the  pulling  on  the  bit, 
which  was  done  at  the  same  time  his  front  feet 
were  pulled  up,  was  intend^i  to  make  him  slop,  he 
doea  not  seem  to  l>e  able  to  reimftn  thctt  it  was  the 
pulling  his  {*n>.t  off  the  gr«mnd  and  not  the  pulling 
on  the  bit  thHt  8t<tp])ed  him  during  his  firHt  U'sHitn. 

Both  liecause  of  hict  most  excellent  mt-mory  and 
poor  reasoning  power,  it  is  very  impurtHnt  that 
every  stage  in  the  process  of  training  should  he 
saccossful.  The  spirit  of  bravado  should  not  permit 
the  undertaking  of  a  step  which  cannot  be  accom- 
plished with  certainty.  If  a  horse  throws  one  off 
he  is  not  likely  to  forget  it,  and  is  ju.st  a.s  likely  to 
do  it  ;igain  as  to  do  any  other  thing  that  he  has 
been  trained  to  do.  If  he  learns  that  certain  things 
will  not  hurt  him  he  will  generally  remain  gentle 
to  their  influence.^. 

As  in  the  child,  the  vividness  with  which  impres- 
sions are  made  on  the  horse'a  mind  determines,  to 
some  extent,  theaccuracyandcertainty  with  which 
they  are  remembenKi.  Herein  often  lies  the  value 
of  those  horse- breaking  methods  that  induce  the 
horse  to  resist,  and  that  at  the  same  time  contrive 
effectually  to  overcome  this  repistance,  The  im- 
pre.'iflion  made  during  the  fight  Ls  so  indelibly  im- 
prew<ed  on  the  hor.ie's  mind  that  he  rarely  forgets 
it.  Habit  is  alHO  an  im]>ortant  factor,  and  henco 
the  repetition  of  les.<;ons  is  essential  to  the  thoruagb 
education  of  the  horse. 

During  lessons,  the  trainer  should  receive  the 
tindividi-d  attention  of  the  horse.  It  is  desirable, 
therefiire.  to  train  him  in  a  comparatively  small 
enclosure,  say  seventy-live  to  one  hundred  feet  in 
diameter,  and  containing;  no  other  person  or  objecta 
which  may  attract  the  h<irv<eV  attention,  except 
the  trainer,  and  an  assistant,  if  needed.  For  tno 
sjime  reiwcin,  a  Kingln  legion  (ihuuld  not  be  too  long, 
since  whun  the  horse  becomi^  tirod  his  attention 
can  not  bo  se-cured. 

The  ultimalti  pur^xise  of  training  is  to  make  the 
horse  understand  and  obey  signals.  Signals  miiy  be 
made  with  the  voice,  the  whip  or  the  lines.  In  any 
case,  they  should  Im  made  clearly,  and  a  given 
signal  should  be  m-iile  for  a  single  piir|mse.  Per- 
ha|is  thb)  greatest  fault  with  |)ersu[ks  in  handling 
honws  is  that  they  do  niit  use  their  signals  consist- 
ently, and  do  not  insist  on  the  horse  obeying  them. 
If  "whoa"  is  use*!  as  a  signal  for  a  horse  to  stop, 
it  should  not  be  osod  when  it  is  desired  merely  that 
the  horse  should  go  slower,  but  some  other  signal 
should  be  used,  as  for  example,  "steady."  The  rea- 
son more  confusion  is  not  exjieripncBd  in  the  use  of 
the  signal  "whoa"  ia  from  the  fact  that  the  user 
consciously  or  uni^onHciouxly  moditiL's  the  volume  of 
the  voice,  and  the  horse  depends  on  this  emphasis 
for  his  signal.  Obviounly,  a  change  both  in  the 
word  used  and  the  volume  of  the  voice  would  li« 
mure  de.'^irable. 

Manifestly,  the  command  to  stop  should  precede 
and  not  succeed  a  pull  on  the  lilt.  One  would 
hardly  think  of  whipping  a  child  before  telling  him 


422 


nORSB 


HORSE 


to  shut  the  door  in  order  to  make  sure  O'f  his  com- 
mand Wing  obeyed].  One  should  not  pa!)  on  tlie  bit 
both  to  make  a.  horse  sto|>  and  to  make  him  go 
faster.  The  hornes  that  ran  away  wh«n  pressure 
vrHH  put  on  the  bit  and  ran  faster  the  more  the 
pre^jiure  waa  exerted,  hat  stopped  immediately 
when  the  driver  slackened  the  lines,  were  not 
vicious  horaea.  Thi-y  were  simply  obeying  the  sig- 
nals their  former  driver  had  unwittingly  taught 
them. 

Punishment,  whether  by  pressure  on  the  bit  or 
otherwise,  should  ce;tse  the  niwrnent  the  horse  does 
what  ia  desired  of  him.  Punishnient  may  be 
inflicted  t(J  induce  n  hi>r»e  to  perform  a.n  act  or  to 
refrain  from  the  [lerforniance  of  an  ai-t,  but  must 
never  be?  inflicted  after  the  act  is  pwrformL-d,  no 
matter  how  undesirable  the  act  may  be.  One  may 
pr(i{wr1y  puni^th  horses  to  catise  them  to  pasA  an 
automobile,  but  to  inflict  pain  after  thsy  have 
passed  it  will  only  give  them  just  cause  for  fear 
the  next  time  they  meet  one. 

A  bit  or  the  arr;tn;;emeiit  of  the  bit  that  con- 
Ktiintly  hiirtu  the  horse  gives  him  no  idea  of  what 
ia  wanted  of  him.  Almost  any  horse  will  do  as 
diructod  to  avoid  pain,  provided  he  understands 
his  directions  and  provided  doing  it  actually 
relieves  him  from  the  pair.  The  horse  or  the  child 
that  is  punished  whether  ho  doeii  right  »)r  wrong, 
is  juKt  as  likely  l<>  do  the  wrung  thing  an  the  right 
thing. 

Tha  use  of  the  martingale  is  a  good  example  of 
the  pt-uper  and  improper  application  of  punish- 
ment. The  standing  martingale  is  attached 
directly  to  the  snaffle-bit,  white  the  rings  of  the 
■ordinary  kind  slide  on  the  rein.  The  martingale  is 
used  with  the  nadillc  horse  to  prevent  him  carry- 
ing his  head  t<Mi  high  or  too  nearly  horizontal,  or 
to  prevent  him  hitting  the  rider  with  hi£  head. 
With  the  standing  martingale,  every  time  the 
horse  throws  his  head  too  high  the  punishment  is 
inflicte^l,  and  the  momemt  he  holds  his  head  prop- 
erly he  gets  immediate  relief.  With  the  ordinary 
nmrtingale,  a  rider  is  about  as  likely  to  pull  on 
the  bits  whether  the  head  is  high  or  low. 

This  principle  of  punishment  only  for  the  pur- 
pase  of  BocTuring  obedience  to  profwrly  conveyed 
and  properly  understtHxI  signals,  and  the  immedi- 
ate cessation  when  a  signal  is  obeyed,  is  the  key- 
note of  successful  horse-training. 

Hamen. 

When  the  harness  with  which  s  horse  w  dresaeii 
come»  tu  Iw  examined  critically,  certain  purt«  will 
be  found  to  aurve  eMsential  puriHMes,  while  utber 
parts  may  be  found  to  be  like  the  buttons  on  the 
liaok  of  a  gentleman's  coat,  remnants  of  former 
cnGtonu  or  conditions.  Obviously,  hameKs  may 
wrve  three  main  purposes ;  viz,,  to  enable  the 
horse  to  move  the  vehicle,  to  enable  the  driver  to 
f^ido  the  animal  or  regulate  bis  speed,  and  to 
Improve  the  appearance  of  the  animal  or  add  to 
the  impreKtivcn^ss  of  the  tKiuipage  as  a  whuk-. 

The  collar,  hames,  tngs.  hrt^eching  and  neck- 
yoke  strap  are  concerned  chiefly  in  the  movement 
of  the  vehicle.  The  back-band  may  serve  a  variety 


of  purpose*.  In  some  instances  it  aopporta  the 
shafts,  while  in  others,  it,  in  connection  with  the 
belly-band,  gives  anchorage  for  the  nvck-yoke 
strap.  In  connection  with  the  coupler  it  alao 
serves  as  an  attachment  for  the  check-rein.  When 
breeching  is  used,  the  back -band  is  sumetimes 
omitted,  tho  chock-r«in,  if  present,  being  supported 
by  the  hames. 

Since  practically  all  the  force  of  propulsion  is 
conveyed  through  the  collar,  this  necomos  the 
most  important  single  Item  of  harness  in  the  draft 
horse.  It  ia  essential  that  the  collar  should  be  the 
proper  size  and  shape  and  the  haraea  properly 
adjusted.  Obvinasly,  the  aim  should  lie  to  dis- 
tribute the  pre-ssure  of  the  collar  as  widely  and 
evenly  on  the  shoulders  as  jioKsible.  If  the  tugs 
are  adjusted  too  low,  there  is  danger  of  too  much 
pressure  on  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  causing  col- 
lar boils ;  if  too  high,  there  may  be  too  much  prcft- 
snro  on  the  neck,  causing  aoreness  there.  The 
p<]int  of  attachment  may  need  to  be  modified  for 
the  same  horse,  depending  on  the  direction  of  the 
tug.  Wheeled  Vehicles  permit  of  a  more  nearly 
horizontal  linn  uf  draft  than  do  plows,  harrows 
and  similar  tools. 

The  bridle  and  lines  form  a  means  by  which 
signals  are  conveyed  by  the  driver  to  the  horse. 
While  there  area  multiplicity  of  bits  intended  to 
convey  varying  degrees  of  prpKsnre  or  pain,  in 
general  the  Himpter  the  form  and  the  less  the  pain 
tnflictiid  tho  easier  the  hiirae  in  controlled.  In  fast 
driving  or  riding,  more  pressure  on  the  bit  is  desir- 
ablu  than  at  tho  slower  gaits,  because  of  the  more 
constant  and  delicate  guidance  required.  With 
regard  to  the  use  of  hitj*.  it  is  necessary  to  remem- 
ber that  tho  horse  is  a  sentient  being  having  indi- 
viduality which  may  amount  to  idiosyncrasy,  and 
that,  therefore,  thu  hit  which  gives  the  best  result 
with  one  horse  may  not  be  best  for  another. 

In  urdur  to  understand  fully  the  uses  of  hits,  it 
is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  different 
purposes  for  which  horses  are  employed.  For  work 
horses.  Ixith  the  lines  and  the  check-rein  are 
attached  to  an  ordinary  snaffle-bit.  The  side 
check-rein  is  usihI,  the  chief  purptise  of  which  is  to 
prevent  the  horse  getting  his  heud  to  the  ground 
and  thu^  gutting  into  mischief  when  loft  standing. 
Since  a  horse  can  pull  most  advantageonsly  when 
his  head  is  low  and  well  forwanl,  the  check-rein 
should  permit  a  reasonable  movement  of  the  bead. 
In  the  rase  of  driving  horses  or  coach  horsi«,  draft 
is  less  eswential,  while  Hjieed  or  action  becomes  the 
important  consideration.  Spt-ed  is  incrtiascd  by 
ratting  the  center  of  gravity  and  thrusting  it  for- 
ward. Action  is  increased  at  tho  expense  of  speed 
by  raising  the  center  of  gravity  and  thrusting  it 
backwanl.  Sincei  in  the  horse,  the  cjinter  of  gravity 
is  mollified  by  the  movement  of  the  head,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  mollify  s|Mwd  or  action  by  changing  the 
position  of  the  head.  In  driving  horses,  therefore, 
a  snaffle-bit  is  used  for  the  lines,  while  a  straight 
bit  attached  lo  an  overdraw  check  is  useil  to  raise 
thi^  head  and  cause  it  to  assume  a  somewhat  hori- 
zontal positicm,  thus  thniwing  the  center  of  gravity 
of  the  burae  forward  and  upwanl. 


r 


EORSE 

In  coach  bones,  action  U  dem^-indcd,  but  great 
speed  b  not  required.  In  other  words,  thu  coacb 
hone  is  expoct«d  to  raise  his  ftwt  as  high  as  may 
be  with  relatively  small  forward  movt'ment.  This 
is  facilitated  by  bringing  tlie  hurst-V  Ii«ad  into  a 
comparatirely  vertical  posiiion  at  the  aame  time 
that  it  ifl  raisL-d.  To  brinff  thi«  about,  a  curb-hit  i« 
uaed.  the  linw  being  attached  to  the  lonper  arms 
of  the  lever,  and  the  curb  forming  the  resistance 
to  the  shorter  arm.  tSide-reins  are  used  to  keep  the 
head  up.  The^e  are  sometime^  attached  to  the  cen- 
ter rings  of  the  curb-bit,  but,  to  secure  the  best 
reaalts,  the  ch^ck-rein  should  be  attached  to  a 
separate  anaffle-bit,  for  reaaona  piven  in  explainini^ 
the  use  of  the  martingale. 

The  horse  may  be  riddi^n  with  either  the  anoffie- 
or  the  curb-bit.  but  for  high-clajis  work,  both  should 
be  employed.  The  curb-lj>it  is  used  at  the  gallop 
and  the  single-ftKit,  while  the  snaffle-bit  h  used  at 
the  walk  and  trot.  The  two  bita  add  tu  the  safety 
of  the  rider  and  increaae  the  distinctness  with 
which  signals  can  be  conveyed. 

Many  trotting  horses  are  transformed  into  coach 
horses  by  substituting  curb-bits  and  sidi-reins  for 
snalfle-bit  and  overdraw  check,  replacing  the  breaat- 
coMar  with  the  ordinary  collar,  and  by  docking  the 
tail.  Sometimes  heavier  shoea  are  also  put  on,  tfl 
make  the  horse  lift  his  fevt  hitihur.  and  ni>t  reach 
so  far  forward.  Iiriving-horaes  wilh  breaat-coUars 
should  have  bridles,  rings,  and  other  metal  parts  as 
inconspicuous  an  pojwible.  Coach  horses  may  have 
hames,  bnckles,  rinffs  and  other  metal  trimmings 
made  prominent  by  the  use  of  nick.?!,  brass,  sihvr 
or  gold,  according  to  the  taste  and  means  of  the 
owner. 

Gaits, 

There  are  four  distinct  gaits  or  types  of  locomo- 
tion, viz.,  the  amble  or  pace,  the  trot,  the  walk  and 
the  gallop.  There  are  also  several  intermediate 
gaits.  Thu^,  the  so-called  gaited  saddle  horse  may 
go  the  la.*)!  three  of  these  distinct  gaits  and  two 
intermediate  gaita.  the  rack  and  the  running- 
walk.  In  place  of  the  runninif-walk,  other  inter- 
mediate gaits  are  permitted,  tut  the  tme  amble 
«r  paeo  is  not  allowed  as  a  saddle  gait.  There 
19  great  difficulty  in  distinguishing  and  classifying 
the  intermediate  gait4  because  there  may  be  all 
sorta  of  gradations  between  the  distinct  lypvs. 
This  will  De  clear  if  these  gaits  are  represented 
diagrammatically.  I^t  the  sh.idetl  areas  represent 
the  right  feet  and  the  solid  black  areas  the  left  feet 
In  the  diagrams  (Hga.  42;M;l."iJ  It^t  the  uppi?r  line 
represent  the  front  feet  and  the  lower  tine  the  hind- 
feet.  The  three  gaits  may  tben  be  represL-nU»I  us 
«tiown  in  Figs.  42^^31.    It  will  be  ivadily  stien 


Ftc.  <».  Tte  pAoe  <K  KBible, 


that  in  the  pace  or  amble  (Pig.  429)  the  lateral 
bipeds  strike  the  ground  simultaneously  and  make 
two  beats  for  one  step ;  that  in  tbe  trot  (Fig.  4.\iO) 


Fil.  «30.    TUB  tiot. 


the  diagonal  bipeda  strike  the  ground  together 
and  thus  again  make  two  heats  for  one  whole  step : 
while  in  the  walk  (B'ig.  431)  there  is  a  condition 


ncei.  Tlw  walk. 

just  half-way  between  the  pace  aed  the  trot,  con- 
sequently each  foot  strikes  the  ground  separately, 
making  four  equally  spaced  beats.  It  Is  perfectly 
evident  that  there  may  l>e  all  snrts  of  gradations 
between  the  pace  and  the  walk  or  between  the 
walk  and  the  trot.  If  a  honte  went  a  gait  that  was 
just  half-way  between  a  pace  and  a  walk,  it  would 
be  represented  as  in  Fig.  432.   It  wiU  be  seen  that 


FU.  <it,   Tte  nek. 

in  thia  case  each  foot  strikes  the  ground  separately: 
but  instead  of  being  equally  spaced  there  are  four 
iineqaally  spaced  beats,  giving  the  familiar  sound 
of  the  si ngle-f outer  :  pcck-a'pefk.  half'^'peck.  It  Js 
probable  that  the  single-foot  is  not  just  half-way 
between  the  walk  and  the  pace,  but  that  it  is 
nearer  the  pace  than  the  walk. 

A  gait  half-way  between  the  walk  and  the  trot 
would  be  represented  a^  in  Fig.  483.   In  this  caM 


Fie  *3}.    Ttw  numliiii-wRlk. 

each  foot  strikes  the  ground  separately  and  in  un- 
eqmilly  spaced  beatii,  but  instead  of  the  lateral 
bi]NHl.'i  being  closely  associated  it  is  the  diagonal 
bipL^la  that  are  associated. 

En  the  gaits  that  have  just  K*en  described  there 
are  either  two  or  four  beats  to  a  complete  step.  In 
the  gallop,  however,  there  may  be  but  three  beats. 
In  this  gait,  assuming  the  horse  to  be  off  the 
grnnnd.  he  strikes  the  ground  first  with  i>ne  hind- 
font,  say  the  right,  then  simultaneously  with  the 
left  himl-rnwt  and  right  fore-foot  and  then  with  the 
left  fore-foot.  Sometime.",  although  less  fif*|aently, 
the  horse  strikes  the  ground  with.  say.  the  right 
hind-foot,  then  with  both  left  feet  and  then  with 
the  right  fore-foot.  This  is  known  as  the  lateral 
or  disunited  gallop  fFig.  434),  while  the  former 
and  more 
usual  gallop 
is  known  as 
the  diaffonal 

°''U°'*«^nl.  n,.4M.  ut««]or  ru.'OS.  DUaoadoi 
lop(ri£.435).      aunited  Ktoov.  miwi  ruisp. 


HORSE 


!10R5!E 


The  horse  in  the  gallop  is  said  to  lead  with  the 
foot  that  strikee  the  grounil  last.  Inasmuch  as  the 
horse  strikes  the  gronad  Brat  with  one  hind-foc-t 
and  leavM  it  from  the  diajfonal  for&-fojt,  while 
the  other  diacnnal  bipwJ  receives  the  concnsaion 
at  the  interiDL-diatt!  beat,  it  is  evident  that  it  ia 
desirable  for  saddle  huraes  to  be  able  to  change 
the  lead  in  order  to  rest  themaelvea  and  in  order 
that  the  diagonal  biped  nhall  not  be  prematurely 
worn  out.  When  a  horse  gallops  in  a  circle,  the 
center  of  gravity  is  thrown  in  to  overcome  centrif- 
ugal force.  As  the  horae  is  in  danffer  of  falling 
inward  under  these  circumstances  he  should  and 
generally  will  lead  with  hi*  inner  fore-foot.  Ad- 
vantage can  be  taken  of  this  fact  to  teach  a  horse 
to  change  hiR  lead  from  one  to  the  other  fore-foot. 
If  a  horae  w  ridden  in  a  sraall  circle  to  the  ri>fht, 
the  rider  throwing  hia  own  weight  inward  and 
turning  the  hurKo'n  hea<t  xli^htly  uutwurd  at  the 
start,  it  will  tt;nd  to  niako  the  horse  load  with  tho 
inner  fore-foot.  The  lead  may  be  reversed  by  rid:- 
ing  to  tho  left.  After  the  horse  will  take  the  lead 
readily  by  riding  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left, 
he  may  be  ridden  in.  the  figure  eight,  in  whiph  caw 
he  flhnnld  change  the  lead  oa  ho  changt-ii  from  one 
circle  to  the  other.  When  a  horse  is  thus  trained 
he  may  bo  induced  to  lead  with  the  right  foot  when 
moving  in  a  straight  line  by  turning  the  head 
slightly  to  the  left  while  the  rider  throws  his  own 
weight  to  the  right.  To  lead  on  the  loft  foot, 
reverse  the  operation. 

For  the  purpotte  of  simplicity,  only  the  order 
and  a»scx:iatiiim  of  liealK  have  buen  repreMented  in 
the  diagrams.  Aj  a  mattt-r  of  faft,  at  the  walk  a 
horae  has  at  curtain  lim^s  three  feet  on  tho 
ground,  whik-  in  the  fast  trot  there  are  times 
when  all  the  fuet  are  olT  the  ground.  In  the  run- 
ning-walk and  in  tho  broken  amble  or  rack,  at 
timefl  the  home  has  three  feet  on  the  ground,  but 
not  for  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  time  as  in  the 
walk. 

LUeraturr, 

Goubaux  and  Barrier,  Tho  Exterior  of  the 
Horse,  translated  by  Simon  J.  J.  Harger,  J.  B. 
Lippincott  Company  (1892) ;  .AnderRnn  and  Collier, 
Kiding  and  Driving,  New  S'ork  (1905)  ;  Herbert, 
FVank  Forester's  Horse  and  Horsemanship  of  the 
Uniteil  Status,  2  Vok.  New  York  (1871) ;  Marvin, 
Training  the  Trotting  llorse,  New  York  (lS9:i) ; 
Anderson,  Modern  Horsemanship ;  Playes,  ilhs- 
tratt-d  Horse  Breaking;  Roberts,  The  Horse,  the 
Macmillan  Company  (1905}.  [For  further  refer- 
ences, see  page  41B.] 

Practical  Horse-training  and    Handling.     Pigs. 
VM,  437. 

By  Mtrria  IV.  //arpcr. 

Not  every  person  iu  fitted  by  nature  for  the 
training  and  care  of  horses,  as  the  large  number  of 
vicious  and  spoiled  horses  indicates.  Many  of  the 
ailmenti  of  hiirses  are  due,  not  wj  much  to  had 
breeding,  as  to  faulty  training  and  ignorant, 
brutal  driving.    When    the    horae    has  l>Bun   well 


trained,  he  may  he  depended  on,  especially  if  this 
training  is  given  in  his  early  years.  He  will  never 
forget  these  early  lessons.  In  the  training  of  the 
horse,  it  ia  of  verj'  little  use  to  try  to  lay  down 
set  rules.  The  man  who  trains  colts  finds  new 
situations  to  deal  with  in  every  individual  he 
undertakes  to  educate. 

In  training  the  horse,  there  are  a  few  things 
that  should  always  be  kept  in  mind.  A  horse 
should  never  be  trusted  more  than  is  necessary.  A 
gflwl  horseman  never  runs  a  risk  when  it  can  be 
avoided.  Many  distressing  accidents  occur  from 
trusting  old  family  horses.  The  harness  and  other 
e<|uipment  should  be  of  good  quality  and  in  good 
repair.  Children,  women  or  incompetent  men 
should  never  be  left  in  charge  of  horsw  unless  the 
animals  are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  ihem. 
Horst^R  should  he  lie<l  aboat  the  neck  by  a  strfmg 
n>iH!  or  strap,  the  latter  passed  through  the  ring  of 
the  bit  and  then  to  the  h itching-post. 

Tyaining  edUi. 

There  is  far  too  much  faas  made  about  training 
young  horsa^.  If  the  training  is  made  a  gradual 
prooe-ss,  it  will  tie  accompli^ho4  much  aa  a  matter 
of  coiirw.  If,  however,  colts  are  allowed  to  run 
practically  wild  until  three  or  four  years  old.  and 
are  then  sudd^'nly  caught  and  an  attL'mpt  made  to 
force  thorn  into  use  quickly,  there  is  likely  to  bo 
more  or  less  trouble.  In  training  cotts.  often  the 
mistake  is  made  of  trying  to  t^ach  them  too  much 
at  one  time.  The  colt  should  understand  his  flrat 
lentim  and  have  il  thoroughly  learned  before 
another  i^  attempted. 

Pwrhapa  the  first  lesson  should  be  to  "halter 
break"  tho  young  animal.  A  strong,  well-fitting 
halter,  not  a  new  one,  but  one  that  has  recently 
lieen  used  and  therefore  familiar  to  his  sense  of 
smell,  shciiild  be  ])la<'.i>d  on  him,  and  he  should  be 
tieil  short  near  to  his  dam  and  in  f«uch  a  piuiitioR 
that  hci  cannot  pull  back  too  far  or  throw  and 
i!hoke  himsulf.  He  must  be  tied  securely  so  that 
there  is  no  danger  of  his  breaking  loose,  for  if  he 
breaks  loose  oncu  he  is  likely  to  try  it  again.  Colts 
should  be  treated  gently  hut  firmly.  It  is  well  to 
avoid  making  great  pets  of  them,  as  petted  animals 
are  usually  difficult  in  train. 

After  tHH^oming  familiar  with  the  halter  ao  that  he 
will  stand  tiuil,  he  may  be  taught  to  lead  fPig.  -tSti). 
If  the  method  indicated  is  unavuiiable,  the  trainer 
may  take  a  fairly  long  lead  strap,  gft  behind  him 
and  make  him  goahend.  The  trainer  should  not  stand 
in  front  and  pull  on  the  colt's  head,  for  he  will  wall 
his  eyes,  shake  his  head  and  step  bjick.  It  is  a  good 
practice  to  allow  the  colt  to  accompany  his  muther 
by  tying  the  lend  strap  t<i  her  hame  <hF  collar  ;  thos 
he  becomes  uaed  to  walking  and  trotting  besid« 
another  horse. 

Training  to  bit  and  hamest. — It  is  perhaps  best 
to  train  horses  to  the  use  of  the  hit  and  bu 
when  they  are  about  two  years  of  age.  With  rare 
exceptions,  the  colt  is  made  tisablu  if  for  a  few 
hours  each  day  for  a  week  he  is  subjected  to  the 
restraint  of  a  bitting  harness  in  an  open  paddock. 
Thia  harneas  coRHists  of  an  open  bridle  with  a  targe. 


HORSE 


HOnSE 


425 


smooth  bit  and  checli-r«'in.  a  surpinnle  and  crupper, 
ami  two  [(klfi-iines  runninj^  from  the  bit  to  buckW 
on  either  tsidt;  of  th<;  fiurvinfle.  (Pig.  4'-i".)  The 
check-  and  stde-reina  should  be  left  slack  at  lirst. 


i..Q^ 


tV^ 


/-> 


/ 


Mh 


if -^yi  ■7.U." 


aV. 


t  \ 
■■■■  .V'^V'Si'iK^  'y/y^ 


Fix.  436.    1.  colt  lumuwed  to  be  Uusbt  to  lead. 

Gradually,  from  day  to  day.  the  reins  shotiW  1» 
ahcirtened,  care  heing  taken  that  th<'y  are  ntwcr 
nia<k-  so  short  as  ti>  place  the  head  in  an  uncom- 
fart:iM«  iKwitlon,  or  draw  the  hit  w  tightly  aa  io 
makt)  the  comers  of  the  raoalh  sore.  Keal  lines  may 
now  be  subetitutvi  for  the  .lide'roin,  and  the  colt 
driven  around  until  he  will  respond  to  th«  rein, 
stop  at  the  word  "whoii"  and  step  forward  at  the 
command  "get  up." 

.\fter  Ihe  coit  has  become  used  to  the  bitting 
apparatus  and  to  understand  Huch  simple  com- 
mands a0  "  whoa,"  "  (jet  up"  and  "steady,"  he  may 
be  harnessed.  The  colt  should  be  trainoil  to  stand 
absolutely  etUl  when  being  harnessed,  saddled,  or 
when  it  is  detiired  that  ho  ?h<mld  do  so.  A  horse 
that  is  continually  stepping  around  while  he  ia 
being  harnesaed.  is  but  half  broken  at  betrt.  The 
attendant  should  be  gentle  ahi>ut  all  these  things 
at  first,  but  should  g*i  through  with  cvi-rything 
that  is  nndertaktn.  New  harness  should  not  be 
U8«^,  hot  that  which  has  bei'n  in  crtnintant  use, 
preferably  by  .some  horse  that  the  colt  knows. 

After  having  been  driven  with  the  hitting  appa- 
ratus for  a  time,  and  when  the  colt  is  rathL^r  tired. 
he  should  Ite  pat  in  hi»  stalt  and  the  collar  brought 
to  him ;  be  may  smell  of  it  if  he  likes,  and  thon 
it  should  bo  put  right  on  as  if  he  were  an  old 
horse.  Thi«  harness  should  be  placed  gently  over 
hij«  back.  The  attendant  shooM  not  stand  off  as  if 
the  horse  were  a  kicking  cow ;  he  should  walk 
behind  him.  put  the  crupper  strap  on.  then  step  to 
the  side  and  fasten  the  bands.  The  horse  is  then 
ready  to  hitch  to  a  T4>hicle. 

i/fVcAirrsfrfoMW<.— A  well-trained,  gentle  but  active 
hor»e  should  be  taken  if  the  colt  is  active,  for  it  is 
a  mistake  to  bitch  a  quick,  active  colt  with  a  slow, 
lazy  horse.  The  vehicle  to  which  they  ar«  attached 
ahoQld  be  provided  with  a  gcMxl  brake.  The  cult 
ahonid  be  attached   to  the  "otf-side,"*  and  they 


should  \w  driven  at  first  in  a  clos<L'd  field  until  the 
colt  learns  what  is  wanted  of  him.  When  hitching 
thii  colt  lip  double  for  the  first  time,  it  is  a  goncl 
practice  to  keep  a  pair  of  single  linis  on  the  colt's 
bridl<>,  whiL'h  can  be  handled  by  an  atwmtant. 

Hitehiwf}  ift7i);/f.--When  tli«  cult  h  deniriHl  for 
singly  tiflp,  it  is  often  advisable  to  train  him  to  go 
singlt'  from  the  first.  This  may  be  done  aftur  he  haa 
become  familiar  with  the  hit,  harne.'*s  and  use  of  the 
lines,  .\  training  cart  for  hitching  colts  single 
should  be  substantial,  with  long,  heavy  thills,  and 
the  seat  arranged  behind  no  that  the  driver  (lan  get 
otr  and  on  (juickly.  Tlie  cidt  should  lie  hitcbwl  well 
forward.  X  strap,  commonly  called  a  kick-strap, 
attache^!  to  each  thill  and  pasawl  ovwr  the  colt's 
croup,  should  always  he  used  until  the  colt  is  accus- 
tomed to  the  thills.  When  the  colt  Ls  first  hitched 
up,  an  attendant  should  hold  him  until  the  driver 
is  ready,  then  he  should  be  alloweil  to  go,  As  soon 
as  he  becomes  familiar  with  the  vehicle-,  he  should  be 
compelled  to  stand  H.til!  until  he  is  wanted  to  start. 

Training  to  mount.  In  training  a  colt  to  mount, 
one  must  be  very  careful  that  the  colt  does  not 
auccefld  in  throwinc  the  tralntT,  for  if  he  once  gets 
the  rider  off,  it  is  impossihle  to  convince  him  that 
he  cannot  do  it  again.  The  best  time  to  take  the  colt 
IB  after  he  has  been  exercised  rather  vigorously 
and  while  tired.  The  ttest  place  is  on  .soft  ground, 
where  he  can  neither  hurt  himself  nor  the  rider. 
The  saddle  is  put  on  with  the  same  confidence  as 
the  harness,  and  it  is  fastened  securely.  An  assist- 
ant should  hold  the  colt's  head  while  the  rider 
mounts.  The  horse  may  rear,  bound  forward,  buck 
or  tie  down.  In  any  event,  the  rider  most  stay  on. 
remembering  that  the  colt  is  alrwidy  tireil  and  on 
soft  ground.  It  is  often  an  endurance  trial,  and 
this  is  the  reason  why  one  must  have  the  colt  tired 
to  begin  with,  for  othen^-isu  he  may  bo  able  to 


,,     ^        .    ..  .  --■.-•^»-.,-...«V-" 

Ptc-  437.    TBe  fltllBBB  ol  M  colt  to  funlU»Hs«  Um  witk 

lutrnew  and  bit. 

bound  and  buck  until  the  rider  ih  soexhausted  that 
he  can  no  longer  hold  Ut  the  saddle. 

Trainiaif  vicwui  korMCf. 

In  training  or  handling  vicioun   horses,  it  is 
most  important  to  impress  them  very  firmly  that 


HOiUi^ 


HORSE 


tho  trainer  hw  (.'tiniplete-  cnntrni  over  them  and 
that  they  must  t)\wy  him.  The  htwt  way  to 
impre-Ks  this  cm  tht?  uii'mial  ia  to  "  raruy "  him. 
Thm  haniHSK  u.sej  fur  this  consists  of  two  short 
»tra|w  fitted  with  D-ahapiod  rings,  a  surcinglt;  and 
a  lon^  ropt-.  Tht*  stra}i8  ari;  buckled  aruand  tlie 
front  posttTas,  and  the  sureingie  around  the  h<idy. 
One  end  of  the  Itrng  rojn'  in  tied  Jnt"  the  ring  in 
the  straji  that  goea  anjunii  thi<  ]>Hfltt<rn  at  thi^ 
"near"  front  font.  The  fn-e  rnd  in  tlipn  [lat^i^i 
ihrough  II  riny;  iin  the  under  sid»?  of  the  surciiiKlu 
and  then  duwn  through  the  rinj;  at  th«  other  pas- 
tern. Then  thu-  rujx;  vml  in  bruught  up  and  passod 
thn>uyh  a  rinw,  tied  about  half  way  dowa  the 
"off"  side  of  the  atircingie.  If  tho  animal  become.'i 
unruly,  all  that  m  netsknl  is  to  pull  on  the  rope ; 
this  brings  the  front  feet  up  to  the  chent  and  the 
animal  cnm«»n  <ii)wn  on  hi«  knws  and  nrae.  A  few 
hard  falls  ii-iiiully  ar^  sKfTuripnt  for  the  most  incor- 
rigible. This  is  a  v«ry  dfin>i[er()u»  practice  and 
Hhould  be  undi;^rtaken  only  as  a  last  rui^ort.  It 
Aometime^  happens  that  horsca  permanently  injure 
thvir  kncus,  or  even  break  tticir  necks  as  a  result 
of  a  fall. 

Balking. 

BaEking  is  the  refaeial  on  thu  part  uf  the  bor^e 
to  do  the  work  reqnired  when  he  fully  understards 
what  ia  wanted  of  him.  It  w  often  caused  by 
improper  handling,  although  itometimcs  by  a  vicious 
dLspositioD.  Italking  is  usually  associated  with  ner- 
vous temperament,  and  all  inttuenc«s  that  tend  to 
irritate  the  hurae  should  be  removed  when  possible. 
It  is  essential  thai  the  trainer  b^ quiet  and  not  Icse 
his  temper,  as  shouting,  jerking  and  whipping  only 
make  matters  vrowe.  Often  if  the  hor»e  ifi  allowed 
to  stand  r|uietly  until  thu  nervousness  passes  away, 
he  will  start  of  bis  own  accord.  Attracting  hts 
attention  by  adjusticg  the  hamosg,  giving  him  an 
apple,  a  bit  of  sugar,  or  by  lifting  the  foot  and 
gently  pounding  the  ghoe.  will  often  overcome  the 
difficulty. 

NaUfr-puUing. 

All  horses  that  have  this  habit  should  be  securely 
tied  by  a  stout  neck-strap  or  rope.  Oft<i'n  they  can 
be  broken  of  the  habit  by  placing  a  small  rope,  say 
uiiu-quarter  inch,  around  th*  body  just  back  of  the 
fore-legs,  passing  the  rope  between  the  fore-legs. 
then  through  the  ring  of  the  halter,  and  tie  to  the 
po?t.  When  the  horae  pulls  back,  the  rojie  draws 
down  on  his  back  and  be  will  uHualiy  cease.  Another 
metho<i  ia  to  lie  one  end  of  the  small  rorw  arouml 
the  tail  in  the  form  of  a  cruppiir,  the  other  en<J  being 
parsed  along  the  back,  through  the  halter^ring  antt 
to  the  post.  When  he  pulls  back,  the  force  is  exert€<I 
on  the  tail,  and  he  soon  atopit. 

Hamemng. 

Good  harneiss  is  one  of  the  best  advertisements 
a  horseman  can  have.  It  is  oconcwnical  to  buy 
good  leather  and  i\imi  ke«p  it  in  good  conrliticm. 
HamMtH  oils  and  drawing  aru  cheap  and  it  does  not 
take  long  to  fix  up  a  doublo  «et  of  harnoAReM.  Tho 
metal  parLt  should  be  kept  bright  and  cl^in,  Theru 


TB  connidHrable  art  in  harnHs^ing  a  horse  just  right. 
The  harnesfls,  from  the  bridle  to  thy  erup|wr,  shimid 
lit ;  that  is,  it  should  bu  m'ither  too  lomtd  nor  luo 
tight.  In  harness^ing,  saddling  or  handling  a  liorse, 
tho  work  should  be  done  from  th«  loft  side  of  the 
animal,  and  the  equipment  fastened  and  unfastent*d 
from  that  side.  In  putting  nn  the  harnetw  it  should 
be  gently  but  lirmly  placin)  on  the  animal.  One 
fibituld  see  that  all  InoHe  flapping  tilrapfj  are 
avoided. 

The  collar  is,  |>erha]>s,  the  most  important  part 
of  the  harness  Ui  be  looked  after.  If  the  colt'a 
shoulders  are  tender  they  arc  rather  Hkoly  toshow 
abrasions.  In  this  case,  the  collar  must  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean  and  the  shoulders  may  be 
bathed  at  morning,  noon  and  night  with  cold  salt 
water.  Jf  one  is  working  a  colt  or  a  fleshy  horse, 
he  must  he  on  guard  to  ape  that  it  doej*  not  lose 
f)e.'»h  and  the  collar  bwtime  too  large.  Itreast-col- 
lars  are  a<imi>titable  when  the  load  it*  light.  They 
mutit  nut  be  adjusted  no  high  an  to  choke  tho  hor»e 
or  80  low  as  to  int4.'rf<'re  with  the  action  of  his 
limbs. 

I'erhaps  the  bridle  is  the  next  important  item. 
The  length  of  the  head-stall  must  be  soadja8t«d  m 
to  bring  tho  bit  in  mild  contact  with  the  bars  of 
the  month,  so  that  the  animal  will  respond  quickly 
to  the  slightest  pres-'jure  on  the  lines.  If  the  head- 
etttll  of  the  bridle  U  too  short,  the  bars  and  corners 
of  the  mouth  Htxin  become  sore  and  the  animal 
finally  becomes  unresponsive ;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  too  long,  the  horse  becomes  careless  of  the 
driver's  wishes.  As  to  the  advisability  of  using 
blinds,  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion.  If  the 
burse  works  better  with  an  open  bridle,  it  should 
be  used  ;  if  better  with  a  blind  bridle,  the  blind 
should  be  used. 

The  check -rein  should  be  properly  adjusted. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  check-reins,  the  over-draw 
and  the  side-rein.  The  over-draw,  if  worn  tight,  ia 
nothing  short  of  cruel ;  it  makes  the  horse  hold 
his  head  in  an  uncomfortable  and  unsightly  posi- 
tion. If  no  check-rein  is  used.  moi^C  hon^s  become 
slovenly  and  carele.'y  in  their  habit«.  The  cmj 
ne^H  careful  attention.  It  should  fit  and  be 
clean,  lest  it  abrade  the  tail  and  produce  a  viciooa 
horse. 

Driviiiff. 

Driving  is  an  art  that  does  not  lend  itself  well 
to  in.ttruction  by  the  medium  of  word."*.  The  inde- 
scribable qualities  which,  rightly  commingled,  nuke 
the  good  driver,  cannot  be  acquired  from  boot 
but  Tnu):t,  in  a  large  measure,  be  born  in  the  bontc 
man.  Study,  obitervation  and  especially  practice, 
will  add  to  his  ability,  but  all  that  may  be  written 
will  not  make  one  adept.  The  understanding  he~ 
tween  horse  and  driw-r  is!  so  keen  that  the  horse 
is  inspired  with  courage  and  obedience  by  the 
slightest  touch  on  the  reins  or  hy  the  cheery  voice 
of  the  driver.  On  the  other  hand,  careless  and 
lazy  drivers  are  the  source  of  far  more  disobedient 
hon«*j4  than  is  generally  supiKKwd.  Just  as  surely 
as  the  driver  is  shiftloas.  the  horse  will  bood 
become  so. 


HORSE 

Position  of  the  niiu  in  liririni).-  The  most  con- 
venient way  to  hrtW  tho  Uhl-s  wht-n  driving  is  to 
take  tbam  in  th«  left  ham],  the  It-ft  rein  coming 
into  the  hand  over  the  tirat  finger,  the  right  cnm- 
ing  into  the  hand  between  the  second  and  third 
fingers.  The  gniding  w  to  be  done  with  the  right 
hand  which  manipulalwi  the  lint^s.  The  [eft  urtn 
Hhouhl  hnng  naturiilly,  with  the  furvarm  at  a  ri^ht 
angle,  and  the  elbow  clo^ti  to  the  bcnly,  Thii*  poei- 
tion  gives  the  driver  the  be^t  control  over  the 
line«,  and  at  the  same  time  is  verv  comfortable. 

RMift  of  (he  rm(j/.  — There  are  a  few  common  rules 
in  practice  that  should  be  «b«er\*e(i  by  every  one 
when  riding  nrdrivingnnthe  highways.  In  general, 
when  two  vehicles  meet,  they  dhnuld  each  turn  to 
the  right,  each  yielding  more  than  one-half  of  the 
road,  this  rule  applies,  no  matter  where  the  vehicle 
may  be.  If,  however,  one  of  the  vehiclea  is  heavy 
Isden  and  cannot  yield  one-half  of  the  road,  it  must 
stop  and  let  the  lighter  rig  go  around.  It  h  the 
rule  for  the  driver  of  the  heavy  laden  vehicle  to 
aid  the  driver  of  the  lighter  axw  to  get  around 
when  HDch  aid  is  needed.  In  xome  xtaten,  a  ped^s^ 
trian  or  a  man  on  horse-back  i»  entitled  to  half  the 
rnsjj,  the  same  an  if  he  were  in  a  carriage.  If  be- 
hind a  vehicle,  and  it  is  desired  to  drive  aroand, 
the  rear  vehicle  should  drive  to  the  left.  Aa  a  rule, 
t^e  driver  of  the  .tmall  moving  %'ehicle  will  bear 
off  to  the  right  if  signalled.  However,  he  is  under 
no  obligatiDRx  to  do  so  in  most  tttates.  When  there 
are  two  worn  tracks,  or  on  the  city  streets,  each 
driver  is  supposed  to  keep  to  the  right  track  or 
curb,  as  the  case  may  l>©. 

Training  xaifdle  hortes. 

Qatte*  (tf  inddle  horKx. — In  a  discuMion  of  tho 
education  of  the  saddle  horee,  it  is  well,  perhajw, 
to  mention  briefly  the  different  classes  of  saddle 
horses.  There  are  four  distinct  classes :  The  plain- 
gaited,  usually  called  the  walk-trot-canter  horse ; 
the  gaite<l  saddle  horse;  the  hunter:  and  the  high- 
school  horse.  The  plaiti-gaiied  horfe  is  required  to 
walk,  trot  and  canter  only,  bat  he  must  do  these 
few  gaits  very  well  or  he  is  of  little  value  as  a 
■•ddlcr.  The  yaited  taddte  hor»e  Is  required  to  go 
Ave  gaita.  He  must  walk,  trot,  cant^-r  and  rack  : 
and  for  the  fifth  he  may  chtjose  any  one  of  the  three 
alow  gaits,  runntng-waik.  stow  pace  and  fox-trot. 
It  often  happens  that  he  is  able  to  go  all  three  of 
theie,  wbicfi.  in  aildition  to  the  four  that  he  must 
go.  makes  seven  distinct  and  unmixed  gaits.  The 
hunter  must  go  the  walk,  trot  and  canter,  and  in 
general,  issimilarto  the  phin-gaited  saddler.  How- 
ever, in  addition  to  the  plain  gaits,  he  must  Yk 
able  to  hurdle  — jump  hurdle*,  fences,  ditches  and 
the  like.  The  kigk-Khool  horse  is  required  to  go  the 
gaits  of  thegaited  saddler  and  many  others,  some 
thirty-four  in  all. 

The  training  of  a  saddle  horse  Is  an  art  that  can- 
not be  learned  from  bi^oka.  bot  mtut,  in  a  sense, 
be  Imm  in  the  man.  or  be  learned  at  the  school  of 
practice  and  experience. 

Hoi*.  We  will  start  with  the  horse  at  the  walk, 
aa  that  is  the  foundation  of  all  saddle  gaits.  The 
horse  should  be  provided  with  a  double-rein  bridle 


HORSE 


427 


with  both  curb-  and  snaflle-hita.  When  ready  to 
atari;,  the  rider  pulls  up  tightly  on  the  snaffle-bit 
and  urgn-s  him  to  the  lop  of  his  Kpet^l  at  the  flat- 
foot  walk.  The  bone  is  held  steady,  und  if  h»  is  a 
gcxxi  walker,  he  should  go  four  to  five  miles  per 
hour. 

liunning-u-^ilk,  foj4rot  or  tiov  pace. — The  next 
step  is  the  running-walk,  fox-trot  or  slow  pace. 
The  snaffle-rein  is  looBcned,  the  curb- reins  aro  lightly 
drawn  up  and  the  animal  is  urged  just  nut  of  a 
walk.  These  gaits  are  fjmter  than  the  walk  but 
slowiT  than  the  nick.  When  wi-ll  [mrformiMi,  they 
are  dtdightful  riding.  Whichever  of  the  thri*e  gaits 
the  horse  strikes,  when  urged  out  of  the  walk,  he 
hi-  should  be  hidd  steady,  and  nut  allowed  to  furgu 
ahead  into  a  rack  or  trot,  or  fall  back  into  a  walk. 

linrk.—  'Vhe  rack  m,iy  be  tried  next.  Por  this,  a 
smooth,  hard  roait  is  desirable,  as  it  is  a  hard  gait 
on  the  horse  and  if  the  road  is  soft  or  rough  it  will 
fiitigne  him.  The  rider  increases  the  pressure  on 
th«  curli-rein,  grips  the  horse  with  the  knee^  ,10 
that  he  will  feel  the  cla^p,  and  at  the  itanie  time 
gently  uses  the  spurs.  A  horse  is  taught  to  rack 
by  spurring  him  forward  and  curbing  htm  back. 
The  rider  must  hold  him  steady  and  not  let  him  fall 
into  a  side-wheel  pace.  If  he  falters,  the  spur  is 
useii  lightly.  The  curb-reins  are  then  slackened. 
the  horfte  Uiught  to  slow  down  at  the  command 
"steady"  and  allowed  to  come  to  a  walk. 

3Vw(.— After  the  rack,  the  trot  may  be  under- 
taken. The  snaffle-reins  are  drawn  up,  letting  the 
curb-reins  hang  free ;  some  horsemen,  however, 
prefer  to  execute  the  trot  on  the  curl)-reins  rather 
than  the  anafflo-rcins.  The  horse  is  urged  forward, 
and  as  he  sUirt*  off,  the  rider  ri.'ws  in  the  saddle. 
The  horse  should  take  the  trot  at  once.  If  he  does 
not,  he  is  brought  to  the  walk  and  again  started. 
At  the  start  some  trainers  reach  forward  and  grasp 
the  animal  by  the  mane,  well  up  the  neck.  What- 
ever signals  are  employed,  the  same  signals  should 
always  be  used  for  a  given  gait.  When  the  horse 
strikes  a  square  trot,  he  Is  held  to  it  steady. 

Oin^fr.  -  The  canter,  the  most  graceful  and 
enjoyable  gait  when  perfectly  performed,  may  next 
be  tried.  The  horse  is  taken  in  hand,  and  pulled 
together  until  his  legs  are  under  him;  the  curb- 
rein  is  taken  in  lightly,  the  rider  leans  forward, 
urging  him  to  move  off  quickly,. and  at  the  same 
time  saluting  him  by  raising  the  right  hand  so  that 
he  may  see  it.  l£e  should  take  the  canter  at  once. 
If  he  does  not,  he  is  brought  to  a  walk  and  again 
started.  The  moment  he  does  strike  the  canter,  he 
is  held  steatly  until  the  le«Ron  is  complete. 

This  code  of  signals  is  In  ordinary  use  in  the 
South,  where  riding  is  a  popnlar  pastime.  All 
horses  wilt  not  respond  to  these  signals.  The  indi- 
viduality of  each  animal  mu-tt  be  worked  out,  and 
the  trainer  govern  himself  accordingly. 

Pofition  for  riding.  Kach  of  the  saddle  gaits 
requires  a  special  position  of  the  rider.  Ait  men  are 
not  of  the  same  build  and  each  must  take  a  position 
to  suit  him.  For  thes«  reasons  and  others,  no  specific 
mles  can  hi--  laid  down  for  the  position  of  the  rider. 
Only  general  directions  can  be  given.  The  rider 
should  sit  in  the  middle  of  the  saddle,  resting  his 


HORSE 


weight  on  his  buttw-Vs ;  he  shpulr!  hnlrf  his  body 
and  hf^ad  erect ;  shiiulciers  wcl]  baclc ;  clieflt  thmwn 
Hlighlly  furwan!  ;  left  fiire-iLrm  horizimtnl,  cIImiw 
cloMetobody;  ri(r^it  hjiiid  haii;;ij)g  natumliy;  tliitflm 
nearly  parailtl  to  the  horsL-'a  aliouldyrfl,  mid  in 
cIlbo  contact  with  the  horse's  body,  the  1(>wlt  jjart 
of  the  legs  hanging  niitnrally.  The  ball  of  the 
foot  shoutd  rest  on  the  trejid  of  the  stirrup,  and 
the  heeln  should  lie  a  little  lower  than  the  tne. 
The  stirruji  stnijiw  Hhimld  huth  be  nf  the  Kume 
length  and  nut  ho  long  a-s  to  render  the  tread 
insecure,  or  so  shurt  aa  U>  cramp  the  leg. 

FoiUion  of  Tvias  when  ritlifty.  —  The  nioet  con- 
venient way  to  hold  the  n-ina  nlion  riding  is  to  take 
them  in  the  left  hand,  the  loft  curb-rein  coming  into 
the  hand  around  the  little  finger,  the  right  curb- 
rein  between  the  lirst  and  seciind  fingers;  the  left 
snaffle  between  the  third  and  little  fingers,  and  the 
right  snaffle  between  the  seccind  and  third  finger«. 
Pnictital  horsemen  differ  as  to  whether  the  curb- 
reins  or  the  snaffle-reins  should  bo  on  the  inside. 
The  guiding  into  he  done  with  the  right  hand,  which 
manipulates  the  reins.  The  teft  arm  should  hang 
naturnlly,  with  the  forearm  at  a  right  angle  and 
the  elbow  rbise  t«  the  btwly.  In  this  pnsitinn  one 
had  the  reins  separate  and  under  good  control. 

LUeratvre. 
For  references,  ue  pog«s  416  and  424. 

Feeding  the  Horse. 

Ily  Merrill.  It'.  Harper. 

One  who  studies  the  practices  of  BQCcessfuI 
horsemanship  will  become  strongly  impre.'wed  with 
the  fact  thflt  there  are  many  ways  of  securing  the 
de;^ired  end.  high  i^nish  and  fine  action,  in  the 
horse.  If  in  any  locality  we  study  the  ration*  in 
most  common  use,  we  will  find  them  usually  cora- 
poaed  of  only  one  ur  two  kinds  of  grain  and  the 
same  limited  number  uf  coarse  dry  fodiierti,  the 
feeder  inHisting  that  this  i."  the  most  practical  and 
economical  ration  he  can  feed  with  safety.  One 
need  not  travel  far  to  And  the  list  more  or  lesa 
changed,  soinetiraea  entirely  so,  yet  with  the  same 
claim  to  anperiority  or  necessity  &9  before.  In  the 
northern  states,  the  moat  common  feeds  for  the 
horse  are  corn  or  oats  for  the  grain,  and  clover  or 
timothy  hay  for  the  roughage;  in  the  Weal, 
crushed  barley  is  the  common  grainf  while  the  hay 
comes  largely  from  the  wild  oat  and  barley  plants  ; 
in  the  South,  corn  serves  mainly  for  the  concen- 
trates, with  dry  corn  iHavea  for  the  roughage. 
ThuR  it  SHems  that  each  section  is  rather  limited 
in  the  variety  of  foods  composing  the  ration. 

Horsemen  in  the  northern  states  often  state  that, 
with  plenty  of  sound  oats  and  good  timothy  hay  at 
hand,  tliey  care  nothing  for  other  fotx!  articles. 
While  it  is  true  that  a  horse  can  be  maintained  on 
this  ration,  and  many  rare  horses  are  fed  no  other 
food  during  their  severe  campaignfl.  yet  it  seemfl 
reUKonahle  that  ei|ually  guoil  or  Iivtter  results 
might  be  obtained,  and  the  costt  of  the  ration  often 
Ics^ned,  by  feeding  a  ration  containing  more 
variety,  especially  for  other  types  of  horaas  than 


those  of  the  race-conrse.  If  energy  and  spirited 
action  were  the  only  qnalities  desired  in  the  horse, 
then,  perhaps,  nuis  and  timothy  hay  might  suffice  ; 
but  when  we  tuke  into  account  the  number  and 
compiesity  of  the  variouB  organn  in  the  bwly,  we 
ean  well  understand  that  these  might  be  better 
nourished  by  several  grains  and  forage  plants  than 
by  a  few.  A  ration  is  ordinarily  considered  well 
varitni  if  it  fiimishe?  four  different  matt-rials.  The 
food  shiiutd  come  from  different  plants  ;  if  possible, 
frrtm  different  naturni  orders.  .\  ration  that  is. 
ComyiomHi  entirely  of  gntsses  and  cereals  would  not 
afford  the  same  variety  to  the  animal  ad  one  in 
which  leguminous  foods  were  gtven  in  part. 

The  feeding  Bj/stem. 

Whatever  feeding-stuffB  arc  employed  in  the 
ration,  the  horse  should  be  fed  regularly  and  uni- 
formly at  all  timeK  He  anticipate-s  the  feeding 
hour,  and  becomes  nervous  if  it  is  delayed.  His 
digestive  system,  his  entire  organism,  becomes 
accustomed  to  a  certain  order  which  roust  obtain 
if  one  is  to  be  successful.  The  digestive  apparatus 
of  the  horse  is  not  nearly  so  large  relatively  a» 
that  of  the  cow  or  .theep ;  he  has  no  rumen,  no 
place  to  store  his  food  to  be  ma.>tticflted  at  will ; 
hence,  when  ut  work  he  must  be  fed  regularly  luid 
often. 

SucceMfuI  horse-feeding  differs  much  from  that 
of  most  other  domestic  animals.  Cattle,  sheep  and 
pigs  are  fed  to  produce  gain  in  weight  or.  in  the 
caae  of  the  milch  cow  and  sheep,  to  produce  body 
secretions  in  the  form  of  milk  and  wool,  whereas 
horses  are  fed  almost  excluinively  as  beasts  of  bur- 
den, whether  the  work  consists  in  carrying  a  rider 
or  in  drawing  a  load.  In  late  years,  a  new  indus- 
try has  sprang  into  exit>tencc.  that  of  fattening 
horses  for  the  market.  This  has  become  ae  much  a 
regular  business  as  feeding  steers. 

Because  of  the  small  size  of  the  horse's  stomach, 
the  order  of  administering  grain,  hay  and  water 
assumes  much  importance.  Colim'a  investigations 
on  the  stomach  of  the  horse  show  that  this  organ 
must  fill  and  empty  itself  two  or  three  times  for 
each  feed  given,  (■'rom  this  experiment,  it  appears 
that  during  the  fore  part  of  the  meal,  the  material 
is  pushed,  almost  as  soon  as  it  enters  the  stomach, 
into  the  inttstines  by  the  food  that  follows;  while 
toward  the  end  of  the  meal,  the  passage  is  slow, 
and  the  digestion  in  the  stomach  Is  more  perfect 

Marlot.  conducting  experiments  in  France,  shewed 
that  if  a  horse  i^  {vl  his  grain  first  and  then  watered. 
much  of  the  fooci  is  carried  by  the  water  into  the 
intestines.  Since  the  grain  of  the  ration  is  rich  tn 
protein,  it  should  stay  in  the  stomach  as  long  as 
possible,  as  the  digestion  of  this  nutrient  is  more 
complete  there.  Thus  it  would  seem  that  the  horse 
should  be  given  water  first,  and  that  it  should  be 
followed  by  hay,  the  grain  being  withheld  until  at 
least  A  part  of  the  hay  has  been  consumed.  There 
are,  however,  very  serious  objections  to  this  pnic* 
lice,  as  the  horse  is  unsatisfii-d  and  very  nervooa 
until  fe<i  his  grain,  and  we  should  not  make  him 
wait  for  the  grain  until  he  has  consumed  the  hay 
allowance.   .A   middle  ground  may  be  taken   by 


H0B8B 


wttterinc  ftrnt,  foedinu  thti  grain,  sprinkled  with 
a  sirmil  nllowanco  of  moistonod  chatTc-d  hay,  and 
watering  afoiin  after  the  ration  has  Uevn  conaamed. 
If  this  ijractici}  \a  followed,  it  will  satisfy  the  rfesire 
of  the  horiM;  by  aupplyinp  the  most  palJitnblB  [mrt 
of  his  fycuj  early,  and  yet  insnre  the  r.'l4'ntiun  of 
the  grain  in  the  stomach  for  a  contiideraljie  ptfriod. 

Sanljorn.  studying  the  vfTecU  of  watering  lieforw 
and  after  eatinij,  reports  in  bulletin  No.  9,  Utah 
Afirrj cultural  Exi>erinient  Station,  as  follows:  (1) 
Horst<g  waterad  before  feeding  grain  retained  tfaeir 
weight  better  than  when  watered  after  feeding 
grain ;  (2)  horses  watered  before  fc^iding  had  the 
better  appetites  or  ate  the  most;  (3)  horses  watered 
after  fewHng  grain,  in  ration  of  food  eaten,  seemed 
to  digest  it  as  well  aft  those  watered  before  feed- 
ing;  (4)  it  acenu  advisable  to  water  both  before 
and  after  feeding. 

When  horsc'fl  are  taxed  to  the  limit  of  their 
endunince.  the  preparation  of  the  food  should 
receive  much  attention.  In  this  caae  all  graiai^ 
should  be  ground  and  sprinkled  with  moist  chaHed 
hay  when  r<?d.  Food  thus  prepared  is  more  thor- 
oughly and  rapidly  masticated.  Lon^  hay.  of  course, 
shoald  be  supplied  the  animal,  to  be  consumed  at 
lewure.  As  nay  in  always  more  or  less  duaty,  it 
abould  be  administered  in  auch  manner  aa  to  cause 
the  horse  the  least  annoyance.  MoistL-ning  or 
iprinkling  the  hay  with  water  is  the  simplest  way 
to  reduce  this  trouble  to  a  minimum.  Dusty  hay 
should  be  a\*oide<l  whenpver  poswible. 

Salt  in  limited  quantities  »h<-uld  be  kept  before 
the  horse  at  all  time*.  Whilfi  little  is  known  from 
investigation  on  this  subject,  it  is  evident  from  th& 
extreme  fondness  of  tht!  horse  for  salt  that  it 
should  be  regularly  supplied  him.  It  is  best  not  to 
place  too  much  before  him  at  a  time,  aa  some 
horaes  will  eat  it  to  excess. 

The  succeasfnl  horseman  will  study  each  indi- 
vidual and  modify  the  ration  according  to  the 
needfl  of  each  :  one  horse  should  have  a  little  more 
tb&D  the  regnkr  allowance,  and  the  next  possibly 
a  little  less,  because  some  horses  are  more  difficult 
to  keep  in  condition  than  others  doing  the  same 
work  and  onder  sirailar  conditions. 

In  handling  hoiiies,  we  xhould  remember  that 
they  are  verj'  sensitive  animals  and  th.ii  we  can- 
not be  too  (juiet  in  our  treatment  nf  them.  .'Strik- 
ing them  or  shouting  commands  is  a  contemptible 
practice  :  it  causes  the  animals  to  lose  conlidence 
In  their  master,  thereby  rendering  them  loes  teach- 
able, and  destroying  nervous  energy,  making  them 
leas  econoniic.ll  producent  than  if  they  were  pro- 
taetad  at  ntl  times  from  thbse  nervous  shocks. 

FtrAing  tht  tettrk  herm. 

The  work  horse  has  a  hearty  appetite,  a  vigor- 
ous digestion,  and  rettpomls  as  does  no  other  animal 
to  iQt«lligent  care.  lie  should  be  fed  liberally  ami 
fraqaently.  the  amount  given  being  regulated  by 
the  site  of  the  animal  &<t  well  ha  hy  the  amount 
and  kind  of  work  he  is  n!(|uire<i  to  do.  In  general, 
the  horse  should  Iw  supplied  with  something  over 
two  poundu  of  provender  daily  for  each  hundred 
pounds  of  weight.  Of  this,  about  two-thinU~the 


exact  amoont  depending  on  the  severity  of  the 
labor— should  l>e  grain  in  nome  form.  If  the  work 
ia  exceedingly  heavy,  the  grain  in  the  ration  shonld 
l»e  increaseti  and  the  hay  dimini^^be^l ;  if  the  work 
Ls  light,  the  grain  should  U.>  ilimtnishi'd  and  the 
hay  increased.  The  morning  meal  should  be  com- 
pnratively  light,  and  consist  mostly  of  grain.  It 
ahuulil  not  possess  much  hulk.  In  many  of  the 
larger  stables,  the  midday  meal  is  omitted.  But 
most  horsemen  hold  that  some  grain  should  bo 
given  at  nonn.  In  any  case,  the  mtriday  ration 
should  not  be  large.  The  heavy  feeding  shoald 
come  at  iiiglit.  after  the  day's  work  iit  over  »nd 
wht>n  the  animal  ha.-<  time  to  masticate  and  digeJit 
hi.^  fotKl. 

A  very  good  practice  is  as  follows ;  For  the 
morning  ration.  ft«,d  one-fourth  of  thed.^iiy  allow- 
ance at  least  one  hour  before  going  to  work.  It 
should  Im)  in  condition  to  bo  consumed  easily  and 
rajjidly,  so  as  to  be  well  out  of  the  way  when  the 
animal  Is  led  fnjm  the  stable.  After  being  watered, 
he  is  ready  for  hts  morning's  task.  If  the  work  is 
exhaustive  and  exacting,  he  should  be  fed  aft<rr 
live  hours  of  labor.  When  he  comes  to  the  stable 
at  midday,  he  Bhould  have  a  drink  of  fresh,  cool 
water,  care  being  taken  that  he  dix-s  not  drink  too 
rapidly  or  gorge  himself  if  very  warm.  At  this 
time  give  him  another  quarter  of  his  daily  allow- 
ance. Ko  greater  service  can  be  rendered  the 
horse  at  this  time  than  removing  the  harness  so 
that  he  can  eat  hia  meal  in  <;uiet  and  comfort,  and 
gain  a  few  mifments  of  much  needed  rest.  If  pos- 
sible, he  should  have  one  hour  toconsume  his  meal. 
He  should  be  watered  again  before  going  to  work. 
When  the  horse  comes  to  the  stable  in  the  even- 
ing, tired  and  warm,  he  should  be  allowed,  first  of 
all,  a  fresh,  cool  drink,  care  being  taken  as  before 
that  he  does  not  drink  too  rapidly.  He  is  now 
ready  fur  the  remainder  of  his  day's  allowance, 
rnharnesa  at  once,  and,  when  the  sweat  has  dried, 
give  him  a  thnrnngh  brushing.  If,  for  some  reason, 
the  horse  is  forced  to  stand  idle  in  the  stable  for  a 
few  days,  the  ration  should  be  decrease<l.  Other- 
wise ho  will  become  sloeky.  with  his  legs  swollon 
and  stiff. 

In  cold  weather,  a  more  carbonaceous  ration 
may  lie  ur>ed.  When  more  food  goes  to  furnish  heat 
for  the  bixly,  a  horse  needs  a  targe  proportion  of 
heat-making  food.  Equal  parts  of  corn  and  oats  by 
Weight  would  be  more  satisfactory  and  ordinarily 
much  cheaper  than  a  larger  proportion  of  oats. 
Most  farmers  have  much  less  work  for  the  horse  in 
winter  than  in  summer.  It  is  an  excellent  practice 
and  much  more  economical  to  rongh  throngh  the 
winter  Ihow  mil  needed  fiir  work.  Thiwe  reserved 
fur  work  should  have  gtXMJ  care  and  be  fed  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  and  kind  of  work  performed. 

In  providing  a  ratiun,  whuther  for  summer  or 
winter  use,  due  consideration  should  be  given  to 
cost.  Roughage  is  ordinarily  much  cheaper  than 
grain,  but  a  horse  at  work  is  unable  economically 
to  dispose  of  a  large  quantity  of  bulky  food.  If 
considerable  time  and  energy  must  lie  ex[iendeil  in 
masticating  nmgh  feed,  the  usefiilneaa  of  the  horse 
for  work  a  lessened  thereby.    The  more  ctinuen- 


430 


HOR.?B 


HORSE 


Iruted  the  food,  within  proper  limits,  the  loan 
entTRy  will  be  needwJ  to  make  it  avuilahle.  The 
|)ri>p()rtioT]  of  gjain  to  roughness  deftertdK  on  the 
Gmount  finilkiinUif  work  tw  be  i)i*rfurminl.  A  horw! 
at  hani  work  slumlcl  nt^v^^  Im  expt-rt*^!  to  i;onHunin 
nioFR  rouyhai^e  than  ip-n'm  hy  Wt-ight, 

Vtrding  the  driving  korte. 

The  driving  or  carrtaKc  horae  is  mow  difficnlt  to 
keep  in  condition  than  tbe  work  horse.  The  periods 
of  enforced  idleneBs,  occasioned  by  lack  of  biifli- 
nens  cmgagempntK  of  bin  tnii«ter,  or  liei^uuse  of 
inclement  weather,  are  often  followed  by  hinji 
drivea  and  bourn  of  ovi-r-wxt-Ttion.  This  irn?^;uljir 
work  weakens  the  constitution  of  the  driving 
horao,  which  gL>nerally  has  but  a  briof  carefr. 
When  daily  driving  cannot  be  practiced,  under- 
fet'ding  is  con^idertnl  the  safpst  course. 

In  feeding  thia  claas  nf  horsea,  the  same  general 
system  that  hsis  iwvn  miggeateii  for  the  work  horse 
Rboold  lie  folioWL'd.  When  the  horse  i«  not  taken 
from  the  stable  iluring  the  day,  the  concentrateH, 
or  jfrain  part  of  thf  ration,  should  at  once  be 
reduced  by  ono-third,  and  the  normal  alhiwance 
should  not  again  be  given  until  work  is  rc'tiumed. 
Carriage  horses  are  osualty  overfed,  because  of 
the  desire  of  thp  owner  to  keep  them  in  the  pink 
of  condition.  Thi.**  over-feeding  and  irreuiilar  exer- 
cise is  the  CHUHe  of  mottt  of  tbe  ills  of  driving 
horst>s.  Oats  etwily  lead  aniDnjr  the  graini*  ;  when 
theae  are  fed.  the  horse  fxhibita  mettle  as  from  no 
other  food.  If  at  any  tim«  the  animal  should  Mvm 
conatipated,  a  bran  ma.-^h  should  be  given.  While 
B  certain  amount  of  roughnes.'?  must  be  fi-d  to  give 
bulk  or  volame  to  the  ration  in  order  that  the 
digestive  functions  n«y  be  miiintained  properly, 
yet  we  most  remember  thiit  a  large  abdomen  can- 
not be  tolerated  in  the  carriage  horse.  .Vgain,  the 
feeder  of  this  class  of  horses  must  ever  be  on  his 
guard  against  laxative  foods,  such  as  clovt-r  or 
alfalfa  hay.  or  bran  in  too  large  quantities,  for 
when  the  horne  is  put  on  the  roiid  and  wanned  up. 
it  will  prove  very  draining  on  his  system  as  well  as 
disairreeablo  to  the  driver.  Style  and  action  are 
generally  considered  prerequisites,  while  economy 
in  feeding,  and  often  the  health  of  the  animal,  are 
but  secondary. 

Ffttiinff  the  tratter. 

In  feeding  the  trotting  horse,  all  must  giv«  way 
to  the  single  rftquipite  of  upeed.  Every  [wund  of 
useless  weight,  whether  body  weight  or  extra  food, 
must  be  worked  off.  otherwise  it  will  become  a 
serious  matter  in  the  management  of  the  trotting 
horse.  More  important  than  this,  however,  is  the 
effect  of  the  food  on  the  character  of  the  muscle 
formed  from  it,  and  eAfiecially  on  the  nerve  and 
mettle  of  the  horse.  As  in  the  case  of  the  driving 
horse,  t?coniimy  in  the  cost  of  the  ration  is  not  to 
be  considered.    Everything  yields  to  epeed. 

When  the  campaign  has  closed,  and  the  animal 
is  taken  into  winter-quarters,  the  feed  shonM  be 
reiluced  by  at  least  ont^half.  Good  sound  uat«  and 
clean.  Bweet  timothy  hay  should  constitute  the 
bulk  of  the  ration.  At  this  time  a  few  cairotfi  may 


be  given  and  a  bran  mash  occasionally,  for  tbeeo' 
are  cooling  in  their  nature,  and  have  a  tendency  i 
to  reduce  any  feverish  or  inflammatory  symptoiiK. 
|{ortH»t  turned  out  to  the  liebl  ghnuld  lie  fed  oats! 
twice  a  day,  as  oats  will  keejj  the  muscles  ban]  and 
the  mettle  up.    In  the  Hpring,  when  shedding,  bran. 
ma«h  may  bo  given  more  frequently  to  kei'p  the 
bowels  open.    Flaxseed  and  liuiieed  ithoutd  seldom 
be  given,  as  they  are  thought  to  be  too  laxative 
and  cause  tmt  severe  a  shock  on  the  system. 

When  the  horse  goes  into  training,  the  strength 
of  the  fcH)d  rnwst  be  increased,  although  but  slowly 
at  tlrst.  A»  the  oat«  are  increaHed,  tbe  horse  will 
want  Jtstu  hay,  but  may  at  tirst  have  all  he  will 
consume.  Later  it  may  be  necessary  to  limit  tbe 
hay,  in  such  cose  one  ahonld  see  that  be  does  not 
eat  the  bedding.  No  carrots  ahonld  be  given  now. 
The  bran  ma-sh  may  be  continued  once  or  twice  a 
week  if  there  is  any  tendency  to  constipation; 
olherwiKe,  it  may  Imj  tiest  U>  dis[)ense  with  the 
mash  altogether.  During  the  list  days  of  training, 
or  just  befon-  the  coming  trial,  he  should  be  put 
on  his  largest  allowance  of  strong  food.  The  vari- 
ous individuals  differ  so  very  much  that  no  defi- 
nite amount  can  be  stated.  It  is  at  this  time, 
when  all  eyes  are  centered  on  the  trotter,  that  the 
skill  of  the  feeder  is  a|)preciated. 

Wintering  id!e  horif*. 

On  the  average  farm,  mttst  of  the  work  corned 
during  the  growing  season.  We  think  it  more  eco- 
nomical and  perlmpH  advisable  that  the  idle  horse 
be  turned  to  a  lot,  if  it  affords  some  protection,  tn 
be  roughed  through  the  winter  rather  than  to  be 
confined  ckweJy  in  the  barn.  As  winter  comes  on, 
the.'»e  horses  grow  a  heavy  cont  of  hair,  which 
affonis  them  excellent  protection.  Such  horsea 
may  lie  maintiiined  wholly,  or  nearly  so,  on  hay, 
Htraw  or  com  fodder,  fed  uncut,  as  they  hnve  time 
for  masticating  food,  and  their  sj-stems  not  being 
taxed  by  labor,  they  arc  able  to  subsist  on  food 
containing  a  large  perc-entage  of  inert  matter. 
We  think  it  better  to  have  the  dige-itive  tract  of 
the  idle  hor%  well  distended  with  coarse  material 
rather  than  concentrated,  as  would  t>e  the  case  if 
grains  possessing  only  the  requ'wite  nutrients  were 
supplied.  If  the  protected  area  is  kept  dry  and 
well  bedded,  horses  can  be  wintered  comfortably 
in  this  way  at  much  less  expense  than  by  stabling. 
Light  grain-feeding,  together  with  some  work, 
should  begin  six  weeks  before  the  spring  work 
starts,  to  put  the  horveit  in  condition  for  the 
spring  work. 

Ftfdintf  the  braml  marr. 

Many  farmen»  are  situated  so  that  they  may  raise 
a  team  of  coltit  each  year,  without  seriously  inter- 
fering with  farm  operations.  Thia  b"  a  very  good 
practice,  as  there  is  a  great  demand  for  good 
horses  for  both  city  and  farm  purposes.  A  team  of 
mares  in  foal  can  be  worked  until  the  day  of  foal- 
ing, if  the  work  id  not  too  severe  and  the  driver' 
careful.  In  fact,  moderate  exercise  Is  neoGMary 
for  the  mare  in  f»a1.  Idleness  is  the  bane  of  hone- 
rearing  and  should  be  aroided  wbenerer  poesibla. 


UORS£ 


HORSE 


431 


Tht-  Arabs  hnve  a  Hayinf;;,  "reat  and  fat  are  the 
Hryattist  Hnnmiaa  (if  the  horw." 

Uuros  in  foal  should  be  fod  much  as  snggeated 
for  the  work  hnrse.  with  perhaps  the  addition  of 
more  prrt<>iri  ftxids,  as  bran  ^.tid  nil-meal,  as  mrh 
fnoiift,  ricli  in  pntU^in  anil  mineTBl  matUT,  are  vnlii- 
altlp  fur  mares  carryinjj;  fiials.  If  thw  mare  is  tNiii- 
Hlt|iat«d,  bran  miish  may  li«  yivu-n  iKtcaaionitHy. 
ThruuKh  thi?  UM  of  projiL-r  fixKi,  thi-  bnwels  shuuld 
be-  kept  in  gtio*!  condition,  and  should  ha  a  little 
loase  rather  tlian  otherwise  at  the  timo  of  parturi- 
tion. While  the  mare  may  be  worki'd  up  to  the 
lime  of  foalinji,  she  should  he  given  sovenil  days  of 
rest  after  foalint;  tn  enable  her  to  gain  her»tren^h 
and  ([ive  the  foal  the  pruptT  start.  For  the  firet 
few  daya  of  recuperation,  a  hot  bran  nianh  fed  onc« 
a  day  has  both  a  cooling  and  a  laxative  itffect  on 
the  mare,  which  is  very  beneficial.  If  all  has  gone 
well  with  the  mare  and  foal,  the  mare  may  be  put 
to  work  »t  thu  end  of  one  week  frnm  the  time  of 
jiarturition. 

Some  daniH,  especially  those  with  their  firet  foals, 
fail  to  supjdy  the  proper  amount  of  milk,  and  the 
young  fail  to  make  satisfactory  Rrowth,  in  which 
case  the  mare  shonld  be  provided  with  fond  thai 
atimulates  the  milk  finw;  gn<Hl  pasture  grass  is  best, 
of  counit},  but  o»tH  iir  whi^Ht  hran,  with  an  equal 
weight  of  corn-andH^oh  mea!,  will  often  prove  very 
beneticial.  If  theru  \&  an  over«nppIy  of  milk,  or 
if  the  milk  is  too  rich,  the  food  supply  may  I>o 
restricted. 

Peedinff  the  foal. 

Very  sonn  after  birth,  the  foal  should  take  a 
good  draft  nf  tlu;  colustnim,  or  first  millc  of  the 
dam,  ColuMtrum  niilk  prwdeswa  purgative  quutities 
which  tend  to  dischargii  from  the  alimentary 
tract  the  fecal  matters  eotU'cted  therein  during 
fetal  life.  If  this  result  is  not  accomplished,  a 
small  ilime  of  c:astnr-oi]  should  be  given  the  foal. 
With  the  buwels  clean,  the  foal  is  ready  tn  Itegin 
his  caretT.  and  his  treatment  the  firnt  year  will  go 
far  towards  det^-rmintng  whether  for  good  or  btut. 
If  the  foal  te  obtaining  an  oversupply  of  milk,  he 
will  have  an  attack  of  diarrhea.  In  such  case, 
some  of  the  dam's  milk  should  bi*  drawn,  remember- 
ing always  that  the  liutt  milk  carries  the  most  fat. 
which  is  usually  the  cauw  of  the  .trouble.  THar- 
rhea,  whatever  it^t  cause,  should  lie  checked  at 
once.  Parched  fl^ur.  rice-meal  K^'iel,  boiled  milk 
and  whites  of  raw  oggs,  are  all  excellent  for  thia 
ailment.  If  the  food  is  const ipative,  relief  may  be 
had  by  the  nse  of  castor-nil  and  by  injections  of 
warm  water  to  which  soap  has  been  ailded, 

Some  farmers  make  ii  pr."urtice  of  permitting  the 
foal  to  go  to  the  fields  with  the  team,  while  others 
prefer  to  keep  the  foal  in  the  stable.  During  the 
first  few  weeks,  the  foal  should  be  fi-d  oftener  than 
thrw>  times  perday.  For  this  reason  it  is  liettcr  in 
the  field  with  the  dam  if  no  inconvenience  is  caused. 
When  older,  however,  the  cott  may  be  kept  in  the 
bam  and  given  nourishment  when  the  dam  comes 
from  work.  If  this  methtjd  i-s  pnu-tired,  the  driver 
idiould  l*p  carc^ful  about  letting  the  colt  to  the  dam 
when  the  latter  ia  very  tirijid  and  warm. 


It  is  well  to  encourage  colts  to  take  nourishment 
other  than  that  supplied  by  the  dam.  This  snpplo- 
mentary  feeding  may  begin  when  the  colt  is  about 
two  months  old.  Ry  placing  the  feed -box  from 
which  the  dam  ealfl  her  grain,  a  little  raised  from 
the  gntund,  the  colt  will  early  begin  to  nibble  from 
tile  motlier's  sup])ly,  and  noon  aci|uire  a  taste  for 
grain.  In  this  way  thu  colt  may  be  taught  to  eat, 
with  the  result  that,  when  taken  away  from  the 
dam  at  weaning  time,  it  does  not  miss  its  mother 
M  much.  If  eating  well  at  the  age  of  five  or  six 
months,  the  colt  may  be  weaned  without  as  much 
shrinkage  as  when  unaccustomed  to  eating  grain. 

Growing  colts  shuuld  have  more  protein  than  is 
required  for  the  work  horse.  No  definite  rules  can 
bo  given  that  will  apply  to  all  colts^  Oata,  shorts, 
peas  and  perhaps  some  -corn,  may  constitute  the 
grain.  .Alfalfa,  cloverand  mixed  bays,  which  should 
be  sweet  and  clean,  may  «"onslitiite  the  roughneaa. 
Tolts  suffer  at  times  from  t^-ething,  and  to  subsist 
whidly  on  hard,  dry  food,  may  cause  them  Ui  run 
dowH  in  flesh.  At  this  time,  if  one  can  steam  the 
crushed  outs  or  bran,  they  will  prove  ap]>etizing 
and  very  nouriRhing.  The  first  winter  after  wean- 
ing is  the  most  »«^rvere  on  the  colt,  and  he  shonld 
receive  much  attention.  The  "big-lvelly,"  which  is 
often  noticed  at  this  period,  is  nothing  to  its  hamt, 
for  it  in  important  that  the  digestive  tract  he 
developed  to  a  moderate  extent  by  distention  with 
coarse  feed,  that  it  may  serve  its  purpose  when  the 
animal  is  grown.  At  this  period,  the  colt  must  have 
an  abundance  of  outdoor  exercise.  There  is  no 
more  certain  way  of  ruining  a  colt  than  by  liberal 
feeding  and  close  confinement. 

Occasionally  something  happens  to  the  dam  and 
the  foal  must  be  rejtred  by  hand  or  i>eriKh.  Cow's 
milk,  if  m<Mtifii^  with  at  least  one-fourth  its  volume 
of  water,  together  with  some  sugar,  makes  a  fair 
suK'ititnte  for  the  mare's  milk,  but  should  be  given 
at  about  the  same  temperature  as  the  dam's  milk. 
Gruels  made  by  boiling  l>e«ns  or  peas,  and  removing 
the  skins  by  prejwing  the  pulp  through  a  .lieve,  or 
oil-meal  and  shorts  made  into  a  ,ielly  by  boiling, 
are  excellent  for  the  motherless  colt. 

Henry  says  that  a  fair  grain  allowance  for  the 
colt,  mejisured  in  oats,  is  as  follows:  Up  to  one 
year  of  age,  two  to  three  pounds  ;  one  to  two  years 
of  age,  four  to  live  pounfls  ;  two  to  three  yeann  of 
age,  seven  to  eight  pounds. 

Fftding  the  staUioji. 

The  object  in  the  management  of  a  stallion  Is  n 
to  feed,  groom  and  exen-iiH-  him  iin  to  keei)  tht 
horse  up  to  the  very  highi;^st  possible  strength  and 
vigor.  Very  many  owners  endeavor  to  have  the 
st-'illion  in  tine  show  condition  by  the  time  the  sea- 
son opens.  The  horse  is  not  given  sufficient  exer- 
cise, is  keptclwely  blanketed  and  fed  various  drug», 
nrwlrums  and  condimental  iitock-foods :  he  is  loaded 
with  fat:  his  muscles  becomes  soft  and  flabby,  and 
althoQgh  he  may  seem  to  be  in  the  very  pink  of 
condition,  he  is  in  reality  not  nearly  no  well  fitted 
for  service  in  the  stud  as  be  would  have  been  if  he 
had  been  fed  on  plain  food,  and  given  an  abundance 
of  exercise  each  dav. 


4S2 


HORSE 


HORSE 


During  the  breeding  season,  the  grain  ration 
ahould  consist  mainly  of  gnnd,  sound  oats ;  Imt  this 
should  l>e  varied  from  time  to  time  by  a  ration  of 
com.corn-anJ-col>me>al,  or  perhaps  barley,  Wheat- 
bran  id  a  valuablu  adjunct  to  the  ration,  and 
ahould  never  be  dispensed  with.  It  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein,—an  csiiecially  important  element  of  nutrition 
for  the  etud,  —and  is  the  cheapest,  safest  and  best 
of  all  regulators  for  the  bowels.  The  roughness 
ehouW  consist  of  sweet  clean  hay,  such  as  timothy 
or  timothy  and  clover  mixed. 

No  specific  directions  as  to  quantity  of  food  can 
be  given.  Some  horsea  will  refjuire  twice  a;*  much 
aa  others.  As  a  rult;.  it  will  be  safe  to  fued  us 
much  as  the  horse  will  eat  with  apparent  relish; 
and  if  he  be  given  plenty  of  exercise  he  will  not 
become  too  fat.  The  fact  nhoald  be  k&pt  in  mind 
thai  anything  that  adds  to  the  health,  Htrength  and 
vigor  of  the  horse  will  increase  his  reproductive 
powers,  simply  becanse  the  sexnal  orpanR  will  par- 
takt!  of  Lhi!  gi'nerat  torn?  'tf  the  system  j  iind  what- 
ever tt-nda  to  impair  thi.-hL'a!th  and  vi^r  will  have  its 
effect  on  the  sexual  organ!;  as  well.  A  horeu  in  good 
condition  necdx  nothing  but  sweet  sound  food  admin- 
istered regubrly,  pure  air  und  plenty  of  exercise. 

After  the  close  of  thf  Betason,  the  stallion  ahould 
receive  no  mares ;  if  permitted  to 
B«rve  a  mare  occasionally  he  will  =^— =^= 
be  m-rvms  and  anxious,  reiinirinff 
the  same  attention  as  in  the  height 
of  the  season.  When  possible,  he 
should  l»e  turned  intoa  small  pasture 
lot,  securely  fence*),  adjoining  his 
Btall,  and  the  dour  l«>ft  open  al  all 
times  exci^pt  in  extremuly  <:olil  or 
Btormy  weatlK*r.  If  the  lot  atfords 
sufficient  gross,  no  other  food  need 
be  given.  .\t  tho  approach  of  win- 
ter, when  the  grass  begins  to  fail, 
he  may  be  given  a  limited  feed  of 
grain  each  dny,  and  all  of  the  hay 
or  com  stover  that  he  will  clean  up 
nicely.  In  this  w.iy  a  stallion  can  bLii 
brought  thntugh  the  winter  in  an 
eeoDomicaland  satisfactory  manner. 


large  firm  is  now  feeding  twice  daily  of  mixed 
feed, — bran,  shorts  and  oats,— and  onceof  com,  with 
good  clover  hay.  The  general  rule  stated  in  the 
fore  part  of  this  article,  that  a  horse  should  be 
provided  with  something  over  two  poonda  of  prov- 
ender, of  which  one-half  to  two-thirds  ahould  be 
grain,  for  each  hundred  poanJs  of  weight,  and  that 
the  animal  should  have  plenty  of  exercise,  fails  com- 
pletely in  this  method  of  feeding,  as  the  animals  are 
fed  all  they  will  consume  and  kept  closely  stabled 
and  blanketed,  with  frequently  no  exercise  w^hal- 
ever.  As  a  substitute  for  exercise,  in  order  to  keep 
the  blood  in  good  order,  thus  preventing  stock-legs, 
glauU-r  salts  are  often  ust-d.  If  mix«-d  with  oats  or 
bran,  the  horse  consumes  them  readily.  These  salta 
are  fed  once  or  twice  a  week.  It  is  said  that  the 
salts  aid  in  fattening  and  thnt  they  give  the  skia 
a  soft,  mellow  touch.  The  average  feeding  period 
is  ninety  to  one  hundred  days,  and  an  average  gain 
of  throo  pounds  per  day  i»  aati»factory. 

Feediuff  raJions. 

Hwnry,  in  his  "Fwida  and  Feeding,"  gives  the 
following  ration.^,  from  various  sourcts,  as  a  guide 
in  dotcrmining  the  amount  of  feed  that  should  b« 
allowed  the  horse  under  I'arious  conditiona : 


work  rminlrMl 


Trotting  korte.— (Wrwiruff.) 

Colt,  weaning  lime    .    .   . 

Colt,  aneyuarold  .    .    .   . 

Colt,  two  y^ars  old   .   .   . 

Cult,  two  yrnn  old,  in 
truinlDK 

Colt,  three  years  oW,  in 

training 

Troifing  Aor*r.— fSplan.) 

Hgrse  on  circuit  .... 

Hone  on  circuit   .... 


Ration 


CDuwntnitc* 


Faniittg  hirmtfor  market. 

In  certain  parts  of  the  country. 
feeding  horse-s  for  the  market  hiis 
become  as  much  a  regular  busineaa 
as  feeciing  steers.  As  in  bfpf  oat- 
tle,  iiualily  and  fat  go  together  in 
determining  the  pricu-  of  the  horse. 
ProvidL-d  the  liorso  is  sound,  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  get  him  ro  fat 
that  buyers  will  object  for  that 
reason.  We  have  said  that  excsw- 
sive  fattening,  with  little  exercise, 
lessens  the  fnture  o<«ifrulni'j>!i  of  the 
horse.  Fut  the  shr«*wd  buaineta 
man  propost?*)  to  mei-i  the  demands 
of  the  market. 

The  methods  practiced  In  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  country  differ 
widely,  OS  do  the  foods  used.  One 


Hone  L^rioutlst  uud. — 
(Stnnohrngo.) 
Race  hurw     .   .   .    .   . 
Hack 


Uorit  variovtlp  and. — 
(Fluming.) 
Pony 

Hunter,  small   ,  .  .  ■  . 

HunUrr,  largo 

CarriaKir,  light  work     .    , 
The  dn^  Aorw.— CSidney.) 


Heavy,  hiu^  work     .  . 

farm  Atrrw.— (Settegast.) 
Lii^t  work 


U«d!iiin  work 
H«aiT  work  . 


2  pouDib  oats 

4  piiQiiiiH  itala 
C  poun.d»Q«t« 

8  pounds  oats 

5  12  pouodB  oats 

10  pounds  oaU 
15  poUQiia  (j(Lt0, 
in  exri-plliiiuil 
cw4e«  (a«  with 
Rhhis) 


15  pottnda  Aat« 
8  pDnnda  oata 


4  poundd  oaXM 

12  ;ii%unda  onUi 
Iti  pounds  oatc 
10  poundfi  oate 

I  y^  iioundB  oats 
-    ti  pounds  beans 
(    3  pounds  cam 

6'tO  twunilfl  oats 
10  [Kwrnls  oal* 
18  pottnds  oats 


KnuBh*a« 


Bay  «d  lib. 
Hay  ad  Lib. 
Hay  u)  lib. 

Hay,  allowanM  limited 

Hay,  allowaniM.-  limtted 

Hay.  fair  amount 

Hay,  fair  afflonnt 


6-8  poonda  hay 
12  pounds  hay 


/  Hay,  moderate  allow- 
t        aaee 
12p(niiuk  h^y 
10  poDDds  hay 
12  poondB  bay 

Ifi  pounds  chaffed 
cluv«r  ha; 

i    &-9  pi>iiDdBh«7 
}    S  poutida  fltraw 
f  10  pounds  hay 
\   S  poonda  straw 
( 12  pounds  bay 
\   3  pounda  atiaw 


HORSE 


HORSE 


LiUraiure. 

Literature  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this 
arlicls  was  as  follows :  Huyes,  Stable  Management; 
Henry,  Koeds  and  Feedinj;;  iSniith.  I'rofitalile  Stock 
feeding;  Sanders.  Uor»e  Breeding;  WoodrufT,  Trot- 
ting Uorsc-a  in  America;  Roport  of  the  Kansas 
State  Board  of  Atiriciiltiire,  1893;  Principles  of 
Hon*e  Feeding.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  170,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture;  Fet^liiiK  Farm 
HorwjB  and  Multfs,  Bulletin  No.  189.  North  Carolina 
Acricultural  Kxperiment  Station;  Fw<linit  Horses 
anO  Mnlun.  Bulletin  No.  72,  Florida  Agricultural 
Exptsriment  Station;  Feeding  Colts,  Bulletin  No. 
IS.  Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station ;  Horae 
F«:*ding,  Bulletin  No.  92.  New  Jersey  Agricnltiinil 
Experiraent  Station  ;  Experiment  Station  Record. 

Petennining  the  Age  of  Horsea.    Figs.  438-449. 

By  H.  H.   Wing. 

The  age  of  the  horse  is  an  important  factor  In 
d»t«rniining  his  present  and  prospective  value. 
Familiarity  with  the  characters  that  most  certainly 
indicate  age  are.  therefore,  often  extremely  UHefal. 
A  knowledge  of  these  characters  is  not  difficult  to 
secare.  but  skill  in  their  application  depends  much 
on  familiarity  and  continued  practiw. 

Ceneral  citngideratioiin. 

In  entimatiog  the  age  of  the  horse,  the  teeth 
furnish  the  best  indwx.  yet  there  are  other  general 
considerations  that  play  an  important  part,  especi- 
ally in  the  case  of  young  and  very  ohi  animals.  In 
Very  old  horse.*,  white  hatra  make  their  appearance 
around  the  tumple,  the  eyei^,  the  ROintriU,  and  elise- 
whsre ;  the  poll  or  t-ip  of  the  head  becnmea  more 
pointed,  the  sides  of  the  face  more  (Jepre^aed,  the 
aopra-orbits  hoiloweJ  out ;  the  back-ltone  becomes 
more  prominent  and  often  strongly  curved  down- 
ward, .ind  the  animal  does  not  fttand  squarely  on  hia 
legs,  which  show  more  wear.  The  lower  jaws  will 
be  found  much  sharper  in  old  animaU  than  in 
voang.  becansH  the  teeth  are  no  much  more  deeply 
incastM]  in  the  alvooli  in  young  atLimuhi.  Little 
by  little  the  teeth  are  pushed  from  their  sockets  in 
order  to  compensate  for  the  loss  occasiont-d  by  the 
friction  of  mastication,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
two  borders  of  the  lower  jaw-bone  are  drawn  to- 
ward each  other.  Another  general  indication  is 
the  appearance  of  knots  or  iio<l«-s  on  the  side  of  the 
tail.  These  notles  are  nothing  mora  than  prunii- 
Dences  formed  by  the  withering  away  of  the  flesh, 
thus  leaving  the  transverse  processes  of  the  first 
coccygeal  vertebra  prominent.  The  first  pair  of 
thcfte  nodea  should  appear  between  thirteen  and 
fourteen  years  of  age  ;  the  second  should  make  its 
appearance  betwtwn  the  sixteenth  and  seventoenth 
years  ;  and  the  third  at  about  twenty-one  years  of 
age.  Hear  in  miml.  these  considerations  are  general 
and  to  iw  considered  as  a  whole  :  each,  alone,  is  of 
very  little  or  no  use. 

ICjamination  af  tkt  tvrih. 

While  differences  in  the  appearance  of  the  teeth 
are  considered  the  most  impo-tant  and  the  most 

C28 


accurate  means  of  estimating  the  age  of  domestic 
animala,  and  are  thci  means  employed  by  all  horse- 
men, yet  thvse  are  not  absolutely  accurate,  and 
much  depends  on  comlitinns  at  well  as  on  the  indi- 
viduality of  the  Bnim.ii.  The  teeth  of  horses  that 
have  bones  of  asome^^-hat  o[ien  structure,  are  likely 
to  indicate  that  the  httrsiw  are  older  than  they  really 
are  ;  while  the  teeth  of  horses  whoso  bones  are  of 
fine,  cJose  texture,  may  indicate  them  to  Iw  younger 
than  they  are.  Again,  a  horse  fed  on  soft  and  suc- 
culent food  is  likely  to  show  a  young  mouth, 
whereas  one  fed  on  harrl,  dry  f<HKi  U  likely  to  .-ihiiw 
an  older  month.  Thu.'*,  it  is  ajiparent  thnt  Lhe  tex- 
ture of  the  linnet*,  the  bn^+iling,  thu  kind  of  fotxl  the 
horst!  has  eaten,  and  utht^r  conditions,  have  more  or 
less  influence  on  the  teeth. 

The  hor.4o  when  full  grown  has  forty  teeth, 
twenty  on  cither  jaw,  divided  as  follows:  six  irci- 
aora,  two  canines,  one  on  either  side,  and  twelve 
molars,  six  on  either  wide.  Since  only  the  incisor 
or  nipper  teeth  are  inapwtt'<i  in  eatimnting  the  age, 
they  alone  will  Iw  considerejl.  It  i.«i  the  order  in 
which  they  make  their  appearance  that  enables  as 
to  estimate  the  age  up  to  five  years,  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  their  surfiice  is  worn  that  aids  us  in 
the  estimaUon  from  five  to  eight  years  of  age. 
.■Vfter  the  horse  has  passe!  the  eighth  year,  it  is 
sometimes  ditScuIt  to  determine  his  trne  age  by 
the  teeth.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  method 
and  in  practice  may  come  within  a  year  or  two  of 
it  until  the  horse  becomes  very  old,  when  he  may 
be  said  to  be  twelve  or  fifteen  years  post,  for 
exampEe,  but  how  much  post  cannot  be  told  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy. 

7^*  Cfdt. — Since  one  is  seldom  called  on  to  e«tt- 
mate  the  age  of  a  colt  nnder  two  and  one-half  or 
three  years  old,  we  wilt  hasten  over  the  earlier 
period  rapidly  by  simply  pointing  out  the  condition 
of  the  teeth  at  one  year  of  age.  The  colt  ia  pro- 
vided before  the  end  of  the  first  year  with  a  set  of 
temporary  or  milk  teeth.  The  difference  in  size  of 
the  jaw-bone  between  the  foal  and  the  grown  horse 
makes  a  change  from  milk  to  permanent  teeth  nec- 
es«ary.  During  the  first  month  aft*-r  the  colt  is 
foaled,  the  temi-orary  incisors  miike  their  appear- 
ance, the  first  or  middle  pair  appearing  at  about 
one  week  of  :^e  :  the  second  or  intermediate  pair, 
at  one  week  to  two  wwfcs  of  age,  and  the  third  or 
IjiUiral  pair  appwaring  at  about  one  month  of  age. 
When  these  teeth  appear  it  will  be  noticed  that 
thtjy  are  long  from  right  to  left  and  have  well- 
dofinwi  cups.  The  edges  gradually  wear  down  so 
that  by  the  time  the  colt  is  at  the  full  age  of  one 
year,  the  marks  in  the  central  incisors  will  be 
much  shallower  and  fainter  than  they  were  at  first. 
All  of  the  incisom  will  l>e  up  and  the  corner  ones 
will  lie  worn  level,  tt  re>{uires  much  care  to  deter- 
mine accurately  the  age  of  a  colt  after  it  bis 
passed  the  first  year  and  up  to  the  time  the  central 
incisors  are  repjaoed  by  the  permanent  ones,  which 
will  be  when  the  animal  is  two  and  one-half  to 
three  years  of  age. 

When  the  colt  is  shedding  teeth,  its  mouth  shonld 
be  closely  watcbe*!.  and  if  the  milk  tt>eth  have  not 
disappeared  when  the  i>urmani*nt  ones  have  pushed 


HORSE 


thropgh,  they  shotiW  he  remtived.  as  they  only  mrve 
to  irritate  the  gums  and  t*)  prevent  the  animal 
conKiiminK  Uiti  |ir(j})er  ainiiunl  of  Ut<)4.  At  thi» 
time  a  llltle  extru  fuorl,  auL-ii  as  inuisL  cut  hay  or 
carrols,  will  greatly  beneEit  the  colt. 


FlE.  43B .  Tb«  towtr  atpp«n  Ol 
ttie  cott  at  ivro  yttn  old. 


Fix.  *39.    Umtt  nippoii  At 
tbiee  yewt  of  uo. 


Two  and  one-hay  to  ihrtx  years  aid, — At  about 
two  years  anil  nine  inunthn  to  two  yeara  and  eleven 
montlui  the  centnil  iitTtnanent  incisors  will  a])i»ear, 
and  at  full  thrt-u  yoars  of  agv  the  out*ir  part  of  thu 
teeth  and  somc-ttme.t  thu  innttr,  alno,  will  l>o  up  and 
in  wear.  (Fig.  439.)  The  permanent  incisors  are 
larger  in  every  way  tlinn  the  tpmporary  or  milk 
teeth.  By  this  age,  the  intiirmt'diiite  temporury 
incijinrs  have  worn  down  iind  lust  ill!  or  ni'iirly  all 
their  cupt}.  There  will  lii>  a  ttli^ht  Uliic^k  iudi.-nt»tiun 
that  can  hardly  Ite  called  a  cup.  In  the  lateral  or 
comer  tet^th,  the  cup  are  greatly  rvdnced.  If  thij 
colt  be  a  male,  smafl  cai«  are  likely  to  be  present 
or  in  the  process  of  coming  through  the  skin  of  the 
jaw.    These  are  calleij  tnsk.s. 

Four  yvart  dd. — .At  about  three  yeara  and  nine 
mortha,  the  intermediate  inciHoru  apfwar.  At  four 
years  of  age,  they  are  fully  up  and  in  wear  on  the 
outside,  and  sometimes  on  the  inside.  {Fig.  440.) 
Tho  central  incisors  sKow  one  years  wear,  and  the 
cupa  are  not  so  deep  as  they  wore  when  the  colt 
w»9  three  yejirs  oUl.  The  cups  have  nearly  or  quite 
disnppeared  from  the  lateral  or  comer  temporary 
incisore,  often  nothing  but  a  slight  dark  indenta- 
tion being  left.  The  tujtkA,  if  any,  have  enlarged, 
but  are  still  sharp  at  their  points  and  flattiah  on 
the  inside.  A  side  view  of  a  four-year  old  mouth  i» 
shown  in  Fig.  441.  Note  that  the  crowns  of  the 
two  temporary  or  milk  teeth,  one  upper  and  one 
lower,  come  together  closely  over  their  entire  sur- 
face, while  the  two  permanent  teeth  do  not  meet 

at  their  posterior 
corners. 


10 


FlK.  MO.    Lower  mppen  »t  ro«r 

rouo  of  «M- 


PlK.  «I. 

side  view  of  the  leetk  of 


is  fun  five  years  of  age,  the  ooter  exterior  _ 

of  the  teeth  meet  (Fig.  443),  although  almoBb 
year  of  wear  ninst  take  place  before  the  lateral  or 
conier  teeth  are  worn  level  over  Iheir  entire  aar- 
fftce.  At  five  years  of  age,  the  horse  has  a  ftill 
mouth,  and  the  central  incisors  have  two  y«^arH* 
wear.  They  have  also  cbang^td  slightly  in  shape^^ 
having  become  rounder  on  the  inside.  The  inter*' 
me<]iate  incisors  show  one  year's  wear.  The  cup* 
show  in  all,  hut  are  deepest  and  freshest  in  ap- 
pearance in  the  conier  teeth.  ]n  about  one  year 
more  they  will  di.sjippear  from  the  central  incisors, 
ami  in  two  yeara  from  the  intermediate  incisora. 
The  tuski;  have  enlurged,  but  are  not  yet  blunt. 

b'ix  ymrs  old.— At  six  years  old,  the  cuiw  in  the 
lower  jaw  have  disappeared,  or  nearly  so,  from  tho 
central  incisors,  have  become  smaller  in  the  inter- 
mediatea,  and  the  comer  teeth  are  up  and  in  full 
wear  over  their  entire  surface.  (Figs,  444,  445.) 
Sometimes*,  however,  a  horw;  has  "shelly"  teeth, 
in  which  case  the  inside  corner  teeth  may  not  be 

op  and  in  wear; 
in  fact,  they  may 
never  come  up, 
but  always  have 
the  appearance  of 
corner  ie«th  that 
are  not  fully  up. 
The  center  inci- , 
Bon  have  mudo  i 
marked  changes  to 
shape,  becoming 
roundish  on  the 
inside,  and  the  in- 
termediatei     aro 


PlC.  **2  ■     Low»i  nlpiwrs  Of  « 
l)v«-ytBi-4ld  bono. 


Fl£    4il. 

sUe  Tiew  of  tne  neth  of  a 
five-year-old  botae. 


Tire  yeart  old. — At  the  age  of  about  four  yeaw 
and  nine  nicmths,  the  [Permanent  corner  incixors 
make  their  appearance.  iFig.  442.)  When  the  horse 


also  somewhat  modified. 
If  the  horse's  lips  are 
parted  and  the  mouth 
viewed  from  the  front,  it 
will  be  Doteil  that  the 
Central  ones  will  appear 
much  darker  colored  and 
longer  than  they  did  at 
three  or  four.  Thiaisdne 
to  tho  shrinking  or  re- 
ceding of  the  gums.  In 
this  connection,  compare  Figs.  439,  4^10.  442. 

Scvrn  ymrx  old.  -  .A,t  seven  years  of  age,  the  cup* 
in  the  lower  jaw  have  disappeared  from  the  inter- 
mediate incison.  although  small  dark  spots  may 
often  be  seen.  The  corner  teeth  still  retain  their 
cups,  although  they  are  rather  shallow.  It  U  well 
to  bear  in  mind  that,  from  the  time  when  the  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  are  well  up  and  in  wear  to  tho 
time  the  cups  have  disappeared  in  the  lower  jaw,  is 
three  years.  The  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  n-tain 
their  cups  a  much  longer  time.— in  fact,  just  twico 
as  long,  disappearing  in  six  years  from  tho  timo 
they  made  their  appearance. 

A  side  view  of  a  9oven*year-old  mouth  shows 
one  marked  characleristic.  The  lower  corner  leetb 
seldom  extend  as  far  backward  as  the  upper  onei.^ 
(Pig.  446.)  Only  in  rare  cases  do  all  four  comer 
teeth  meet  accurately.  The  result  is  that  the  face 
of  the  tooth  In  the  rear  recedes,  while  that  part  of 


HORSE 


HORSE 


4S& 


the  tooth  not  id  wear  projects  dowoward,  forming 

more  or  less  of  a  notch. 

Eiskt  ytJirt  oU.—  At  eight  years  of  age,  the  cupa 

have  (lisAppeared  from  the  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw. 

One  muKt  nut  bu 
miitlad  b>'  thetiltght 
dark-colored  inden- 


FlE.  M*.    Lown  nlpp«T<  of  a 


fie.  <15.   atde  view  or  tbe  teeth 

of  a.  iix-jtHLT-oU  borM. 


-<^ 


taticinti  that  aru  «lill  jfrt^SHnt,  fur  they  are  not  (3eep 
cnoaRh  to  ha  caUt-d  cu\is.  (Pig.  447.)  The  shape 
of  the  tet-th  has  uitdort^onict  markL<d  chanj^i!ti.  (Com- 
pare Fig.  43t>  with  Fig.  447.)  In  th«  Jirst  place, 
the  teeth  were  thin  frum  witaido  to  inside,  and  com- 
paratively hniad  from  right  to  left,  while  in  the 
latter  case  they  art!  mot^h  thic-.kt^r  fnim  infiJde  to 
outside  —  tht'V  have  becunit)  mon^  trian^^nlar  in 
ahapo.  If  viewed  from  the  sido,  they  will  appour 
aoncwhat  longer  and  will  meet  at  a  sharper  anglu 
than  they  did  when  the  horse  was  youngtT.  As 
agd  advanc^A,  th(>  Angle  of  the  teeth  decreases. 
At  three  years  of  age,  the  upper  and  the  lower 
teeth  meet  nearly  vortical  with  kkU  other,  while 
at  twenty  Ihoy  mi>ut  at  an  angle  of  only  45°. 

Xine  yearg  olJ.—At  ninu  year«  of  age,  the  cupa 
will  have  disappeared  from  the  upper  fiontral  inci- 

sorH,  and  he  shallow 
in  the  intermediate, 
and  fairly  deep  in 
the  comers.  The 
cups  are  not  likely 
to  diit»p|H>ar  at  as 
regi]lar  int^^rvalB  in 
the  upper  jaw  as 
they  did  in  the  lower. 
_,  Therefore,  it  is  net 

^■«*''J?'''"*'°.L?     '^^     always   poKsihle    U 

tell  thfi  age  nf  the 
hoTW  within  a  year  or  two  after  he  ha»  ]iatu«i?d  }ix» 
eighth  year.  Horses  with  soft  buneK  may  show  a 
mouth  older  than  they  really  are,  while  thoae  with 
hard  dentte  hones  may  show  a  mouth  younger  than 
ih«y  are. 

Tm  years  ofJ.  —  .M  ten  yearft  cif  age,  the 
caps  have  diflapiwarHl  fmm  the  upiHT  inter- 
mediates, but  are  etill  in  the  corners  although 
nhallow.  The  teeth  are  more  triangular  in 
abape,  and  thoee  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw 
meet  at  n  nhnrptrr  angle  an  the  age  increases. 
Sevea  yrars  olii,~-.\i  eleven  years  of  nge, 
the  eopa  have  all  dinnpitenred  fnim  the  upper 
jaw.  Iluwever,  lH*i;;auHi!  of  thi?  fact  that  some 
animalH  have  denner  bunes  than  othi^rw,  it  is 
not  nncomraon  to  find  ahalhiw  eupa  in  th^t 
upper  corner  tt^'eth  as  late  as  the  twelfth  or 
the  fifteenth  year.  The  shape  and  angle  of  the 


incisors  will  unable  a  closu  judge  not  to  be  much 

deceived. 

Aftfr  the  Aj»rw  A*w  paitgfii  the  lu'e^h  year,  th& 
matter  of  two  or  three  years  amounts  to  little. 
Much  dejiendn  on  the  individnality  of  the  animal, 
as  some  anrmab  ara  worth  more  at  eighteen  years 
than  others  are  at  fourteen.  OneV  judgment  of 
thti  value  of  a  hurHu  at  theite  ageKBhould  be 
formed  on  general  apjjearance^  and  activi- 
ties, rather  than  on  age,  which  cannot  be 
accurately  determined  by  an  examination 
of  the  te«?th.  One  may  distinguish  helweea 
a  h4>rHe  that  is  mod^'nil-ely  old  and  one  that 
in  Very  old,  hut  after  the  horae  hafi  ruu'hed 
his  eighth  y'l^u-,  the  teeth  do  not  accn- 
rati'ly  indicate  his  age. 

In  old  hursefl.  Lhu  incisor  teeth  have  be- 
come nejirly  triangular,  and  they  show  long 
wear.  The  tu-skii  are  largo,  blunt  and  round  ;  the 
fnint  ends  of  the  teeth  have  t>een  broken  nff,  and 
th>t^y  ml^et  at  an  acute  angle.  Thene  dif!eren4»»  are 
wall  illustrated  in  FigB.  448,  449.  The  teeth  may 
have  grown  out  so 
long  as  to  prevent 
the  double  teeth 
from  meeting,  in 
wiiieh  case  the 
horse  will  spit  out 
his  food  after  he 
has  masticated  a 
part  of  it.  If  the 
incisors  are  rasped 
off  un  their  poH- 
terior  wlgBH,  the 
griiiden*  will  then 
meet  and  life  will 
be  somewhat  pro- 
longed. 

Irrrguiariti-t'Ji  in  tfctk. — Thus  far  we  have  cor- 
sideretl  the  teeth  tm  regular.  It  often  happeim  that 
the  teeth  are  nut  regular.  When  theae  irregulari- 
ties exiHt,  the  liursi-  is  said  to  have  a  false  mirulh. 
While  many  uf  the  irregularities  are  withuut 
importance,  there  are  certain  others  which  should 
be  taken  into  consideration.  They  are  impurtiint  in 
their  physiological  rehitiims  as  well  ay  in  estimating 
age.  Theae  irrvgiilarities  (Krur  in  the  nundxar: 
there  may  lie  more  ur  lea«  than  the  regular  number 
— thirty-ttix  in  mimw,  or  forty  in  horses.  Or.  the 
irregularities  may  occur  in  the  form  of  the  incisors 
or  through  the  uniting  of  two  incisors  ;  they  may 
occur  ttecause  one  jaw  happens  to  be  longer  or 
shorter  than  the  other;  they 
may  occur  oh  n  nwult   of 


Q 


Plx.  «47.   TtaelowQi  iDdsor,  w  nipptr 
tMtb,  Ol  AD  eiEbt-7Mt-old  bOXM. 


Fis-  **9.    Tte  lower  ineiWM 
leetb  of  U  old  iMffM. 


Pit.  **9.    A  fU*  view  «l  Um  air- 
pen  o(  an  oU  bMM. 


nonsE 


nORSE 


cribbing — some  horses  havH  the  bad  habit  of  bit- 
ing the  stall  BxtuFfiHor  other  yurroanding  ttbjectfl, 
thus  breaking  of  the  free  burdur^  of  the  teeth, 
whicb  make  the  teeth  irretfular  and  which  mut^t 
not  hti  confused  with  normal  wear.  Such  casiy^-  can 
uaoalty  be  rucoenizcd  by  the  brolien-otE  particlu^s 
and  the  roughed  surface.  Then,  s(rain.  irrofiiilari- 
ti«8  may  result  from  the  emplojfnent  of  fraudnlent 
means,  the  honicman  striWng  to  give  the  month 
the  chiiratteristifs  of  th:il  period  uf  life  in  which 
the  animals  have  their  greatest  value,  and  endeav- 
oHng  to  make  the  youni;:  app(;ar  old  and  the  old 
appear  yoang.  It  'a  ordinarily  easy  to  detect  a 
mouth  that  haa  been  tampered  with.  If  tlie  abnor- 
mal wear  has  been  prodaced  by  a  file,  the  marks  of 
the  latter  can  be  seen  on  the  teeth.  If,  after  hav- 
ing made  a  surface  artificially,  the  latter  bo  pol- 
ished to  remove  the  marks,  the  fraud  can  be  de- 
tected by  the  fact  that  the  enarael  Is  jast  on  a 
leve!  with  the  dentine. 

After  the  teeth  have  once  been  tampered  with, 
they  no  longer  serve  as  an  index  in  estimating  age. 
The  dental  tables,  the  cups  and  the  like,  have  in 
most  cases  been  partly  or  wholly  destroyed.  A 
person  estimating  the  age  of  such  animals  must 
rely  on  general  Indications,  such  as  gray  hairs 
about  the  temple,  eyes,  nostrils;  the  pointed  poll ; 
the  depre-Haed  face ;  the  sunken  tiupra-orbits ;  the 

{irominent  back-bone;  the  sway  back;  the  sharp 
Dwer  j.iw  ;  the  nixies  in  the  tail,  and  the  angle  at 
which  the  teeth  in  Ihu  umwr  and  hnvi-r  j;iwa  meet, 
as  well  as  the  shape  of  the  tei:th,  which,  as  we 
have  pointed  out,  become  more  triangular  as  the 
animal  advances  in  age. 

LiterfiLure. 

Much  attention  and  stinly  has  been  given  to  the 
qnestiun  of  u-stimating  tliu  ageis  of  horses  by  their 
dentition,  and  iliscussions  of  the  mtfthoiJn  will  hv 
foond  in  many  books  devoted  to  the  horsu.  Men- 
tion is  made  here  of  two  works  in  which  Che  subject 
ia  discussed  carefully :  Gaubaux  and  Barrier,  The 
Exterior  of  the  Horse,  translated  by  S.  J.  J.  TTarger, 
J.  B.  Iiippincott  Company,  Phllatlelphia  :  Robt^rts, 
The  Hitnie,  Macmillan  Cumpany,  New  York,  [b'or 
further  references,  «l-«  page  -llti.] 

CommoD  AUmentfl  of  Horses.   Figs.  45(Mo9. 

By  .fohn  li.  Mchler  and  Gatrgt  H.  Hart. 

In  this  article  only  theHpor»dic  nr  non-infections 
dine:i.s«H  of  h(irse.s  will  be  die^rUKSHd,  tifgcthi-r  with 
the  lifst-knuwn  mtithiKlH  u{  treatiiieiit.  Disfases  of 
tbi«  class  affect  only  one  or  twu  animals  in  a  stable 
flit  one  time,  and  do  not  spread  through  a  stable  or 
herd  from  one  animal  to  another.  As  was  not«d 
under  the-  ailments  of  cattle-,  in  many  cases  it  is 
advi.sablc  to  employ  a  veterinarian  to  treat  ailing 
animals,  as  the  Bligbtest  carelewina-w  or  misjudg- 
ment  may  result  fatally.  While  it  is  highly  depir- 
alile  for  the  farmer  to  1h^  able  to  diagatwe  the 
ailments  of  his  stock,  and  to  be  able  to  treat  the 
lens  serious  disatiliti(!ii,  he  will  generally  find  it  to 
his  advantage  to  employ  skilled  atuistancc  for  cases 
which  may  involve  the  life  of  the  snima)  »r  which 


are  liable  to  prrKluce  much  suffering.   It  is  well  to 
be  un  the  aafe  side. 

Tem^raturt. 

In  onter  to  restore  diseaied  animals  to  hMltilrl 
is  necessary  to  know  tha  character  of  the" 
affecting  them.  It  follows  that  the  ability  to  makftl 
a  correct  diagnosis  is  the  fundamental  principle  OB 
which  the  treatment  of  the  disease  is  based.  In 
the  domesticated  animals,  we  are  unable  to  obtain 
knowledge  directly  from  the  patient,  as  to  where 
the  trouble  \»  located  ;  and,  therefore,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  make  a  diagnosia.  by  carefully  noting  thi 
symptoms  produced.  Among  the  more  important 
symptoms  that  will  be  referred  to  frequently  in  dis- 
cussing the  following  diseases,  are  abnormal  tem- 
peratures, pulse  rates  and  respiratury  movemenb!. 

In  the  lirst  place,  a  knowledge  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  an  animal  assii^td  in  making  a  diagnosis  ;,J 
second,  it  keeps  one  imsted  as  to  bow  the  case  itj 
progressing ;  third,  in  mmi  diseases,  as  influenza,] 
swine  plague  and  Texas  fever,  it  is  the  first  symj^' 
torn  denoting  the  approach  of  the  disease.    The 
normal  temperature  of  the  various  animals  is  as 
follows  [See  also  page  21]: 

Uuree 99.5°  to  lOJ.rPahr. 

Ox 100.4"  to  WVr  Fahr. 

Sheep Iiiili"  to  101=    fahr. 

Hog 100.4^  to  104''     Fahr. 

Dog 99.5"  to  102.2"  Pahr. 

In  order  tu  ascertain  the  temjierature.  it  is  nec- 
essary to  be  provided  with  an  ordinary  clinical 
thermometer.  The  end  to  bo  inserted  should  be 
covered  with  vaseline  or  lard.  It  is  placed  in  the 
rectum  for  three  to  five  minutes.  Accompanying 
fever  there  are  always  chills,  an  increase  in  the 
nnm^Hjr  of  heart-Wats  per  minute,  loss  of  appetite 
and  general  nervous  depressicjii.  Care  showld  be 
taken  not  to  mirfcalculatu  the  reading  of  a  high 
temperature  in  the  horse  aft«r  the  animal  has  been 
doing  heavy  work  on  a  warm  day,  or  in  other 
animals  when  tbey  become  greatly  excited  during 
the  taking  of  the  temperature.  In  horses,  the  tem- 
[Karature,  even  in  most  severe  diseases,  rarely 
passes  1(>7°  Fahr.,  except  in  casus  of  heat  stroke, 
when  it  has  lieen  known  to  reach  110°  Fahr.  The 
highest  normal  teiii)>eratures  are  always  recorded 
in  the  afternoon,  and  the  lowest  in  the  momine. 

A  subnormal  tem]>eruture  is  rare  indiseamcofl 
animalH.  The  most  striking  and  constant  example 
of  this  is  Wf  n  in  milk-fever  in  the  cow.  Sometimes 
a  subnormal  t^tmperntun-  iH  reconled  in  cnse«  when 
the  tlmrniometer  has  not  bwn  ini«j»rted  far  enough, 
or  when  the  pacing  of  feces  has  taken  place  jusl 
prior  to  the  taking  of  the  temperature,  both  of 
which  conditions  shyuld  be  carefully  guarded 
against. 

Fuite, 

The  average  normal  pulse  frequency  in  aDimala 
is  as  follows  [See  also  page  21]: 

Hone,  28  td  40  Stiocp,  TO  to  90 

Muhi,    46  to  50  Swine,  tiO  lo  100 

Cattle.  40  to  80  Dogs.    60  to  120 


RORSB 


HOK^ 


437 


In  difma^e,  the  charactC'r,  frequ^^ncy  and  re;;^- 
larity  of  the  pulne  may  \m  altered.  It  is  usniilly 
inoreaaed  in  frwiiiency.  although  in  chronic  brain 
troubluH  a  rfiluclion  in  the  namWr  nf  WalK  per 
minute  raay  be  oljaorvwd.  In  a.11  fubrik-  dirteajsea, 
and  in  sovoro  hemorrliajijes,  the  numbor  of  beata 
{)«r  minute  st-rves  to  (rujdc  one  in  JudRiiie  the 
strenRth  of  the  heart.  When  the  poise  at  the  horse 
exceeds  100  per  minute,  the  chances  of  recovery 
are  very  ftlifthl.  liy  the  regnlarity  of  the  pulse  ik 
muant  the  following  of  the  1>eats  in  regular  order 
will)  the  eamt;  jwricMl  of  time  etap»in)7  between 
them.  In  an  irregular  pulse,  a  beat  is  dropped  now 
and  then,  or  an  extra  one  may  be  cnanted  in.  An 
irregular  pnlse  is  seen  normaLly  in  dogs,  and  occurs 
also  in  horses  when  the  pulee  is  very  high  during 
the  course  of  febrile  diseases. 

iienpiralion. 

The  freiiHBOcy  of  respiratory  movementH  per 
minute  in  animals  is  as  follows  [See  alau  pagu  21]; 


Kme,  S  to  16 
Ox,  10  to  30 
Sheep,  12  to  20 


Swine,  10  to  20 
Doc,  10  to  30 
Goat,    12  to  30 


Normally,  rei^piraLion  in  noifwleAH,  although  at 
timet;  fat  eatLlu  may  grunt  after  fi!iMJLn^;  and 
lively  horses  and  cattle  may  snort  when  utartled. 
In  disease,  various  sounds  may  be  heard,  among 
the  more  important  of  which  is  the  wheezing  sound 
from  the  noHe,  canned  hy  a  narrnwing  nf  this 
region,  due  tu  tumoni  nr  enlargements  of  the  Imne. 
A  rattling  Bo^urid  cornea  fnim  th^  regiim  nf  the 
throat  when  the  vueal  curdM  are  relaxed,  aw  is  lieanl 
in  sore  throat.  The  most  important  reflpjratory 
sound,  perhaps,  cornea  fiiim  the  larynx  and  goner- 
alty  is  increased  in  volume  by  violent  exercise.  It 
is  heard  in  horses  Bffect.ed  with  what  is  commonly 
known  as  "maring,"  and  varies  in  pitch  from  a 
whistling  to  a  maring  tone.  Groaning  is  heard 
when  expiration  ih  attempte^l  through  a  partially 
closed  voice-box,  and  also  in  painful  diseases  affect- 
ing the  chest,  as  pneumoniB  and  pleuriBy. 

Vriiearia  or  hiva. 

Urticaria,  ako  ealhMl  nettle  rash  or  hives,  is  an 
affectitin  of  hontas  and  ntlier  animaln  resulting  from 
a  number  of  cauites,  and  characterizt-ii  by  the  eru]>- 
tion  of  various-sized  swellings  (wheals)  on  the  rikin. 
The  disease  is  most  common  in  young  animals  in 
good  condition.  It  occurs  aitually  in  the  spring, 
daring  rainy,  muggy  weather,  with  high  humidity. 
Not  infnH]uently  cases  iKXur  without  any  ascer- 
tainable cause. 

In  the  majority  nf  instanees,  the  disease  is  the 
direct  result  nf  some  digestive  disiinlern  ;  and  ci-r- 
tain  foods,  a.**  buckwheat,  now  oiits,  green  potatoes, 
are  ea]ieciBlly  liable  to  prxKlijco  the  eruption.  Such 
diftorders,  however,  are  followed  by  urticaria  in  a 
very  small  ponrt^ntage  »f  raneii,  and  consequently 
some  co-existing  condition  ru  necessary,  which  is 
thought  to  lie  some  abnormal  irritability  of  the 
nerveH  supplying  the  bK>od-vease1s  in  the  skin. 

The  disease  is  peculiar  in  the  suddenness  of  its 
onset   The  owner's  attention  is  attracted    to  the 


animal  by  the  swellings  on  the  sitin,  which  spread 
with  great  rapiility,  and  in  a  few  hours  may  be 
generally  scattered  over  the  body.  They  vary  in 
size  from  a  half-inch  to  two  inches  in  diameter ; 
and  in  some  cases,  several  may  become  confluent 
and  tho  resulting  swelling  attain  the  sine  of  a  din- 
ner-plate. The  edges  of  the  swellings  are  cut  off 
sharply  from  the  surrounding  tissues.  They  are 
supposal  to  be  due  to  a  spasm  of  the  blood-vessel 
walls,  with  rapid  leakage  of  blood  serum  therefrom, 
being  therefore  lucalLiu.-d  edematous  inliltrations  of 
the  skill.  The  eruption  is  also  accompanied  with 
marked  itching,  but  there  is  no  tendency  to  rupture 
or  to  suppuration. 

The  dipe.ve  is  usually  without  fever  and  of  short 
duration,  often  entirely  disappearing  after  one  or 
two  days.  Such  animals,  howuver,  are  liable  to- 
subseciuent  attacks, 

Treatmtni.—YooH  should  be  withheld  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  after  which  bran  mashe.'^  and  small 
quantities  of  hay  may  be  given.  The  digestive  tract 
should  be  evacuateit  by  the  administration  of  a 
quart  i>f  linseed  oil  or  one  and  one-half  pounds  of 
Epsiim  Milts.  The  local  application  of  alkaline  solu- 
tions, as  one  tablespoonful  of  sodium  bicarbonate 
Ui  a  quart  of  water,  or  a  weak  solution  of  ammonia, 
will  relieve  the  itching.  Recovery  id  rapid,  and  the 
swelling  usually  disappears  in  a  few  hours  tn  two 
days. 

Hmt'tiroke. 

This  is  a  ciindition  seen  principally  in  horses, 
bnt  also  at  timtsa  affecting  cattle  and  sheep  on  long 
[Irives.  It  if.  due  to  exceusivu  heating  of  the  entire 
budy,  thereby  dilfering  from  sun-stroke,  which  is 
due  to  tho  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays  on  the 
head  and  is  rare  in  animalR.  Heat-stroke  is  seen 
only  in  the  hot  nnmmer  months  and  usually  alTectA 
draft  horses.  The  attack  comes  nn  much  more 
gradually  than  in  .sun-stnike.  The  animal  stops 
sweating,  appears  droopy  in  the  harness,  drags 
along  for  a  short  distance,  but  soon  goes  down  and 
bocomos  unconscious.  The  breathing  is  rapid  and 
shallow,  the  pulse  rapid  and  weak,  and  the  lnMly 
temperature  excressively  high,  sometimes  reatrhing 
lUrrir  lll"Fahr. 

Trenlmcnl .—l\w  treatment  must  be  very  eoor- 
getic  ami  diracted  towanl  the  immediate  reduction 
of  bodily  temperature,  as  the  animal  can  etand 
this  excessively  high  iA?mperature  only  for  a  verj' 
short  time,  if  he  is  to  nx-over.  Ic«-liag/i  should  be 
applief]  to  the  head  and  cold  water  [Mtintl  over  the 
ImmIv  from  buckets  or,  belter,  from  a  hoKe.  Tliis 
will  rixlnre  the  lempt-ratiire  of  tho  skin,  but  at  tho 
name  time,  it  is  esM^ntial  to  stimulate  the  weak 
heart  in  order  to  increase  circulation,  and  especi- 
ally the  circulation  in  the  skin  where  heat-radia- 
tion takes  place.  For  this  punmRB,  one-half  pint  of 
whiskey  should  be  given  immerliately,  followed  by 
tincture  of  digitali)^  in  cine-dram  doses  by  the 
mtiuth,  or  one-half-dram  doses  suljcutancously.  In 
the  latter  method  of  adminL^tration,  the  action  is 
qatoker.  The  cold  water  should  be  continued  until 
the  temperature  is  reduced  to  102"  to  lfl:i°  Pahr., 
when  it  shoold  be  withheld  and  applied  again  only 


438 


HORSE 


HORSE 


in  case  the  temperature  riaeB.  The  limhs  should  be 
rubbed  briskly  with  straw  or  thp  hands,  FUeed- 
LTi^  an  animal  afTeCteit  wilh  heat-Htroke  it;  a 
very  bati  prarllce  ami  t«hi>uh]  always  be  diawmr- 
agud.  B^icovyry  ia  |^ra<!ua]  and  ik  jmilonKiHi  over  a 
week  or  two,  during  which  tLmu  the  animal  shuald 
have  general  tonic  troatnic^nt  and  bci  returned  to 
heavy  work  gradually. 

Periodic  opkthadnia  (;l/iwrt  bUndinis). 

Moon  blindneaw  is  an  ailment  aifecting  the  horse 
alone  of  all  the  <ilomi>Htiv  animjiltt.  It  ban  inilam- 
rnaticin  uf  thu  interior  uf  the  eyeball,  usually  afferU 
inj^  only  onB  eyi;  at  a  time,  one  attack  of  which  ia 
almost  sore  to  be  followed  by  subptijuent  onea.  and 
leading  eventually  to  complete  loss  of  sight. 

The  exact  cause  of  thi»  disease  ta  unknown. 
Various  parasites  have  been  said  to  be  instrumental 
in  its  proJncli^in,  but  mine  ha.«  been  prov«J  to  have 
a  direft  causative  effect.  However,  it  is  especially 
common  in  dump,  marshy  a»\\b  and  seenis  to  be 
tapeciuliy  prevalent  after  wet  8ea»ons.  Heredity  ia 
also  aupiKiaed  to  jday  Mome  part  in  iUs  production. 
This,  however,  is  not  positive,  a."*  foals  from  affected 
dams  or  sires,  if  taken  to  another  locality,  where 
the  diaeaae  doea  not  exist,  niay  not  be  attacked. 
Animals  are  aubje^ct  to  the  disease  at  any  time  of 
life,  but  the  largest  percentage  of  casea  occurs  in 
horseii  under  six  year»  of  age. 

The  disease  appears  very  suddenly,  sometimes 
over  night.  There  is  great  irritation  in  the  affected 
eyeball,  seni^itivoneAa  to  light  and  an  excessive 
How  of  tears,  the  eys  l>tjirg  kept  continuoasly 
closed,  and  drawn  back  into  the  eye  socket.  The 
conjunctiva  or  mocoos  membrane  on  the  inside  of 
the  eyelid  is  ver>'  red.  swollen,  and  may  protmdo 
between  the  closed  lids.  The  blood -vei»9el9  around 
the  eyeball  are  enlarged,  and  the  eyeball  is  cloudy. 
After  this  ha*  existed  for  a  few  days,  healing  usu- 
ally begins.  The  i^ensitiveness  to  light  diminishes, 
and  the  excessive  secretion  of  tears  lessens.  How- 
ever, aomeaignsof  the  infl-imraatjon  nanally  remain. 
'In  two  W'tHjits  after  the  lirst  attack,  the  eye  may 
appear  normal,  but  within  varying  periods  of  time 
another  attack  occurs,  each  attack  producing 
greater  .ind  greater  change,  until  finally  eight  is 
completely  lost.  Later,  in  about  2^>  per  cent  of  the 
oasei)  the  other  eye  becomes  attacked  in  the  same 
iray.  The  outlook  for  recovery  is  poor. 

rnfa/mfn/.— I'reviintivu  treatment  i^  most  suc- 
cessful. The  attendant  should  remove  foals  to  a 
place  where  the  disease  ia  not  prevalent.  There  is 
110  good  medicinal  treatment  for  the  disease.  The 
old  methods  of  bleeding  from  tht>  eye,  setoning  and 
blistering,  are  of  no  value,  and  should  not  be  used. 
Treatment  conBists  in  keeping  the  animal  in  the 
dark,  and  washing  off  the  eye  suveral  times  daily 
with  a  4  [wr  cunt  aolntion  of  boric  acid.  X  few 
drops  uf  this  solution  may  also  l)e  dropped  into 
the  eye  with  good  re-^ults.  Ice  poultices  may  be 
osod  over  the  eye  fur  the  first  three  or  four  days, 
afttsr  which  warmth  should  be  applied  by  covering 
the  eye  with  cotton  soaked  in  warm  water,  and 
kept  in  place  by  means  of  a  flannel  hood  placed 
around  the  head.   In  recent  years,  the  administra- 


tion of  potassium  iodid.  nne  to  two  drams  daily, 
haH  been  recommendetl. 

LamfKix  cr  lampm. 

This  is  a  condition  in  which  the  mucous  membrane 
in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  becom^-^s  congestvtl  with 
blood  and  protrudi-s  below  the  incisor  teeth.  It  is 
frequently  oWrved  temporarily  at  the  time  ot  eat- 
ing, [ti  some  c;iHes,  however,  it  may  become  exces- 
sive, especially  in  c<dts  'luring  the  eruption  of  the 
permanent  k>eth,  when  it  may  ha  relieved  by  mak- 
ing a  few  inhallow  ])uncturL'S  in  the  mucous  mero- 
brane  with  a  sharp  knife  that  has  been  sterilized. 
Such  treatmitnt  demands  expert  care.  Searing  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  with  a  hot  iron  is  very  cruel, 
and  never  of  any  value.  It  is  only  on  the  rareet 
occasions  that  any  treatment  is  necessary.  This 
aitmeut  is  not  common. 

Oxkoporotir,  or  billhead. 

OHteupuronis  is  a  general  diiiease  of  the  bones, 
which  develops  slowly,  and  is  characterized  by  tho 
absorption  of  the  compact  bony  substance,  and  the 
formation  of  enlarg*^.  .Hofti^ned  and  poroiis  hone. 
It  ia  particularly  manifest  in  the  bones  of  the  head, 
causing  enlargement  and  bulging  of  the  face  and 
jaws,  thereby  giving  rise  to  the  terms,  "bighcad" 
and  "swelled  head,"  which  are  applied  to  it.  In  tho 
United  S^tates  the  diaea.se  has  been  found  in  all  the 
states  bordering  the  Delaware  river  and  Chesa- 
peako  bay,  in  some  of  the  New  England  states,  .ind 
in  many  of  the  southern  states,  especially  along 
the  coast  in  regions  of  low  altitude.  The  idea  that 
the  disease  is  contagious  has  boen  advanced  by 
many  wrilery,  although  no  causative  agent  has 
been  isolated. 

Probably  the  first  symptom  to  be  noticed  is  a 
loss  of  vitality  combined  with  an  irregular  appe- 
tite or  other  digestive  disturbance,  and  with  a 
tendency  to  stumble  while 
in  action.  These  earlier 
symptoms,  however,  may 
pass  unobserved,  and  the 
appearance  of  an  int^rhiit- 
tent  or  migratory  lame- 
nesa  without  any  visible 
cause  may  be  tho  tirst 
sign  to  attract  attention. 
About  this  time,  swelling 
of  the  bones  of  the  f  i'-' 
and  jaw,  which  is  alm>'-i 
constantly  present  in  this 
disease,  will  be  observed. 
(Fig.  450.)  The  bones  of 
the  lower  jaw  are  the 
most  frequently  involved, 
and  this  condition  is  read- 
ily detected  with  the  fin- 
gers by  the  bulging  ridge 
of  the  bone  outside  and 
along  the  lower  edge  of  the  molar  teeth.  A  thicken- 
ing of  the  lower  jaw-bone  may  likewiae  be  identi- 
fii^  by  feeling  on  both  sides  of  each  branch  at  tbe 
same  time  and  comparing  it  with  the  thinness  of 
this  bone  in  a  normal  horse.  Other  bortes  of  the 


Fif .  410.    BicliMtd 

{(/fItopurotU). 


HORSE 


HORSE 


489 


l)ody  witt  undergo  similnr  chango^.  but  thcao  alter- 
ations are  nut  so  readily  noticed  except  by  the 
symptoms  tliey  ocrasion.  Tlii^  animni  IxKromes  pf«ir 
in  t1e.sh,  Lhi;  coat  ik  nm^rh  and  lii^tterlBKH,  and  tht; 
skin  ti^ht  ami  harsli,  jmNJuring  a  r.undition  termed 
"hidebound,"  with  cuniBidwrablt-  "tudtinn  up"  of  the 
abdomi-n.  The  horse  ehowa  a  shert,  fititti-i),  choppy 
gait,  which  later  l>ecomes stiffer  and  more  restricted, 
while  on  standing,  a  position  simnlating  that  in 
founder  m  assoTned,  with  a  noticeable  drnp  to  the 
croup.  The  animal  at  thia  »itige  usually  liei;  dnwn 
and  remains  recunilient  fur  several  day-t  at  a  Limt-. 
Bed-Horea  fruiiuently  arise  and  fractures  are  nut 
uncommon,  in  cotiaequencB  of  attt-mpts  to  arjae, 
which  cuni|>]icationa,  in  addition  to  oraaciatiun, 
result  in  death. 

Treatment.  -  The  affectted  animal  should  he  imme- 
diately placed  under  new  citnditionH,  both  a.t  to 
feed  and  surruumJin^a  If  the  hone  has  tieen 
staldu  fed,  it  JB  advisable  to  turn  him  out  on  f^r.ua 
for  two  or  thrL*e  months,  jirt'ferably  in  ii  hiji^it^r 
altitude.  If  the  diiu-ase  has  been  contract^i-d  whili' 
running  on  pasture,  the  animal  sh'iuJd  be  placed  in 
the  Ht«ble  or  corrnl.  In  the  early  stages  of  the 
disease,  lioneficia]  results  have  followed  the  supple- 
mental use  of  lime  in  the  drink  inn- water.  One 
peck  of  lime,  .sLakud  In  a  cask  uf  watt-r  and  addi- 
tional  watf^r  aiid«?d  from  time  to  time,  is  satis- 
factory and  can  be-  provided  at  slifEbt  ex|M-nst.-. 
This  treatment  may  be  supplemented  by  giving  a 
tahleapoonful  of  powdered  bone  meal  in  e^ch  feed, 
with  free  accaHA  tn  a  large  piece  of  rock  salt;  or 
the  bone  may  lie  given  with  four  table.spoonfuls  of 
molatuuH  mixe^l  with  the  fotxl.  FetMli)  containing 
minernl  aalbi,  such  m  beaiia.  cowpeas,  oattt  and 
cottonseed  meal,  may  prove  bencflL-ial  in  replenish- 
ing the  bony  substance  that  is  being  absorbed. 
Cottonseed  meal  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  this 
puriKtsw.  but  it  Hhoiild  be  fed  carefully.  The 
animal  should  not  be  alloweii  to  work  at  all  daring 
the  active  ntage  of  the  ditieade,  nor  ahould  it  lie 
used  for  lir«vding  purposes. 

Rheumatism. 

Rheumatism  i?  a  painful  febrik  disease,  affecU 
ing  both  the  mtisclra  and  jointa,  and  seen  princi- 
pally in  the  horse,  ox  and  dog.  The  exact  cause  of 
the  (liseiuw  is  unknown,  although  many  theories 
have  been  advanced.  .-\s  predisposing  causes  may 
be  mentioned  dampnesD  and  cbillinji;.  In  the  hor.<<e 
and  ox  it  usually  ulTects  the  mtisicle!*  and  joints  of 
the  fxtremttie.s.  It  rarely  becomes  gent-ralized 
(spread  over  the  entire  body!  in  any  of  the  doraea- 
tic  animals. 

The  animal  attacked  suddenly  becotnes  atlff  and 
lame,  followed  by  a  rise  of  temperature  (104^  Fahr.). 
A  swelling  appears  around  one  or  more  of  the 
joints  of  the  leip*.  which  is  excewiingly  painful  to 
the  toDch.  Tbe  point  of  localization  changeit  fre- 
quently, and  one  day  tho  animal  may  show  lame- 
neta  in  one  joint,  as  for  example,  in  the  hock,  and 
on  the  following  day  the  hip  or  even  the  c»pposite 
leg  may  be  alTecte^l.  The  attacks  are  also  inter- 
mittent, and  the  animal  may  go  wund  for  two  or 
three  days  between  them.  The  death  rate  is  rery 


low,  as  the  disease  rarely  proves  fatal  when  uncom- 
plicated. 

Trtatmenf.—Fint  of  all,  a  cathartic  should  be 
administered.  AloeJi  balls  containing  7  drams  of 
aloes  for  the  honie  anil  3  to  IJi  [lounds  of  Rpsom 
salts  for  the  cow  will  give  gotxl  rmiilta.  At  the 
same  time,  great  benefit  may  be  secure*!  by  thor- 
ough rubbing  of  the  affec-tt'd  joints  or  muscles 
with  some  stimulating  liniment,  as  camphor  or 
chloroform  liniment,  which  can  bo  purehased  ready- 
prepared  at  any  drug-store.  Tn  this  treatment,  the 
rubbing  does  eigually  as  much  service  as  the  lini- 
ment. The  cathartic  shouhl  be  followed  by  some 
antirheumatic  medicine-s  as  the  salicylates,  given 
prineipally  in  the  form  of  sodium  salicylate.  For 
the  horse,  and  the  cow,  6  to  K  drams  may  be  given 
two  or  three  times  daily  in  the  food.  In  the*  sheep, 
dog  and  pig,  ii  io2  drams  should  be  dissolved  in 
water  and  given  as  a  drench.  During  the  treat- 
ment the  animal  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  and 
have  plenty  of  fresh  air. 

Colic. 

Colic  is  a  Collective  term  applied  to  all  forms  of 
pain  in  the  digeutive  tract.  The  term  "  false  "  colic 
is  frequently  given  to  pain  atfccttng  the  abdominal 
organs,  as  the  liver,  kidney  and  bladder.  It  is  a 
very  common  disease,  as  in  horses  it  forms  about 
10  per  cent  of  all  their  ailments,  and  about  lU  to 
15  per  cent  of  the  atTected  animals  die. 

From  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  digest- 
ive tract,  especially  of  the  stomach,  which  does 
not  allow  of  vomiting,  the  horse  is  more  subject 
to  colic  than  any  other  animal.  Eating  at  irregu- 
lar intervals,  overloading  of  the  stomach  or  pro- 
longed absence  of  food,  the  presence  of  worms  in 
large  numbers  in  the  alimentary  canal  and  fermen- 
tation in  the  intestinal  tract,  due  to  the  ingestion 
of  new  com  or  hay.  or  sour  decayed  fowl,  are 
causes.  Sometimes  the  intestines  become  displaced 
or  m.^y  become  telescoped  on  themselves  daring 
unusual  exertion  ;  or  a  toop  of  the  gut  may  pass 
down  through  the  inguinal  canal,  causing  the 
blood-flupply  to  be  shut  otF  as  a  result  of  pressure, 
and  giving  ri.*»e  to  a  rapidly  fatal  form  of  colic. 

The  symptoms  are  mainly  those  of  pain.  If  the 
animal  is  in  harnetis.  be  lags  and  stops :  if  urged 
forward,  he  will  lie  down  in  the  shafts;  if  in  the 
stable,  be  stopa  entinp  and  walks  around  the  box- 
i^tall  restlessly.  The  animal  looks  around  at  the 
side,  kicks  at  the  belly,  and  may  grit  the  teeth. 
The  tail  getii  a  peculiar  crook  in  it  and  is  held 
extended.  The  animal  gathers  ita  feet  together  as 
if  to  lie  down,  and  when  apparently  it  is  going 
down  it  suddenly  straightens  up  again  ;  or  it  may 
lie  down.  roll.  kick,  and  at  times  when  the  pain 
ia  severe  may  make  very  violent  movements,  a^ 
slamming  the  head  against  the  ground  or  biting  at 
itftclf  or  the  manger.  The  attacks  are  sometimea 
intermittent  and  the  animal  will  appear  to  be 
eased  and  may  start  eating,  but  this  is  only  tem- 
porary. There  may  be  fermentation  in  the  intes- 
tines, with  consequenl  gas  formation,  and  great 
distention  of  the  alHlomen  may  occur.  The  patients 
are  usually  constipated  and  intestinal  movementa 


440 


HOKSE 


HORSG 


les-scned  or  entirely  stopped.  The  rectom  in  fre- 
quently filled  with  dry,  hard  feces.  Tht;  duration 
of  colic  is  uaoally  short,  varying  from  a  few 
mmutfis  to  sereral  boars.  If  the  pain  is  continuous 
for  twenty-foar  hours  the  outlook  for  recovery  ia 
grave. 

Trtaiment. — First  of  all,  the  animal  should  be 
^ven  plenty  of  room  in  a  large  stall  or  shed,  the 
Boor  of  which  should  be  covert  with  an  abundance 
of  straw  in  order  to  prevent  the  animal  producing' 
permanent  injuries  to  itself  daring  i^  violent 
movemtnts.  Sometimes,  oapecially  in  chronic  colic. 
wzLlkinp  exercise  is  to  be  recommended.  One  must 
use  jndgTnent  in  this  respect,  as  there  are  many 
cases  of  colic  In  which  the  animals  are  much 
better  if  allowed  to  rbmain  quiet.  The  internal 
treatment  should  be  directed  toward  allaying  the 
pain.  For  this  purposo,  cannabis  indioa,  one  to  two 
ounces,  may  be  K"'en  ;  or  morphine  sulfate,  five  to 
seven  drains,  ^Wan  subcutactously.  Larger  doses 
of  either  shnold  not  be  ^ven,  as  cannabis  indica 
stops  intestinal  movements  and  morphine  in  larger 
th:m  seven -(frain  doses  in  the  hor.ie  produces 
excitement  instead  of  quiet.  The  folEowing  is  an 
©.icfellent  preflcri|ition  for  many  forms  of  colic  : 

Kluid  extract  rannabU  indicA  ....  'I  drama 

Tinttnre  ophim 6  drains 

Sulfuric  elhor L  ounce 

Sweet  Hpintfl  of  niter I  ounce 

Give  in  one  doso  and  repeat  if  necessary  in  one 
hour.  The  intestines  must  be  stimulated,  for  which 
pnrpdse  eight  drama  nf  aloes  nr  one  pint  of  JinMoed- 
oil  may  Im  given.  Injw-tioriB  i>f  lukewarm  water 
into  the  rectum  after  cleaning  out  the  fecal  matter 
with  the  hand  will  soniutimtm  stimulate  the  intes- 
tinal movi.'mi;nts.  In  fL-rmentation  colic  with  gas 
formation,  tapping  the  animal  is  the  quickest  and 
surest  method  of  cetting  relief.  A  sterile  trocar 
is  nece-psary  for  this  operation.  The  puncture  is 
maile  on  th«  ri)jcht  side  midway  beLwHen  the  anj;!e 
of  the  haunch,  the  spinal  column,  and  the  bonier  of 
the  last  rib.  The  skin  should  be  washed  with  a 
5  per  c^nt  carbolic  acid  solution  or  some  other 
antiseptic  and  the  trocar  pushed  thrnn^h  the  skin 
into  the  intestine.  The  stilette  should  then  be 
withdrawn,  leaving  the  canula  in  plwte  throngh 
which  the  gas  e-'icjiiws.  When  all  the  gas  is  evacu- 
ated, th(>  stilettD  is  again  inserted  and  the  in^tru- 
mant  withiirawn.  This  win  be  refieatud  if  gas  con- 
tinues to  form,  care  being  taken  not  to  push  the 
instrument  in  the  same  plaeo  twice. 

Tk  jcmp/i. 

This  term  has  been  applied  to  peculiar  throbbing 
movements  of  the  sides  of  the  rhest.  caused  by 
spasmodic  contractions  of  the  dinphrngm.  It  is 
analogous  to  hiccoughs  in  man.  The  eonditiun  is 
easily  recognixed,  the  only  thing  with  which  it 
could  be  confused  being  palpitation  of  the  heart. 
In  thumps,  however,  the  movements  involve  the 
whotc  side  of  tho  chest  and  are  entirely  independent 
of  the  heart-beats  and  lesm  frequent.  The  breathing 
is  rapid,  jerky  and  incomplete.  By  placing  the  hand 
on  the  chest  near  the  last  rib,  which  ia  oppwite  the 


JmserRdn^f  tbe  diaphragm,  the  contncti<H»  outy 
be  felt  as  dii^tinct  throbs  against  the  fingera.  The 
condition  may  last  for  only  a  few  minutw,  or  may 
continue  for  several  days,  lead  to  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  and  terminate  fatally. 

7Vfa(m;(rH(.^  Frequently  a  single  dose  of  some 
antispasmodic,  as  4  drams  of  asafetida,  or  5  ounces 
of  the  milk  of  anafetida,  will  relieve  the  condition. 
If  this  is  not  successful,  nerve  sedatives,  as  mor- 
phine sulfate,  o  grains,  or  potassium  bromid,  1 
ounce,  should  be  adminiatereu.  In  obstinate  cases, 
a  pnrgative  dose  of  8  drams  of  aloes  or  1  pound  of 
Glauber's  salts,  should  be  given. 

Hravcs. 

This  is  a  disease  of  the  1  ungs  of  horses,  doe  to  a  loss 
of  elasticity  and  permanent  distention  of  the  walls 
of  the  minute  air-sac«  in  the  lung!;.  Horses  that 
stop  and  start  a  great  deal,  as  mitk>wagon  borMw, 
are  predisposed  to  the  affection,  ('lover  hay  and 
various  other  bulky  foods  containing  little  nntri> 
tive  elements,  and  thus  requiring  the  ingestion  of 
large  i]uantittes  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  animal, 
are  also  considered  a  cause. 

One  of  thft  first  symptoms  of  the  disease  is  the 
distressing  dry  cough  which  fretjuuntly  occurs  in 
paroxysms.  ]t  can  best  be  produce*!  by  giving  the 
animal  a  drink  of  cold  water,  or  by  bringing  it 
suddenly  from  a  warm  stable  into  the  cold  outdoor 
air.  There  is  also  present  the  characteristic  double 
respiration,  and  the  expired  air  comes  from  the 
nose  in  two  jets,  with  a  pause  between  them  :  the 
flunk  movementu  arL>  pmaounced,  and  the  anus  is 
forced  backward  at  each  expiration.  Inspiration 
is  usually  normal. 

TrentmfnL — The  condition  is  incurable,  and  all 
medicinal  agents  are  only  palliative.  The  greatest 
benefit  is  to  Iw  derived  from  the  regnlation  of  the 
diet.  All  dusty  hay  sbnuld  lie  withheld,  and  only 
small  (fuantities  of  the  best  timothy  hay  given, 
which  shriiiUI  lie  well  sprinkled  with  lime  or  rao- 
laasfs  waLf  r.  Nutritious  concentrated  foods  shoulil 
bu  given  ^0  that  relatively  small  quantities  will  be 
requiifcl,  as  the  less  aliment  in  the  digestive  tract 
tho  more  easily  the  animal  can  breathe.  Com.  oats 
and  bran,  with  carrots,  turnips  or  a[>ples  miswi  in, 
are  g(K>d.  Keep  out  on  p:LKture  when  possible,  away 
fn>m  the  dust  of  the  stiiblij,  Do  not  allow  the  ani- 
mal to  drink  wnlar  just  before  a  drive. 

MtMlicinally,  arsenic  is  good  for  a  time,  given  in 
the  form  of  arsenioos  acid,  threu  grains,  three 
times  daily  in  tho  food.  As  arsenic  i.'^  poisonous  its 
general  use  is  not  advised.  Fowler's  Solution  would 
l>e  safer  in  Ibis  instano^.  Constipation  should  t>e 
avoided,  and  when  any  tendency  in  that  direction 
is  notictnl,  one  and  one-half  pints  of  linsevd  oil.  or 
a  [H>u[id  of  (ilauber's  eaila  should  be  given  as  a 
drench. 

Lartfnffitis  or  tore  throat. 

This  ia  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  larynx  (voit'<'*hox).  causeil  by  exposure,  chil- 
ling, cold  air,  and  also  by  the  inhalation  of  irritant 
vapors  UK  smoke  or  chlorine  gas.  It  i.<;  classified 
according  to  the  duration   of  the  affection   into 


L 


HORSE 


HORSE 


.-f^ 


acute  and  chronic  laryngitis.  In  the  acute  form, 
there  is  a  rLse  of  tem[>eraturo  with  gt'tiera!  Hymp- 
toms  of  deprc-ayion  atvi  a  ('onslant,  mure  or  leas 
jtainful  cough.  The  »niiTi)i)  cuu^hn  un  the  H)i|j;hti>i)t 
pressnre  in  th«  region  of  thu  throat,  whan  aljowt^d 
to  drink  c'uiil  wattT,  or  when  excitwd  from  any 
CUU!W.  If  the  tar  is  placed  Bgalnat  the  upper  part 
of  th«  neck,  just  hack  of  the  jaws,  a  Rurgling 
sound  may  aometimea  be  heard.  The  sntind  is  pni- 
duc<^  by  the  to  anJ  fru  movement  of  fluidi  in  tha 
larynx  at  each  inH}»iration  and  txpiratiun.  The 
head  is  held  HtiHIy  and  extondL-d  on  the  hl-kH.  and 
aiJinchurue  ap|}«urs  from  both  nostriK  accompanied 
by  fluid  in  the  larynx. 

Trtctmen!.—7hi:  ht^st  resalta  are  obtained  by 
neans  of  local  applicationB.  Toward  this  end, 
absorbent  cotton  snaked  in  warm  wiiter  tthoithl  Ihe 
placod  around  the  throat  and  evaporation  prjventvd 
by  mean*  of  oileil  allk  or  rubber  cloth  on  the  out- 
side, which  13  kept  in  place  by  meann  of  a  beil-tick- 
ing  bandaRU  passed  aroand  the  head  and  tied  o\er 
the  poll.  Internally,  a  mixttire  containing  pota,s- 
ilium  chlorate  1  drain,  codiene  hydn>ch]orate  2 
praina,  powdered  licorioj-root  5  drams,  and  suffi- 
cient honey  ormolasnes  to  make  a  soft  paiite,  should 
be  spread  over  the  tnngni^  or  teeth  twice  daily. 
Potassium  iodid,  ^  dram, 
two  or  three  times  daily. 
is  also  valaable.  In  ae- 
vere  coaes  showinfr  no 
tendency  to  improveinent, 
ateamint;  is  to  be  rccom« 
mended.  This  \a  accom- 
plii«he«J  as  follows ;  The 
bottoTti  of  a  large  bran 
sack  in  covered  with  a 
thick  layer  of  bran.  A 
bucket  of  water  is  heated 
to  the  boiling-point,  three 
or  four  ounces  of  creulii 
added,  ami  Lhe  whole 
poured  quicklv  into  the 
sack  on  the  Wan.  The 
open  entl  of  the  sack  Ja 
then  immediately  tied 
around  the  horse's  head, 
so  that  the  animal  will 
hare  to  inhale  the  steam  that  rises  inside  the  sack. 
(Fig.  451.)  This  may  W  done  twice  daily,  and  may 
be  very  beaeficial  in  its  effect*. 

Itronrhifix. 

Hronchittji  is  an  inflammation  of  th«  bronchial 
tnbe«.  The  causative  aRents  are  very  similar  to 
those  causing  laryngitis,  as  chilling,  sudden  inhala- 
tion of  cold  air,  standing  in  draughts,  or  the  inhal- 
ation of  smoke  and  other  irriUitingg.i.'M?s  or  vapors. 
It  aUo  fre^iuently  restultj*  from  an  extension  of  a 
preexisting  inHamaiation  of  the  lar>-nx  in  laryngitis. 

The  disoafle  is  osberef!  In  with  a  rise  of  t«-mper»- 
tnre,  and  the  animal  becomes  droopy,  the  appetite 
is  reduced  and  breathing  ia  rapid.  This  rise  of  tem- 
perature varies  with  the  severity  of  the  attack,  and 
may  reach  lOGTahr.  Tho  cough  is  painful. barking, 
and  comes  from  deep  down  in  the  respiratory  tract. 


Fie-  4SI.    SteuatDi  a  bOfM 
fat  loCB  Uiroat. 


In  the  beginning  stagcB  it  iw  dry.  lat*r  becoming 
moist  and  accompanied  by  a  aasiil  'iischargc. 
The  duration  of  ordinary  uncomplicated  bronchitis 
usually  extends  over  a  i*riod  varying  from  one  to 
thriH-  weeks  and  terminates  in  recovery. 

Tnxitment.  The  general  surroundings  should  be 
good.  Keep  the  aniniul  in  a  cool  (ilace  in  summer 
and  a  sheltered  place  in  winter.  Tempt  the  appe- 
tite, which  is  likely  to  be  fickle,  with  different  kinds 
of  f(K>d,  as  bran  mash,  oats  and  grass,  until  some- 
thing m  found  that  it  will  eat-  Steaming  the  ani- 
mal as  described  under  laryngitis  is  to  be  highly 
rucom  mended. 

In  oriJer  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  inflamma- 
tion into  the  air-aacs.  and  also  to  arrest  the  forma- 
tion of  duid,  a  mustard  plaster  shonid  be  applied  to 
the  sides  of  the  cheat.  Mix  about  one-fourth-pound 
of  mnstard  in  one  pint  of  water  and  mb  over  the 
sides  of  the  chest,  (wing  careful  not  to  get  it  under 
the  front  legs  where  the  skin  is  soft  and  the  irrita- 
tion it  caiiseii  is  very  great.  A  mustard  plaster  of 
thia  strength  need  not  be  wadhe*!  off  and  may  be 
repeated  in  two  or  three  days.  Mustard  plasters 
must  be  used  with  caution,  as  they  are  very  likely 
to  leave  a  blemish. 

Internally,  a  paste  con.sisting  of  ammonium 
chlorid  1  dram,  morphine  sulfate  3  grains,  pow- 
dered licorice  root  G  drams,  and  sufficient  molasses 
to  make  a  soft  mafls,  should  be  spread  over  the 
tongue  twice  daily.  Genernl  stimulants.  »iich  as 
alcohol  2  ounces,  tincture  of  digitalis  1  dram,  may 
be  given  in  cafes  of  heart  weakness.  Ihiring  the 
course  of  the  diiiease  a  bucket  of  cold  water  should 
be  kept  constantly  before  the  animal.  If  the  dis- 
ease tends  to  become  chronic,  potassium  iodid  in 
ono-half-dram  dosos,  oranioniousaeid  in  three-grain 
doses,  should  be  given  twice  daily  over  a  period  of 
two  weeks. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia  is  a  common  disease  of  the  horse, 
asualiy  involving  a  lobe  or  even  an  entire  lung.  The 
lung  become*  solid  and  of  the  coiwistency  of  liver, 
due  to  the  fllling  of  the  a{r-«ac8  with  exudate.  Ill 
health,  excessive  excretion  and  chilling  are  predis- 
posing causes,  while  tho  direct  cause  is  a  micro- 
organism. 

The  onset  ia  sudden,  with  chill  and  very  high 
fever,  105"  or  lOGTahr.,  depression,  miUAruIar  weak- 
Tie^,  short  dry  cough,  and  increased  pulse  and 
respiratory  rate.  Physical  .tipns  are  present  on 
examination  of  the  chest.  The  temperature  remains 
high  for  seven  to  fourteen  day.«,  and  in  favor,iblft 
ca8es  drops  suddenly,  accompanied  by  a  resolution 
of  the  inflammation  in  the  lungs,  a  moist  cough, 
and  a  discharge  resembling  prune-juice  from  the 
nose.  The  di-waae  may  terminate  completely  in  ten 
to  twenty  days,  or  may  p.iss  into  a  chronic  state  and 
last  for  two  or  thrte  months,  or  lead  W  permanent 
broken  wind.  The  death  rale  is  low.  except  in  old 
worn-out  horses,  and  those  weakened  by  previous 
disease. 

7V«ifmrn/.~PIace  the  animal  in  comfortable, 
roomy  surroundings,  and  temot  bim  to  continno 
eating  by  uHering  various  kinds  of  food  in  small 


442 


hor.se 


HOUSE 


quantities.  Milk  will  often  be  dmnk  when  all  etae 
ia  refuaeil.  Apply  a  mustard  plaster  to  the  chest, 
aa  in  bronchiLii<. 

Medicinally,  Htimulanta  are  indicated,  -m  a  mix- 
ture cnnfiistinc  of  tincture  of  digitalis  1  dram,  tinc- 
ture of  QUX  vumica  1  dram.  quiriiBBj^ulfatf  1  dram, 
wat«r  in  sufficient  quantity  to  inakt^  an  <mnci*,  and 
given  three  or  four  times  daily  for  nevt-ral  days  nr 
a  week.  When  convalt\scenc(j  is  vstublixhed,  arseniu 
la  three-grain  doaen  and  iron  in  one-dram  doscii  may 
be  given  in  the  feed.  When  the  symptoms  havo 
disappeare'l,  potiuwium  iwlid  in  one-half-drnm  doRett 
twiiTc  daily  Kliuuld  liv  piven  f«r  a  wewk,  to  aid  in  the 
completw  absoriftion  of  thy  inllaminatory  exudate. 

AlNHcesM;*  {poll  evit.JiMiUa,  etc.). 

.\b8cesses  are  wcll-delinod  collections  of  pus. 
Thoy  are  characterized  hy  the  fact  that  they 
increase  in  sim  sltjwly,  ahcvw  Bvmptonis  nf  acute 
inflammation,  are  firm  to  the  touch,  iilthoR^b  Later 
they  may  nhnw  fluctuation.  They  fnlliiw  as  the 
result  (if  Io<'aI  inflaminatiiin  in  glandit,  muscular 
tissue,  or  evuii  bonex.  Thuy  aru  v*?ry  common  in 
the  first  two  tases.  The  abscf^twes  moint  commonly 
met  with  in  horsts  are  those  of  the  poll  [poll  eril), 
the  withem  ijitluh)  and  the  glands  which  occur 
during  the  existence  of  slranrfUx  or  e»h  distemper. 
At  first  the  swidling  \»  uniformly  ban!  and  reBwt- 
ing  over  its  entire  purfare,  hut  in  a  little  while 
becomeaaoft  — fluctuatiug— at  soma  part,  mostly  in 
the  center.  From  this  time,  the  absceiw  ia  said  tn 
be  "pointing"  or  "coming  to  a  head,"  which  \a 
shown  by  a  small  elevated  or  projecting  promi- 
nence, which  at 
first  ia  dry,  but 
aoon  lieciimea 
moist  with 
transuded  se- 
rum. The  hairs 
over  this  part 
loosen  and  fall 
otf,  and  in  a 
short  time  the 
absre.is  npens, 
the  contents 
oacaiit',  and  the 
cavity  gradually  fillti  up,  and  heals  hy  granulations, 
7Vf«V»i<'rer  — Ah*cc«*i.'s  in  muscular  tisane,  such 
H  poll  evil  and  li-stula  of  the  withers  (Pig.  452), 
are  usually  the  result  of  bruises  or  injuries.  In  all 
cases  when  jibscejwes  are  forming,  we  sJuiuld  hurry 
the  ripening  process  by  frequent  hot  fumentatiunn 
and  poultiuea  of  bn-ad,  bran,  or  flaxseed.  When 
they  are  very  tardy  in  their  development,  a  blister 
composed  of  one  part  of  cantharide-^  and  ten  parts 
of  vaseline,  rubljed  over  their  surface.  i»  advisable. 
It  is  a  common  rule  with  surgeons  to  open  an 
abscen  aa  sonn  a.i  pus  can  l>t^  phunly  felt,  hut  this 
practice  ran  not  he  recommended  to  owners  uf 
stock  indiscriminately,  since  thia  operation  requires 
an  exact  knowledge  of  anatomy.  This  is  imperative 
if  the  abscess  is  in  the  region  of  joints.  When 
Open,  wo  muat  not  sfjueew  the  walla  of  the  absce-'w 
to  any  extent.  They  may  be  very  gently  jires-sed 
with  the  finger*  at  first  to  remove  the  clotn  (in- 


FIC-  *it-     Piitulona  wilbera. 


spiasattd  ^),  hut  after  this  the  ori&oe  is  simply  tv^ 
be  kept  open  by  the  introduction  of  a  clean  probe, 
should  it  DO  disposed  to  heal  too  sutm.  If  the  open- 
ing ia  at  too  high  a  level,  another  sliouid  be  made 
into  the  lowest  part  of  the  abucess  so  a^  to  pi>rmit 
the  most  complete  drainage.    Hot  fomontations  or 


SI/. 


l-'-r 


V 


Pic  4SS.  Tbs  4ppeauDoe  al  boti  In  aWinacli  «f  hoTM.  tProm 
I>l«cftB«ii  uf  the  tlursi-.  (.'.  .S.  li'^f''  AkHc,) 

poulticea  are  aometimes  require^I  for  a  day  or  two 
after  an  abectwa  has  opened,  and  are  particularly 
indicated  when  the  bai«e  of  the  absceM  is  hard  and 
indunitwl,  The  cavity  should  be  thorougly  washed 
with  stimulating  antiai'ptic  solutions,  each  as  3  per 
Cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  3  to  5  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  eriiolin,  I  to  I.LKtO  bichlohd  of  mercury,  or 
1  per  cent  permanganate  of  potaah  solution.  If  the 
ahiicossea  are  foul  and  had  smelling,  their  cavities 
should  be  syringed  with  one  pjirt  of  hydn>gen 
peroxid  tn  tun  parts  of  water,  followed  by  the 
injection  of  any  of  the  above-mentioned  antiacptics. 

Uoii.  (Fig.  4n:j.) 

Bota  are  the  larva?  of  the  bot-fly.  a  heavy-bodied 
hairy  insect.  The  larvie  are  thick,  fliwhy  grubs  liv- 
ing practically  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  norae*.  The 
injury  to  the  horse  fmrn  the  jireaence  of  the  larv» 
may  Uikfi  one  or  all  i^f  four  forms  :  (1)  The  attach- 
ment to  the  walls  of  the  stomach  may  cause  ao 
irritation  which  may  interfere  with  the  normal 
action  of  the  glands  that  secrete  digwitlve  juice*; 
U)  the  bota  abstract  some  nutriment  from  the 
walls  of  the  sti>m:t<;h,  or  by  absorption  fn>ra  the 
feml  content  of  the  organ  ;  (S)  by  collecting,  par- 
ticniarly  in  the  region  of  the  pylorus  (opening  of 
the  fit«maeh  into  the  intostino),  they  serve  as  an 
oliatrucliori  to  the  free  paasage  of  food  from  the 
stomach  into  the  intestine  :  (4)  in  passing  through 
the  intestine  after  they  have  released  Iheirhold  on 
the  waibi  of  the  stomach,  they  may  attach  them- 
selves to  the  intestinal  wall  or  rectal  walls  snd 
cause  great  irritatiim. 

The  euga  are  deposited  in  the  hair,  usually  of 
the  front  legm  and  chest  of  a  honte,  and  are  held 
there  by  a  sticky  fluid,  which  quickly  driee  and 
glues  them  firmly  in  place.  The  eggs  are  taken 
into  the  horse's  mouth  by  licking,  and  if  so  taken 
between  the  tenth  and  thirteenth  day  after  the 
dejHutition,  will  de%'elopinto  the  bot  in  the  animal's 
stoinach. 

Trfclment.—'&y  fur  the  most  important  point  is 


HOBSB 


HORSE 


to  prevent  the  introduption  nf  thclarvrp.  The  epgs 
ar<>  v{>ry  plainly  neen  nn  the  hair,  am]  it  i»  evident 
thill  if  thi-y  are  removi'd  Wforo  th«  Imitli  <lav  (ut 
which  tiitiij  they  hy^in  to  hatfh)  the  animal  can- 
not m;t  hrtls.  Ejijjrt  may  b«j  rejnovwl  in  at-Vi-ral 
wftys :  by  washing  the  huir  in  a  diluto  carbolic 
acid  solutinn,  onct  part  acid  tn  thirty  part6  of 
water,  hy  ruhliing  the  parts  lightly  with  kerosene, 
or  by  clipping.  H«rses  paitturcd  in  July,  Aupwt 
and  Septi>niber  tthuuld  be  examJni'd  wvery  three  or 
fuur  days,  and  if  tho  eggft  are  preeunt  they  should 
be  removud. 

It  i«,  of  course-,  not  an  caay  matter  to  determine 
whether  any  particular  dit^turbnnce  of  thediReative 
organs  in  pr<K(Mcwi  by  hnU  or  hy  aotne  other  agency 
prodacinj;  (^imiL-ir  Bymptomtt.  If  oc(^»8iimal  IhiLs  art! 
nottceil  in  the  iiiiiciurti  of  the  animal,  l<i^lher  with 
ptior  conilitiim,  their  preaence  in  numtiers  in  to  be 
aiiapeclwi.  The  animal  ahould  then  be  starved  for 
twelve  hours,  allowing  only  water,  after  which 
RJFw  two  tefispoonfuls  of  tartar  emetic  in  water  as 
a  drench.  Repeat  in  four  hoars'  time.  Eight  or 
twelve  hours  afU^rwanl  give  a  drynch  of  one  pint 
tu  one  quart  of  linseed  oil. 

H'onni  (^jcartdw,  round  leortju). 

These  worms  aro  found  in  all  domestic  animals. 
The  ronnd  worm  of  the  horso  (AiKaritt  me^atoeejA- 
aia)  in  almut  five  toaix  inches  in  length  by  one* 
fourth  inch  in  thickntssH,  and  white  in  color.  It 
in  easily  detected  in  the  fecett,  itii  presence  in  which 
is  the  oniy  surt*  sign. 

Treatment. — For  the  horac,  tnrtnr  emetic  Ifl  rec- 
ommended in  two-dram  dosi's  every  four  hours  until 
three  doees  are  given,  care  b«ing  taken  to  starve 
the  animal  twelve  tn  eighteen  hf>nrH  before  admin- 
istering, and  t<f  follow  it  in  three  or  four  hnunt 
with  one*  and  one-fourth  pints  of 
linaoed-oil. 

Capped  elbow  or  hock. 

The*;-  conditions  arc  some- 
wh:it  similar  in  their  nature, 
although  capped  elbow  is  the 
mor*^  common  and  more  sieriouR 
condition.  It  in  cauwd  by  re- 
peated mild  injuries  from  lying 
on  an  unbedded  floor  or  by  lying 
with  the  shod  hoof  hent  undor 
the  b«;<ly  no  that  the  shoe  comes 
in  (lontjict  with  the  ellMiw. 
(?jip]>c»d  hock  result*  from  .-itrik- 
ing  the  point  by  kicking  back- 
wards against  the  side  of  the 
stall  nr  other  hard  object.  (Fig. 
4/vi.)  The  severity  of  the  con- 
dition may  vary  from  a  slight 
inHammatinn  with  edema  to  cyst 
development,  or  absot^iti  forma- 
tion, and  even  organization  of  the  inflammatory 
ex«d.ite  with  the  presence  of  a  large  fihrona  tumor 
on  the  ellmw,  commonly  called  a  shoe  boil,  tn 
somo  ciuH^»  thette  Hhue  bails  may  reach  the  siie  of 
a  child'.s  head,  and  may  b«  very  firm  and  hard  or 
soft  and  tiabhy. 


Pit.  AS*. 
Qippm  botk. 


Th-eatmenl. — In  thu  early  stagfts,  the  main  object 
is  to  prevent  recurrenee  of  tho  irritation.  To 
necuitipliiih  this  in  ea|ii>ed  hoek,  tho  animal  should 
bo  placed  in  a  large  stall  with  the  sides  and  gioAta 
well  paiMoi.  In  cupped  elbow  the  hranches  of  the 
shoett  should  he  shortened  and  their  euda  bevelled 
forward,  and  a  hwl  boot  should  be  worn  while  in 
thtt  stabUi.  The  stall  Khtmld  also  be  well  bedded, 
and  a  dirt  floor  is  better  than  boards  or  cement. 
When  a  cyst  containing  a  surous  fluid  is  present, 
it  should  be  at^piraled  with  a  sterile  syringe  or 
drained  off  with  a  sterile  tnicar.  If  pun  ifl  in  the 
sac,  it  niiu<t  I>e  opened  with  a  free  incision  in  thk> 
mmit  dependent  part  and  wiushed  out  with  hydrogen 
jieroxid  diliitfd  half  with  water,  or  S  to  fi  per  cent 
creolin  solution.  .Stimulating  linim'unts  and  even 
blisters,  in  the  subacute  eaHint  without  \>m  formii- 
tion,  may  oauiM  a  ri-jiulution  and  absorption  of  the 
inhanimatory  productH.  In  the  old  standing  ciu^es 
with  the  pro-senco  of  a  fibrous  tumor,  the  only 
treiitment  is  the  surgical  re- 
moval of  the  masa.  The  condi- 
tion may  last  for  yeam,  however, 
without  nxlucing  the  working 
capacity  of  the  animal. 

Curb. 

Curb  is  an  unsoandnoss  in  the 
horse  sometimes  leading  to  la.me- 
neiw.  It  ia  caused  hy  a  rupture 
of  tin?  ligament  on  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  hock.  (Fig.  4!j5.) 
Tho  inciting  causes  consiBt  in  n 
defective  conformation  of  the 
leg,  and  in  sudden  strains  dur- 
ing heavy  draft  work  or  under 
the  saddle.  In  re<'ent  cases  there 
is  some  swelling  and  heat  about 

Lheporttiiriursurfaceof  thehock,      ,„  .wfll^f'-^rt. 
.   '    ,  ,.  .   .    '      ui  1D0W1BK  cart. 

With   lameness.    Cm  examming 

the  hock  joint  in  profile,  the  leg,  which  normally 

should  he  perfectly  Htniight,  shows  a  bulging  buclt- 

ward  below  the  point  of  the  hock.    A  well-marked 

curb  may  be  present  and  cause  alight  or  no  lamo- 

ne.Hs. 

Trratmnt. — Thia  alms  to  remove  the  lameness 
but  cannot  remedy  the  btemidli.  In  the  early 
stages,  when  there  is  heat  and  edema  about  the 
part,  showing  the  pre.sence  of  ^n  &cvt4>  inflamma- 
tion, cold  water  should  l»e  applied  for  ten  or 
twelve  hours  daily  from  a  niblier  hose,  which  is 
connected  with  a  faucet  piiuwc*!  over  the  back  of 
the  animal  and  ticil  to  the  leg  by  luptti.  If  lame- 
ness pentista  after  about  a  week,  a  blister  of  bini- 
odid  of  mercury  one  part  t«  vaaeHnc  eight  partjs 
should  be  applied  and  the  animal  allowed  to  rest 
in  the  stable  for  two  to  four  weeks.  In  the  great 
majority  of  caseii,  this  will  effect  a  cure.  A  cer- 
tain |M>n>entage  of  caAeti,  however,  are  obatinate 
and  n.v)uire  point-  or  line-6ring.  which  mast  b« 
administered  by  a  veterinarian. 

CartUaginoiu  qvittor. 

This  is  a  chronic  snppumtive  inHammalion  of 
the  lateral  cartilage  leading  to  necmsis  and  the 


444 


HORSE 


HOHSE 


V/ 


8 


u 


u 


13 


26 


UuMle*  in  the  normal  lee 
of  &  borie.  1,  M.  *•>' 
pnt- uplnuitni;  2,  M.  In- 
frft  *piualii>.  3.  M.  ilfl' 
t«lll^a■:  \.  IcrvK  hi-nd  uf 
hi.  trlrt'p*:  C.  iHrpntI 
hnHd  (>t  M.  lrir?ii>^   6.  U. 

bieetMi  T.  M.  iieruu- 
eLsMo  mkdoMpiis;  8.  M. 
bnMh1allitlii|i>rni»i  II,  M. 
MtMiaar  r»n>t  rftillKlln: 
10.  U.  •sinnuir  illtlin- 
rum  «i>inniunl*i  II,  M. 
vxtafiior  enryA  alnniiR: 
I'J.  U  rxtrnxir  dl|[ltl 
mtnlmii  1^.  M.  BbduPinr 
|Mil1l>-l>  Innicnii  l(.  prill- 
rlplU   1eriili>n   of    111*    M. 

•xtdiaot  'Miniomni  com- 
mnniii  ts.0liniui>sliraih: 
IS,  t«ndoD  of  M.  «i(C[t- 
iHir  cnrpl  ndiiJb^  IT, 
itnall  Inlrrnl  tnnilnn  of 
M.  FXti-tiior  dlitH-ruiii 
piitaim»iil»!  IS,  tpiwIoiL  I'f 
M.eitcntiiiTr>jiriiiuliijtrl(; 
IP,  M.  Hvxur  iliirltvnitii 
■utillmU;  30.  rlniur  diui- 
lonm  prafniMliKi  31.  Iti- 
tonMleoB  WMlllUi  'tl,  *%■ 
tMiaor  illKltt  Bilnlmli  23, 
lal«rBl  tuirl  af  Inlom*- 
Moa  lucdlui.  (Ari«T  Kl- 
tmb«ra»<r.) 


formation  of  dbscharjiinR 
BJRUB^^'S.  It  is  most  often 
8L-fn  in  the  front  feet  of 
hetivy  draft  horw*),  an<i 
es[jecially  in  aniniHlK  thnt 
hjive  Hat  htiofs  with  low 
(luartera  ami  \wv\».  Tlw 
I'xcitinji  caufit-sof  quitt^^ir 
arc;  cornft,  dwj)  quarter 
cracks,  or  tread  wounds 
and  other  influmniatory 
conditions  which  allow 
the  pntrance  *A  jnicrocir- 
ganisms. 

There  iw  first  noticed  a 
swelHn^  and  inHammu- 
tion  in  the  reKion  of  th« 
quart*!rs,  extonding  up- 
wards above  the  hoof. 
This  increases  until 
finally  pBS  iH  fnrmed  and 
bn'.nks  outward  Ihrouj^h 
the  etk i n .  In  old  casts, 
several  n|icnini£t«  may  bo 
present,  toiiether  with 
Bears  of  old  sinuBe.s  thjit 
have  healed.  The  horny 
hoof  is  bulged  outward 
and  there  may  be  lame- 
ness, although  this  is  not 
a  mnrkeii  symptom,  and 
th«  animal  is  frequently 
at>le  to  continue  at  slow 
work.  The  course  of  the 
disease  '\»  chronic  and  fre- 
quently cover.i  several 
monttui.  There  is  danger 
of  Herioua  complications 
arising. 

Trtatment. —  In  the 
treatment  of  this  condi- 
tion, a  great  variety  of 
remedies  have  heen  tried. 
Soaking  tht;  foot  in  u  tub 
containing  1  ],«yrcentcre- 
olin  scdiition  ia  valuable. 
When  the  animal  is  work- 
ing daily,  injections  of 
antiseptic  solutions  and 
protecting  the  part  with 
bandages  shoald  be  tried. 
This  in  addition  to  the 
careful  injection  once 
e.wh  week  of  a  small 
quantity  of  a  saturated 
aqueous  solution  of  bi- 
chlorifi  of  mercury. 
thnmph  a  syringe  with 
a  narrow  nozzle  that 
reaches  to  the  bottom  of 
the  ainns,  is  very  good 
treatment  In  severe 
cases  the  condition  can  be 
pennanently  cured  in  a 
comparatively  ahorb  time 


by   the  operative  removal  of  the  entire 
cartilagii. 

Scraffket. 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  skin  in  the  hollow 
of  the  fetUwk.  of  various  degrees  of  intensity, 
.^mong  the  common  raattesmay  be  mentioned  t<tand- 
ing  in  manure  and  urine,  too  froi)uent  washing  of 
the  skin  with  irritating  soapB,  working  in  stubble 
fields,  alkali  dust,  salt  from  the  car  tracks  in  win- 
ter during  snowy  and  icy  weather,  and  bacteria. 
It  is  most  common  on  white-footed  animals.  There 
may  be  a  mere  reddening  of  the  skin,  or  the  skin 
may  contain  transverse  fisstires  that  gap  on  ex- 
tension  of  the  part  in  walking.  Tn  more  nevere 
cases,  w.'irty  (Excrescences  may  form  around  the  bor- 
ders uf  ihe  fisaurea  and  project  above  the  surface, 
and  rarely  the  condition  may  go  on  to  gangrene. 
The  skin  is  thickened,  thrown  into  transverse  folds 
and  tender  to  pressure. 

Trfitmenl.—Th^  first  essential  in  the  treatment 
of  the  condition  is  to  remove  the  cau-se.  The  ani- 
mal should  stand  in  a  clean,  dry  stall,  and  all  long 
hair  should  be  cut  away  from  the  hollow  of  the 
fetlock.  The  parts  should  then  be  washed  clean 
with  castilij  soap  and  warm  water  and  thoroughly 
dried.  Frt*quent  waithings  delay  the  healing  pro- 
cess. If  any  warty  outgrowths  are  present,  they 
should  be  snipped  off  with  the  scUsor^i  or  removed 
with  the  hot  iron.  In  the  milder  cases,  astringent 
powders  may  Ik?  applieil,  a-s  tannic  acid  or  ociual 
partit  of  zinc  oxid  and  boric  acid.  In  the  more 
Hevere  cases,  ointments  arc  more  valuable,  as  10 
per  cent  ichthyol  ointment  or  wet  astringent  dress- 
ings, as  Burrough'g  lotion.  The  latter  is  compcwed 
of  alum  yO  grams,  lead  acetate  24  granw,  spirits 
of  camphor  60  cc.  and  water  in  suffir.ient  quantity 
to  make  500  cc.  The  part^  ahould  be  dressed  twice 
daily  in  severe  coses. 

Fvunder. 

Founder  is  an  inflammation  of  the  soft  structure, 
especially  the  fleshy  leaves,  enclosed  within  ihe 
horny  hoof,  accompanied  with  constitutional  dis- 
turbances, and  frequently  leading  tc  marke<l  ana- 
tomical changes  in  the  sCnictureH  of  the  foot.  The 
canse^  of  this  diiicasc  are  imperfectly  understood, 
C'oncutHion,  excessive  ingestion  of  certain  grains, 
long  drive**,  standing  in  unprotected  places,  or 
drinking  cold  water  while  the  body  is  overhe:ited. 
are  all  considered  causes.  Long  standing  on  one 
foot  when  the  opposite  one  is  diseased,  frequently 
leads  to  the  development  of  founder.  The  condition 
is  mure  common  in  the  front  feet,  although  all  four 
may  be  affected. 

The  disease  is  of  sudden  oa^ict,  with  fever  fmm 
102.0"  to  UKl'  Fahr.,  rapid  respiration,  increased 

fulse  rate,  and  intense  pain  in  the  affected  feet. 
ndeed,  the  pain  is  so  great  thnt  the  animal  cannot 
be  moved  out  of  the  stall  or  made  to  walk,  nor  can 
one  foot  be  r3i.'4ed  from  the  ground  if  the  nppoislte 
one  is  affected  ;  and  great  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  getting  the  shoes  removed.  The  animal  stands 
with  the  hind-feet  well  under  the  body  to  relieve 
weight  from  the  affected  fore-feet.  Marked  throb- 


HORSE 


HORSE 


446 


Itinj;  uf  ih<-  artery  aloDg  th«  inaido  of  the  eanuon- 
bon«  h  pT'^AKnl.  On  tapping  the  wall  of  the  hoof 
with  u  hinnmt-r,  extreme  pain  is  prwlucedr  aa  shown 
by  flinching  anrf  tremor  of  the  nuisrlwL 

Trmtnwnt. — When  the   comlition   id  retogniied 
within  the  first  twenty-four  hour!)  of  the  attack. 


J»> 


I 


We.  4ST.    Shod  and  UMtiiK]:  biMU  In  fouDder.    (I'tirt.  «H,  t.U, 
*b'.  VM,  alivr  M»ller-Iii»tlnr  ) 

■hleetlinjT  is  hijchly  rticammendt"d,  and  six  quarts  of 
Wnwi  should  he  drawn  from  the  larRO  vein  in  the 
neck.  The  object  of  this  measure  is  to  lower  blood 
pressure.  The  internal  ad  mi  nist  ration  nf  tincture 
ofaconit*  in  ten-ttrop  doHeH  every  twii  hours  during; 
the  firatday,  will  have  the  same  efft'ct.  Ijixsally, 
cold  iihijahl  be  applk-d  to  the  alTiwt^d  ft^et,  by 
allowin);  tb>i-'  aainml  to  stand  in  a  aoaking-tub,  or, 
preferably,  in  a  puddle  of  soft  clay,  the  water  of 
which  is  kept  cold  by  the  addition  of  ice.  !ntem.il!y, 
two-ounce  dixies  of  saltpeter  in  a  pint  of  water 
should  be  given  three  times  daily,  for  a  jieriod  of  a 
week.  In  thrwe  caseH  which  fail  to  respond  to  tniiit- 
ment,  and  the  anatumical  changes  occur  in  the 
stnicture  nf  the  foot,  the  hoof  will  bo  deformt-d 
(Fiji.  4'57),  and  we  can  only  hope  to  make  the  ani- 
mal ufteful  for  slow  work,  by  properly  dressing  and 
shoeing  the  hoof. 

Paietrating  nail. 

Thin  condition  ]$  &  not  uncommon  accident, 
especially  in  city  horsee.  The  nail  usually  pene- 
trale»  the  point  or  lateral  cleft  of  the  frog  and 
may  piisa  deeply  into  the  soft  gtructurcJ!.  The 
accident  should  always  he  con.tiderwi  serious,  as  it 
may  lead  to  lockjaw  nr  suppur.ilion  and  necrosis  of 
the  soft  structure  within  the  horny  hoof. 

7Vcii/i7i*'n/.  — The  nail  should  be  removed  if  it 
ift  found  in  the  wound.  The  horny  sole  or  frog 
should  b«  carefully  cut  down  to  the  soft  tiawtie 
for  a  distance  of  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  on  alt 
sides  of  the  puncture.  The  hole  formed  by  the  nail 
should  then  be  treated  with  some  antiseptic  solu- 
tion, u  5  per  cent  creolin  or  carholic  acid  solu- 
tion or  tincture  of  iodine.  In  the;  absence  of  these, 
turpentine  may  be  used.  The  animal  should  then 
be  made  to  Mnnd  in  a  soaking-tuh.  containing  1 
per  cent  creolin  soEution.  for  several  days.  If  this 
IS  not  posaible,  a  wet  antiseptic  poultice  should  be 
tied  over  the  hoof.  This  can  l>e  made  of  bran, 
saturated  with  a  3  per  cent  creolin  solution  and 
kept  moidt  by  atlding  more  of  the  solution  from 
timv  to  time.  This  nhould  Iks  kept  in  place  and 
changed  daily  until  all  lameness  and  ditcharge 
from  the  wound  ceases. 

Bonf  rparin. 

This  term  is  applied  to  any  bony  cnlsrgemeDt 

around  th«  hock,  the  usual  seat  being  on  the  inner 


and  inferior  surface  of  the  joint.  It  ia  the  result 
chiefly  of  defective  conformation,  heredity,  hard 
work,  slipping  and  sprains  of  the  hock  joint. 

Spavin  ia  a  very  prevalent  condition  and  is  the 
moHt  cnmrnun  cauHe  of  InmenesK  in  the  hind-teg.  It 
is  usually  gradual  in  its  oiixet.  The  lamfnesF  is 
Homewhat  characteristic,  in  that  it  is  muKt  markeil 
when  the  animal  i^  ftrst  brought  out  uf  the  stable 
and  disappears  on  warming  up.  The  animal  brings 
the  too  down  first,  and  this  part  of  thi?  shoe  shows 
greatest  wear  while  the  heels  of  the  hoof  tend  to 
become  high  and  stubby.  The  lameness  is  inten- 
silied  by  the  spavin  test,  which  ron-iistA  in  h'l'lding 
the  ho{'.k  joint  stningly  flexed  for  three  minuter  and 
then  starting  the  animal  off  Huddenly.  TIik  ]KiHitive 
proof  of  (ipuvin  conaiaia  in  the  presence  uf  a  bony 
enlargement,  usually  on  the  inside,  low  down  on 
the  hock  joint.  White  spavin  may  be  sufpeeted,  it 
is  doubtful  whether  a  diagnosis  should  be  made 
before  the  bony  enlargement 
can  be  recognizerl.  (Fig.  'ISS.) 
In  occuil  spavin,  where  the  in- 
flammation in  within  the  joint, 
thid  i^nlargement  does  not  ap- 
pear until  late. 

rrra^nffi/.— This  cannot  re- 
move the  Iwny  growth  entirely 
but  may  be  successful  in  remov- 
ing the  lamenettit.  In  shoeing 
the  animal  the  heels  should  he 
simn^l,  th(j  toe  abortene«l  and 
the  shoe  should  have  heel-calka. 
Four  to  six  weeks'  rest  with 
repest.e^^  hli-sters  may  give  tem- 
porary relief.  The  most  success- 
ful treatment,  however,  reijuires 
the  aatiiitance  of  a  veUirinarian, 
and  consists  in  the  combina- 
tion of  catting  the  cunean  ten- 
don in  conjunction  with  pene- 
trant point-firing.  This  hastens  the  welding  or 
ackilosis  of  the  articular  surfaces  of  the  inflamed 
hone.1.  the  movement  of  which  is  the  direct  canse 
of  the  pain  and  lamene.4S. 

Rinffboiu. 

This  term  is  applied  to  any  new  bony  growth 
on  the  phalangeal  hones.  It  is  most  common  in 
the  front  leg  and  on  the  lower  end  of  the  long 
pastern  or  upper  end  of  the  short  pastern.  The 
causes  are  both  internal  and  external.  The  In- 
ternal causes  are  predisposing  and  consist  in 
abnormal  directions  of  the  phalanges,  improper 
drc-wing  of  the  hoof  ami  here<lity.  The  e-xciting 
causes  arc  hard  work  early  in  life,  fast  driving  on 
hard  roads,  missteps,  strains  and  deep  tread 
wounds. 

The  onset  is  gradual.  Lameness  develops  gradu- 
ally or  may  come  on  suddenly  after  stumbling  or  a 
strain.  It  is  made  worse  by  fast  worlt  on  hard 
roads.  At  rest  the  animal  "points."  There  is  local 
heat,  swelling  and  pain  on  pHssiv©  rotation  of  the 
foot  in  some  eases.  The  mcwt  important  symptom 
is  the  presence  of  a  bony  enlargement  about  the 
joint  (Kig.  459),  and  when  this  is  absent,  as  it  may 


PUt.  <S8. 
LtK  ftbowUc  9p«rli. 


i 


lORSB 


HORSE 


be  in  early  artttinlar  ringbone,  the  diatn^ostg  is 
difficolt.  A  large  ringbone  may  be  present,  on  the 
other  hand,  without  causing  lameneHs. 

TVcrt/mf n/.— The  foot  alioulil  be  prnperly  dresBed 
and  shod.  If  laniL-ness  is  marked,  prolonged  ru^t  and 
repeated  mercurial  bliateni 
(one  part  of  biniodid  of  mer- 
cpry  to  eight  of  vaseline) 
should  be  applied.  If  this 
is  unauccessful,  deep  pene- 
trant point-firing  should  be 
done  by  an  expert  veteri- 
narian to  produce  a  welding 
of  the  articular  Burfaces 
and  thus  prevent  movement 
which  causes  the  pain.  As 
a  last  resort  in  this  diaeace, 
double  plantar  neurectomy 
baa  to  be  performed,  for  the 
animal  to  be  able  to  work. 


PlB.    4Sg.     lAX    kbOwLniE 

tlDsbone  at  left;    at 
itjtbt,  norBU]  Ire. 


Splint. 

Tliifi  is  a  very  common 
condition  in  the  hor.'ie,  pni- 
duced  by  the  deposit  of  new  l>one  between  the  can- 
non and  rudimuDtary  metatareial  or  tsptint  litmeJ^. 
Ita  most  common  seat  ia  on  the  inside  of  the  front 
leg.  due  to  the  auatomiiial  arrani^emetit  of  tbi^ 
region,  which  Bubj^cts  the  internal  splint  bono  to 
more  pres.'iure  than  the  external  one.  External 
injuries  may  rarely  l>e  a  cause.  The  condition 
generally  occurs  befnro  the  fourth  year  of  age, 
at  which  tlmi>  theAplInt  biineit  become  welded  to 
the  cannon  bone  by  oftsificntion.  The  new  bony 
growth  may  sumetimi-a  W  win,  and  can  ulwavs  he 
readily  felt  by  running  the  finjiera  along  the  "front 
of  the  internal  splint  bone  at  its  junction  with  the 
cannon.  The  normal  button-shaped  termination  of 
the  aplint  Lone  in  the  lower  one-lhird  of  the  can- 
non should  not  be  miiftaken  for  a  splint. 

In  a  flmall  percc-ntage  of  cases  BpltntB  lead  to 
temporary  or  obstinate  lamenoss.  The  lameness 
becomes  apparent  after  spL-eding  on  a  hard  road, 
and  the  animal  will  rest  out  of  the  lameness.  Pres- 
sure over  the  splint  will  cause  the  animal  to  (Itnch. 
The  akin  will  show  an  increase  of  temperature  at 
thia  point  and  there  may  be  some  edema. 

Trtattncsif. — Only  thone  ca^es  cunning  lamcneiui 
should  be  trentHf],  as  the  Lileroii«h  cauiii^  by  the 
new  bone  fonnalion  cannot  be  benefited.  In  the 
early  et.-igei«,  whun  the  inflammation  is  acute,  cold 
water  should  be  allowii]  to  run  over  the  part  for 
Several  hours  each  day  for  a  week.  The  hair 
flhoald  then  he  c)tp|ied  short  and  a  idister,  consist- 
ing of  biniodid  of  mercury  one  dram  to  one  ounce  of 
?itrulaturo,  applied  and  rubbiHl  well  into  the  part, 
he  animal  should  have  tbre«  or  four  weeks'  rest  in 
the  stable.  In  more  severe  cases.  |>oint-firing  over 
the  bony  growth  will  be  re<juired  to  effect  a  cure. 
A  veterinarian  should  be  employt-d  for  the  latter. 
Many  eaA«A  will  get  well  in  time  without  treatment. 

LUmturt. 

In  addition  to  the  references  mcntioni?d  on  pages 
124-I4(i  and  3.10,  regarding  the  diseases  and  ail- 


ments of  live-stock,  reference  is  here  made  to  the 
foilowing  works:  Law,  The  Farmer's  Veterinary 
Adviiter  USBH);  Special  Report  on  Diseaaea  of  tlie 
ilor&e,  revised  edition,  United  States  Department 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (l&OO); 
Holler  and  Dollar,  The  Practice  of  Veterinarv  Snr- 
gery  (li)03):  Fleming,  A  Textbook  of  Operative 
Veterinary  Surgery  (ISH-lf;  Williams,  the  I'rinci- 
ples  of  the  Practice  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  revised 
edition  (18901;  Williams.  The  Principlea  of  the  Prac- 
tice of  Veterinary  Surgery,  revised  edition  (1890); 
Hopkins,  Veterinary  Elemeuta  (19Ul). 

Arab  Horae.    Fig.  4G0. 

By  Homo-  Davenport. 

The  Arab  horse  is  notable  as  a  saddler,  and  to 
impart  vigor,  quality  and  intelligence  in  croes- 
breeding.  His  blood  has  been  prominent  in  the 
development  of  the  Perchernn,  Hackney,  Thorough- 
bpwl,  Russian  Orloff ,  Triccanoy,  Hanoverian,  PVench 
and  Gurnian  cavalry  horses,  the  coach  horse,  [kjIo 
ponies;  in  fact,  a  large  proportion  of  our  present- 
day  types  arc  more  or  less  traceable  to  the  tnflaenco 
of  the  Arabian  horse. 

ftfucrifttum. 

The  Arabian  in  his  purity  Is  a  hcirae  of  high 
courage,  putwessiag  length,  power  and  substance, 
combined  with  elafltic  and  graceful  movement  He 
is  gentle  and  affectionate.  He  seems  to  have  no 
fear  of  anything,  even  man,  a  trait  shown  particu- 
larly in  young  colts.  In  his  native  country  be 
Dtands  closer  to  fourteen  handts  and  two  inches 
than  any  other  height ;  but  bin  size  is  merely  a 
niaLler  of  the  feed  given  him  when  he  is  a  colt,  as 
is  sh<»wn  by  the  fact  that  among  the  Gomussa  tribe 
of  the  SahUa  Anazeh,  who  pay  better  attention  to 
their  horvies  than  do  others,  we  tind  colts  at  two 
years  old  standing  lifl^en  hands  high  ;  and  at  the 
Circassian  villages  up  the  Euphrates,  where  even 
better  care  of  the  live-stock  is  taken  than  by  any 
of  the  Bedouins,  we  find  the  Arab  horm  much 
advanced  in  size. 

There  is  a  peculiiu*  balance  and  harmony  through- 
out the  fr.'tnie  of  the  Arab.  The  beauty  of  head, 
Mrs,  eyi'S,  jaws,  mouth  and  nostrils  is  noteworthy. 
The  ear»  are  not  ttmall,  but  are  so  shaped  that 
they  apiwar  smalt ;  the  head  is  short  from  the  eye 
to  the  muzzle,  broad  and  well-developed  above ; 
the  eye  is  soft  and  intelligent ;  the  nostrils  arc 
long  and  appear  puckered,  drawn  buck  up  the  face, 
and  arc  capable  of  gre.it  distention  ;  the  neck  is  a 
model  of  strength  and  praiidenr.  of  which  he  can 
make  a  jwrfvct  arch,  that  matches  the  arch  of  his 
tail.  The  throat  is  large  and  well  d^^relope^  ;  it  is 
loose  and  pliant  when  at  rest,  and  much  detached 
from  the  rest  of  the  neck.  This  feature  is  not  often 
noticed,  but  it  is  Indicative  not  only  of  good  wind, 
but  of  the  rapacity  for  prolonged  exertion  witfaont 
distress,  owing  to  the  great  width  between  the 
jaws.  The  shoulder  is  good,  as  is  the  deep  chest, 
tbt'  appearance  of  which  is  diminiiihed  hy  the  big, 
deep  ril)S :  the  bacJc  is  short,  the  loins  of  immense 
power,  and  the  qnarten  long  and  strong,  Uiewhol^ 


HORSE 


nORSE 


447 


brntifally  tnrned.  The  legs  and  feet  are  saperior. 
The  two  ^eat  features,  pflssiMy,  that  a  Htronger 
woul'J  notice  firsl  id  the  Amb  hor^e,  ar^  the  fore- 
heail,  or  jihhnh.  which  cannot  be  too  prominent, 
givinj;  a  peculiar  dish  to  the  lower  part  of  the  face, 
and  the  tail,  si't  high  and  carried  in  an  arch.  The 
form  of  the  Arabian   horsa   U  easwntiaily  ono  of 
utility  ;  the  space  for  the  seat  for  the  rider  is  auf- 
fick-nt,  and   at  once  Hxcs  his   true  poeitlon :   the 
weight    13   therefore  carrieit   on    that   part    most 
adapted  for  it.  The  rest  of  the  frame  is  tiken  up 
with  the  powers  of  progrension.   The  color  varies, 
and  may  be  white,  gray,  bay,  chestnut,  brown  and 
rarely  black.   Uoan,  spotted  or  pie- 
bald and  yellow  colors  are  not  found 
among   the  Arabs,  although  roan 
and    yellow   are   common    anionj< 
Barbs.  The  bays  often  have  black 
points,  and  generally  one  or  more 
white  feet,  with  some  white  in  the 
face.   The  cheatnnta  rary  from  the 
brightest  to  the  dullest  shades.  />?l\V* 

Hitlary. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of 
query  as  to  whtTe  the  Arab  horse 
came  from.  It  aeemjH  probable  that 
he  came  originally  from  Mesopo- 
tamia, although  some  writers  hold 
that  his  native  home  was  in  tha  'i 
vicinity  of  Nejd.  According  to  ^ 
Plamb,  the  Arab»  are  descendants 
of  Lithmae],  who.  according  to  tra- 
dition, inherited  a  valuable  horse  .  ,  -tf.,/.. ,. 
of  the  Kuhl  race.  The  Anazth  tribe  .  '^^j^'^'^ 
descended  in  a  direct  line  from  ''  ■^'  ^ 
Lshmael.  through  Sheik  Salaman. 
who  lived  about  1G35  B.  C.  (four  generations  re- 
moved from  Ishmael),  and  who  owned  five  famous 
marea.  From  thirt  ancestry  haH  come  the  purest  and 
best  Arab  horse  blood.  This  race  was  in  existence 
many  centuries  before  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  Arab  horses  were 
brought  to  England,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century 
the  importations  were  numerous.  These  exerted 
conaiderable  influence  on  the  development  of  the 
Thoroughbred  and  the  Hackney. 

In  Ajneriea.—Th^  first  record  we  have  of  the 
Arab  in  America  was  the  importation  of  the  stal- 
lion Ranger,  about  1765.  to  Kew  liondon.  ContL 
Id  1838,  J.  D.  Elliott  importer]  a  number  of  both 
sexes.  The  late  A.  Keene  Richards  brought  them 
to  Georgetown,  Kentucky,  in  IHTjG.  His  plant  was 
making  the  mo^t  rapid  strides  toward  succeiw, 
when  it  vtas  destroyed  by  the  Civil  war.  The  blood 
of  his  horses,  however,  is  found  in  the  preaent  Ken- 
tucky saddle  horses,  six  and  suven  genuratiuiu 
bjck,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  much  of  the 
beaat;  of  that  splendid  animal  today  is  traceable 
to  the  hoTsea  that  .'V.  Keene  Richards  imported.' 
The  next  importation  wa^  the  two  Rtallions  given 
to  General  U.  S.  *^!rant,  by  the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
These  were  of  unknown  familiett,  but  they  sin><) 
many  beautiful  and  useful  hor^tu^. 

A  number  of  .Arabian  horses  were  brought  to  the 


World's  r<dumbiaD  Exi)o*iitiiin  at  Thicjigo,  in  1893. 
Thi!  .Sultiui  was  induced  to  permit  thurte  horaea  to 
come  to  America  for  the  exhibit,  and  through 
mortgage  they  wore  eventually  held.  Nine  were 
bumi-d  to  dejith  in  their  stalls  at  the  Exposition 
by  the  Syrians  that  brought  them,  as  the  outcome 
of  a  wrangle.  From  these  horses,  however,  came 
the  Im'-hI  n'ntilta  from  any  Arab  horses  brought  to 
America.  Most  of  them  were  bought  by  Mr.  Peter 
B.  Bradluy,  of  Hlngham.  Ma*w..  who  cro*«.'d  them 
on  some  of  our  best  breeds,  bcsidi-s  breeding 
them  in  their  purity.  With  a  pure  horsw  of  his 
breeding.  Mr.  Hess,  of  New  York  City,  won  the 


T. -' 


Tit.  Wl.     HftlCb.     A    hampian  Anbian  •t»IItmi. 

only  blue  ribbon  ever  won  over  our  own  types  of 
saddle  hon^efl,  with  an  Arab  in  open  competition. 
Mr.  Bradley  al»o  bred  a  trotter,  two  removes  from 
Arab  blood,  that  trotted  to  a  record  of  2:30  in  the 
sixth  heat  of  his  lirst  race.  He  produced  the  finest 
types  of  polo  ponies  and  accompliahed  much  with 
the  Arab  blood. 

Difirihiiiien. 

The  homo  of  the  Arab  horse,  speaking  of  the 
pure  Arab,  is  the  district  that  is  covered  by  the 
Nomad  .\rahs,  and  is  conflned  to  Arabia  proper  and 
the  Syrian  desert.  In  its  greatest  perfection  it  is 
found"  among  the  Anazeh  and  Shamar  Bedouins, 
occupying  the  territory  east  and  west  along  the 
Euphrates  river;  the  Shamar  on  the  eastern  shore 
and  the  Anaseh  west  of  the  river.  The  latter  make 
a  circuit  of  the  dejtert  annually,  going  from  the 
summer  pastures  near  Aleppo,  in  the  north,  to 
Nfjil.  in  the  south,  in  winlt-r.  They  swing  oast 
past  Bagdad  and  Deyr  on  their  way  north,  and  on 
their  journey  south,  go  west,  brnahing  near  Palmyra 
and  Damascus.  Within  that  circuit  the  home  of  the 
Arabian  hori«e  may  be  aaid  to  lie.  The  haunts  of  the 
pure  Arabian  are  thiise  of  thedwwrt  Bi^ouins,  who 
still  carry  the  lance.  Of  course,  specimens  of  pare 
bloat  can  l>e  found  sonoetime*  at  Heyrout,  and  the 
coast  towns,  but  such  horses  have  been  brought 


HORSE 


HORSE 


there  by  wealthy  citizens.  In  like  manner  they 
have  been  carried  into  northern  Africa,  Persia, 
Turkey,  Hun^^ary,  Germany,  Kraace,  Kiuaia,  Eng- 
lanil  anii  Anii^rica. 

Tht!  adaittahility  of  the  Arab  is  noteworthy. 
Aecust'iiiifJ  naturally  to  the  most  intense  hyat, 
yet  he  tbriv&s  in  the  extreme  cold,  and  the  writer 
has  known  one  tn  winter  perfectly  inthemountainii 
of  Pennsylvania.  His  coat,,  while  line  and  silky  In 
EprinK  anil  i^utnmer.  in  winter  ia  as  thick  as  a 
beaverV,  iinil  hax  an  oniiercnating  of  fur-like  hair. 

TyiKK  and  famiiiiv. 

It  has  bmn  atui^rttxl  that  there  were  two  hreeils 
of  Araltian  horswi,  a  larpe  breed  and  a  small  breed. 
This  is  uiiLnie ;  there  is  but  one  gt^neral  bre»d  of 
Arabian  horses,  of  which  there  aro  many  familturs, 
which  are  different  an^i  distinct  in  many  ways. 
l^Tiile  there  are  nnt  two  distinct  breeds,  there  are 
n  tirst  and  a  >;ec>ond  class.  A  hnri^e,  nr  mare,  a1>ui]t 
whiise  breeding  ihnre  is  the  slight^HMt.  doubt,  is  dis- 
qualified, and  not  called  "chiilihy,"  and  tjitirefore  is 
of  tile  second  class.  The  famiUua  (jrigiiiated  and 
descended  from  some  ^a-at  mnr^.  In  all  easvs  the 
breed  of  the  colt  is  that  of  the  >iam.  and  nut  of  the 
sire  ;  thus,  a  colt,  whose  father  had  been  a  Ham- 
dani  Simri,  and  whose  dam  had  he*in  a  .Seglawieh 
Jedraninh,  wnuld  necessarily  W  a  Seglawi  Jedran. 
The  Bedouins  cmtnt  the  father  little,  so  lonj;  as  he 
in  "chubhy,"  meaning  a  Thurotijrhbrad  that  tlm 
Anazoh  would  breed  from,  but  they  placu  every- 
thinf;  in  the  value  of  the  mother's  blood,  and  of 
her  own  individuality. 

The  GomuKta.  of  the  Sabha  Anazeh,  are  the 
shrewdest  home-breeders  of  the  desert.  They  have 
retained,  in  the  largest  numbers,  specimen.s  nf  the 
five  great  familieK,  which  are  called  the  Khainseh, 
which  means  five.  Tht-y  aU«  have  the  choicest  of 
the  other  families,  which  are  ratt-d  equal  in  point 
of  blood.  The  KKaniseh^  so  the  story  runs,  have 
descended  from  the  five  prc-at  mares,  which,  with 
other  mare.''  of  Sheik  Saliiman,  were  drinking  at 
the  river  after  long  h-irdshiiiB  in  war,  when  the 
trutijpet  blew,  calling  them  back  to  battle.  Only 
five  re.t[icmd(>d  to  the  call,  and  it  was  Ihote  fire 
that  foimdL><l  the  five  (freat  familiea. 

(1)  7^^  Kr-keilan  ,4j«ji.— This  strain  ts  the  moet 
numerous,  and  from  it  all  other  Koheiland  ara  off- 
shoots. The  word*  Keheilan  Ajus  mean  the  mare  of 
the  old  wnman.  derived  from  a  legend  that  the 
mare  wa;*  drujiped  by  its  dam  near  a  well  kept  by 
an  old  woman,  whore  the  rid>*r  had  stcipped.  The 
traveler  rude  off  in  a  short  time,  leavinjc  the  filly 
colt  with  the  old  woman.  The  next  morning  the 
colt  was  found  by  its  mother's  side,  having  traced 
her  acr(v*i»  the  desert  during  the  night.  Among 
the  Keheilans,  bays  arc  more  numerous  than  any 
other  color.  They  are  the  fastest,  although  not 
the  hardiest  horses  nor  the  most  Iwnutiful.  They 
bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  English  Thorough- 
br«i  than  any  others,  as  they  are  more  nearly 
related.  The  Darley  Arabian,  perhaps  the  only 
thoroughbred  Anaieh  horse  in  our  studbooks.  was 
a  Keheilan  of  the  sub-family  called  Ka.9-el-Padawi. 

(2)  W«  Sestawi  familff  have  descended  from  four 


great  mares  owned  by  a  man  of  that  name.  At  his 
death  he  gave  his  favorite  mare  to  his  brother 
Jedran,  and  thus  the  .Seglawi  Jedrans  are  the  favor- 
ites  of  the  Seglawies ;  he  gave  the  second  mare  to 
his  brother  Obeyran  ;  the  third  to  Arjebi ;  and  the 
fourth  to  El-.\bd,  meaning  the  slave.  Many  writeni 
consider  that  all  fuur  mares  wutu  full  sisters.  The 
Seglawi  Arjebi  are  extinct,  and  of  the  remaining 
strains,  the  Seglawi  Jedran  ranks  first  in  th« 
est4fem  of  the  Bedouins,  and  Seglawi  Et-.\bd  second. 
Some  years  ago.  Abbas  Pa^ha.  of  Egypt,  purchased 
nearly  all  of  the  Seglawi  Jedran  mares  from  the 
Anazeh  tribe,  [laying  as  high  a  price,  it  is  said,  as 
;1,000  pDuads,  for  a  single  old  mare.  Many  chest- 
nut-colored horsifs  are  found  among  Ihu  Seglawis  ; 
possibly,  with  the  bays,  they  would  form  about  aa 
equal  division. 

(3)  Hamdani. —The  Hamdanis  are  not  common 
anywhere  on  the  Syrian  desert,  the  Shammar  being 
i^uppiMed  to  have  the  best.  They  are  mostly  greys, 
although  very  handsome  liruwns  and  chestnuts  .ire 
to  be  found  in  tho  Shammar.  The  only  strain 
of  the  Ham{kni  that  is  counted  "chubby"  is  the 
Hamdani  .Simri,  Mares  of  the  Hamdani  Simri  are 
very  rare. 

(1)  AlvffaH. — The  Abeyan  is  genorally  the  hand- 
snmest  breed,  but  it  is  small  and  has  less  resem- 
blance til  the  English  Thorough brtfd  than  any  of  the 
oLlmr  families  of  the  .Arabian  horse.  The  .Abeyaa 
Sherrack  h  the  must  esteemed  of  the  seven  strains' 
of  the  Abeyan  (and  there  are  but  two  others  of 
that  seven,  the  Abeyan  J^haino  and  Abeyan  Kadaha, 
that  arc  counted  "chubby^.  It  is  the  name  of  the 
family,  and  the  other  strains  are  derived  from 
Abeyan  Sherrack.  Abeyan  Sherraoks  carry  their 
tail  much  higher  than  dther  Arabian  horaes.  They 
are  also  noted,  for  their  prominent  forehead  or 
jihbah.  Their  endnnince  is  remarkable.  The  colors 
are  bay.  chestnut  and  grey. 

(5)  Hadltan. — There  are  five  strains  of  the  Had* 
ban  family.  Hadban  Enzekhi  being  the  favorite, 
and  Hjulhan  al-Fert  being  the  only  other  that  ia 
considered  "chubby"  by  the  Annreh.  The  Gomussa' 
of  the  Sahba  .\nai'.eh  are  suppoaed  to  have  the  lierti 
H.idbans  at  the  jtn^Henb  time.  Rn)wn  and  dark 
bay  are  the  favorite  colors  of  the  Haiiban  Enwkhl 
family. 

fJilAcr/amtViVr.— Uesides  these  five  families,  there 
are  sixteen  other  families  that  are  osteomod  almost 
ap.  mnch  as  the  Khamseh:  (1)  The  Maneghi.  sop- 
posed  to  he  an  offshoot  of  the  Keheilan  .A.j«s.  They 
are  plain  and  withont  distinction,  being  somewhat 
coarse,  with  long  necks,  powerful  shouldeni,  much 
length,  and  strong  but  coarse  himl-quarters.  They 
are  strong  boned,  and  are  htdd  in  high  rcpnte  as 
war  horses.  Thi-ro  are  four  sub-families  In  this 
group,  the  favorite  being  Maneghi  Sltcycl,  which  i« 
counted  "chtibby"  all  over  the  dewrt,  Maneghij 
Heilruj.  the  next  esteemed,  is  not  counted  "chubby" 
at  Xejd,  but  is  by  some  trilies  of  the  northern 
desert.  The  family  of  St»eyel  of  the  Gomiissa 
poBsesBea  the  finest  Mpocimenii  of  the  stmin  known 
by  that  name.  {'!)  Saadan.  often  very  boaatifal 
horsM  ;  the  sub-strain,  S^adan  Togan,  is  the  mt 
hiebty  estoemod.    <3]  Dakhmon.    <4)  Shoeymui.'} 


HORSE 


449 


Tha  9Uli-j<train  of  SKueyman  Stmh  are  ratud  as  firat- 
d*n-  (5)  Ji]f»n.  (If  thi.'4  there  i»  a  sub-dtrain, 
JilfanStam  tjl  Pulait,  ineaninK  the  ainewv  of  steel. 
In  soiH'e  partH  of  the  de-u-rt,  the  Jilfan  Stam  el 
Biilad  IS  prizf'cl  equally  with  tiumilani  Simri.  (B) 
Toessan.  Of  this,  there  is  the  sob-etrairi  Ttjcsman 
Algami.  (7)  Sanihan.  with  a  suh-Htrain,  S«nihati  i-l 
Gomean.  The  horst-s  of  this  family  itre  fretjuBntly 
very  tall,  and  are  much  eateemad.  (8)  Wadnan, 
with  the  »uli-strain,  VVmlna  Hursan.  &)  Kishan, 
with  the  Bub-rttTain  Kiwhan  Sherohi.  (![)>  Tamri. 
The  Keheilon  Tamria  aro  highly  priied.  <1I)  Melek- 
han.  (12)  Jcreyban.  (13)  Jcytani.  (14)  Ferejaa. 
(15)  Treyfi.  (Iti)  Rabdnn.  Ueaidc-t  these,  there 
are  the  Keheilan  Heife,  Kcheilan  Kmash.  Keh*;ilan 
el-Ghazala.  Kt-beilan  a]-l>ennis.  Keheiiun  iil-N*Hwak, 
Keheilan  al-Muwri,  Kelii^ilan  ubu  junub.  Keheilan 
Rodan.  Keheilan  Wailnatn  Harsan,  Dahman  abu 
Amr,  Dahman  Shawan.  Uahman  Khoma'm,  Aba 
Arkab,  all  of  which  are  considered  "chubby."  All 
these  are  Keheilann,  and  mnnt.  or  all  of  them,  have 
fJeacended  from  Keheilan  Aju9. 

Feedins  and  tart. 

Unaccustomed  ta  moch  feed,  or  regular  feed,  the 
Arab  is  likely  to  pet  very  fat  under  onr  method  of 
feeding,  ro  that  the  horae,  oncd  the  picture  of  all 
that  is  beautiful  and  graceful,  with  us  may  aoon 
betome  a  fat  horae.  He  thrives  beat  on  half  of 
what  other  horses  requ  ire.  Of  al  I  horses,  the  Arabian 
is  least  fit  to  stand  idle  in  his  stall.  His  life  for 
centuries  has  been  under  the  saddle,  a?  a  war  horse, 
on  the  scante'tt  ratiunK  any  horse  livQ&  on  :  und  to 
pen  him  up  in  acloite  UalL  and  feed  him  three  meats 
a  day  so  completely  changes  his  life,  that  it 
changes  his  form. 

For  riding  and  driinny. — As  a  saddle  horae  the 
Arab  horae  rankn  high.  He  has  always  been  accus- 
tomed to  the  sa^ldle.  and  has  developed  remarkable 
enduranre,  carrying  ridera  long  jonrneys,  day  after 
day,  in  a  scorching  ann.  with  little  feed  or  water. 
He  can  carry  very  heavy  weights  on  hia  back. 
When  hitched  to  the  carriage,  he  makefl  a  (:;entle, 
attractive,  driving  horse. 

For  fTOJwin;;.— The  importance  of  the  Arab  for 
cross-breed ing  purpoaea  is  well  known.  He  has 
entered  intothedevelopmentofmnnyof  onrpresent- 
d,iy  breeds,— trottinp,  runninp.  saddle,  coach  and 
draft,  and  has  imparted  his  i.-ndurancu,  quality  and 
intelligence  wherei'erniwd.  That  he  is  fttill  valued 
for  this  purpose  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  in 
certain  Karopean  countries  Arab  slud-t  arc  officially 
maintained  for  breeding;  purptiRes.  .\  new  infusion 
of  his  blood  ia  much  needed  in  our  modem  horses. 
The  farther  we  gul  from  the  Arab  blow!,  th:it  in 
former  days  was  stronR  in  our  runnurs  and  trot- 
ters, the  lefts  our  horses  show  of  the  powers  of 
endurance  that  made  them  great  aniniaEs.  And 
while  onr  race  honiea  have  become  greater  sprinters, 
they  h.ive  lost  mnch  of  their  sLiving  power.  A 
fresh  infusion  of  the  best  blood  of  tfu>  desert  should 
improve  those  families  of  }iOT»iti  that  have  been 
bred  in  the  extreme  for  any  special  purpose,  to  the 

C29 


exclusion  nf  many  uf  the  iiualitie.-i  pDs-seiwwl  in  such 
a  marked  degree  by  the  Arabian  hf(rnL\  One  of  the 
moat  noticeable  ditTorencea  bt'tween  our  best  ty|H;8 
of  today,  especially  in  America,  and  the  Arab  horse, 
is  the  flat  and  contracted  aidea  of  our  horses  cnm- 
prvred  with  the  round,  barrel-Hhaped  ribs  of  the  .Arab- 
ian and  the  narruw  (ipeniugs  uf  the  jaw-lMiries  of  nur 
horues  i^umpured  with  the  wide  upeningH  of  the 
jaw-bones  of  the  ."Krab  horse.  The  importance  of 
this  latter  point  u  seen  usiiecially  in  raco  horsea. 
The  many  deaths  among  modern  race  horaea,  sup- 
posed to  be  due  to  the  bursting  of  blood-vessels, 
are  attributed  to  the  narrow  jaw-bones.  The  heart 
is  wronght  to  high  action  in  the  effort  to  force  the 
air  through  the  narrow  passage,  and  the  re.outt  is 
the  breaking  of  a  blotxl- vessel  and  death.  This  waa 
much  leas  common  a  few  generations  ago.  Another 
very  noticeable  difference  is  the  dropping  off  below 
the  knee  of  our  American  horses  compared  with  the 
big,  flat  bone  below  the  knee  of  the  Arab  horse. 
The  finer  quality  of  bone  that  is  transmitted  by 
the  .^rab  horse  in  crowiiing  is  one  of  hia  greatest 
values.  I3eyond  ilm,  (>erhaps,  is  his  ability  to  stamp 
eveness  and  beauty  of  disposition  on  his  offspring, 
a  quality  desired  in  all  borse«,  esjxicially  in  cavalry 
horses.  The  very  close  relation  that  baa  long  ex- 
isted between  the  Arab  horw  and  his  master,  haa 
produced  in  him  a  docility  and  intelligence  that  U 
seldom  found  in  horses  of  other  breeds.  The  pre- 
potency of  the  Arab  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  his 
veins  flows  only  thoroughbred  blood,  with  no  admix- 
ture of  cold  blood,  a  fact  that  cannot  be  said  of 
any  other  breed. 

Organizalians  and  rteerdg. 

At  this  time  efforts  are  being  made  to  organize 
an  American  Arabian  Horse  AasociatioD.  which 
shall  publish  a  studbook.  Arabian  horses  are  now 
eligible  for  registration  in  the  American  Studbook 
and  in  the  Ueneral  LSiadbook  of  (Jreat  Britain. 

LUxraturt. 

Roger  D.  Upton,  Gleanings  from  the  Desert  nf 
Arabia.  London  (1881) ;  Lady  Anne  Blunt,  The 
Bedouin  Tribes  of  the  Euphrates,  2  vols.,  London 
(1879) ;  Same.  A  Pilgrimage  to  Nejd,  2  vols..  Lon- 
don (18811;  Uoucant,  The  Arab,  the  Horse  of  the 
Future,  Gay  &  Dird.  Strand,  London  (1905).  [For 
further  references,  see  page  416.] 

Barb  and  Turk  Horsea. 

By  Carl  W.  Gay. 

The  Barb  horse  takes  his  name  from  his  native 
habitat,  the  so-called  Darbary  states  of  northern 
Africa,  originally  peopled  by  the  Berber  tribes. 
These stateH  are  Monwco.  Algeria, Tunis  and  Tripoli. 
The  Barb  ix  the  "Honieof  the  Sahara,"  of  Dauroas, 
the  "  North  African  "  or  "  Libyan  "  hoi^  of  Ridge- 
way.  The  Oriental  group  is  composed  of  the  Barb, 
the  Turk,  and  the  .Arabian,  although  most  recent 
investigations  indicate  the  Barb  to  have  been  the 
real  Bourre  of  all  Oriental  blood.  A  common  error 
nf.-<u]tfng  in  much  confusion  ia  the  nse  of  the  term 
Arabian  in  a  sense  aynonymoua  with  Oriuntal. 


450 


HORSE 


HORSE 


Dateription . 

The  Barb  is  fourteen  to  fifteen  hands  in  height, 
short  of  body  in  proportion  to  length  of  limh.  hin 
whole  form  being  coritucive  to  speed.  The  head  ia 
beautifully  pr.>[>ortion»jd,  with  a  neat  ■ear,  bruad. 
full  forehead,  large,  clear,  prominent  eye.  Hashing 
fire  and  yet  expr*?s.'>ing  intelligence,  a  deep  jowl 
with  opun  an^le.a  trim  muzzk'  and  a  nodtril  thin  at 
the  margin,  capable  of  croat  dilation  and  continu- 
ally in  play.  Tlie  head  is  nicely  set  on  n  rather  long, 
high-crested  neck,  well  cut-out  in  the  throttle  and 
giving  the  head  a  tofly  carriajre;  Hhnuld'Srs  well 
laid-in  and  .slupintt,  well  set-up  at  the  withers ; 
deep,  well-arched  rib;  somewhat  drooping  croup, 
although  the  tail  ia  carried  high;  straight  hind- 
leg,  long  paatems,  and  rather  diwp,  narrow  foot  of 
the  most  auperior  texture  of  horn. 

The  prevailing  colors  in  Barbary  are  dark  bay, 
brown,  chestnut,  black  and  gray.  Ridgeway  con- 
curs with  other  authors  in  his  conclusions  that  bay 
with  some  white  maricings.  as  a  star  or  a  blaze, 
together  with  white  coronet^  was  the  original 
color  of  the  pure  Uarb.  He  reasons  that  the  rigid 
course  of  selection  which  mo<]enj,  scientific  breed- 
ing hns  eatabliahed  for  the  improvement  of  the  race 
is,  incidentally,  gradually  eliminating  all  but  bays 
and  allied  browns  and  chestnuts,  and  indicates  the 
final  exclusion  of  all  but  the  bays.  Statistics  re- 
garding the  winners  of  the  principal  racing  events 
bear  out  this  conclusion.  Thus,  as  the  "  bLo<^  tells," 
the  bay  color  predominates. 

flistory  first  records  the  horse  under  domesti- 
cation in  Pjf^ypt,  and  it  is  thought  that  his  general 
distribution  throughout  the  civiliKtid  world,  which 
took  place  largely  through  the  agency  of  the  con- 
quests of  nations,  hiin  hn^^n  made  from  this  center. 
Such  an  indefinite  beginning  ii;  given  a  more  satis- 
factory explanation  by  the  modern  researches 
reported  by  RidRoway.  which  he  maintains  are 
strongly  BURgftstive  that  the  Egyptians  secured 
their  horses  from  Libya,  where  they  are  thought 
to  have  been  indigenous.  This  hypothesis  has  a 
striking  eigniftcanre  in  view  of  the  fad  that  the 
Libyan  horse  of  Ridgeway  is  identical  with  the 
snbjtwt  iif  this  diKCu.<uii»n. 

Zoiitogically,  there  have  been  demonstrated  three 
distiuetspeeiesof  horses  in  the  gen  us  I-^iuiih  besides 
the  various  species  of  assos,  zebras,  and  the  L'xtinet 
quagga.  To  these,  Ridgeway  adds  Eijuus  caltaliics 
iibymt.  held  by  him  to  he  a  distinct  species  or  at 
least  a  sulmpecies.  This  being  the  Cftfie,  we  are 
justified  in  accepting  the  Harb  a»  the  progenitor 
of  all  modern  light  breeils,  the  Turk  and  .^irabian 
iwing  derivatives,  and  nut  antecedents  of  the  Barb. 
It  is  known  that  horses  existed  in  Egypt  l.rrfX) 
years  before  they  were  in  Arabia,  a  fact  that  is 
contrary  to  the  popular  belief  that  the  genesis  of 
all  good  horses  was  in  Arabia.  It  establishes  the 
Barb  -.v^  the  real  origin  nf  the  Thnnnigbbred.  the 
blood  influence  of  which  is  reciignized  in  all  horse- 
breeding  coantrien.  rurthurniure,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  .\ndalusian  horse  of  Spain  truces  its 
ancestry    across    the    Mediterranean,    the    Barb 


Decomes  an  important  part  of  the  native  base  on 
which  the  improvement  of  horses  in  America  has 
been  made. 

In  America.  —The  most  notable  Oriental  horses 
brought  tu  America  are  Grand  Uashaw.  a  Harb  from 
Tripoli,  whose  immediate  descendants  founded  the 
Clay,  Patt^hen  and  Uashaw  families ;  Zilcaadi,  an 
Arabian  from  Turkey,  and  sire  of  the  dam  of  Gold 
Dust ;  ]<eopard,  an  Arab,  and  Linden  Tree,  a  Barb, 
presente^l  to  General  Grant  and  used  by  Randolph 
Huntington  in  his  creation  of  the  Clay  Arabiaii.J 
Most  important  of  recent  importations  are  those  off 
Mr.  Homer  liavenport.  the  most  conspicuous  indi- 
vidual of  which  ia  Haleb.   (Fig.  4G0.) 

Imporlunce  of  tie  Iltirb. 

The  importance  of  the  Barb  is  a  matter  of  hi^j 
tory,  although  it  is  only  recently  that  there  hai] 
been  much  reliable  data  concerning  him  a\-ailabl 
Much  of  the  early  litt.Tature  has  been  more  or  Ic 
obscured  in  mythology  and  superstition. 

Authoritiea  may  differ  in  their  views  concern- 
ing Darwin's  theory  of  the  origin  of  species,  but 
the  facts  pertiining  to  the  formation  and  develop- 
ment of  thoso  subdivisions  of  the  species  called . 
breeds  are  too  well  established  to  admit  of  anyl 
question.  Theso  facts  show  conclusively  that  the  ' 
striking  contrast  in  the  size,  type,  conformation, 
quality,  temperament  and  adaptability  of  the  pon- 
derous Belgian  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  racy 
Thoroughbrwl  on  the  other,  is  directly  a  matter  of 
inheritance,  no  matter  how  much  the  environment 
may  have  influenced  the  two  original  types  frooii 
which  each  resjK-ctive  line  of  inheritance  has  beenj 
derived.  A  study  of  the  origin  of  each  of  the 
breeds  of  horses  .tbows  that  there  were  two  origi- 
nal sources  from  which  the  foundation  blood  of 
each  breed  was  drawn.  These  were  the  wild  Black 
horse  of  Flanders,  thuugbt  to  have  Wen  indigen- 
ous to  central  Europe  from  the  Rhine  river  to  the 
Itlack  sea,  and  characterized  by  bis  gn^at  scale, 
grosaness,  slow  awkward  movement,  sluggish  lym- 
phatic temperament,  black  color  and  extreme 
development  of  hair;  and  the  Oriental  horse, 
native  to  the  desert  regions  of  northern  Africa, 
Turkey,  Asiiv  Minor,  Persia  and  Arabia,  the  roost 
notable  characteristics  nf  which  were  extreme 
refinement  and  breedineat,  Iteauty  of  form,  spirit 
and  intelligence,  S|H^>d,  stamina  and  graeu  at 
movement,  and  an  active  nervous  t«mperamt;nt,^ 
The  breeds  of  the  heavier,  draftier  type  show  a 
preponderance  of  the  characters  of  the  former, 
while  those  of  the  lighter,  speed  type  resemble 
more  closely  the  latter.  The  .«c>-called  coach  breeils 
rojiresent  a  more  or  less  proportionate  blending  of 
the  two. 

Vte. 

Some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  Oriental 
blood  has  proved  a  potent  factor  in  the  foundation 
or  improvement  of  modern  breeds  may  be  had  from 
a  review  of  the  origin  of  some  of  them.  The  term 
Oriental  is  used  in  this  connection  for  the  n?ason 
that  earlier  writers  were  not  npecific  in  their  ref- 
erences to  Barbs,  Turks,  or  .Arabians.  The  Darley 


HORSE 


HORSE 


4S1 


y  pom 


Arabian.  Bjerly  Tnrk  and  Oodolphin  Barb,  with 
the  "  Barb  mares,"  have  Iieen  calle<l  the  real 
foundation  of  the  Thoniughbri:«i.  The  Perchertin 
owe«  hirt  origin  tn  the  mating  of  Oriental  horKe-s, 
Iwft  liy  the  Sara(?i'ns  or  hri>ught  hack  hy  the  Cru- 
Bailers,  with  native  Fn>m'h  marwi  nf  th«  Flemi«h 
blooiJ.  SulMwjUGntly,  there  were  mada  at  intervals 
ejrsttimatic  top  cniRfl^'s  uf  bluod  from  the  Orient. 
Gallipoli  and  Goduliihin  were  two  of  the  most 
important  of  these,  and  the  former  is  regarded  as 
the  most  influential  sire  in  the  history  of  the 
bree-d.  The  protoly[io  of  the  Hackney,  the  Norfolk 
trotter,  wiut  the  n>i<iilt  of  a  Barh  uniftn  with  the 
Black  tnitter  uf  Fric-alnnd.  The  Cleveland  bsiy 
was  the  prmlucl  cjf  a  Barb-Vorktihire  i;art  hcirae 
cross.  The  hut  bbxKl  uf  the  dtiiiiert  is  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  origin  of  the  Oerrnaii  c^oach 
horwe.  Bare  l»t,  progenitor  of  tiie  Kuswian  iirlotf 
trotter,  was  three  generations  removed  from 
Smetanlta,  a  gr.iy  Anibirm  taken  into  Russia.  The 
Prutwian  Trakehner  is  derived  frnm  nn  iyimixtiire 
of  Oriental  and  ThorDujihbred  blriod  with  the 
native  ntock.  [Seu  further  un{ier  Uixlarxi  tn 
j4merifli.] 

There  is  some  question  oa  to  thu  value  of  this 
Oriental  horse  to  the  breeder  of  the  present  time, 
althrtugh  it=i  importance  a.1  a  fi>nndation  stock  \»  so 
Well  demonwtrateil.  For  example,  the  Thorough- 
bred is  an  impriivement  over  his  Orientat  ancestors 
m  a  race  hurse,  and  fresh  infu»ionA  of  the  blnml 
are  generttlly  rejjarded  as  detrimental.  Further- 
more, no  increase  in  trotting  aiwed  can  he  expected 
to  follow  croHws  of  the  Oriental  blood  on  our 
.American  Standardbrod  trotter.  Nevertheless. 
there  in  an  artive  demand  in  the  markets  of  today 
for  a  horw'  that  is  neither  a  running  race  horse 
nor  a  trotting  raee  hon»e.  but  a  harnes-s  type.  In 
this  horse,  a  pleaning  an^iearancB  and  good 
manners  are  as  valuabli-  atlributeH  a»  siHfe*),  and 
to  this  end  beauty  of  form,  symmetry,  quality  and 
lini.'<b,  style  and  a  plcasnnt,  tractable  dispoaition. 
aro  essentials  that  offset  extreme  apeed.  It  is 
AS  a  !«)«nre  of  these  desired  chara^rters  that  the 
Oriental  hone  lindH  a  ])Iace  in  meeting  modern 
market  demandfi. 

Organizntiom  and  rtxordx. 

Barbs  are  regiatercd  in  The  Algerian  Studbook.  a 
hook  of  record  recognized  by  the  United  States 
Department  nf  Agricnitnre.  It  is  said  that  the 
number  of  Fnglish  and  French  horses  in  Algeria 
has  led  to  the  Barb  being  more  extensively  crossed 
with  this  blood  than  in  Morocco,  where  there  are 
fewer  foreign  honws,  and  systematic  effnrtfl  have 
been  mado  under  the  direction  of  the  .Saltan  to 
keep  the  blood  pure.  Some  Barbs  are  al«o  njgi.i- 
lered  with  Arabians  in  the  Gtoeral  Studbook  of 
Great  Britain. 

Tehe  Turk  Kokkr.         ^ 

Tbi«  horse,  named  with  the  Barb  .ind  the  Arabbn 
as  constituting  the  so-called  Oriental  group,  ha-i 
much  l«w  flignilicanco  than  either  of  his  contem- 
porariee.    SandeiH  suggesta   that   the    horses  of 


Arabia  and  Persia  were  uriginally  derived  from 
Turkey.  Id  the  light  of  recent  investigations  we 
are  le^l  to  concrlude  that  tho  term  Turk  does  not 
imply  any  particular  t*tock,  but  designates  merely 
th«  lioraes  of  Turkey,  TheSn  have  U^n  of  a  differ- 
ent cbaraiiter  at  ditferent  perifxis.  The  originals, 
called  Turcoman,  were  probably  offshoots  from  the 
pony  types  native  to  the  mountainous  districts  of 
soDthern  Asia.  They  were  iirst  reported  in  Turke- 
stan, hut  bewime  generally  distributed  later  in  Turk- 
ish Asia  and  Persia;  there  are  few  horses  in  Turkey 
in  Furogw.  These  original  punies  do  nut  represent 
thB  Turk  as  he  is  refernnl  to  in  recent  timen,  how- 
ever. Their  tyi»>  haa  lii*L-n  m  completely  modified 
by  the  Arubians  with  which  they  have  been  crosaed 
as  to  leave  littlo  e\idence  of  their  former  charac- 
teristics. HoweVL-r,  plain  heads  with  Roman  noBOS, 
ewe  necks,  light  middles  and  long  legs  are  still 
noticeable,  and  are  charged  to  the  Turcoman  foun- 
dation. These  moilifieii  Turkish  horses  are  of  fair 
aiwi,  imy,  black  or  gray  in  color,  with  nniform 
white  markings.  In  those  parts  of  Turkey  nearest 
the  Anibian  border,  many  pure  .\rabians  are  found. 
(Captain  Hiiyes  reports  that  the  horses  in  ordinary 
Q&o  in  Turkish  towns  at  the  present  time  are  small, 
hardy  animals,  grey  or  bjiy  in  color,  and  are  pro- 
duced by  Arabian  stallions  out  of  Kurdistan  pony 
mares,  the  latter  being  similar  to  the  Turcoman 
ponies  already  referred  to,  ami  tyjiical  of  the 
horst*s  indigenous  to  Turkey.  ProbaMy  the  liest 
Turks,  itcM^alled,  were  not  TurkA  ut  all,  bat  Ara- 
bians or  Barbs. 

Liieratan, 

E.  Danmos,  The  Horsoa  of  the  Sahara,  London 
{18(;3\   [For  further  references,  see  page  416. j 

Belgian  Draft  Horse.  Fig.  461. 

By  W.  U  CarlyU. 

As  the  name  suggests,  this  breed  ts  developed 
for  draft  purpoises.  It  has  tittle  value  for  any 
other  purpose,  being  of  a  sluggish  temperament, 
although  very  powerful 

Defcriptioa. 

The  Belgian  draft  horse  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
pact in  form  of  any  draft  breed  found  in  America, 
possessing  a  majcimum  of  weight  with  very  short 
body  set  on  short  legs.  The  form  is  broad,  mai*- 
sive  and  well  proportioned,  as  a  rule.  In  quality. 
it  is  somewhat  lacking,  the  legs  appearing  round 
and  rather  coarse.  The  tendons  of  the  legs  are 
large  and  not  well  defined.  The  skin  is  sometimes 
fine,  although  the  hair  is  occasionally  rather  coarse 
and  inclined  to  curl.  The  head  is  of  good  siw,  the 
nostrils  are  large  and  the  eyes  small  and  not  very 
prominent  The  ears  are  small,  set  wide  apjirt  and 
generally  are  not  wcdl  carried.  The  nock  is  short, 
Tery  thick  and  well  cnytiKl.  The  shoulders  are 
upright,  strong  and  heavily  muitcled.  The  chest  is 
deep  and  wide,  girinfr  a  vary  largo  girth.  The 
ribs  are  long,  well  sprung,  and  closidy  ribbed  up 
to  the  hip,  giving  a  bett^T  l»arrel  than  is  found  in 
any  other  breed  of  draft  homeit.  The  back  isshort, 


HOB^ 


HORSE 


very  broad  and  inclined  lo  sun  ttomt^what  more 
than  is  desired.  The  loins  aro  widu,  shorl  unJ  very 
thick.  The  Hank  is  low  and  fnll.  The  hinii-quar- 
tere  are  inclined  to  h»  short,  very  v^ide  and  mnsi- 
culiir,  and  the  tail  is  attfiehed  srimewhat  low  and 
nut  well  carried.  The  l«wer  tliighs  are  usually 
very  wid«  and  welt  mumrlwl.  Tim  hucks  are  rnunci, 
rot  ek'arly  dullned  and  tou  "  meaty."  One  of  the 
aerioos  fault*  thy  .\mtrican  horjemen  Imvc  found 
with  this  bretid  is  in  the  character  of  Ihu  bone  of 


Ptc  Ml.    A  BvlElxa  «UUUm 

the  Ibr8,  particularly  with  th«  )uK-k  joints.  The 
feet  al&o  receive  rath«r  flevvri!  oriticism.  as  the 
haofn  are  ineliaed  tii  Im  Kmiitl,  narrow  and  very 
high  in  the  heels,  predijtpoHinji  to  Bidt'-honeX  and 
contraetud  feel.  In  action,  thii  Bul^^ians  are 
inclined  Lo  stumhlo  at  tliu  walk,  hut  trot  ulf  fruuly 
and  with  apjiarent  vim  and  spirit.  In  color,  the; 
chiwtnut  and  roan  are  most  common,  althoufrh 
brown  and  bay  are  freqnently  fonnd.  The  grays 
are  not  in  favor,  althougb  ncTiisionally  one  in  seen. 
In  UelgiBm,  lhe.ie  driiTl  honiKK  are  rlawsificd 
Bomewhat  at;conling  in  the  Ht^liona  of  the  country 
in  which  they  have  lipeii  lirtnl.  ThoHo  frum  Flanders 
are  tile  largest  and  those  from  Ardennai«  district 
the  amallurft,  while  thofte  from  Brabant  are  of 
medium  aiEa  and  weight. 

Si$tars. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  Belginn  hreed  nf 
draft  horses,  no  pirti(«ll»r  animalH  apjH'jir  to  have 
been  prominent  nor  has  any  lireetler  of  outstand- 
ing merit  appearwl.  This  lireed,  unlike  most  other 
draft  br«?e<iH  that  have  been  develofwd.  lia«  been 
almost  entirely  the  product  of  its  environment. 
The  small  country  of  Belgium  has  a  reputation  as 
the  home  of  draft  horacs  extending  back  through 
uevera!  centuries.  Many,  if  not  all,  of  tbe  draft 
breeds  of  Groat  Britain  and  Frani-y  were  greatly 
improved  during  their  formative  periwl  by  the 
use  of  the  heavy  Flemish  horMe,  the  early  ]>ro- 
genitiirn  of  the  lielgiars.  Modern  horse-brewling 
in  llelgium.  h'(.>wever,  is  comparatively  recent  in 
its  greatest  activity.  .\  revival  of  the  interest  in 
horse-breeding  in  Belgium  was  greatly  stimulated 
and  deveb|M*d  with  the  establishment  f>f  gnvem- 
ment  breeding  stnds  in  1S.50.  The  Belgiiim  gov- 
cramcnt  anoDalty  Beta  apart  about  $75,000  for  the 


aopervi-iion  and  encouragement  of  draft -horss; 
breeding  in  that  country.  By  a  system  of  prtZM, 
ami  financial  encouragement  of  individual  breederB, 
as  well  as  of  the  National  Mraft  Horse  Society 
of  Belgium  and  the  local  fairs,  it  has  bad  a 
very  potent  influence  in  the  development  of  this 
l)r*»d.  Ey  *very  meana,  the  government  seeks  to 
encourage  the  best  efforts  of  individual*,  and  to 
diacourage  the  exportation  of  desirable  animaU. 
The  city  of  Antwerp,  in  Belgium,  is  noted  thrcugh- 
otit  the  world  a?  possessing  many  O'f  the  finest 
specimens  of  draft  horses  to  be  found,  and  these 
horse*  are  without  exception  of  the  Belgian  breed. 

In   A  merini. 

The  history  of  this  breed  in  America  is  compara- 
tively bric-f.  Thfl  earliest  importation  was  prob- 
ably in  1886,  whoa  a  few  horaes  were  imported 
into  Illinois  by  Dr.  A.  0.  Van  Hoorebeke.  They 
were  at  that  time  incorrectly  termed  "  Boulan- 
nai*."  Since  1887.  large  numbers  of  Belgian  draft 
stallions  hare  been  imported  into  the  United  States 
and  have  bsen  found  exceedingly  valuable  for 
cro*wing  on  native  grade  draft  marus.  In  1R88, 
Mr.  E.  Lefebun*  began  importing  and  promoting 
the  interest  of  the  breed  in  this  country.  On^ 
of  the  first  firms  to  import  these  horses  waa 
D.  P.  Stublw  &  Sons,  of  Fairfield,  Iowa.  Sinca 
1S97,  there  h:tf  been  a  large  and  cnndtantly 
increai^ing  demami  for  statlionR  of  this  breed.  The 
leading  importers  have  been  A.  B.  Holbart  and 
I^'febure  Si  SonK,  of  Iowa ;  J.  Crouch  &  Son,  of 
Indiana:  McLaughlin  Broe..  of  Columbus.  Ohio; 
Dunham  £,  Fletcher,  of  Illinois,  and  H.  A.  Briggs^ 
of  Wisconsin.  Very  few  mares  have  been  imported 
into  this  country  for  reasons  that  are  not  well 
underetood.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that 
there  is  not  the  demand  for  the  Belgian  breed  to 
encourage  importing  and  bnreding,  aa  the  trade  La 
Iwtter  flatished  with  the  Percheron  and  Rome  of  the 
English  draft  breeds;  and  partly  because  of  the 
very  high  prices  asked  for  Belgian  mares  abroad. 

DUiriimtion. 

The  Belgian  draft  breed  of  horses  had  no 
general    distribution  outfiide  of   its  native  h( 
nnt.il  within  the  past  ten  years,  since  wliich  timei 
it  haH  had  a  wiile  diHtributina  on  the  continent,  aa  \ 
it  is  particularly  desiriible  for  use  in  the  heaviest  i 
kind  of  work  in  larjio  cititft.   Numliers  have  beeO' 
imported  into  (Jermary,  France,  Holland.  Sweden, 
Austria,  aad  other  F.unipean  countrieF,  the  Argen- 
tine Rcpnblic,  and  other  South  American  countries, 
and  to  the  United  Statea,  where  they  have  had  a 
wide  liistribulion,  particularly  in  the  central  states. 

Feeding  and  care. 

In  ita  native  conntry,  the  Belgian  draft  horae  is! 
given  the  best  of  feed  and  care  to  produce  a  maxi- 
mum  of  size  and  weight  aa  early  in  life  as  possible. 
The  foals  on  the  best  farms  are  bi>rn  early  in  March 
or  April,  the  dams  usually  doing  all  of  the  fann 
work.  The  foals  remain  In  the  stables  during  the 
day,  and  a  number  of  them  together  in  oneincloBaraJ 
if  possible.   While  the  mares  are  at  work,  the  foam 


HOR.SB 


HORSE 


453 


sre  fed  liboraUy  on  a  sloppy  mixture  of  equal  parta 
of  cmeht^  cat»  and  Iran  and  ^utFicient  wuttr  to 
forum  thin  griiel.  Tlusy  ar«  aUMitiiijtpliBil  witli  freah 
drinking;- wat«r  at  ull  tinit'H  and  with  an  abundance 
of  goud  grven  clover  and  grasac's.  At  ni^ht  thtiy 
are  turned  into  rich  paflure  lota  with  thtjir  dams. 
They  are  weaned  at  four  or  five  months  of  ape*. 
V«7  little  changB  hi'inj,'  made  in  tfieir  feed,  and 
they  are  allowed  to  eat  all  they  will  cun- 
anme  of  bran  and  oats,  and  of  grwn  clover 
and  hay.  They  are  turnu-d  into  grasd  lots  at 
ni(;ht  and  confmcd  to  darkened  etablei)  dur- 
ing the  day.  This  system  of  feeding  i*  fol- 
lowed until  they  are  three  years  of  age, 
when  they  are  broken  to  work.  Since  mcit 
of  their  feed  ia  green  and  succulent,  it  is 
thought  that  this  ia  responsible  for  the  great 
depth  of  barrels  of  the  IJelgian  horses,  and  to  some 
extent  for  the  soft  bone  and  poor  quality  of  feet. 

For  drafl.—As  has  been  said,  these  horses  are 
bred  entirely  for  draft  purposes,  and  they  rank 
wifll  among  the  heavy  breeds,  especially  in  Europe. 
The  short,  stocky  legs,  and  low-set  blocky  body, 
make  them  very  useful  for  slow,  heavy  hauling 
over  city  streets. 

For  croji/ijj I/.— Belgian  draft  horsf'S  are  ftspeci- 
ally  adapted  for  crossing  on  grade  draft  marcs, 
lacking  in  weight  and  substance,  for  the  production 
of  heavy  draft  honses.  When  crossed  on  ^rade 
Percheron  or  Clydesdale  mares,  they  impart  an 
Increased  depth  of  body  with  a  comparative  short- 
eningof  the  leg-o,  und  a  general  ma&siveness  of  form 
not  easily  secured  by  the  use  of  any  other  breed  of 
draft  stallions. 

Organizaiiotts  and  rfforda. 

The  National  Draft  Horse  Society  of  Rolgiam 
(LeCheval  de  Trait  Beige)  was  f^.unded  in  188G, 
and  the  American  An-Hociiition  of  Importers  and 
nreedurs  of  lUdgian  Draft  IIorcM  in  18fl7.  The 
former  association  hits  twueti  u  numU>r  of  stud- 
books,  and  is  wry  aggn?»«ive  in  tbu  interwrtof  the 
breed.  It  receivi^  national  financial  support.  For 
twenty  years  the  l.-itter  association  did  very  little 
to  encourage  the  breed,  which  accountti.  in  part,  for 
the  little  interwit  taken  in  these  horses  in  America 
until  within  recent  years.  It  is  now  more  active. 
The  first  studbixik  was  issued  in  1905. 

L  Herat  are. 

For  reftrences,  see  page  416. 

Cleveland  Bay  and  Yorksblre  Coach  Horn.  Figs, 
4^2,  4ti3. 

By  JloAn  A.  Cniff. 

The  Yorkshire  coach  horse  is  an  outgrowth  of 
tJie  Cleveland  Bay  coach  hnrsu,  concedi^d  ia  he 
merely  an  improved  type.  The  two  are  so  inavpa- 
rably  asaociatetl  that  it  is  deemed  best  to  consider 
tbem  together.  In  fact,  in  .America,  they  are  con- 
sidered to  be  one  breed  and  are  registered  in  the 
same  studbook. 


Dfjttription. 

In  the  Cleveland  StndlKwk  (British)  there  iw  the 
following  description  of  the  Cleveland  Bay  horse 
which,  in  addition  to  being  very  accurate,  is  also 
official ;  "PVom  8i:(tfien  hands  one  inch  to  sixteen 
hands  two  and  one-half  inches  in  height,  he  should 
be  possessed  of  good,  sloping  shoulders,  a  short 
back,  powerful  loins,  and  long  quarters.   Ills  head 


fit-  'B2,    Clrvcland  Bajr  (tanion.     8t>«wijil  Drtlght 

is  rather  plain  than  otherwii^e,  and  on  the  long  side, 
but  it  is  well  carried,  and  his  general  appearance 
denotes  strength,  combined  in  a  manner  not  seen  tD 
any  other  light  horse  breed.  His  action  is  not  spe- 
cially high,  but  it  is  the  kind  for  Retting  over  the 
ground.  In  color  he  is  bay— ^jither  light  or  dark — 
with  black  legs  cl^ar  of  hair;  and  black,  zebra-like 
stripes  on  the  arm  and  above  the  hocks  are  some- 
times seen.  The.se  are  known  as  the  black  points 
and  are  supjKJsed  to  denot**  special  purity  of  breed- 
ing. White,  save  a  small  «tar  or  a  few  white  hairs 
in  thi>  htnd,  in  not  admiFj^ilile,  a.  blaze  or  white  foot 
pniclaimingat  once  the  lulrnixtaru  of  foreign  blood."' 
An  early  writer^  makcjt  the  following  comment  on 
the  old  stump  of  CU-veland  Bay,  just  about  the 
time  the  Thoroutjhbreil  was  to  be  used  most  liber- 
ally ;  "  Very  many  of  the  Cleveland  horses  are  di»- 
figur«l  by  having  large  hejidfl  and  Roman  noses ; 
anil  it  is  imly  when  the-tw  parts  are,  to  a  certain 
ezt«Qt,  conceaWI  by  the  winkers  of  the  bridles  and 
the  trappings  that  adorn  them,  and  their  heads  are 
borne  up  by  thti  Iwaring  rein,  thai  they  acquire  the 
imposing  ap|R<<trance  which,  when  well  matched, 
so  many  of  them  potmess.  When  stripped,  a  great 
proportion  nf  them  apiiear  a  very  different  Bort  of 
animal  indeed,  and,  in  all  probatiility,  u  smaller 
ami  mcirt>  comiuict  siirt  of  horm*  would  go  through 
doubltf  tliB  quantity  of  work  that  they  are  capable 
of  enduring.  F^aiihiun,  however,  is  to  be  consulted 
by  the  brwdor,  to  a  certain  extent ;  and,  so  long 

■  WalU(-«,  Fam  Lira  Stack  ot  Great  BriUun- 
'John  Uarke,  Roysl  AericQltara)  Society  Report,  Vol. 
V.  l&U. 


454 


HUIiiJE 


HORSE 


as  he  can  obtain  from  job  mxsteni  a  Urge  tium  for 
&  pair  of  these  overgrown  animula,  he  will  do  wvll 
to  bre(!il  them  without  reference  to  their  Wing 
unoqual  in  point  of  endurance  to  a  smaller  and 
better- formeu  a'H-t  of  lirauKbt  liowe.  It  ia  t?c-nt'r- 
ally  8iippoK*J  that  a  horse  de8tini.-d  for  harnesa 
jthotild  not  have  a  v«ry  oblique  shoulder,  as  when 
80  formed  he  is  not  capable  of  throwing  so  much 
of  hij*  weight  into  the  collar  as  when  his  shoulders 
ore  more  uprifrht :  but  it  must  be  rrmetnhered  that 
erand  nnd  lofty  action  is  highly  priced  in  I^ndon 
for  the  [lurptjKeof  show,  and  nut  for  hard  work, 
and  hence  a  «liipin({  shoulder  is  a  point  to  be 
desired  by  tho  farmer  who  broods  carriage  horses 
for  the  London  market;  for,  as  I  have  already 
ciliBerved,  it  in  one  which  i*  moetly  accompanied  by 
high  action." 

In  the  latter  ]virt  of  the  nineteonth  csntury, 
after  the  (irganiiution  of  Hocietiett  in  the  eightieK, 
to  promote  this  breed,  the  British  public  became 

u 


: .  >,^<' 


Fig.  4«a.    Cterebuid  Bay  nujc.    Qw^ev  Dmit*!. 

interested  in  the  horse  to  supplant  oxen  on  the 
f&m.  At  this  time,  too,  the  demand  changed  from 
a  very  heavy  carriago  borne  to  a  lighter  horse 
with  more  quality,  more  style  and  more  coach  or 
high  action.  The  Cleveland  had  to  veer  one  way  iir 
the  other  or  become  extinct.  It  is  evident  that  it 
was  changed  towards  the  tatter  largely  by  the 
greater  use  of  Thoroughbrw!  IUkhI,  ami  that 
resulted  in  the  type  more  (Mmmonly  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Yorkshire  coach  hortw-.  To  imlicat* 
the  tendency  of  the  chanj^e,  tlie  fiillnwing  extract 
from  the  Yorkshire  Coach  Sttidl'oiik  will  be  of 
Bervice:  "It  cannot  lie  claimod  for  the  Yorkshire 
coach  hor»o  that  be  is  a  purfbred  animal,  but 
that,  on  the  contrary,  by  the  judicious  crossing  of 
large-sized  goo<i-oolorwl  manw  with  stallions  alLo- 
gvtlier  or  nuarly  Thoronghhre*!,  a  chiss  nf  borRca 
has  been  producwl  suited  to  the  wants  and  circum- 
stances of  the  times.  Bv  univen»il  eimitent,  the 
color  should  be  bay  or  lirown,  with  black  ayes, 
mane  and  tail  abundant  but  not  curly,  tbe  huiKht 
from  sixteen  hands  to  sixteen  hands  two  inches, 
with  fine  head,  sloping  shonldcra.  strong  loins, 
and  lengthy  quart«r».  high-<)tepping  fiction,  good 


sound  feet,  flat  legs  and  abaodaoce  of  bone  and 

muscle." 

Hielory, 

Perhaps  the  beet  evidonce  wo  have  of  the  an- 
cient origin  of  this  breed  u  the  prevalence  of  so 
many  theories  as  to  the  foundation  from  which  it 
started.  Martin  Doyle,  writing  in  18-13,  asserts 
th^tt  it  is  descended  from  the  old  war  honie  of 
fJreat  liritain.  There  are  other  anthoritiea,  also, 
who  state  that  this  brt-ed  has  the  best  claim  to  the 
distinction  of  buing  related  to  thv  horses  that 
pulled  the  war  chariots  of  the  early  Britons  when 
Julias  Csesar  invatbd  England.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  the  first  records  of  the  Cleveland  horse  con- 
nect it  with  being  a  pack  or  Chapman  horse. 

It  is  historically  certain  that  the  breed  origi- 
nated in  Yorkshire,  one  of  thti  northern  counties  of 
England.  The  conditions  of  Yi)rk:*hire  were  emin- 
ently suitable  for  the  production  of  superior  light 
horses.  The  people  were  horsemen,  and  the  fertile 
valleys  and  hills,  underlaid  in  the  best  gr.izing  dis- 
tricts with  limestone,  were  very  productive  of 
nutritious  grass. 

Nti  sppcilic  reference  to  the  Cleveland  breed 
is  made  by  auy  of  the  oarlieKt  writers.  The  fimt 
di.stinct  referwncK  to  the  Cleveland  seoma  to  l>e 
that  made  by  dcorgo  Culley,  In  his  "  Obsorvation* 
on  Live  Stock,"  published  in  1801.  In  this  refer- 
ence, Culley  originates  the  theory  that  the  Cleve- 
land Ray  horfte  is  the  result  of  the  mixture  of  the 
Thoroughbrofl  with  the  cart  horpe,  a  theory  which 
some  writera  combat  so  far  as  to  suy  that  neither 
the  Thoroughbred  nor  a  heavy  strain  like  the  old 
cart  Horito  hod  anything  to  do  with  tbe  formation 
of  the  breed.  One  authority',  who  takes  onDsual 
pains  tt)  substantiate  the  war  hor»e  theory  of 
Cleveland  Itay  origin,  goes  to  cansiderable  length 
to  dittpnivo  the  introduction  of  either  cart  or 
Thoronghbre<i  blo(»d,  and  this  he  has  failed  to 
accomplish,  as  he  has  been  forci>d  to  acknowlodgo 
that  "Probability  points  to  a  Thoroughbred  Trav- 
L-llef  as  having  had  something  to  do  with  impart- 
ing fresh  quality  and  courage  to  the  Cleveland 
Bay"  Tbe  straight  rniup  or  level  hind-quarter  la 
11  decided  Thoroughbred  charatTterijitic,  and  it  ta  & 
trait  that  mcml  cjtht-r  breuds  of  tight  horses  tend 
towards  wliou  much  Thoroughbred  blood  is  ased, 
us  hoH  been  found  in  tho  instance  of  both  the 
Hackney  and  the  French  coach  horses.  It  is  a  mat- 
ter of  rec<.>rd,  too.  that  Hunsley's  Dart,  one  of  tbe 
three  sires  that  seem  to  have  hail  moot  to  do  in 
erttablrKliing  the  Cleveland  as  a  breed,  goea  liack 
to  the  Darley  .^rnbian,  and  the  preface  to  the  York- 
shire ct«ich  studbiiuk  so  ^^Latea.  The  old  Cleveland 
Bay,  the  horse  that  was  so  popular  in  early  days 
for  heavy  coaches  and  for  matched  teams  for  the 
London  market,  may  not  have  had  vorj*  much 
Thoroughbred  blood  in  it,  coneidering  tbe  amount 
that  has  bpen  nsed  later. 

The  beat  early  history  of  the  county  of  York- 
shire apiwars  in  thrLH-  SL-jmrate  prize  essays  by  dif- 
f).-rent  writ^srs,  published  in  the  ninth  volume  of 
the  Royal  .Agricultural  Society  (England)  Report, 
>  I^iglit  Horsed :  Dr«eda  and  Hanagt^moat. 


I 


HORSE 


HORSE 


466 


puMwhod  in  IS-IS,  fnvm  -which  the  folIowiiiK  refer- 
fitcu  by  (V-nriit-  Luiiard  in  Laktin :  "S-'iirmt-rly,  u 
larftn',  powt-rfui,  bany  animal  was  roquired  for  fjir- 
riage  pnrposi'i* ;  the  fashion  cvf  the  prospnt  day 
has,  however,  changed  thin  particular,  and  row  it 
-is  necessary  thnt  the  I^indim  cnrriafri?  horsp  should 
be  at  least  lliree  jiart^  ThuniiighbrfMl.  CunHe- 
[|iieRbly,  nil  traces  of  Lhe  uritjinal  pur«  Koiu^hini; 
brteil  or  Cleveland  Bay.  aa  it  wiu  termefl,  are 
Dearly  oblitt-rtited,"  Another  writor  on  Yorkshire 
in  the  samu  report,  pago  fvlS,  saya :  "Tho  Cltfvu- 
land,  a»  a  purcvhred,  is  losing  something  of  its 
diHtincttveneiw.  It  is  rtinnin^  into  a  proverb  that 
a  Clevelami  horse  is  too  stiir  for  a  hunter  and  too 
light  for  a  caacher,  but  tht>re  are  still  remnantt^ 
of  the  bretKl,  thou^jh  Ksa  carefully  kept  diatinct- 
iv«ly  than  may  be  wished  by  advocates  of  the 
breed." 

Other  cauBOs,  t«io,  wcro  operating  to  change  the 
type  of  the  hree<]  and  enconrago  tho  more  liberal 
usi?  of  Thorimghhrpd  blfhod.  One  of  these  was  that 
the  abundant  gni.'M-liLnd  wiui  (.'.onverUMJ  into  tit- 
lage-lund.  The  high  price  of  grainn,  due  to  Ihe 
war.  inductHl  an  unuaua)  ai'ttvily  in  farming,  and  a 
heavier  horse  was  ctilk^d  for.  The  coal  industry 
al*o  demanded  a  heavier  hoirso.  Again,  the  use  of 
the  hiirae  on  the  road,  because  of  lighter  vehicles, 
called  for  a  lighter  horse,  so  that,  in  a  multitude  of 
way«,  the  old  ty[ie  of  Cleveland  was  undergoing 
diMolutton.  When  ih«j  outlook  seemed  darkest,  the 
American  tnide  opened  up,  and.  in  18>H,  the  Cleve- 
land Bay  Horne  Society  was  forme<l,  and  a  stud- 
book  estalliflhed.  At  thi*  time  Thoroughbred  blood 
was  «Hcd  very  liberally.  So  much  strtsa  would  not 
be  biid  on  the  Thoroughbred  blood  introduced,  if 
the  writer  did  not  believe  that  all  our  recognized 
breeds  of  light  horses  have  more  or  less  Thor- 
oughbred Mood  in  thi'm.  and  all  are,  as  a  conse- 
quence, rooted  deep  in  Oriental  ancestry,  chieily 
the  Arab. 

In  1889,  tho  Royal  Agricultural  4Society  rccog- 
Diied  the  Cleveland  Kay  as  one  of  the  distinct 
brwyls  of  Rnglish  horses,  and  offered  prizes  for  it, 
■Itliough  it  was  shown  with  the  Yorkshire  Coach. 
At  the  meeting  of  the  ^(x':)etie»,  in  York,  as  early 
■s  184X.  a  few  Clcvelands  were  shown. 

/«  Amerira.  —  lt  cannot  be  said  that  the  Cleve- 
bnd  Bay  or  Yorkshire  coach  horse  ever  had  the 
popularity  in  this  country  that  ha^  attended  the 
importation  of  some  of  the  other  breeds  of  light 
horses.  Those  that  were  importe-d  were  conaiderMi 
onofnuilly  good  representatives,  but  the  type  and 
breod  characteristics  never  found  much  favor.  In 
coach  or  carriage  horseB,  high  and  attractive  front 
action  with  go^  hock  action  are  ettaetitials,  com- 
bined with  a  stylish,  smooth  and  symmetrical 
appearance,  asaociatet^l  with  qnality  in  all  parts. 
In  thes.)  respects,  the  Ctevoland  Hay  did  not 
approach  the  excellence  shown  by  other  breeds. 

lyiftrihition. 

The  Cleveland  Bar  horse  has  cnjoywl  Boaa  popu- 
larity, notably  in  .^nuth  Africi.  Aside  from  Impor- 
tations into  America,  the  horsf  has  beren  taken  to 
South  America,  Australia  and  Sweden. 


Enough  has  been  aaid  to  indicate  the  place  of 
the  ('levtOand  Bay  as  a  coach  horse.  It  has  found 
some  favor  as  a  roadster,  especially  in  Kngland. 
Theiso  horses  are  very  uniform  in  color  and  mark- 
ings, and  they  are  very  prepotr^nt  in  transmitting 
these  characters  whfn  cnimn-d  on  common  marps. 
BecauHH  of  this  their  get  i»  unifonn  n[id  easily 
matched  into  teamm.  Th«ir  size  and  power  and  dij»- 
position  adapt  them  for  ttomti  of  the  work  of  tlia 
farm  better  than  in  the  case  with  any  of  the  other 
breeds  of  light  horses ;  but,  owing  to  their  defic- 
iency in  quality  and  action,  they  have  not  been  gen- 
er^Uly  popular  in  American  horHe-breetlingdiHtricts. 

Organizaium*  and  reeordt. 

There  are  two  atudbooks  in  England,  that  of  tho 
Cleveland  Bay  Horse  Society  and  that  of  the  Coach 
Horae  Society,  devoted  to  the  Yorkshire  Coach. 
In  1885.  the  Cleveland  Bay  Hors**  Society  of  Amer- 
ica WU8  organize)!,  which  regist*"^  both  the  Cleve- 
liind  Bay  and  thi^  Yorkshire  Coach.  The  headquar- 
ters of  the  siKiiety  are  in  West  Orange,  N.  J.  It 
hiiH  published  two  volumes  of  its  studbook. 

Likraturf. 
For  references,  see  page  416. 

Clydesdale  Horse.   Pigs.  464,  -165. 

By  Jdha  A.  Craig. 

This  lireed  has  been  known  for  many  ynn  U 
the  draft  breed  of  Scotland.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest 
breeds  of  British  draft  horses. 

Deneriptioii. 

Clydesdales  have  a  kind.  qui«t  disposition,  good 
courage,  and  enough  spirit.  A  weight  of  1.70O  to 
2.000  pounds  for  stallions  and  1.500  to  1,800 
]K>unda  for  mares,  with  an  average  height  of  16} 
hands  for  the  former  and  16  hands  for  the  latter,. 
may  be  regarded  as  the  standard  for  mature,  well- 
developed  individnals  of  this  breed.  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  modern  Clydesdale,  in  reference  to 
color,  vary  somewhat,  tho  most  prevalent  being 
bay,  brown,  black  or  occasionally  chestnut,  with 
white  markings  on  the  forehead  or  face  and  below 
the  kneefl  and  hocks.  They  vary  more  in  character- 
istic markings  than  mcvtt  of  the  other  draft  breeds, 
but  in  uniformity  of  type  there  is  a  striking  simi- 
larity among  the  beet.  The  head  is  almost  inva- 
riably intelligent.  The  shoulder  is  exceptionally 
good,  which  ^ives  a  free,  ea.iy,  long  stride.  It  is 
somewhat  oblique,  accompanied  by  high  withers. 
The  arm  Li  usually  well  muscled,  and  the  bone  clean 
and  flat.  The  feather  (hair  on  the  legs)  ia  horses 
of  the  lient  quality,  springs  from  the  eilge  of  the 
bon^,  and  is  fine,  silky  and  long.  It  is  not  con- 
sidered of  much  importance  in  itstdf,  but  is  valued 
for  what  it  indicates.  The  assertion  is  made  that 
a  proper  feather  protects  the  coronet  and  buck 
part  of  the  pastern  from  filth  and  mu<(,  and.  con- 
sequently, is  preventative  of  scratches.  It  baa 
often  Wn  objected  to  in  America.  At  any  rate, 
the  feather,  when  fine,  indicates   that   the  other 


456 


HOiWE 


HORSG 


tusues,  tht  bone  &nA  akin,  ar»  a\M  of  I'lnt^  textura. 
Conversely,  when  the-  fyath«r  is  wiry  and  coarse 
and  cnrly  in  this  nj^iun,  it  surety  iJiiHutes  a  lop 
prtKJispciSLH]  to  grease  or  scratcht's,  Tht-  paatf^rTi 
and  feet  have  been  vaatly  improvi-d  in  this  brceii  in 
recent  yearn,  iiwing  to  the  demand  f<ir  more  slope 
and  lenKlh  in  the  fcirmer  and  larger  htmf  head;*  in 
thf!  latLt'ir.  The  8)tnii>  is  true  U^  a  ilpgree  in  rejiiinl  to 
Ihi!  cuuplitiK,  which  at  ont;  tim«  wan  conaidwrvd  Ihi* 
weakness  of  the  breed,  attributable  Ut  the  lack  uf 
depth  ID  the  shorter  ribs.    IncrcasinK  the  depth. 


■^^ 


f^l.'^V,?)^ 


^A; 


U:\ 


■..^^ 


FUE.  «6*.     Baron's  PUde.     Si.td  ta  b«  tlie  sreatvat  Clfdndxla  iIm  In  th*  world. 
Own«d  by  A.  ftud  W.  Slont^oniaTy,  SeolUnd. 

of  body  and  adding  to  the  length  of  the  hinder  ribs 
have  been  elTet'livu  in  lessening  thi;  prevalftnce  of 
thia  criticiam.  Thu  croup  of  the  Clydesdale  '\a 
maacalar,  and  the  ijuartvra  are  dpecially  well  devel- 
oped. The  set  of  the  hocks  is  one  of  the  strong 
pointa  of  the  breed.  A  property  act  hock  furecaiita 
pulling  power,  and  it  a!»o  implieg  freedom  from 
curU  iind  from  poaraenww,  doe  to  thoromghpin  or 
bog  sijavimt.  With  th«  w«Jt  of  the  hock  free  from 
any  filling,  the  latter  works  freer  and  stronger,  and 
is  not  predi.iposed  to  diseanes ;  and  »iich  a  hock  is 
almost  invariably  properly  *et.  for  it  wilt  frequently 
be  noticed  that  it  is  the  straight  hock  that  is  more 
"  meaty  "  am!  subject  to  bog  spavins  and  thorough- 
pins.  Properly  set  hocks,  above  all  othvr  things, 
insure  the  hock  action  which  is  so  greatly  sought 
in  Clyde^Jales.  To  bring  the  hocka  well  under  the 
body  and  nf>t  tn  spread  too  Hiuch  in  passing  each 
other  are  very  ddsirable  attribute^,  and  these  are 
eminently  characteristic  of  the  Clyde^dald's  hind 
action.  The  front  action  in  best  form  is  free, 
snappy  and  folding  at  the  knee,  chiefly  attributable 


to  a  shoulder  of  correct  slope,  and  .Hpring>'  yet 
strong  pasterns. 

HUhry. 

The   Clydesdale  originated   in  the  lowlandu  of 
Scotland,  with  the  county  of  I^anark  ns  the  chief 
c^'ntpr  of  activity  in  prt»diicing  the  breed.    It  la 
frequently  rt^ferreil  to  as  the  flyduadale  district, 
and  is  divided  thrimghuut  its  leugtli  by  the  Clyde 
rivpr.    While  Iho  lowlands  of  Scotland  havfc  long 
been  noted  for  the  hoavy  hurses  bred  there,  yet  it 
was  not  until  the  latter  part 
of    the  eighteenth    century 
that  the  breed  was  much  im- 
pr(ive<l  by  the  im porta tioo  of 
some    heavy    HUlliuns    from 
Flanders,  .lohii  Faterson,  of 
Ijochlyoch,  is  said  to  have  im- 
ported the  tirst  Flemish  stal- 
lion for  thi.s  pnrpane  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century.    The 
Flemish  stalli'ims  were  targe- 
twned  and  heavy  horses  of 
sluggish  te»ip(?rament,  with 
ulow,  awkward  ai;tion.    The 
towlanils    cif    Scotland     are 
very  favorable  for  the  breed- 
ing of  heavy  horses,  as  the 
soil   is   fertile  and  the  pas- 
turiLge  luxuriant;  and  these, 
with  a  suitable  climate,  have 
a  markw!  effect  on  the  char- 
Ekcteristics    of    the    modern 
t'iydesdalc,  as   they  are   fa- 
vorable for  growth  of  Iwne 
and    muscle,   giving  bolh 
^^  4    height  and  sulnitance. 

The  Clydesdale  of  today  ia 
the  resnlt  of  careful  and  per- 
sistent bri-eding  for  definite 
ends.  l*hc  rc-sulls  of  the 
breeders'  efforts  in  a  general 
way  may  Iw  summed  tip  by 
stating  that  they  have  ultimately  been  very  suc- 
cessful in  combining  weight,  ir|Ufility  and  action  as 
the  prime  essentials  of  u  draft  liorse.  These,  buc- 
cesafiilly  unit«d,  produce  a  draft  horse  that  has 
pulling  power,  wearing  quality  or  endurance,  in 
association  with  ability  to  roove  property  at  a 
satisfactory  pace,  either  walking  or  trotting.  The 
evolution  of  this  breed  of  draft  horses  is  more 
than  usually  interesting  because  of  thr>  dwided 
views  of  the  home  brewers  and  the  singleness  of 
purpose  which  they  have  shown.  The  progre«  has 
l>een  secured  through  concentration  on  one  fostare 
after  another,  until  it  ppjdnced  the  desired  r<>>- 
sults.  Without  government  direction  or  aid  lo 
secure  uniformity  of  progress,  it  is  safe  t«  say 
that  the  Scottish  breeders  have  accomplished  as 
marked  improvement  in  their  draft  horses  as  the 
breeders  of  any  other  nation,  and  the  modem 
Clydetuiale  of  accepted  type  posseasn  ioherited 
characteristics  so  fixed  by  coa8iBt«nt  breeding 
they  are  likely  to  be  passed  on  to  succeeding 
rations.    Archibald  MocNeiloge,  secretary 


>i 


hented  h 

nicthst  ^H 

ggeoe-  ^W 

of  the  J 


HORSE 


HORSE 


457 


Clydeidale  Horse  Society  of  Scotland,  in  a  review 
(Famous  Clyde«dale  Sires,  Transactions  of  High- 
lanJ  and  AffT'Cultnral  Society,  Vol.  IX,  1897)  of 
the  most  noted  Clydesdale  sires  from  Champion  to 
MacGregor  1487,  sliowij  the  evolution  of  a  type 
from  a  coarse  prototypp,  which  the  author  de^ribes 
as  being  a  horse  of  weight  with  plenty  of  strength 
of  bone,  but  not  at  all  "right  at  the  ground"  in  the 
mo<Jem  seTiis&,  nor  as  "sweet"  in  his  limbs  as  horses 
are  Uked  now. 

For  a  century  the  Clydeiwlale  breeders  in  Scot- 
land worlted  without  results  that  were  striking  on 
tilt)  surface,  but  when  this  cycle  had  pasawl,  the 
evolution  of  such  sires  as  Prince  of  Wales  (6T;i) 
and  Darntey  i'222l  had  crowned  their  efforts.  The 
former  U  crwliu-d  with  pu8.wiwing  style  and  action 
in  an  unuHual  degree,  anil  tliutte  qualities  were  very 
dwirabie  to  graft  on  to  the  breed  at  that  lime. 
But  with  the  priNiuction  of  Darnley  (222),  a  sire 
posituftsing  the  trut!  balance  of  qualitiej«  which  mark 
the  ssrvicwible  draft  horse,  with  thu  piiwer  Ut 
reproduce  these,  the  riydt'sdait.'  breed  reci^ivwl  an 
impetus  that  effectively  disarmed  the  old*  time 
criticism  of  "light  middles."  From  the  Prince  of 
Wale*!  line  have  cnme  IVince  of  Albion  (G17S),  said 
to  be  the  highest-priced  twi»-year-oId  draft  h«rw 
ever  Sdld,  he  bringing  i::-t,0<H).  He  was,  in  turn,  the 
sireof  thetwo-year-i)ld  filly.fluaenof  lhHlioHe8,with 
a  similar  reeurd,  Hha  liriiiging  £I,('XK}.  Also,  from 
the  Prince  of  Wak-s  cAmu  (Viiric  {1()H7I,  exported 
to  Scotland  from  the  stud  of  Col.  UuSwrt  Holloway, 
Alexis,  IlliuDiH,  one  of  the  leading  imjiorters  of 
ClydesHales  in  America.  From  the  Darnley  line 
have  come  Macdregor  (I4ft7),  Baron's  Pride  (3122) 
(i-'ig.  44vl)  M[-Qufipn  fUBl."^);  and  in  siirh  as  these 
the  riyde»*tlali*  bnr'eiifrfl  Becorud  that  combination 
of  substance,  ijuality  and  actiun.  with  right  set  of 
IeR8,for  which  thi-y  had  striven  long  and  assiduonsly. 
Beginning  with  a  prototype  ctiarse  and  weighty,  it 
was  refined  without  liws  of  Biibslance  ;  aniE  then  by 
concentrating  IhpirntteTition  siicccASively  on  style, 
action,  set  of  legs,  slnim  (if  [Kwtems,  through  years 
of  critieiem  and  discusnion,  the  Cljilt^silale  of  Indny 
emerges  with  the  characteriHtics  deairpd  very  jirii- 
BOuncfd,and  inaddition,eqai[ii>ed  to  transmit  them. 

In  their  adherence  to  quality,  moaning  thereby 
texture  of  hone,  cleanness  of  joints  and  fineness  of 
skin  and  cnat  and  feather,  the  Scotch  breeders 
maiie  no  mistake  in  so  improving  the  breed  at  an 
early  day,  for  it  has  nut  only  added  to  the  appear- 
anL-e  of  thi!  individuals,  to  free  them  from  the 
charge  of  growtness  «f  joints  and  coarseness  of 
bone,  but  it  has  al^o  added  materially  to  the^ir  du- 
rability nnder  the  strain  uf  nti;ady  service.  FinenesB 
of  feather  and  sloping  pasterns  noemL-d  Hne  fancy 
points  to  the  uninitiated,  but  a  steady  ilemand  for 
them  improved  the  quality  of  the  Clydesdale  at  a 
rapid  rate.  The  breeders  previous  to  this  had  con- 
C'entraled  on  action  with  a  zeal  that  has  hardly 
been  equaled  by  the  bree<lers  of  any  other  breed 
of  horses.  The  demand  l)ecame  insistent  for  action 
in  show  and  breeding  stock,  and  the  result  is  that, 
in  the  possession  of  this  feature,  judged  from  a 
purely  mechanical  standpoint,  the  breed  has  made 
marreloDs  progrese.  The  action  required  had  to  be 


straight,  regular  and  free,  both  at  the  walk  and  at 
the  trot,  with  a  free  fieicion  of  the  knee,  a  springi- 
ness to  the  pastern  and  a  straight  and  ctose  pas- 
sage of  the  hocks.  In  the  effort  to  secnre  these 
improvements,  the  Scotch  brothers  were  verj-  ably 
supported  by  the  Ami-rican  breeders,  although  the 
latter  did  not  feel  tike  going  so  far  in  the  securing 
of  quality  as  the  home  breeders.  It  is  very  likely 
that  the  latter  felt  some  misgivings  on  the  point, 
for  there  i^  no  doubt  but  that  the  slight  infusion  of 
Shire  blood,  which  was  ma*le  into  the  Clydesdale, 
chiefly  through  the  use  of  Prince  of  Wales  (<>7.3) 
blood,  is,  to  some  degrei*.  evidL-nci?  that  they  wished 
to  regain  some  substance  and  weight,  which,  for 
the  time  being,  had  been  sacrificed  to  a  degree  for 
quality. 

The  Clydesdale  breeders  ultimately  secured  what 
they  had  striven  for.  even  though  little  atti-ntion 
has  been  paid  to  the  American  dislike  for  splashes 
of  white  on  tegs  »r  liiHly.  In  this  connection  it  may 
Iw  givvn  as  a  general  prim^iple  that  while  it  Is  well 
to  bear  in  mind  the  ptsculiur  reiiuirements  of  any 
trade,  yet  it  is  well  to  be  careful  in  the  matter  of 
humoring  any  fad  as  to  color  or  any  other  fancy 
point,  witen  it  clashes  in  any  way  with  real  essen- 
tials. Having  secured  the  latter,  then  the  question 
of  markings  and  color  may  properly  he  allowed  to 
enter  as  a  su]kStanti.H]  fiictor.  Another  feature  is 
that  the  history  uf  the  live-stock  traiJe  in  this 
country  indicates  that  tu  cater  to  a  color,  usjiecially 
of  a  fad,  has  its  dangers.  The  preference  for  red 
among  Shorthorn  admirers  carried  to  the  point  of 
a  prejudice  against  the  roan,  has  reacted,  although 
nnt  until  the  breed  had  jiuffered  as  a  cnnsetiuence. 
The  Fercheron  breeders  submerged  the  old  gray 


V<; 


riC.  4«3.    A  Clrdeidale  llUr. 

Perchenm  and  gave  pn.'ferfnce  Ut  the  more 
modern  black  in  answer  to  .\merican  preference, 
aad  now  that  the  demand  uf  the  draft-horse  market 
in  this  country  is  said  to  place  a  pn.-mium  on  grays, 
the  breeders  will  have  to  swing  back  if  American 
preference  is  to  be  recognized.  Ltnifnrmity  of  color 
and  attractive  markings  are  admitted  by  every  one 
to  be  desired,  and  the  Clydwdale  is  the  sufferer  for 
bizarre  markings. 


458 


HORSE 


HORSE 


In  America.— Ihe  first  importatinns  weio  mai^ 
into  Cnnadii  in  ISlLI,  when  Arrhibrild  WanI,  of 
Markham,  OnLin'u,  inip<irtfil  Gn\v  C'IviIp,  7ft  ;  Ihnv 
jrearH  hilar,  K,  .fohn^tm,  of  Scar'wiruuKh,  (IntEirii), 
importc'il  An-t^reinn.  ISl.  Otlier  irniJortatioriK  wuro 
maiEe  into  Canuila  in  18.'>0-IJl-r>4.  Abaut  twenty 
years  lattir  C'lyilosdalfs  were  importit!  tu  the  United 
States,  both  directly  friim  Scotland  and  from 
Canada  as  well.  The  largest  importations  were 
made  JiftiT  18fi(l,  and  in  the  following;  IwcIva  venra 
many  tlioiii4Hnd»  of  both  w^xes  were  ^)^^ut;nt  to 
America.  They  art  now  wiJuIy  dialrilutwl,  and 
genvratly  knuwn  and  uiud. 

Dutribution. 

The  adaptability  of  the  C'lydeadale,  has  leii  to  n 
wider  di.stributJon  of  it  than  of  any  of  the  other 
draft  breeds.  It  hits  found  favor  in  the  leading 
Gn;;liHh<H|K>Hkin|j  countrit^,  Jnt;1iidin^,  in  aiJdition 
to  the  Unit'ed  Stated,  Tanuda,  Australia  sod  New 
Keaiand.  The  Argeiitinu  Ik-pubJic  has  imjiurti-d 
many  of  the  beat,  while  several  of  the  Buro]X'an 
nations,  notably  Germany,  Sweden  and  Rnssia, 
have  lieen  niont  active  In  making  importations.  It 
has  al3o  fmmd  its  way  int'j  Soath  Africa.  On  this 
continent,  the  breH]  has  lieen  moi^t  popular  in 
Canada,  and  the  good  elfecitit  uf  th<>  use  of  thi» 
breed!  In  grading  up  farm  marea  to  produce  dnifl- 
era  aervicealnlv  on  the  farm  and  marketabb  on  tht- 
best  markcla.  may  be  seen  on  almost  any  Canadian 
farm,  while  on  the  streets  of  the  largo  Canadian 
cities,  Buch  as  Toronto,  Hamilton  and  WioniDcg. 
the  teams  attached  to  the  lorries,  showing  in  their 
characteristics  Clydewlale  hree<ling,  will  compare 
favorably  with  any  others  doing  like  service  under 
similar  conditions. 

U*ea. 

For  draft.— The  C'lydeedale  UessentUlly  a  draft 
horse,  bred  for  that  purpose  alont.  His  free, 
straight,  rapid  gait,  and  strong,  heavy  frame,  give 
him  high  rank  among  draft  breeds. 

For  croMiiiff. — Good  types  of  pure-bred  Clydes- 
dales on  native  draft  mares  have  given  grades 
with  con3idfn»blc.snai>  and  power,  well  adapted  for 
milium  draft  work  in  the  city  and  on  tho  farm. 

The  secretary  of  the  American  Clydtrsdale  Asso- 
ciation has  reported  the  sale  of  four  draft  geld- 
ings, largely  of  Clydesdale  breeding,  on  the  Tnion 
Stock  Yards  market  for  $3.LJiX).  to  Nelson  Morris 
Company.  .Sales  by  private  treaty  are  not  reported 
to  the  extent  that  auction  sales  are,  hot  this, 
however,  is  considered  to  bo  a  reci<rd  price  on 
the  Union  Stock  Yards'  market  It  is,  in  a  degree, 
an  index  to  the  merit  attainable  by  horses  of  this 
extraction  for  draft  purposes. 

Orgnnizatwiit  and  re^nrtfe. 

In  1877.  the  .\meric3n  Clydesdale  Horse  Asso- 
ciation was  formed  to  look  aft«r  the  interest  of 
this  breed  in  America,  and  up  to  1907,  about  15,- 
000  registrations  had  been  entered,  there  hanng 
been  over  1.000  entries  during  the  past  year.  The 
Scotch  Clydesdale  Horse  Society  was  organised  in 
1878,  and   it   has  a  registration  of  over  30,000 


stallions  and  marei!.  Each  of  these  aftHOcialions 
uwues  a  stud  book,  the  American  Association  having 
IiiibliwhinJ  ihirt'i'ii  volmnea  and  thu  Scotth  Society 
twenty-ninu  volumes.  The  head(|uarterB  of  the 
AniiTicun  Asi^ociatioii  are  in  the  Union  StOQk< 
Yards,  Chicago. 

LUiTafiiTF. 

For  n^ferencefi,  s**  page  416. 

French  Coach  Horse.   Fig.  466. 

Hy  Jukn  A.  t'raig. 

Tbf  iiame"l'Yenc]i  coach  "  originated  in  America, 
and  it  is  here  the  otficial  designation  nf  this  breed 
of  coach  horses,  although  it  is  not  in  use  in  France, 
where  the  nnme  'Mtemi-Sang"  prevails. 

There  baa  always  Wt-n  a  «lrong  demand  in  m(»t] 
of  the  horsi"  marketn  of  tho  world  for  high<-laa8i 
coach  or  carriage  teams.  Thu  fact  that  carriage 
tvums  of  right  type  and  action  bring  unusually 
high  iiric*^8  in  the  horse  markets  has  always  beeSil 
a  strong  stimulus  for  their  pnxiuction.  This  of  it- 
self has  led  to  the  development  of  hn;eds  suitable 
for  the  prodnctiiin  of  such  honwa  in  several  coun- 
tries, but  an  additional  stimulus  was  added  tu  the 
production  of  the  French  coach  tbroufih  tha  French 
government  being  actuated  by  the  desire  to  supply 
its  army  with  the  best  remounts.  The  wisdom  of 
this  has  already  accruiiJ  to  the  ad\'antage  of  the 
private  individual,  for  superior  carriage  horses  are 
always  at  a  preiniitm,  and  it  remains  for  a  war  t^o 
bring  to  the  attention  of  other  nations  the  sufierior 
foresight  with  which  Prance  has  provided  for  her 
cavalry  and  other  army  corps  in  the  matter  of  re- 
mounts. It  is  a  national  work,  the  matured  fruit 
of  which  will  t>e  fully  apparent  only  in  a  national 
crisis  when  most  needed. 

Drgcrtption. 

Cwrk  lifpr.  —The  French  coach  horse  of  the  coach 
or  "carro«»ier"  tyi>e  is  in  every  essential  a  coach 
or  carriage  horse  according  to  the  market  require- 
ments. These  horses  «tfind.  on  an  average,  sixt^ei 
hands  high,  and  in  woight  may  vary  from  ten 
fourteen  hundred  pounds.  Most  of  the  horses  of  thi 
tjTW  are  upstanding,  carrying  their  heads  and  tail«l 
high  when  in  motion  or  at  rest.  They  are  5mo<»th. 
symmetrical  and  invariably  of  fine  (quality,  with 
very  graceful  movement,  havinc  high  and  hold 
knee  action,  with  regtilar.  uplifting,  hock  action. 
They  have  intelligent  heads,  graceful  necks, 
snugly  ribbed  bodies,  and  muscular  quarters.  If 
any  part  of  the  conformation  might  l>e  cbosei 
as  fit  for  general  criticism,  it  would  be  the  lei 
although  these,  in  most  instances,  are  well 
and  have  every  evidence  of  quality.  There  is 
airiness  and  gracefulness  about  a  well  set-up  PYencI 
coacher.that  is  hard  to  find  in  any  other  coach^ 
breed.  It  is  due  chiefly  to  their  unusual  length  and 
gracefulness  of  neck,  in  conjunction  with  a  spirit 
of  alertness  in  movement  or  stattiesquencss 
standing  which,  besides  Udng  due  to  bodily  cob-1 
formation,  is  also  traceable  to  the  excellent  train* 
ing  they  receive  to  t«how  their  qualities  to  the 


HORSE 


HORSE 


459 


iwivantage.  The  (Mimrnon  colore  are  bay,  lirown  or 
htack.  ('on«i(ltTioK  tht-  niixod  bri'udin)?  followed  in 
evolving  the  French  euach,  it  it*  excL'ptionally  uni- 
form in  type,  a  resnlt  doe  likely  to  the  uniformity 
in  the  stindanln  f>f  the  nmn  who  a^  directors  hiivp 
control  of  the  govi>nini*'tit  hreeilinj;  ciperationrt.  The 
grRat<<»t  t«acc4»4.<4  in  prcxiucinf;  tht^  moMt  handsomts 
and  stylit^h  carriaKB  or  ciiac-h  horpt«s  has  lieen 
liy  luiinK  murut  aiiproarhiii);  as  neurly  as  poft- 
sibk'  thf  type  dt^sircd,  with  as  much  quality 
and  action  as  po8.sible. 

The  troitJng  type.  -  The  production  of  the 
trotting  type  for  m:iny  piirptines  has  iieen 
enconragiyl  Hince  ISfiR,  when  tho  French  Rtiv- 
ernioent  bejtan  offerinK  prizuB  fur  trultinj: 
races,  with  thy  upt'cial  object  of  oncouruKinjf  Iork- 
distance  trottin}:;.  more  es|>ocially  under  the  saddle. 
The  races  are  usually  for  distances  varying  from 
two  to  three  mites,  and  are  run  over  snd  ground. 
The  reconis  are  eHUiblished  by  the  kiinmelri!,  which 
ia  about  five-einhthH  of  a  mile,  without  reference 
to  whether  the  race  extended  one  or  three  miles. 
They  are  made  under  saddle  from  a  etanding  start 
and  carrying  not  less  than  12U  pounds.  Aa  might 
he  expected,  those  nf  the  trotting  type  are  racier 
in  appearanc4>,  being  aomewhat  like  »nr  own  trot- 
ters, finely  drawn,  more  anj^n^lar  than  the  coach 
type,  rangier  in  api>eurance  and  somewhat  better 
in  qnality.  A  home  of  stamina  and  substance,  aa 
well  as  speed,  is  required,  for  it  ia  to  bo  remem- 
bered that  tho  racc&  are  for  long  distances  over 
tarf.  which  demands  strong,  hold  going  and  pow- 
erful action.  [8[iFed  reoords  and  races  Are  discossed 
on  the  following  page.] 

(n  the  latter  part  of  the  aeventeeith  century,  the 
French  government,  by  establiahing  the  Adminis- 
tration dt's  Haras,  began  the  systematic  improve- 
ment of  their  horses,  and  a.?  early  as  IfiftO  there 
were  1,600  stallions  known  aa  "royal"  or  "ap- 
pirovtsd."  During  the  many  years  of  disturbance  in 
France,  changes  of  government  and  national 
reverseft.  the  work  has  gone  steadily  on  to  tho 
present  day.  In  17A9,  there  were  M.STiy  stallions 
in  the  government  service,  and  at  tho  present  time 
provision  is  made  for  the  maintenance  of  R.'tOO 
government  .ttallions,  mostly  kept  in  that  part  of 
France  west  of  Paris,  and  pjirticularly  in  the 
province  or  district  nf  N'urniandy.  It  is  in  thrA 
section  that  the  bnfed  has  hail  \\»  greatut«t  growth, 
and  it  was  because  of  this  that  some  of  the  earlier 
im[iortation.t  werecaMed  .\ng!o-Normans.  In  IK-lS. 
a  sttidlsjok  was  established,  and  in  1870  the 
department  of  agriculture  w:us  given  control  of 
the  government  horse-bpewling  intorest-'i  under  the 
suiHirvisiim  of  »  director  general  and  staff  of 
inspet-'tont.  Tlie  goveniment  coutrtd  \^  excrciHe<l  in 
a  way  very  similar  to  that  descrihwl  in  discussing 
the  Percheron,  except  that  the  government,  in  the 
case  of  the  coach  horses,  does  most  of  the  breetl- 
ing,  and  consequently  branded  stallions  among  the 
French  coachera  are  not  bo  common  as  among  the 
draft  bree'Uu  Afconiing  to  the  report  of  the 
Director  Gvnerai  for  19^t,  about  fifteen  hundred 


slallinns  owne<l  liy  private  parties  were  approved 
and  authorised.  The  eaine  classas  are  made  as  in 
tho  case  of  the  draft  breL-ds,  there  Iteing  (1)  the 
stallions  in  the  government  service.  (2)  the  stal- 
lions sulwidixed  to  the  extent  of  $100  to  f^l.OOO 
yearly  while  approved,  and  (3)  the  stallions  author- 
isod  for  public  [lutnmage.  .\ll  others  are  prevented 
by  a  law  jwisKed  in  ISS.'i  from 
standing  at  public  service,  al- 
though any  owner,  at  his  discrv- 


V 


.^' 


IWCi 


PJR.  Wb.    Pnnrb  ciucli  mm.    UodlMlc*  3lV4.  ^ 

tion,  may  use  such  for  private  purpo«es,  a  practice 
that  is  nut  enrouragt^i. 

In  the  breeding  o|)erati<>n8  of  the  government,  a 
great  variety  of  sourceft  are  drawn  on.  Thorough- 
breds have  been  very  extensively  imported  from 
England  since  the  early  days  of  the  bre^d.  and 
Hackneys  have  been  freely  imported  and  liberally 
n-sed ;  in  the  inception  of  the  breed,  twenty  to 
thirty  Hackneys  were  imported  annually.  Heavy 
importations  of  .<Vraliians  and  others  from  the 
Orient,  have  been  made,  particularly  in  the  early 
stages  of  government  control,  and  even  stallions  of 
American  breeding  have  he<:n  used.  Niger,  whose 
record  is  ii«oted  eWwhere  as  among  the  b«it,  waa 
sired  by  the  Hackney  stallion  Norfolk  Phenomenon, 
and  had  an  American -bred  mare  for  his  ilam. 
I)<>scendants  of  Norfolk  Phenomenon  were  a  popu- 
lar line  of  bree*iing,  and  enter  largely  into  the 
p&digrees  of  many  of  the  Dumi-ynng.  Another 
etallion  that  ha<l  considerable  to  do  with  the  better 
type  was  Acmulns  by  Mambrino  Pilot,  and  out  of 
a  Mnrgan-lired  mare.  Btack  Hess,  cnn.necitiently 
representing  one  of  the  idd  strains,  common  among 
our  Standardbred  trotters.  This  la  mentioned  to 
indicate  fnrth<:r  the  variety  of  sources  drawn  on 
for  foundation  stock.  In  the  production  of  trotters 
among  the  French  coach  horses,  one  stallion, 
FuAC'hia,  holds  about  the  i?ame  relation  to  the  brwd 
as  Hambletonian  10  does  to  that  of  our  American 
Standardbred  trotters,  in  the  vxt«nt  to  which  the 
blo(Hl  of  each  predominates  in  the  respective  breed*. 

In  America.  -The  French  coach  horse  was  most 
oxt^^nsively  imported  to  thi*  country  during  the 
eighties,  mnny  of  them  coming  to  Ibe  eastern  statea. 


460 


HORSE 


HOltSG 


Those  sent  west  were  miwt  largely  taken  tn  the 
states  of  Illinoiis  and  Ohio.  In  the  naidtjk  west  they 
have  been  liherally  ijutninizcl.  and  when  the  foun- 
dation mares  wvre  of  i^uitable  size  and  type,  and  a 
fair  dcgrt't'  of  action,  hitjh-clasa  carriajfe  horses 
have  been  produced.  The  scarcity  of  the  profjer 
type  of  mares  to  breed  to  such  stallioni*  militaU-d 
against  the  reputation  of  tho  lireed  for  crn**ing 
pnrposea  ;  and  specially  ha*  the  scart-ity  of  genuine 
coach  action  been  the  source  of  some  disappoint- 
ment. 

PiitrihiUioa. 

Thii  French  coach  horse  haa  heen  imported  into 
many  part*  of  Europe  and  .\merica,  but  has  not 
been  bred  Byetomatically  on  a  laT^  BcalL>  in  many 
parti  of  the  country.  Aa  hiw  bpen  auid,  it  ut  found 
in  America  chiefly  in  the  eafltern  states,  IllinoiH. 
and  Ohio  being,  perhaps,  the  leaders. 

Owinjr  to  tho  nceda  of  the  army,  the  French 
coach  horse  in  France  is  represented  by  two  types, 
referred  to  as  the  Pemi-Sang  trotteur.  or  those  of 
the  trotting  type,  and  the  I>emi-Sang  carrojwitT,  or 
those  of  the  coach  type.  There  are  now  two  ntud- 
hooks  in  France  for  the  retiistration  of  these :  The 
French  Studltook,  A  Pn-Riater  of  Demi-Sang  HortteR 
Bora  and  Imported  in  France,  established  in  IKVA; 
and  the  Studbook  Trotteur.  compiled  and  published 
in  1907.  Records  had  been  compiled  before  this, 
but  only  in  recent  years  has  the  full  importance  of 
these  become  manifest  to  the  patrona  of  the  breed. 

Speed  recants  and  roTM. 

Aa  to  speed,  M.  W.  Dunham,  who  has  been  an 
exteMJve  iniportir  anil  breudwr,  ha«  compilt-d  the 
following  data  from  official  records ;  In  1891,  there 
were  1.399  contestants  in  races,  312  of  which 
trottcl  races  of  two  to  three  and  three-fourth? 
mile*  at  left.1  than  three  minutes  per  mile ;  1*17 
under  2:."i0,  112  under  2:4ri  and  fi2  under  2:40. 
(Ine  hundred  and  one  of  the  312  were  three-year- 
olds.  The  avurage  distance  was  2^\  miles ;  aver- 
age time  per  mile,  2;r)0;  fa.stest  time  for  thri-e- 
year-olds.  distance  2i  niileft,rt:33;  fastest  time  for 
five-  to  seven-y ear-olds.  diHtance  3i  milca?.  8  minutes. 
In  further  reference  to  speed  it  may  be  noted  that  in 
1877.  Z.winthe  is  orwlitt^d  with  having  trottfd  JSJ 
miles  over  a  gnnd  rtiwl  in  <^9  minutes,  and  Niger 
in  1873  trotted  2i  miles  in  Gihr^.  To  prevent  the 
sacrifice  of  size  for  spiked,  it  is  asserted  by  the 
authority  just  previously  ({uoted  that  a  law  was 
enacted  excluding  all  horses  from  public  raet.-«  that 
were  under  lifteen  and  one-fourth  hands  high. 

As  ilhiRtrating  the  conditinnK  under  which  moot 
of  the  races  art*  held,  the  Dprliv  of  Rouen  may  l« 
cit«<l.  It  is  worth  20,000  francs,  made  for  Ihrp*"- 
year-rtlds,  to  be  entered  the  year  of  their  birth, 
and  trotted  in  June  on  tuff  trat-:!;  two  milea  under 
saddle.  fiillL-s  to  carry  12U  pounds, colts  ]'2ii  pounds. 
From  these  conditions  and  the  data  submitted,  it 
is  easy  to  underi«tand  that  the  government'^  aim  ts 
to  encourage  K)>eed  at  the  trot  without  sacriticing 
Ktamina  or  suluttance. 


The  use  of  the  French  coach  horse  /or  carriage, 
cavalry  and  fast  liaddle  purposes  will  have  Iteen 
gathered  from  the  preceding  discussion.  U  remains 
to  mention  the  use  of  French  coach  stallions  on 
common  mares  bred  in  America  for  the  production 
of  a  grade  coach  horse  for  general  city  purposes. 
Considerable  success  has  followed  such  e'fforts  when 
pure-bred  stallions  have  been  used.  Half-  and  three- 
quarter-bred  coachers  have  commanded  high  prices 
on  the  market. 

OrffiinUaiiont  and  record*. 

The  fltudbooks  devoted  to  this  breed  in  France 
are  mentioned  under  typej.  Tho  French  Jockey 
('Jul,  organized  in  18:^3.  has  been  responsible  for 
much  of  the  development  of  the  breed.  The  French 
coach  is  represented  in  America  by  two  aocieties, 
the  French  Coach  Horse  Society  of  .America, 
organized  iu  18^  with  the  present  secretary  at 
(.^k  Park,  Illinois,  and  the  French  Coach  Horse 
Registry  ("ompany.  organized  in  10(U,  with  head- 
quarters in  Columbus.  Ohio.  Each  society  pub- 
lished the  first  volume  of  its  stndbook  in  1906. 

Lilnfitarr. 
For  references,  see  page  416. 

Frendi  Draft  Horse.     Figa.  487,  468. 

By  If.  L  Otrhjif. 

A  numlier  of  breeds  and  tJTies  of  draft  horses 
have  been  developed  in  France,  and  specimens  of 
most  of  them  have  been  introduced  into  .■Vmerica 
simply  as  French  draft  horses.  This  has  led  to 
some  confusion  in  the  names,  as  there  is  do  single 
French  draft  bru-ed,  but  rather  several  distinct 
brt'wls  or  typers  of  French  draft  hnrscs.  The  French 
draft  horse  l)est  known  in  America  \s  the  Per- 
chenin  (see  pages478-t81).  Othens  less  well  known 
are  the  Anlennats;,  Boalonnais,  Breton  and  Niver- 
naise,  which  are  here  given  brief  treatmenL  The 
Picanly  draft  horse  has  been  said  to  be  a  variety 
or  type  of  the  Boulonnais.  By  some  writers  it  la 
held  to  be  a  Belgian  breed. 

Akdbnnais  Hoiisb. 

This  draft  breed  or  type  is  a  native  of  Ardennai-s 
adjoining  the  ftetgian  frontier  in  northeastern 
France,  and  resemliles  very  much  in  type  and  char- 
acteristics the  Belgian  draft  horse.  It  is  a  very 
blocky,  ciimpjict  breed  of  great  usefulness  for  pro- 
ducing heavy  farm  "chunks,"  and  one  type  is  osed 
largely  as  heavy  draft  horses.  Individuals  of  this 
breed  scarcely  etjnal  in  size  the  Belgians,  but  are  of 
the  same  general  typi'.  TIip  heails  are  strong,  with 
smiill  eyes  and  e.irs,  shtjrt,  thick  necks,  heavy  shoul- 
dera  and  short,  thick  and  compact  bodies.  The  legs 
ane  short,  of  fairly  good  <)uality,  although  the  feet 
are  high  and  narrow.  Thi-  color  of  the  .Ardennais 
is  more  frequently  chestnut  and  roan  than  any- 
thing else,  although  bay  and  brown  are  aotnetimee 
found.  Gray  is  not  common  and  is  not  looked 
on  with  faviir.  When  irapi>rLed  into  this  country, 
horses  of  this  bribed  are  eligible  for  registralidD  in 


HORSE 


HORSE 


461 


the  stodbook  of  the  National  French  Draft  Horee 
Aflftociatton  of  America. 

BOLljOKNAIft  KoitSR.   Fig.  467. 

Tlie  head  of  the  Boiilonnjuti  in  ot  koikI  Kise,  bultlK 
broaii  in  the  forehc-id  and  with  a  Jartjer  tfva  than 
the  Perchcror.  and  somewhat  morcr  clean-cnt  about 


PiK.  4A7.   Champion  Bonloaaals  bom.    BLeoit*.  (No.Siu^) 

the  Inwer  jiart  of  tlit-  liL-ad.  Thp  neck  is  medium 
in  len^h  and  ck'an  -cut.  The  »hnulderH  an;  laid 
well  into  the  lioily  and  well  musclwi.  The  body  is 
compnct  and  dwp-ribht-d,  with  short  and  broad 
bock  and  wt'tl-tnusL-k-d  loin^.  The  croup  and  rump 
are  inclined  Vi  l«e  short  and  with  a  luw-set  tail. 
The  hind -quarters  are  muiwulnr  and  broad  with 
well-filleii  thij^hs.  The  legs  and  ff<^t  ara  frte  from 
Buperflmma  hair  and  are  p«jwi-twt;d  of  exceHent 
quality.  Many  AmiTit-ana  favor  the  feet  of  the 
Boulonnatfi  in  pri-ffivnoe  to  those  of  any  of  the 
other  French  br^edti.  On  the  whole,  the  feet  are 
lirger,  more  rouniliii  and  the  pa.'iterns  have  more 
nlope  than  the  PiTcheronn.  Tht*  rolors  nro  dapple 
gray,  dark  iron-gray,  bUck,  brown  and  occaaion- 
ally  chedtnut. 

The  northcrri  part  of  France  haa  l)©on  particn- 
larly  fertile  in  the  production  of  high-class  horses 
of  %'arlon»  typ«".  This  has  been  due  in  part  to  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  climate  and  to  the  char- 
acter of  fiMk!  on  which  they  have  been  ft»d,  and  in 
part  also  to  the  to^te  and  temperament  of  the 
people  in  this  Ki-ction.  In  addition  to  the  FerchiTon 
and  Dfmi'^^ng  Sormand,  or  French  coach  h'Tsw-, 
there  have  btt-n  deveioju-d  in  this  rejcion  R^vcral 
distinctive  types  or  breeds  ranging  in  character- 
istics from  coach  horj>es  to  the  heaviest  tyiw  of 
draft  animals. 

The  Boulonnais  breed  originated  in  the  Boulogne 
district  in  northeastern  France  adjoining  R^-Iuium. 
In  eummon  with  the  other  draft  breeds  of  France, 
the  Boutonnais  horjtes  without  doubt  had  their 
origin  in  the  heavy  Flemish  burses.  In  their  general 
charHctAristtcs  they  v^ry  much  resemble  the  Per- 
cheron,  so  moch  so  that  it  is  Impossible  in  the  best 
specimerw  l*»  distinguish  one  from  the  other.  In 
recent  years  more  animals  of  gray  col^r  are  to 
be  foand  among  the  BonlonnaU  than  among  the 
Percherons,  and  there  has  probably  been  luB  clunge 
and  improvement  in  type  in  the  Boulonnais  bned 
than  in  the  Perehemns.  They  are  not  ■m  large  u  the 
P^srcberons,  and  somewhat  leas  refined,  on  the  rholo. 


The  breed  has  an  excellent  reputation  in  its  native 
country,  where  an  association  ha^  b^n  foniied  and 
a  studhook  kept  in  the  interest  of  the  breed.  It 
b:U4  been  imported  in  targe  Qumbors  to  America 
and  has  more  largely  than  any  other  breed  made 
up  what  ia  known  aa  the  French  dr^ft  breed. 

This  brt'L'd  is  growing  in  popnlarity  in  America, 
and  its  interests,  together  with  other  French  draft 
breeds,  are  represented  in  the  National  French 
Draft  AssOi'iatiun  of  America,  which  piil>li«he«  a 
Filudbciok.  This  Assf>c.iation  was  tirnt  organize)!  ns 
the  National  Norman  Horwt  Association  in  ISTfi, 
but  its  titlt!  wart  chanK<il  to  thd  one  that  it  now 
bears  in  !SSn.  The  Aaiiuciatiim  tbua  far  ha*t  pul)- 
lisliod  nin«  Htudbwoks.  The  priaont  huadquarters 
of  the  Association  arci  at  Denver,  Colorado, 

Brbton  Hok3B.  Pig.  468. 

This  breed  of  light  draft  or  general -purpose 
horses  belongs  to  Brittany,  in  the  western  part  of 
France  in  a  Bectinn  of  ccmntry  that  is  much  broken 
in  surface. 

In  general,  these  horses  have  intelligent  heads, 
cWan-cut  nfcksof  medium  length,  beautiful,  round, 
wt'U-muflcled  bodies  with  short  backs  and  rather 
longer  and  straighter  croups  and  romps  than  the 
other  French  hrei-d.'*,  and  with  more  quality  in  the 
legs  and  feet,  the  latter  Iteing  large  and  more 
nmnded  in  form  than  the  PePchtTnn  nr  the  Boulon- 
nais.  In  color  they  ar«  dapjdivgray,  with  very 
few  exceptions. 

Brittany  has  been  prominent  in  horse-breeding  for 
many  years,  although  the  animals  bred  are  rather  of 
a  miscellaneous  ty|>e.  The  Breton  horses  are  exceed- 
ingly useful  and  of  much  the  same  general  character 
as  the  old-style  Perc herons,  but  are  smaller  and  more 
refineil  in  type.   Many  of  the  Percheron  stallions 


^^. 


/- 


vS 


■^t? 


7$m 


Pig.  4H.    A  Bietoa  SUUUm. 


have  been  token  into  this  district  in  r«cent  yeare 
in  an  effort  to  improve  the  brw'd  in  si?*  and  char- 
acter. It  ia  stated  by  sf>me  hi.-«t«riana  that  EnglLsh 
races  have  been  introduced  into  this  section,  which 
possibly  accounts  for  the  more  luxuriant  growth  of 
hair  aboat  the  legs.  Ri>prw(entatlves  of  this  type 
of  horses  are  used  very  largely  in  France  as  omnl- 


HORSE 


HORSE 


boK  hf>rsM  in  the  citiea.  Tht*y  havo  not  been 
imijorted  to  this  cuuntry  to  anj'  (;n:ut  i>xU-nt,  [injb- 
al)ly  (^wi^^;  to  their  lat^lc  of  size  anil  weight. 

This  brood  may  bo  regigtorM  in  thfc  stojbook  of 
the  National.  French  Draft  Horse  Aiuociation  of 
America. 

NiVERNATSB  HORHB. 

The  NivemiiiRe  is  a  breeil  nf  draft  horses  of 
French  (»rit;in.  The  horwH  are  (if  lari^e  srzi',  with 
good  l^nj^th  nf  neck,  wull-form«d  bddiuft  of  jjowd 
rangth,  maftsive  ahtiuldt'r*!  and  hind-fiuarturB,  very 
strong  boned,  i^iving;  tho  \i>gfi  a  rather  round 
appearance.  They  are  uniformly  bliick  in  color. 
Seldom,  if  ever,  in  a  gray,  brown  or  cheaLnut  to  Ine 
found. 

This  bre^d  of  horses  ha«  been  de%-eIo[W(I  in  thi? 
Department  «f  Niverniiise,  or  Ni^vre,  in  cejilral 
France,  and  fa  one  of  the  larj;t'«t  of  Ihu  French 
draft  horsi-a.  lUi  interest*  have  not  been  very 
carefully  looked  after,  and  the  choice  epecitnens  of 
the  iireed  are  not  very  numerous.  It  is  only  within 
the  pckst  two  nr  three  yeitrtt  th.it  an  nH»rH'iati»n  hiut 
beon  fnrmeil  in  France  for  the  keejiinij;  of  reconiH 
in  the  form  tif  a  atmibook.  It  u  IhuUi^'bt  by  Amer- 
icanii  who  have  inveslinut*id  the  matter  that  the 
trnn-ifonnatioD  in  color  and  size  in  tho  Fercheron 
horsc'«  in  tho  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  haa  been 
broUKhl  about,  to  some  extent  at  leant,  by  the  iiw 
of  the  heat  types  of  Nivemaise  statlinn.s  frifm  this 
dintrict,  cnmKl  on  the  mares  of  the  lAPerche 
duttricl. 

This  breed  is  beinji  importwl  to  America  to  an 
increa^inji  oxtont  in  recent  years,  where  it  ia 
cloRseil  a.s  one  of  the  French  draft  breeds.  Individ- 
uals of  this  breed  may  be  recorded  in  the  ntuiibixik 
of  the  National  French  Draft  Horse  AsstHMation  of 
AmericA  on  the  same  basis  as  are  the  horses  of 
the  Itoulunnats  breed. 

LUeraturf. 
For  rofcr*ynco8,  bo©  page  416. 

Oerman  Coach  Horse.    Fit;.  '^^9- 

By  M.   W.  Harper. 

The  namu  indicates  that  thi!)  is  a  breed  of  coach 
horses,  taking  il^  name  from  (jermanj,  where  il 
was  developed.  Hytsc-tirccdinK  in  Germany  is  in- 
fluenct«I  gryatty  by  military  requirements,  and  thero 
art  founH  few  of  the  powerful  and  compactly  built 
tj-pes,  anch  OS  the  Eneliah  Shire  horse.  AlthoH[;h 
Gt-rmany  has  several  types  or  bree«ls  of  horses  that 
are  snitahle  for  commercial  and  military  purposes, 
ahe  still  importa  many  Kn^lisb  horses 

Daeripiion. 

In  describing  the  characteristics  of  a  t>-pical 
German  Coach  horse  as  seen  in  .Vmerica.  the  Ger- 
man Hanoverian  luid  Oldenbtirjt  couch  Horw  Stud- 
book  says : 

"The  typical  German  horw  is  bay,  brown  or 
black,  .sixteen  to  sixteen  and  one-half  handit  hish, 
and  weighs  1.:I50  to  1,450  pounds.  He  has  a  de*p, 
ronnd  body,  clostc  rib«,  wtilt  pro[vortioned,  neck  long 


and  high  tiet  on  the  nhonlden!.  neat  at  the  throat, 
with  neat  head  and  with  bright  and  intelligent 
count«iiance.  His  hack  \b  short  and  strong,  smooth 
at  coupling,  tail  well  set,  plump  rounded  quarters, 
ittrongly  muscled  Iimli.-<,  strong  hock,  clean  flat  bone, 
and  the  beat  poBsible  feet." 

From  the  discuiwion  of  type*  given  below,  it  will 
tw  evident  that  these  horscB  vary  in  sixe.  Coari**--' 
nesK  is  not  uncommon,  m  s^en  in  large  bead  and 
joints,  with  mom  or  Ibsk  largene**  of  bone.  In 
action,  there  is  a  wido  difference  of  merit,  and, 
from  the  coach  hurso  ptiint  of  view,  they  are  fre- 
quently deficient  in  this  reH[)«cl.  A  sn|ierior  folding 
nf  knee  and  flexing  nf  hock,  with  dei^irahle  action, 
is  not  a  prevailing  attribute  of  the  American  spec- 
imens of  the  breed. 

Hittory. 

Thu  German  Kmpin^  is  com}H>gGd  of  ooBBsroiiB] 
states  and  prineipaiilies.  Owing  to  the  number  > 
sopnrate  governments  involvcid  prior  to  theronaol-] 
idation  of  the  Empire,  there  wiw  no  single  fixed' 
policy  followeil,  for  which  reason  there  are  many 
ma.rke«l  dilferemres  between  tlio  various  strains  of 
coach  horses  found  in  the  EmpifL-.  The  muUiplictly 
of  utates  likewii:*  renders  it  hard  to  reach  very 
accurate  conclusions  regarding  the  early  history 
of  most  of  theee  strains,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
in  point  of  antiquity  these  horses  rank  with  any  of 
the  other  breeds. 

The  northwestern  parts  of  Germany,  particularly 
the  liiwlands  drained    by  the  rivers  EUh.',  Weser 
and  Eniii,  which  flow  into  the  North  sea,  has  long 
been  not*!d  as  tho  horse- breeding  section  of  the 
Empire.    Early  records  of  horeo-breeding  in  Ger- 
many go  hack  nearly  five  centuries.    As  early  as 
KiOO.  important  annnal  fairs  were  held  in  Frieti- 
land,  near  the  Holland  lioundary,  where  buyers  fn>ra 
Hnlhind,    Helgium  juid   Germany   found    superior 
bursea.    .'\  government  Btud  was  established  at  llo, 
which  contained  Wi  horseain  1B48.  .^t  Harlinger- 
land,  in  East  Friesland,  government  studs  were  in 
operation,  and  reports  refer  to  these  as  far  hack  aa 
171t^,  when  sixteen  stallions  were  used  for  the  ser- 
vice of  HII9  mares.    In  li^,  in  this  same  region, 
fifteen  etallions  were  uscm)  on  1,421  mares.   It  does 
not  a])pL'Hr  that  the  (k-rmans  have  made  extended 
use  of  the  Thoroughbred  in  the  evolution  of  aoim] 
strains  of  their  conch  horfie-s,  although  in  others 
the  trace  of  the  blotwl  ih  plainly  discernible.    It  ts 
well  known  that  the  i!erman  cavalryman  with  hia 
kit    weighs    more  than  the  soldier  of  any  other 
army,  hi-nce  we  find  the  German  honn-a  possessing 
much  substance.  In  other  borse-breeding  coantrieA  , 
we  find  draft  and  coach  horses  Wing  developed 
side  by  side,  which  lewis  to  a  division  of  labor,  th«< 
heavy  or  draft  horses  doing  the  heavy  work,  and 
the  light  bor>u,>)4  doing  the  lighter  work.    This  is' 
not  s^  in  Germany,  where  the  one  breed  servee  botb  j 
purposes.   This  leads  to  increased  size.   No  effoitj 
to  inject  s[>eed  at  the  trot  has  tteen  made  at  anyl 
time.   TTie  heavier  soldiers,  the  heavier  work  anal 
the  slower  gaits,  all  t^nd  to  increased  site,  benre 
we  find  the  German  coach  the  heaviest  of  the  coach 
horsea. 


HORSE 


463 


CofiniiBent  supervision  of  horae  -  brwdinp  En 
Gemsn;  hof*  obtained  for  centurit^s.  The  cee  of 
etallioM  on  mares  of  East  Fricsland  was  regulated 
by  ri>yal  wJIct  for  many  years.  It  was  made  a  law 
thnt  no  permitit  ithciukl  bti  issttietl  nuthnrtTiinfr  th'e 
QHe  of  fltaltiomi,  nnlfss  the  latter  hail  paused  a  xat- 
Ufactory  guvemment  iiiHjwctiop.  At  the  present 
time,  both  the  Kovurnm^nt  und  tittj  aitriciiltural 
societies  promotv  intfUij^eiat  horse-breeding.  PriMfi 
art'  awarded  to  animals  of  sjiccial  merit,  and  aucli 
animals  must  remain  in  the  country  for  a 
specified  term.  First  prizes  are  awiirded  only 
to  matarc  Jionites  and  marea  that  have  shown 
inent  as  breedi>r:5.  islallinu  iiihows  have  long 
been  held  at  Aurtch.  in  Biwt  Frienland,  where 
tho  horses  are  brought  annually  for  int^iK-c- 
tion  and  approval.  PrizL-s  for  brood  mares 
are  alao  awarded  by  the  government. 

Jn  .rlmrrim.— The  history  of  the  German  coach 
horse  in  America  is  c-jmparatively  brit-f.  It  first 
made  its  appearance  in  the-  United  Stale.s  in  the 
eighties.  Not  much  prior  to  1890  did  the  breed 
receive  recognition  at  .-Vmerican  nhows.  A.  B.  Ilol- 
bert.  of  <ireeley,  Iowa,  waa  one  of  the  earliest 
introducers  of  the  bretKl.  Oltmann  llrothwrs.  of 
Illinois,  and  Cronch  &.  Son,  of  Indiana,  have  also 
been  most  actively  and  prominently  identified  with 
its  promotion  in  America. 

German  coach  horses  of  imfxirtance  are  not  as 
yet  foond  in  .\merica  in  lar^re  numbers.  Among 
the  earlier  onaa  imported,  Moltke  13,  Kainer  Wil- 
hidm  491,  Young  Altma  1  4~>8,  and  Young  .\donia 
•176,  met  with  favorable  comment,  thw  lattor  l>eing 
a  succeaaful  prize-winner  in  C^alifomia  in  1891.  la 
the  central  West,  Bertus.  brought  out  by  Oltmann 
Brothers,  and  Ento  and  Hannibal,  owned  by  Cronch 
tt  Son,  have  In-en  distinguished  in  the  show-ring, 
winning  agaittat  the  severest  competition  for  years 
in  snccession. 

DietribMlion, 

The  German  coach  horsa  is  found  in  many  conn* 
tries  throQghoQt  Europe,  Routh  Africa  and  both 
North  and  South  America.  In  Canada,  it  is  ^terhapji 
most  popular  in  the  Northwest,  In  the  United  Stales. 
ft  is  moit  popular  in  the  ntates  of  Indiana,  lltinoia 
and  Iowa,  bat  it  Sn  fnnnd  in  many  part.'t  of  the 
country. 

Tjijtrx  and  fnmiiie*. 

As  stated  above,  owing  to  tho  conditiona  prevail- 
ing in  Germany,  we  h:ive  many  types  of  German 
coach  horMM.  rerha[iH  the  muKt  noted  are  the  E»^t 
Prussian  or  Trakuhner  horses,  the  Hanoverian,  the 
Holstein,  the  OMenburi;.  the  East  Frie.tliuid.  the 
Rhenish  Prussian,  the  Mecklenburg  and  the  Sthles- 
vig  coach  horsea.  Most  of  th<:'Ao  strains  have 
separate  etudhooks  and  are  well  recognized. 

The  East  Vriunlnn  or  Trakettiu:r  korte  is  |>er- 
.  the  lightest  of  all.  It  has  si.  good  dis|)OHition, 
ereat  endurance,  a  fine  head,  well-formed  hark  and 
is  well  ribbvd  up.  It  Ls,  perhaiM.  rather  long  legge^^l, 
looks  rather  light  fitr  its  height,  and  laebi  the 
action  that  is  admired  in  a  carriage  hor^^e.  The 
greatest  faorao- breeding  center  in  East  Prumia  U 


the  stud  of  Trakehner.  which  was  fnanded  in  1732 
by  Frederick  William  I,  King  of  Prossia.  and  father 
of  Frederick  the  Great  He  famished  this  stod 
with  1,1LH  horiKM  from  the  royal  studs.  I"her6 
were  a  few  importations  from  Arabia  and  a  few 
English  Thoroughhreds  added  to  the  stud  from 
time  to  time. 

The  Hanoverian  horta  are  larger  than  the  Eaat 
Pru.wian  horses.  However,  they  are  soft^ir,  and 
their  action  not  so  good,  due,  perhaps,  to  thi-  Ara- 
bian and  Thoroughbred  blood  in  tho 
East  Prattsian  horses.  They  are  used 
more  for  draft  than  for  .'^.'iddle  pur- 
pa*cB.    They  h.ive  strong  legs  and  a 


PIc.  4».    Getnuici  Coacb  ataUKm. 

good  hack,  on  which  they  can  carry  a  load  Bufllcf- 
ently  heavy  to  make  them  serviceable  military 
horse*.  These  horses  are  bred  by  farmers,  who 
work  tho  brood  marea  on  their  farms.  There  is  no 
trace  of  either  .\rabian  or  English  Thoroughbred 
blood  in  their  veins. 

TTir  llolflein  Aor*«  are  about  equal  to  the  Hano- 
verian in  size.  They  are  Hne  powerfol  horees,  with 
gootl  legs  and  tvw  action,  are  suitable  for  both 
riding  and  driving,  and  are  in  gr^at  demand  ;  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  they  are  as  enduring  as  the 
East  lYussian  horsws.  For  many  centQrit!!i.  Hol- 
stein  has  been  nottd  for  il.«  good  horses. 

Oldfnhiirs  horten  ari\  perhaps,  the  parent  of  the 
German  coach  hor.ies.  and  are  uaed  for  heavy  coach 
work,  and  for  a!l-pl]r|M>l^e  hors^,  but  seldom  are 
UAeil  ait  Koddlers.  Soniu  writers  contend  that  thL-jie 
horses  are  not  of  the  best  quality,  but  stand  in  high 
favor  bwaujto  of  thvir  great  size,  some  beiotc  aoveo- 
twn  hands  high,  and  broad  in  proportion.  They  have 
gooil  di.'<po»itions,  and  mature  at  an  early  age. 

I'^nt  FrUflmid  hortt*  are  about  &»  large  as  the 
Oldenburg  homes,  and  have  grown  up  under  simi- 
lar conditions.  The  East  FriMland  tStudbook  says : 
"The  object  of  the  breed  is  to  produce  a  strong, 
noble  and  docik*  carriage  horse,  which  will  develop 
quickly,  and  ciin  be  pnt  to  light  agricultural  work 
in  its  third  year,  in  order  to  refund  a  part  of  it* 
cost  of  rearing." 


464 


HORSE 


Meeklenburg  korties,  —  Althoofjl]  MecklenborK 
horses  were  the  finest  saddle  and  coach  horees  in 
Germany  eighty  or  ninety  years  apo,  their  breed- 
ing ha.'*  been  so  KvJly  managed,  and  Knglish  thor- 
ougbl'red  blood  has  been  no  indwcriminatuly  intro- 
duced, that  thti  bettt  horrieti  cow  in  Mecklenburg  are 
perhaps  those  of  the  Ilannvarian  or  n<)l«ttin  breeds, 
broTight  there  to  grow  up  nnder  the  favorable 
MeckienburK  conditions  of  soil  and  cliraaLe.  Mock- 
lenbnrg  possesses  high-lying  pasture  lamLs,  which 
ara  admirably  adapted  for  the  breeding  of  good 
hDr808,and  it  is  unfortunate  that  the  breed  declined. 

Breeding,  ftVAiiaif  and  mftaagcnu:nl. 

In  general,  one  w»uld  breed,  fi't^d  and  care  for 
the  German  t;o;ich  horwi!  in  the  ssime  way  as  for 
any  otber  coach  horse.  HowevtT,  in  the  nraeding 
it  is  well  ti>  bear  in  mind  that  there  are  many 
fltrains  of  (lurnuin  coaeh  )iorsu»,  and  that  some  of 
these  strains  ditFer  very  much  in  siie,  conforma- 
tion, action  and  endurance.  There  ia  as  much  or 
more  difference  l»etwecn  the  two  extremes  re]^re- 
Si-nted  in  th««e  «train[«  a«  there  iH  Wtween  somo  of 
the  difltinct  breeds,  and  it  may  I>b  nu  more  devir- 
able  to  crosB  thw  light  atrainK  of  Ckirman  coach 
honii's  with  the  h^avy  strains  than  to  croea  aoiuu 
of  the  distinct  breeds. 

Vm. 

As  dtated  almve,  in  the  German  Empire  this  is 
the  horseHif-aH-wnrk.  ,At  home,  this  breed  i«  califMl 
on  to  do  the  saddle  work,  the  light  as  well  att  thn 
heavy  carriage  work,  and  the  draft  work.  In  tliw 
country,  the  Llerman  coach  hors<?  difft-n,  from  othL-r 
coach  horses  in  at  least  two  ri!S|)e<ets.  En  the  first 
place,  there  has  never  been  any  attempt  to  breed 
or  train  them  to  8j»eed  at  the  trnt ;  and  in  the  sec- 
ond place,  some  strains  arv  decidedly  heavier  than 
the  other  caach  hunws,  notahly  the  Hackney  and  the 
French  coac^h.  There  may  he  individual  exceptions 
to  this  statement,  but  in  this  country  tha  large  Oer- 
man  coachcr  ranks  between  the  Fri-nch  coach  and 
the  Suffolk  Punch,  the  lightefll  of  the  draft  breeds, 

Since  wc  have  the  two  extremes,  varying  so  much 
in  aiite,  conformation  and  action,  we  might  expect 
them  to  meet  a  variety  of  conditiims.  For  esam|i!e, 
take  the  East  Prussian  or  Trakehner  horses,  which 
have  some  Arabian  and  Thoroughbred  blowl  in  their 
veins,  and  we  would  exiiect  theSiO  to  meet  any  con- 
dition rcfiuiring  a  liglit  well-brtMl  horse.  They 
poe«aes.H  much  quality,  action  and  endurance,  and 
are  undoubtedly  adapted  for  light  c(»ach  work.  On 
the  other  hand,  take  the  heavy  horR-a  from  Olden- 
burg, and  wp  would  not  espect  them  to  b^*  so  active 
nor  HO  enduring.  In  fact,  thew  big  hordes  are 
looked  on  with  disfavor  by  some  jwrsons.  Count 
Wrungel  sa>-s  of  thc^m :  "  MoHt  Iovctj*  of  horses  will 
acknowledge  that  their  value,  from  a  useful  point 
of  view,  is  not  particularly  great.  The  majority  of 
Oldenburg  horses  which  I  have  seen,  have  given 
me  a  very  hnd  imprecision,  and  1  wonid  not  use  them 
for  breeding  at  any  price.  As  I  may  have  been 
unfortunate  in  my  acquaintance  with  them,  I  will 
merely  say  that  th^ir  hereditary  defects  are  heavy 
headtt,  weak  backs,  bad  ribo,  long  legs,  'tied  in" 


below  the  knee,  brittle  hoofs  and  want  of  endur- 
ance. These  defects  ought  to  prevent  people  from 
breeding  such  animal.?.  becauHo  the  fact  that  the 
horse  is  seventeen  hands  high  and  broad  in  pro- 
portion, has  good  manners  ami  matures  at  an  early 
age,  is  not  'Suflicieut  to  make  a  breeder  ignore 
other  and  jwrhaps  more  important  qualitieft."  This 
criticism  is  iK-rhnps  too  severe,  but  it  comas  from 
a  German  person  of  note. 

Organimlwnt  and  rearrdt. 

The  German,  Hanoverian  and  Oldenburg  Coach 
Horae  .^sAociation  of  .■\merica  was  incorporaled 
under  the  law«  of  thi*  state  of  niinoie  about  1892, 
and  a  stud  hook  was  etartmi,  containing  pedigrees  of 
regintered  stallions  and  mares  irajiorled,  or  raised  in 
America.  Two  volumes  have  been  isaued  to  190G. 
They  contain  the  registration  of  about  eighteen 
hundred  animals,  mostly  stallions.  Soon  after  the 
nrg.'ini Ration  of  the  German,  Hanoverian  and  Olden- 
burg Coach  Horse  .4.iBociatior.  came  the  Oldenburg 
Coach  Horse  Association,  which  was  also  incorpo- 
rated in  Illinois.  So  far  as  the  American  public  is 
awaro,  the  various  coach  hordes  brought  to  Amer- 
ica from  Germany  are  known  as  tJia  Carman  coach 
breed,  whether  Oldenburg,  Hanovorian.or  otherwise. 
ThJA  difference  of  title  may  be  account^  for  in  part 
by  the  variety  of  types.  It  would  seem  that  the  advo- 
cates of  the  breed  would  do  well  tn  clarify  in  some 
|>ermanent  way  thiK  apparent  confujston  of  names. 

Literature. 
For  references,  see  page  416. 

Hackney  Horse.   Fig.  4TD. 

By  John  A.  Craig. 

The  pn>sent-riay  Hackney  is  a  carriage  horse 
breed.  Among  the  early  English  writers  on  subjects 
ndating  to  the  horse,  the  word  "hackney"  wa^  appar- 
ently used  frei[Uently  ad  a  synonym  for  road<iter. 
The  word  ocura  in  the  earliest  Kiigliiih.  but  ita  mean- 
ing, or  rather  the  clasi*  of  horse  thnt  it  was  applied 
to.  is  not  made  clear.  Mr.  Euron,  the  secretary  of 
the  English  Hackney  Horse  Society,  states  that  the 
Norman.'t,  at  the  time  of  their  invasion,  introduced 
the  word  hrujueme  or  fmrrpicjife,  which  he  states  was 
recognitwl  as  far  buck  as  the  year  1H03,  ('haucer 
also  u«ed  the  wonl  "hakeney"  or  "hacknay,"  hut 
dties  not  give  any  clue  as  to  the  class  of  horse  re- 
ferred to,  CuUy,  an  early  English  writer  on  live* 
stock  subjects,  does  not  mention  the  Hackney. 
Lawrence,  however,  in  some  of  his  writings,  gives 
U.S  an  inkling  as  to  its  application,  and,  as  already 
stated,  it  meant  a  rciad.<!ter. 

The  Hackney  of  trnc  type  is  a  horse  of  itab«taoc«, 
extremely  smooth  and  with  gracefully  curved  out- 
lines. Being  fnll  made,  owing  to  splendid  moKalar 
development,  and  being  on  .short  legs,  the  repr^ 
scntative  of  this  brt^d  suffers  in  atatore  in  com- 
parison with  most  of  the  other  coach  breeds.  The 
type  mo^t  sought,  nnd  the  one  that  may  be  said  to 
be  the  old -fashioned  type,  represents  a  powerfully 


HORSE 


HORSE 


46S 


boilt  honse,  roimd-ritibed,  moi^i^uUr  loin,  and  pLump 
quarters,  with  short  Itiga.  THh  ileairu  for  more 
i|iiality  cici  the  part  of  soma  of  the  brw-ders,  and 
thfl  usi?  of  Th«rou};libri«l  lilood  to  sfciiro.  it,  hinl  the 
effect  uf  making  koido  of  them  more  bloixllike  aad 
rangier  in  aippi-arance.  The  qnestiiin  of  height  in 
thf  Hackni'V  has  bet-n  liberally  diflcnwe'l,  and  the 
general  belief  is  that  a  height  of  15.2  to  16  hands 
is  mimt  conij>atibte  with  the  other  feuturus  of  thti 
type  that  ar«  moftt  dcHirod.  It  mi^ht 
be  menticinml  that  ontil  recent  yfars 
the  Hackney  rinfiK  at  the  txhiUitionn 
of  the  Royal  Agricultnml  Sotiety  of 
KnftlsTid  wfre  open  only  to  horsea  not 
exceedinR  15.2  hands  in  h**iEht.  So 
many  of  the  nnte't  sires  of  bter  ypars 
have  l>een  over  that  height,  tluit  it  wan 
not  arlviflabli!  t«  L-nftirca  the  reatric- 
tiim,  ami  consej^iiently  it  waa  removed.  A  well- 
knrm-n  writer  states  that  it  issimK'what  remark- 
able to  note  the  circumstance  that  most  of  the 
sQcceasful  stallions,  hoth  as  sirea  and  e.<chibition 
horses,  of  the  present  and  past  generatiuns,  have 
stood  15.2  hnniU  high. 

Fur  &  hurxu  of  such  AuhHtance,  the  Hackney  is 
not  deficient  in  quality,  although  to  cumbine  the 
two  in  a  rifiht  degree  is  as  much  a  problem  with 
the  Haokntjy  bret-dera  as  it  is  with  the  hreedere 
of  the  other  breeds  of  coach  horses.  Snhstanpe, 
meaning  thi.'rel)y  niiiaciilar  development  and  siw  of 
bone,  ia  easily  enough  secured;  but  to  have  with  it 
the  refinement  of  features  and  tisHutw,  with  fluted 
legs,  which  makej*  up  iiuality.  h  a  combination  of 
the  higheat  excellencitjs. 

Such  lieing  the  general  fonn.  a  more  careful 
analysts  of  tho  several  features  thiit  blend  into  the 
tyi»e  desired  i.s  nece-^isary  to  hi)  out  the  details  of 
tho  true  type.  The  Hackney  head  sometimes 
approaches  meatines.<i,  but,  :is  a  rule,  it  is  well  pro- 
portiuned  to  the  btxJv,  clean  cut,  with  full  eyisi 
and  upticinily  alert  and  medium-stzui  eant.  It  lia^ 
been  criticised  for  a  tendency  towards  beinu 
"boll"  or  thick-necked.  There  are  some  grounds 
for  thia  criticisTii,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
the  heavy  harness  horse  may  be  permitted  to  be 
fuller  in  the  neck  than  those  of  more  cnacby  type, 
in  which  length  and  slimness  of  neck  trontribute  to 
high-beaded  new.  In  the  Hackney,  the  shouldiir  is 
a  point  of  particular  importanve.  fur  it  lian  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  the  high  knw-folding  action,  so 
very  much  admired  in  the  htavy  harn>e.°i.<<.  horse. 
A  long,  sloping  shoulder,  well  clothed  with  muscle, 
givM  it  that  lifting  p*»wpr  in  front  which  is  a 
feature  of  the  front  aelion  more  often  n^et  with 
in  thU  breed  thfin  any  other.  Tho  body  must 
neoeiRarily  be  deep  and  round-ribbed,  to  give  that 
appeflnnce  of  suKstance  roqoired,  together  with 
the  rotundity  characteristic  of  the  ty;M?.  A  loin 
Hwathed  in  tntBclefl,  even  to  the  extent  of  round- 
ing upwards  BJightly,  makes  a  atrong.  short  coup- 
ling, which  shnutd  join  smoothly  a  plump  rounded 
and  deeply  tiiuscled  hind-^juarter.  These,  with 
mUKular  thighs  and  well-^et  and  strong  hocks, 
arc  derivative  of  the  snappy  and  propelling  hock 
action  bohind. 

C80 


Hf  action.— It  is  in  the  action  of  the  Hackney 
that  the  chief  merit  of  the  breed  resides  for  hea%'y- 
hame«a  purposes,  although  this  statement  ia  not 
meant  in  the  leamt  to  lielittte  the  special  type  re- 
quired aUo.  It  it)  jityliinh,  attractive  actios,  not 
«tieed,  that  is  of  most  importanc<».  The  front  feet, 
in  walking  or  trotting,  are  liftcud  with  enap  and 
spring,  and  in  the  trot  the  foot  gws  forward  after 
being  uplifted,  as  if  it  were  following  the  rim  of  a 
wheel.  It  is  not  held  in  the  air  at  any  one  poirtt ; 
that  is.  the  leg  is  not  fully  extended  when  the 
foot  is  several  inches  from  the  ground,  but 
it  is  still  following  our  imaginary  rim 
of  a  wheel  wnvn  it  reaehe^i  the 
grnumi  and  is  plantcid  firmly.  When 


121 


Pie-  *^-    HaefciWT  ttalllOD.    nilhftiti  PHiii«  MlaUlfr, 
U  liatKln.  :i  \urhrt  )iI|iTi. 

pulled  up,  it  doeft  not  fly  toward  the  elbowii  as  if 
to  hit  them,  but  goes  up  a«d  out  without  any  delay 
In  the  knee- folding.  While  the  fore  action  ia  a 
point  of  paramount  importance,  yet  it  may  he  said 
that  in  its  hock  action  for  heavy -hamesa  purposes 
the  Hnckney  has  hardly  a  peer.  The  hock  is  lifted 
sharply  towanl  the  Imdy,  and  the  action  is  in  no 
.•u?n.se  sprawling.  Many  horses  can  1h>  made  to  step 
high  and  fold  the  knee,  as  a  Hackney  or  heavy- 
hame8s  horte  should  do,  but  the  true  heavy-har- 
ness hock  action  is  not  nuttceptible  to  artificial 
imitation.  Tho  weakness  of  most  horses,  other 
than  Hackneys,  in  the  heavy-harness  classes,  la 
that  the  hind-leg  dwells  somewhat  like  a  duck 
swimming  in  water;  it  is  not  brought  up  quickly 
to  the  body.  Very  frequently,  the  leg  fntm  the 
hock  down  is  thrown  stiffly  forward,  making  the 
horse  spread  or  sprawl  in  his  gait,  as  hi«  hind-feet 
have  to  be  thrown  out  and  paitt  the  fore -feet. 
Such  a  horse,  no  matter  how  high  or  folding  or 
even  perfect  his  fore  action  may  be.  cannot  go  with 
that  collected  and  well-balanced  stride  that  a 
heavy-harness  horse  should  have.  He  may  likely 
go  faster,  but  at  a  moderate  gait,  such  as  that 
which  is  moet  naeful  for  heavy-hameai  bones,  he 
coDQot  go  collected  and  with  snap  and  style.  To 


466 


HORSE 


JIORiSE 


have  snap  and  style  in  hind  action  \a  as  necessary 
in  the  view  of  the  critical  horsoman  au  that  of  the 
foi>i-feet,  and,  to  have  it.  the  hocks  must  be  prop- 
erly flexed,  with  perhaps  less  stifle  action  than  that 
require))  for  dijeed. 

ITu  ealar. — In  reference  to  the  colnr,  it  may  be 
Kaid  that  thiutt^  horxtsri  are  inontly  hntwn.  i>ay  or 
chestnut,  with  fiomu  white  markings.  A  rich,  diip- 
jtleii  bnjwn  is  not  iin  infrf<)ue[it  color.  An  they  are 
niofttly  of  solid  colors,  thert^i  is  nsuaLly  little  diffi- 
culty in  matchint;  teams  in  this  particniar  respect. 

SoujirlTiexg  nf  ihe  /furAiiFj/,  —  A  note  should  bo 
made  of  the  fact  that  nnsimndne-ss  in  not  frequent 
amonj/  Hackneys.  Whih'  not  iti  the  Ipjist  desiring  to 
iletrart  from  this  (Winible  trail,  yet  it  nee<is  to  t»e 
qualified  HUrnewhat,  BSpecially  when  it  xv,  usetl  to 
make  invidious  comparisons  with  the  Standard- 
bred  trotter.  The  Standanlbrcd  trottiT  uaually 
leads  a  atronuoua  life,  beginning  to  race  when  two 
years  old.  The  popularity  of  the  colt  trott*r  as  a 
nKiney-msVer,  liecauso  of  the  large  utakes  for  twn- 
and  Ihree-year-oldH.  nw  welt  as  the  large  purses  for 
fri'e-for-ail  canipwij^iierK,  puL«  our  Standurdbrwd 
trulter  through  a  course  of  racing  that  ta  a  very 
trying  ordeal.  The  Hackney  im  more  carefully  kept 
and  id  never  tried  out  in  the  sense  that  our  trot- 
ting horses  are.  consequently  it  should  be  Bounder 
and  always  fresher.  The  fart  remains  that  the 
Hackney  aa  a  breed  is  unnaually  free  from  unwmnd- 
nes.'j.  Since  the  Shire  Horse  Society  of  KnKlmid 
wisely  (Ie<?idi;d,  in  1SW»,  that  all  hurwe^n  at  their 
annual  show  nhouM  underjto  veterinary  examina- 
tion conducted  by  throo  qualified  veterinarians, 
other  societies  have  followed  the  system,  although 
with  moftt  of  them  only  nne  veterinarian  acts.  In 
regard  to  the  Hackney,  it  may  he  stated  that  the 
Hackney  Horse  Society  f»ir  the  past  ten  years  has 
Buhje^^teji  the  entries  te  its  show  to  veterinary  ex- 
amination, and  the  perc^^ntage  rejettijd  has  bet-n  very 
small.  Of  courno,  when  snch  a  system  is  in  vogue, 
ranch  carefulnes.s  on  thia  point  would  he  oh»crved 
by  exhibitors  ;  consequently  it  is  hanlly  a  complete 
index  to  the  prevalence  of  uns^iundntss  in  tht  breed 
a3  a  whole.  However,  combined  with  general 
observatiiin,  the  figures  bear  out  the  point  that 
unsoundness  is  not  very  prevalent.  In  the  veara 
fr<jni  1896  to  1904.  inclusive,  2.108  of  the  horses 
were  evamined.  and  HtJ  of  theiw  were  rejected, 
showing  an  average  of  not  quite  5  per  cent  rejected. 

The  development  of  the  Hackney  intn  a  breed 
may  be  traced  to  definite  stimuli,  which  have  been 
noticeable  and  in  operation  with  more  or  less  force 
in  the  development  of  several  other  breeds  of  horses. 
In  the  evolution  of  the  breeds  of  light  horses,  there 
may  be  naid  to  be  a  district  suitable  for  rearing 
liKht  horses  of  quality,  which  implies  a  soil  well- 
<irainfd.  either  light,  hilly  or  underlaid  with  lime- 
stone, with  good  grass,  all"  of  which  should  indicate 
wholesome  grazing  conditions.  Withthe.$e  associate 
men  who  love  a  horse,  and  let  them  be  inspired  with 
adelinite  aim.  and  the  breed  takes  form  and  becomes 

Jopnlar  according  to  the  force  and  growth  of  the 
emaiid  and  ideaU.   A  variety  of  sources  are  in- 


variably drawn  nn,  frequently  very  diverse  In  BOme 
ultriliutes,  but  Homewhat  similar  in  the  brBed 
characteristics  de»lrei! ;  and,  these  um^u  svcurod,  the 
aim  beconiea  to  concentrate  and  multiply  them. 

With  these  general  conditions  in  view,  let  us 
bring  their  particular  application  to  the  Hocknej. 
As  bearing  on  this,  and  aiKo  to  .'•how  that  theae 
factors  were  recognized  by  hornempn  at  a  very  early 
day, a (lUotation  from  I^wrence  willauflice:  "Light 
soils  and  a  hilly  surface  of  ground  generally  pro- 
duce clean,  vigorous  and  active  horsea,  and  probably 
then.'  is  no  county  in  England  whore  a  better  sort 
are  bred  than  in  i^hropshire.  Yorkshire  and  Lin* 
colnshire  are  celebrated  for  caniage  hnrsiw,  and 
many  very  gtmd  <tnefl  are  reared  in  those  distriela." 
Yorkshire  an{il  Norfidk  were  the  original  home  of 
the  Hackney,  at  an  early  time  known  also  iw  the 
Norfulk  tmtter;  and  Yorkshire  became  prominent 
in  the  development  of  this  breed,  through  the  adapta- 
bility for  light  horses  and  supiTiority  over  the 
counties  of  Shropshire  and  Lincolnahirt^  in  this  line, 
chiefly  becaune  of  the  other  atimnlus  referred  to- 
tho  Y'ork.thireman  was  an  enlhiisia.'^tic  horseman. 
To  carry  tbn  p(i.ahilati>  li>  i(«  foil  and  more  recent 
application,  it  is  necessary  only  to  direct  attention 
to  what  Kentucky,  Vermont.  Virginia.  TennesBee. 
and  other  states  poasessing  the  character  nf  soil 
and  people  referred  tn.  have  acc^trnplished.  C«n- 
vereely,  apply  what  has  lieen  statetl  Ui  be  the  evo- 
lution of  draft  breed.'v,  and  it  will  be  apparent  that 
the  heavieHt  breeds  of  draft  horaes  come  from  the 
tower  and  more  level  lands,  with  their  more  lush 
Vegetation. 

Continuing  our  reference  to  Y'orkshire  and  .Vor- 
folk,  it  should  lie  said  that  the  demand  during  the 
enrlieat  time  was  fnr  a  hnrse  that  ronkl  trot  fast 
under  saddle,  and  the  horsemen  of  these  two  coun- 
ties vigorously  took  up  the  work  of  breeding  a 
stoutly  built  fai^t  trotting  horw-  of  as  much  endur- 
ance as  possible.  It  is  said  (Wallace,  Live45tock) 
that  the  Norwegian  horse  was  used  at  a  very  early 
day  on  the  common  marcs  of  the^e  counties,  as  it 
was  in  Norfolk  and  Yorkshire,  where  the  Norae 
invaders  had  their  principal  Btronghwlds  in  Kng- 
land.  The  influence  »f  this  ^n  the  breed  may  be 
slighted  when  the  more  potent  inlloenco  of  the 
Thoroughbred  i;*  considered.  It  is  also  of  interest 
to  mention  that  even  the  blood  of  the  Standard- 
bred  trotter  found  its  way  into  some  of  the  Hack- 
ney pedigrees  through  Shepherd  F.  Knapp.  No.  282 
in  the  reffwter  of  Standardhred  Horses.  The  main 
source  of  the  n.ackney  blood  lines  runs  Iwck  to 
Arabian  oriyin  through  the  Thoroughbred,  being 
similar  in  this  respect  to  all  the  other  breeds  of 
light  horses.  Since  the  eighteenth  ccntnry.  the 
breed  haa  bt-en  undergoing  cvolulinn,  and  it  may 
be  said  to  have  had  its  inception  with  Shales  (fi99>, 
variously  culled  "The  Original,"  "Old  Shales,"  etc. 
This  horse,  in  the  history  of  the  Hackney  or  Nor- 
folk trotler,  stands  in  relation  to  the  breed  very 
much  as  Hambletonian  10  does  in  that  of  the 
Standardbrwl  hori<e  or  American  trotter ;  and. 
curiously  enough,  their  breeding  is  of  surprising 
similarity.  Shales  ((iUO)  was  sired  by  Ittaze,  a 
Thoroughbred  horse,  foaled  in  17^3.   It  is  said  that 


I 


HORSE 


HORSE 


4«7 


was  not  a  Thorouijhbreil,  hut  the  best  evi- 
dence we  havH  rnxliLs  him  with  being  fiboat  aa 
mocli  so  OH  any  other  hur»e  uf  that  early  day. 
Blaze  was  by  Fiyinjr  Childers  (a  nolwi  runninjf 
horse),  by  the  Uarley  Arabian.  The  dam  of  Blaze 
is  iMertcd  to  have  been  by  (Jrey  (Jrantham,  by 
Brownlow  Tnrk  out  of  a  marc  by  the  Duku  of  Rut- 
laod's  Black  Parb.  Now  the  same  Blaze  sired  Samp- 
son, the  sire  of  Engineer,  he  the  »Lra  of  Mamlbrino, 
and  he-,  in  turn,  the  sire  of  Me^tnenger,  which  was 
imijorted  to  America  and  wa?  the  grandsire  of 
Hamblettiniaa  10.  Ajfain,  the  dam  of  Hambletonian 
10  was  the  Charles  Kent  mare  by  Imported  Ilell- 
foundtT.  a  Norfolk  trotter  tracing  back  through 
the  Fireawaya  to  Driver,  a  son  of  Shales  by  Blaze. 
The  dam  of  the  Kent  mare  was  One  Eye,  by  Bishop's 
Hamhlettpnian.  a  son  of  Messenger.  Yet  again, 
Marabrino  Chief  was  by  Marabrico  Paymaster,  by 
Manibrino,  by  Messenger.  So  we  have  the  two 
(Creat  lines  of  the  American  trotter,  Hambletonian 
10  and  Mambrino  Chief  II,  tracing  back  through 
Messenger  to  Blaze,  and  the  most  noted  of  the 
early  sires  of  Hackneys  or  the  Norfolk  trotter* 
going  back  to  the  same  Blaze.  May  it  not  be  rea- 
sonable to  38?Qme  from  these  facta  that  from  the 
latter  horse  has  originated  the  trotting  ini^tioct, 
which  has  later  developed  into  breed  characteris- 
tics ?  Following  the  development  of  the  Hackney, 
w«  find  that  ^'liales  (6991,  considered  the  most 
ftimons  trotter  of  his  day  in  England,  sired  Driver 
(187)  and  ticott's  Shales  (692),  and,  according  to 
the  statement  of  a  writer  of  authority,  "to  the 
former  of  these  horses  many — very  many— of  the 
bwt  Hackneys  of  the  day  owe  their  origin."  For 
example,  Mr.  I'hilip  Triffitt's  great  sire,  Fireaway. 
w»  by  Achilles,  by  Achilles  (Hairsines').  by  Fire- 
away  (Scott's),  who  was  got  by  Fireaway  (Rams- 
dale's),  by  Fireaway  (liurgesa*),  by  Firi-away 
(West's),  by  Fireaway  (Jenkinson's),  a  son  of  Driver. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  state  here  that  Joha  A. 
Logan  Is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  stock 
of  Triffitf*  Fireaway  has  mM  to  the  amount  of 
$2,500,000,  which  is  somewhat  of  an  index  to  the 
value  of  this  horse  to  the  breed. 

Mention  of  other  noted  eiree  shoati  include  Den- 
mark (177),  sire  of  Danegelt ;  Lord  Derby  11  (417), 
aire  of  Cadet,  1251 ;  Confidence  (158),  sire  of  the 
Champion  and  Reality  (<j(jr») ;  and  Rnfus,  an  EI.ien- 
ham  Challenge  cup  winner  and  a  noted  progenitor 
of  Hackney  character. 

With  the  change  from  use  nnder  the  saddle  to 
Iriving  on  the  road  attached  to  a  vehlclei,  the 
Hackney's  proclivities  to  trot  do  not  seem  to  haw 
undergone  any  change ;  although  there  was  a  ten- 
dency at  this  time  toward  refinement  of  the  type, 
largely  through  tht?  gre:it«r  infusion  of  Thorough- 
br^  blood.  This  nUii  added  to  tht<  height  without 
changing  the  form  mnch,  except  to  add  some  to  the 
strai^htness  of  thu  croup,  tju  tu  this  time,  and 
einoe,  considerable  evidt-nce  haa  been  accumulating 
to  indicate  that  the  Hackney  poaaMsed  more  than 
ordinary  excellence  for  long-distance  trotting.  Soch 
records,  It  remains  to  be  said,  are  of  use  only  to 
enable  lu  to  onderstand  the  original  character i^tica 
of  the  breed,  not  for  their  official  valne  to  uitabliah 


the  reputation  of  the  Hackney  of  the  present  day, 
for  speed  at  the  trot,  for  either  long  or  short  di»- 
lancea.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  also,  that  these 
records,  if  they  may  bo  called  such,  are  in  nearly 
all  instances  de|)endent  on  hearsay  and  not  on  official 
trials  over  measured  diBtancee.  It  is  said  that 
Driver  (187).  already  referred  to,  trotted  17  milea 
within  the  hoar,  and  Fireway  is  credited  with  hav- 
ing trotted  2  miles  in  5  minutes.  The  performance 
that  is  most  noteworthy  is  that  credited  to  the 
mare  Phenuraena.  that  in  .luly.  1800,  trotted  17 
mtlee  in  56  minutes,  and  shortly  afterward  repeated 
the  same  performance  In  53  minutes.  Attention 
has  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  it  was  not  until 
litis  that  Trudtee,  in  America,  trotted  20  miles  in 
59  minuted  and  '.i't^  seconds.  The  mare's  rate  would 
be  20  miles  in  62^  minutes,  showing  that  at  that 
oarly  day  the  Hackney  or  Norfolk  trotter  was  noted 
for  ability  to  trot  long  distances,  with  speed  unusual 
at  that  time. 

The  secretary  of  the  Hackney  Horse  Society, 
Mr.  Euren.  in  the  first  volume  of  the  sti;dhook, 
credits  the  era  of  railroad  building  with  dampen- 
ing the  anior  of  the  breeders  of  Hackneys ;  and, 
for  a  time,  the  breed  did  not  receive  much  hearty 
support.  A  revival  came  in  a  very  decided  manner 
with  the  advent  of  exhibitions,  and  especially  with 
the  inauguration  of  horsoshows.  Until  the  breed 
began  to  attract  notice  for  heavy -harness  and 
high-stepping  purposes,  they  were  not  very  largely 
imported  from  England,  nor  did  they  attain  their 
present  popularity  in  England.  It  was  in  the 
spring  of  189a  that  the  first  notable  Hackney 
exhibition  was  held  in  England.  In  America,  the 
horse-ehoWE.  the  growth  of  recent  years,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  usual  live-stock  shows,  were  factors 
that  did  more  to  populariiu;  the  Hackney  than  any 
other  influences.  The  hiph-lifting  action  of  the 
Hackutiv,  both  fore  and  aft,  made  a  very  attract- 
ive feature  of  the  shows ;  and  that,  coupled  with 
the  growth  of  the  high-stepping  fad.  gave  the 
breed  a  strong  impetus,  although  their  gennine 
merit  as  heavy-harness  horses  has  outlived  this. 
The  poAseAsion  of  stoutness  of  form  with  this  action 
has  adafited  them  particularly  for  heavy  hameitA 
and  heavy  vehiclee. 

In  .4/r4fri«i.— Aside  from  the  first  imi>ortation 
to  America  of  BDllfoumler  (Ti'A,  in  1R22,  by  Jamixi 
Booth,  of  Boeton.  the  next  importation  of  noti^  was 
the  stallion  Fordham.  a  aon  of  I>i;nmark,  brought 
over  in  1881,  by  Hillhurst  Stcwk  Farm,  of  which 
Senator  Cochrane,  of  Quebec,  Canada,  was  pro- 
prietor. Then  comes  tlw  era  of  the  horse-ithow, 
when  G-xtensive  importations  were  madi*,  chiefly 
into  the  New  England  states  and  Canada,  with 
scattering  imiH>rt;itii>ns  into  Ohio.  Wisconsin  and 
other  states.  The  Irtrgest  of  these  importations 
was  made  in  H90  by  Mr.  Si>ward  Webb,  of  Ver- 
mont, who  imported  thirty-one  hcriws,  four  of 
which  were  stallions.  About  this  time,  there  was 
a  lull  in  the  profitablenuss  of  breeding  Standard* 
bred  trotters,  which  put  many  horsea  of  this 
breeding  on  the  market  that  otherwise  would  have 
been  retained  in  the  bre>etling  stwi.  Attention  waa 
drawn  to  the  fact  that  many  horsea  of  Standard- 


468 


HOKSE 


HORSE 


bred  trotting  lines  wyre  competing  with  the  Hack- 
ney, t^peciiilly  in  the  hi^h-ntepping  cIiuujua,  la  the 
show-ring.  Thwy  vvrv  morts  or  le«»  freaks,  with 
tht?  high  Kte]ij)ing  exBRgenitwd  by  heavy  eboeing 
&rvl  training,  but  tht^y  gt>mutjmeB  mado  a  mor« 
popular  show  than  the  Hackney,  by  biding  alik-  to 
gi)  fast  OS  well  as  high.  There  was  little  inclina- 
tion among  exhibitoni  at  that  time  to  Kt»p  am) 
C'tHHirler  thiit  fa.'^t  going  wiin  not  a  mnch  lutnght 
after  characteristic  fcir  a  high-nU-pping  nr  a  hcavy- 
h»rne!Mi  hiirtu'.  A  lemoning  of  tlm  interB8t  in  tlm 
mere  high  gutir,  and  tnom  utletitiiin  to  th>i!  trufnuM 
and  serviceability  of  the  actiun,  has  done  good  in 
reeont  years ;  and  the  outcome  has  been  to 
strengthen  the  position  of  tha  Hackney  and  make 
it  more  decidedly  a  heavy -harneHS  horse. 

Disiribulivn. 

Th«  gocHl  qualitiew  of  th« Hiickney  haveattnicttsd 
■world-wid«  attention,  and,  as  u  c(»n8Li<]Ut!n(;o,  it  is 
DOW  found  in  many  lands.  In  general,  from  Eng- 
land it  has  gone  nnt  into  France,  Germany,  Hol- 
land, rtenmfirk.  Relgiiim.  Spain.  Italy,  far  cast 
into  Japan  and  »fiiith  into  Africn,  .Auntralia  and 
New  Zealand,  and  westwani  into  lh«  Argtjntine 
Republic  in  .^oulh  Am^^rica,  and  into  Canada  and 
the  ITnited  States  iii  North  America.  It  is  prL-sHing 
its  way  into  every  land  where  heavy-hamuss  hontea 
are  in  demand.  In  America,  the  Hackney  is  bred  in 
the  largest  numbers  otst  of  the  Missifwijipi  river, 
but  nuniltera  of  the  breed  have  become  very  broadly 
scattered  over  the  atates  and  provinces. 

Uiu. 

Prom  what  has  been  written,  it  Is  clear  that  the 
special  field  for  the  Hackney  is  the  production  of 
heavy-hamesa  hon*es,  for  the  breed  in  itself  has 
been  Hpecifically  bred  for  that  purpose.  The  high 
knee- folding  action  and  attnitHive  appearance, 
either  otanding  or  in  motion,  adapt  it  for  the 
prodoction  of  stylish  hwavy-harnesa  horses  for  city 
driving.  Possessing  these  qualities,  with  the  tfiul>- 
Btance  and  smoothness  of  type  to  wear  heavy 
leather  becomingly,  the  Hackney  as  a  breed  hoe 
aniierior  claimH. 

The  degrw-  to  which  a  bre**(l  may  be  useful  in 

Eruduciug  a  marketable  product  Ih  a  fiictor  that 
00  to  b©  considt*rv<l,  as  well  as  the  breed  character- 
istics. However  useful  pure-bred  hordes  may  be. 
yet  the  degree  to  which  they  may  contribute  to 
the  general  improvemi>ntnf  the  horscsof  acountry 
is  a  browler  and  more  intlnentia!  factor  entering 
into  their  standing.  Tn  this  respect,  the  Hackney 
baa  eHtabliahwt  u  n'putntion.  On  oiir  common 
marea  of  much  quality  and  »nmQ  action,  the  Hack- 
ney makes  a  dexiruble  crosti.  A»  Johnstone  saya, 
"the  similarity  of  action  I  count  the  most  salient 
of  its  features,"  ond  it  is  because  thLt  mechanical 
icttoa  is  m  deeply  bred  into  the  Hackney  that  it  'ms. 
perhaps,  the  most  likely  of  any  of  the  Garopeaii 
light  hnreeH  to  transmit  it.  It  seem.^  to  be  easier 
to  produce  the  type  than  it  is  to  secure  the  natural 
heavy-harness  action.  The  tendency  toward  this 
action  and  type  i«  surely  irtronger  in  the  produce 
of  the  Hackney,  because  thu  breed  itself  has  been 


bred  for  years  for  just  those  things  ;  yet  it  is  not 
safe  to  assume  that  it  will  come  spuntaneous  to 
thu  surfacH  without  proper  mannering  and  encour- 
agement. 

Orffstnizntiens  and  T'seorHs. 

The  societies  devoted  to  the  breed  are  the  Eng- 
Iwh  Hackney  Horse  Stxiiety.  established  in  1863,; 
with  the  first  stiidhnok  published  the  following' 
year,  and  the  American  Hackney  Horse  Society, 
with  heailf]uarterH  in  Nfw  York  City,  estalili^hed 
in  1H91.  The  first  volume  of  it«  studbook  waa 
published  in  1S93. 

LUerainrt. 
For  references,  see  page  41fi. 

Hunter  Horae.   Fig.  471. 

By    ir.  C.  BiLcon. 

The  Hunter,  aa  bred  in  America,  cannot  yet  he 
called  a  breed  of  horses.  The  \t'm\\  Hunter,  how- 
ever, has  been  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed  for  a 
hundred  years  or  more.  The  Hunter  and  the  Stand- 
iirdbnnl  tnitter  have  come  from  the  Thorough- 
bred, the  StandanlbrBii  trotter  having  been  devel- 
ojhkI  in  America  a.i  the  result  of  the  desire  for  a 
fawl  driving  borne,  and  the  Hunter  breed  developed' 
in  Irtdand  as  the  result  of  the  demand  for  horsM 
with  Thoronghbredl  or  ideal  saddle  conformation, 
that  were  able  to  carry  much  more  weight  than 
the  pure-bred  Thoroughbred.  Ireland,  therefore, 
may  be  said  to  be  the  home  of  tin;  Hunter,  or 
where  this  type  of  horses  has  been  bred  for  sai 
many  years  that  it  has  long  since  been  classed  as 
a  dijttinct  breed,  and  recognized  as  such  at  all  the 
fairs  and  horse  Bhows  in  Great  Britain. 

Dc»cri]Aioa. 

The  Hunter  should  not  he  high-headed,  and  the 
longer  the  rein  the  better.  The  fore-hand  ahuuld 
be  light.  The  withers  should  be  higher  than  tha 
croup,  and  the  bones  of  the  fore-limb  compara*' 
lively  long,  ho  as  to  bo  able  efficiently  to  ruiae  the 
fore-hand  both  in  taking  and  landing.  T^eshoul- 
dera  and  pasterns  should  be  long  and  sloping.  Thg 
mu.'tcles  that  lie  above  the  fore-arm  should  be  welt 
developed,  as  the  fore-unu  Ktratghteas  tbe  ahnal- 
der  joint  and  the  latter  stratghtena  the  elbow 
joint,  two  action*  which  help  to  prevent  the  horae 
falling  when  he  lands  over  a  jump.  The  ntiseles 
over  the  loins  behind  (he  saddle  should  be  particu- 
larly strong.  The  hocks  should  be  large  and  gjw- 
kins  broad. 

The  following  is  a  detailed  deflcripUon  of  the 
points  of  an  ideal  Hunter:  H€wrf.— Bars  fine,  not 
too  large,  approaching  each  other  at  the   ti|». 
when  thrown  forward  :  cranium  broad  and  nicely , 
rounded;    forehead    flat  and    broad;   eyes  wtd«, 
apart,  prominent  and  bold  in  expression ;  nasal 
bones  straight  in  front,  but  slightly  duihed  on  lat- ' 
eral  surfaces  ;  nostrils  firm,  large  and  flexible,  of 
large  capacity  when  the  animal  is  excited :   lips 
firm,  moath  me^lium-sized  ;  muKiIe  j>mall  and  taper- 
ing :  cheeks  well  but  not  tuo  heavily  clothed  with 


HOR£B 


HORSE 


I 


hard,  welMeveloiH?!)  nnwclfy;    finincHes  of  lower 
jnw  well  Hpread   a[)iirl  at   their  anxltis.    \ff.k.— 
Clean-cut  and   ratiKy ;  crust   well  dL-veloped   and 
whipconly,  but  not  so  hfa%'y  as  in  other  classes ; 
head  well  attach*.-<i  to  neck  in  a  graceful,  angnlar 
manner;  jngular  putter  well  develniiwl.    Wifher«. 
-Well  dwelf^tHvl,  high,  and  not  too  wide  on  top. 
The  withers  should  im  .sltijHng  and  of  such  form 
that  the  saddle  may  be  placed  well  Ituek  over  the 
Center  of  gravity,  which  i»  especially  desirable  in 
negotiating  timber.    i^houider$. — Lonp  and 
obuque,  so  03  to  give  easy  action;  shoulder- 
blades  well  covered  witli  muscleH.   Cknt.— 
D**p,  giviiiB  good  girths,  with  a  well-filled 
breast.    Arm. — Thmwn  well  forward,  bo  iw 
to  give  an  oblifjue  shoulder.  Formrm.—  lMan. 
well  develojte*!.  and  utrong.  well  clotht'<l  with 
hardiWell-daveloTK-d  muscles,  having  groove* 
of  demarcation  hetween  them,  showing  the 
outlines  (vf  each  individual  mairle.    Koft. 
Clean,  straight,  large  and  strong  in  all  di- 
rectiona,  the  bon*;  forminj^    the  back  part 
being  somewhat  jiruminent.   Knee  ti/ fttloel- 
joint.— C&nnon  short,  broad,  flat,  and  clean; 
tondou  standing  out  plainly,  hard  and  whip- 
cordy.  The  lines  of  demarcation  between  ten- 
don and  ligament,  and  between  ligament  and 
bone  tnu.«t  he  well  «iipport*^l  beneath  the  knee. 
Dot    showing    any    tendency    to    weaknetts. 
rfWociti.- -Strong  and  well  supported.   fYont  past- 
rrrt.^Strong.  medium  length  and  obli()ue.     Front 
fftf. — Rather  amaller  in  proportion  than  in  other 
,Dreed8,  round,  strong,  and  fairly  deep  wall ;  soles 
eooCATV,  fntg  well  developed  ;  heels  fall  and  not 
too  deep;  toe«  turning  neither  in  nor  out  while 
standing.   Body.— Muck  gtrong'and  inclined  to  be 
short,  with  a  long  under-ltne ;  loin  broad  and  well 
niDscicd ;   ribs   well   xprnng  and   of  good  depth. 
The  under-line  must  be  long,  otherwise  the  horse 
will  he  8hort.;-ned  in  his  gait.   To  get  this  long 
under-line,  perhaps  a  longer  back  will  lie  required 
than  would  otherwise  Iw  dei?iralde.    Crat/;*.— Well 
miuclei].  carried  out  Htraight  to  tail,  which  should 
be  fall  haired  and  very  stylishly  carried.    Hnck.— 
T>eep  and  strong  in  all  directions :  all  points  well 
developed,  bnt  not  nnigSi ;  absence  of  malforma- 
tions  or    puffiness ;    point    very   well    develoiHKl, 
atraight   on   jiosterior   border ;    the    whole    joint 
clean,  hard,  and  of  an  anguiar  shape.   H'nek  to/ii- 
/«■*.— Cannon   short,   wider  and    flatter  than  in 
front;  tendons  well  marked  iniiividnally,  and  must 
not   have   a   pinched  appearance   Wlow   joint   in 
front,  but  very  gradually    taper   in    width    from 
hock   to  fetlock.     /■V^/ucfe  j'ur'nf.— Large,  clean-cut 
and  strong.    Hind  pn^lcriu. —  Medium  length,  hIojj- 
ing  and  strong.    //f»d-/eri.— Smaller  and  not  »o 
Tfiand  as  the  front  ones  ;  sole  more  concave  ;  frog 
well  developed  ;  heel  good  width  and  not  too  deep. 
CWor.— Hay,  brown  or  ch>?3tn«t.  black,  roan  and 
gray:    with  reiisonahle    moctifications.     .S'ltin   ami 
BOt'r,  — Skin  soft,  mfltow,  and  hwise,  hair  fine,  silky, 
and  Htraight  and  soft  in  cniparison  with  other 
brwds.     TVmperamtnt.  —  Mild,  energetic,  not   vi- 
cious nor  too  nervous.    .4<r/iopt.  — I'rompt.  free,  and 
clastic,  not  too  much  knee  and  hock  action,  bnt 


going  cto8e  t«  the  ground.  eH|>ecially  in  the  canter 
and  gallop;  no  paddle  or  n>ll,  and  front  feet  not 
to  go  close  enough  behind  to  interfere  ;  a  good 
straighUway  walker.  nVijA/.  — 1,000  to  l^SOO 
pounds,  Hcigkt.  —  Uj  hands  1  inch  to  IG  hands 
and  over. 

Brixding  in  America, 

The  breeding  of  Huntere  in  America  haa  hardly 
progressed  far  enough  in  any  one  section  uf  the 


If    -^ 


'>  .-1, 


v4»i'^  jft 


Fi«.  471.    TIW  Hlistoi.  "GwudailUil."    Owned  by  Jobn  C1a7. 

country  to  distinguish  such  animals  as  "pure 
bred."  However,  a  great  many  animals  are  yearly 
bred  in  this  country  for  the  special  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing Hunters.  The  method  of  breeding  is  the 
same  as  originally  adopte^l  in  Ireland,  namely,  the 
use  of  Thoroughbred  atalHona  on  native  or  grade 
nmft'H.  .\b  the  external  ccmformation  usually  fol- 
lows the  aire,  the  breeilers  of  Hunters  are  usually 
able  to  prodiice,  even  in  the  first  cross,  saddle  con- 
formation, and  at  the  same  time  to  have  trans- 
mitted to  sHch  a  cniws  sufficient  of  the  courage, 
intelligenc*!  and  staying  '|uatitie»  nf  the  Thorough- 
bred to  make  the  firift  cr<>A6  (balf-btood)  a  moat 
satisfactory  animal  for  cross-country  riding  to 
hounds.  The  fact  that  thowi  half-,  three-quartcr- 
and  seven-eighth-hlood  horses  make  such  satisfac- 
tory Hunters  is  probably  the  reason  why,  in  this 
country,  there  has  been  no  general  movement  in 
any  one  section  to  continue  s[H>cial  bree<ling.  How- 
ever, a  great  many  clean-bred  horses  are  favored 
by  many  persons  for  cross-country  work.  This 
special  line  of  breeding  has  not  Ikwr  followed  long 
enough  for  the  hreed  to  become  fiscd.  In  fact, 
the  demand  for  such  horses  has  always  exceeded 
the  Bupjily  in  America  l«  surh  an  extent  that  the 
tyt»e  lias  never  had  an  opportunity  to  Itecome 
thoroughly  eatablishe^l.  Xeverthelew,  there  has 
been  a  National  Steeple  (*hase  and  Hunt  .\ssocin- 
tion  organized  in  .America  under  the  auspices  of 
The  Jockey  Club,  that  admits  to  regUter  almost 
any  animal  with  one  or  more  crosses  of  Thorough- 
bred bloo<i.  that  has  been  regularly  "honte^l"  a  cer- 
tain number  of  times,  with  some  recognized  pack 
of  hounds,  and  approved  hy  the  master. 

Hun  tor- breeding  in  .Amt-rica  is  conducted  to  a 
limited  extent  in  the  neighborhood  of  motit  of  the 


470 


HORSK 


nORSE 


orf^anized  hunt  i^IuIih,  o(  which  there  are  BOme  fifty 
in  the  eaaU>rn  hUU^h.  In  hucIi  Hections  oiw  will 
find  onii  to  half  a  duzen  Thoroughbred  utalHona  in 
eenoral  uBt-  among  thu  ftirnmrii  of  tliat  siiucial 
community.  In  the  (3ene,'iL«  valley  in  Livinjifnton 
county.  New  Yf)rk.  for  t-xample.  thure  are  no  less 
than  eight  Thoroughbrwl  fitaiiions  within  a  nujius 
of  tiftt«>n  milua,  teing  u»erj  on  the  farm  marcs  of 
the  neighborhofMi  for  the  rt|i^cial  purpnse  nf  breed- 
ing Hunters.  Virginia  prohably  [innliicpH  more 
animals  that  are  udfK'ciaEly  bretl  fur  hunting  than 
any  other  state.  Of  late  years,  however,  the 
Jockey  Club  has  put  out  many  Thoroughbrwi 
stalliciris  throughout  the  state  of  New  York,  which 
in  a  few  years  .ihoald  make  that  ^tate  promi- 
nent for  breeding  Htinterg.  Hitherto,  Canada  has 
been  one  of  the  principal  sources  from  whir:h 
Aniiirican  hunting  men  have  been  i^iipplied.  The 
Canadian  Hunt«ra  com©  largely  from  between 
Toronto  and  London.  Ont.,  where  Thoroughbred 
stalliona  have  lnoen  very  gtsncrally  used. 

Dittribution. 

As  hunting  has  long  occupied  a  place  in  the 
sports  of  nations,  horaei^  that  may  be  characterized 
aa  honters  are  widely  distributed.  From  Ireland, 
the  home  ot  the  breed,  the  Hunter  has  (teen  scat- 
tered over  great  Urttainand  the  continent.  In  1904. 
the  Dutch  government  bought  3tJ0  young  marea  of 
this  breeii  in  Ireland.  In  America,  both  Canada  and 
the  United  tltatea  are  devoting  increasing  attention 
to  the  production  of  horses  fur  bunting  purposes. 

•Clojme. 

At  the  leading  horse  shows  there  are  several 
'cl&Bses  for  Hunters  of  different  types  and  dilTerent 
weight-carrying  abilities.  Qaalijifd  Hunters  are 
those  that  have  been  registered  with  the  National 
Stuuple  Chase  and  Hunt  Afisociation.  but  ne^  not 
be  clean  bred.  Hcavn-wcifjH  Hunters  must  carry 
up  to  200  pounds  to  hounds  |r|U3lified  and  not  quali- 
fied). .Viddle-wfight  Hunters  must  carry  up  to  180 
pounds  to  hounds  {ciuuiified  and  not  qaaliAed). 
Liffht-imffht  Hunters  must  carry  up  to  IGfi  pounds 
to  hounds  (nualilied  and  not  qualified).  Tliorouah' 
bred  Hunters  must  be  registered  in  the  studbook. 

l-\e4ing  and  rare. 

The  Hunttr  should  not  have  more  than  three  or 
four  days  of  all-day  fox-hunting  in  a  fortnight ; 
with  dragM,  flom«  may  go  three  times  a  week,  but 
much  depends  on  the  going  and  the  length  of  the 
runs.  The  Hunter  should  be  jogged  home  after  the 
hunt,  given  warm  gruel  and  thoroughly  rubbed.  A 
groom  should  exercise  him  gently  on  non-hunting 
days  for  about  live  miles  early  in  the  morning.  He 
should  be  carefully  looked  afterand  given  the  best  of 
oats  and  hay.  Tht^  night  Ntfore  hu  is  to  be  "hunted," 
water  should  be  kept  in  his  stall  alt  aight,  SD  that  he 
may  take  it  at  will.  He  Hhould  be  feil  very  early  and 
saildM  only  just  before  he  is  ordered. 

Organiiatiant  and  rreordx. 

!n  Great  Britain,  the  interests  of  the  breed  are 
in  the  bands  of  the  Hunter  Improvement  Society  of 


Great  Britain,  Two  volumes  of  the  Hunter  Stad- 
huuk  have  been  publiKlit^l  and  a  third  ts  in  prepa- 
ration. The  pedigree  iiuuliJications  of  the  Hunter 
Studbtwk  are  that  the  etalliona  shall  be  by  a  Thor- 
oughbred or  registered  Hunk'r  sire  out  of  a  folly 
registered  mare,  and  the  mares  shall  show  two 
crnsaoanf  Thonmghbre*!  or  registered  Hunter  blood, 
vis,  Hire  and  diim's  nire,  or  if  dams  of  winners  of 
races  under  ruie.s  and  accepted  after  inspection. 
The  supplement  of  the  studbouk  is  open  to  mares  (1) 
byaThoroiighlirodur  registered  Hunter  sire,  winners 
or  dams  of  winners  of  prizes  or  medals  at  national, 
county  or  associated  shows,  or  (2)  by  inspection 
and  veterinary  examination.  In  .America,  The 
Jockey  Club  with  headquarters  in  New  York  City, 
was  instrumental  in  the  organixntion  of  the 
National  Steeple  <'ha.<4e  and  Hnnt  .\ss4x::iation,  which 
registers  and  ythti'rwtse  looks  after  the  development 
of  the  Hunter  and  the  stocple-chaser,  discoseed  in 
the  following  paragraph, 

Stebpix-cuasers. 

The  st^eple-choser  is  almost  always  a  ctenn-bred 
horse,  that  hjis  natural  or  made  aJaptability  to 
jump.  Ho  must  be  more  seasoned  than  the  Thor- 
oughbred that  is  to  run  on  the  Hat.  and  must  be  up 
to  a  good  deal  more  weight.  There  are  certain 
blood  lines  that  have  produced  natural  jnmiHTs, 
which,  when  "nicked"  with  certain  mar&%  have 
produced  fencers.  Many  horses  that,  perhajis,  bavo 
not  enough  speed  for  the  flat,  have  been  schooled 
and  made  good  chasers.  Unlike  the  steady  fox- 
hunting Hunter,  the  steeple-chaser  must  he  able  to 
go  a  good  pace  and  take  his  fences  Dying,  or  almost 
as  fast  as  in  a  hurdle  race.  In  this  type  of  horse, 
the  adaptability  for  the  special  perforraanee  and 
the  result  gives  the  home  his  place  and  name  as  a 
steeple-chaser. 

Lileral  lire. 

The  literature  of  the  Hunter  is  for  the  most  part 
interwoven  with  expositions  of  the  chs.se,  and  is 
not  specific  and  direct.  Yet  some  direct  discussions 
will  be  found  in  the  works  refeirred  to  on  page  416. 
Other  references  are:  Peer.  Cross  Country  with 
Horse  and  Hound ;  Walsh.  The  Horse  in  the  Stable 
and  in  the  Field.  Uudnn  (IS71t;  fJ<JMiwin.  The 
Tfirf  Guides;  Nimrod.  The  Cha^ie,  the  Rnad  and  the 
Turf;  White.  The  History  of  the  British  Turf,  two 
volumes,  Loudon  US40);  Curzon,  A  Mirror  of  the 
Turf,  Loudon  (1892). 

MiUtary  Horse.    Figs.  472^  473. 

For  military  purposes,  several  distinct  types  of 
horsfeit  are  required  according  to  the  n&c  to  which 
they  are  to  be  put ;  and  each  type  must  conform 
carefully  to  a  standard  set  by  the  War  liepiirtment. 
The  specifications  for  each  type  issued  by  the  War 
Departments  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
(for  Canada)  are  inserte*!  in  this  Cycl<>[)eilia  for 
their  reference  value,  and  aUo  that  farmers  int«r- 
ested  in  breeding  horses  for  army  ose  may  be 
informed  as  to  what  is  re()Qired. 


HORSE 


HORSE 


471 


Horse  TvpEa  REQUtRED  by   the  Usited  States 
War  Dbtartment 

All  (if  UiB  specifications  that  follow  wcro  pre- 
pared nndvT  the  direction  of  the  C{Qartenna.stt.T 
Oenoral.  Those  for  medium  and  light  drnft  horses 
and  for  cavalry  horses,  were  iJfsueil  at»JtT  date  of 
November  25,  1903;  for  ttaildle  h*>r!WH  fur  monn- 
tain  batteriem,  August  li,  liH)?;  for  artillery  hcirnns, 
October  IS,  1906;  for  small  horsuH  fur  onlurlittf 
and  mounted  mciwengarB,  January  17,  1908 ;  for 
mules,  Novemher  5,  1907. 

^>teyUation>  for  ravairn  Awwji. 

The  cavalry  horse  tnn.st  he  sound,  well  bred,  of  a 
aaperior  class,  and  have  quality ;  gentle  ami  of  a 
kind  disposition  ;  thurouglily  broken  to  the  Raddle, 
with  light  and  elantic  mouth,  uruiy  K!*it<^f  <^nd  free 
SBd  prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot,  and  gallop ; 
free  from  vicious  habits,  without  material  blemish 
or  defect ;  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing description  : 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  (vliir,  in  good 
condition  ;  from  four  to  eight  years  old  ;  weighing 
from  y.')0  to  1,100  pounds,  dejiending  on  height, 
which  should  be  from  In  to  Ifij  hands. 

Head. — Small  and  wi-ll  set  on  neck;  with  eura 
email,  thin,  neat,  and  erect ;  forehead  broad  and 
full;  eyes  large,  prominent,  and  mild,  with  welt- 
developed  hixiw  and  fine  eyelid  ;  viwion  perfect  in 
every  respect ;  mm:xle.tmai!  and  fine  ;  month  deep; 
]i]Kt  thin  and  fjnnly  eoing^resKed  ;  nostrils  large  and 
flne  ;  and  liranchtd  of  under-jaw  (adjoining  neck) 
wide  apart. 

jV»tA'.— Light.  moiJerately  long,  and  tapering 
toward  the  head,  with  crest  firm  and  longer  than 
tinderside;  mane  fine  and  intact. 

WitJirrg. — Ek'vatefi,  not  unduly  fine,  well  devel- 
ope<J  and  muHc'IeiJ. 

Shouldtrg. — lAing,  obli4]ue,  and  well  muscled. 

CfrfW.-  Full,  very  deep,  moderately  broad,  and 
plump  in  front. 

Fvrf-iffiii. — Vertical,  and  proporly  placed;  with 
elbow  largo,  long,  prominent,  and  clear  of  chest; 
fort'-arm  large  at  the  elbow,  long  and  heavily 
mu!4nled. 

Knte$.—  Neatly  outlined,  large,  prominent,  wide 
in  ttoai,  well  Rituated.  and  well  directed. 

Bflot.— Shorts  straight,  and  well  muscled. 

Loi>#.^Broad,  straight,  very  short  and  mn*- 
cutnr. 

Borre/.— Large,  incrcaaing  in  site  toward  flanks, 
with  ribs  well  arched  anil  definitely  separated. 

Find-quarUTB.  Wide,  thitk.  very  long,  fall, 
heavily  muscled,  rounded  externally ;  and  well 
diTvet«d. 

Till/.— Fine  and  intact ;  well  carried  and  firm. 

//or*/. —  Neatly  outlined,  Ivan,  large,  wide  from 
front  to  n*ar.  well  situated,  and  well  directed. 

Limbt.  From  knee.<t  and  hocka  downward,  verti- 
cal, short,  wide  laterally,  with  tendonp  and  liga- 
ments standing  well  oat  from  bone  and  distinctly 
defined, 

Pcuiernt."  Strong.  medioiD  length,  not  too 
obliqae,  and  well  directed. 


Frtt. — Medium  fllse,  circular  in  shape,  sound  ; 
with  horn  dark,  Rmoutli,  and  of  tine  texture  ;  sole 
moderately  concavu,  and  frog  wbII  developed,  sound, 
firm,  largo,  clastic  and  healthy. 

F^ch  horse  will  be  subjected  ton  rigid  inspection, 
and  any  animnl  that  dues  not  meet  tho  above 
requirement*  should  be  rejected.  No  whito  or  gray 
hcirse«  to  he  accepted. 

Spetipcaiiona  far  $aiidie  kanct  for  mountain  bat- 
tfriet. 

The  specifications  are  the  same  as  for  cavalry 
horses,  eicept  that  the  weight  must  be  950  to 
1,070  pounds,  depending  on  height,  which  should 
be  15  tn  15^  hands. 

Sptcificationi  for  ftnaii  horiet  for  orderlies  and 
jnnunied  uiettrnfferr. 

The  amall  horse  for  orderlieii  and  mounted 
messengerfl  niUHt  l»s  sound,  well  bred,  of  a 
superior  class,  and  have  quality;  gentio  and  of  a 
kind  dispcisition  ;  well  broken  to  the  saddle,  with 
light  and  elastic  mouth,  easy  gaits,  and  free  and 


Piff.  471.    GBDerd.  a  bmrn  ceMJnt.    Wfnti'  r  <  t  mi  umeu 
cftVHlry  hone  ljrp«.  CknwIUa  Horin-  Shmr. 

prompt  action  at  the  walk,  trot  and  gallop ;  free 
from  vicious  habits,  without  material  blemish  or 
defect:  handy,  speedy  and  suitable  in  all  other 
rei!pects.  and  otherwise  to  conform  to  the  follow- 
ing description  : 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  good 
condition;  from  4  to  S  yearn  old  ;  weighing  from 
825  to  ySO  pounds,  dq>ending  on  height,  which 
should  be  from  141  to  15  hand*. 

The  remainder  of  the  de.'icriptiitn  is  the  same  as 
that  given  above  for  cavalry  horses. 

SpeeificfUiont  for  artiUfrg  horta  for  titfft  batUrte*. 

The  artillery  horse  for  siege  batteries  must  be 
sound,  well  bred,  of  a  superior  class,  and  have 
quality  ;  of  a  kind  disposition,  well  broken  to  har- 
ness, and  gentle  under  the  saddle,  with  easy  mouth 
and  gaitj,  and  free  and  prompt  action  at  the  walk, 
trot  and  gallop;  free  from  vicious  habits;  without 
material  blemish  or  defect,  and  otherwise  to  con- 
fonn  with  the  following  description  : 

A  gelding  or  mare  of  h^rdy  color,  in  good  eon- 


472 


HORSE 


HORSE 


dition,  from  4  to  8  years  old,  ;  height,  from  16  to 
17  hands;  weight,  from  I,;i50  to  \fi^O  jhhhhIr. 
Horses  otherwisfl  ftatisfactiiry,  which  fall  slmrt  of 
or  exceed  Ihtisn  limita  iif  weight  liy  not  inure  than 
50  p(iiiindK.t  due  to  tt^miMirary  condttiunii,  may  \m 
iicci^Iited.   Manut  in  foal  will  not  be  accepted. 


Tig.  473.  Cuautdit,  &  puio-bied  Hjickncy  ouite.  Wianw  at 
A-nt  frizi*  as  nnlll*ry  htiTn-r  Ifpr.  Cutiidliiiiii  Kon^  Shair, 
Toiuiito,  Aurtn.  VMM.     Thlt    TiiHrp   r»tfrMt<al«   tite    lIslilBr 

lyp*  JmUm,  wcUhtun  i,32i  puiuidi. 

Hm^. —  .Small  and  wt-ll  sot  on  neck  ;  with  ears 
small,  thin,  neat,  and  erect :  forehead  broad  and 
full;  ey«s  large,  prominent  and  mitd.  with  well- 
developed  brnw  and  fine  eyelid;  vision  perfect  in 
©very  respect ;  muzzle  Hmall  and  fine ;  motiLh  deep ; 
]|p»  thin  and  firmly  compn^ssed  ;  nostrils  large  and 
fim,  and  branches  of  under  jaw  (adjolnini;  n^ck) 
wide  apart. 

yeck. — Moderately  long  and  tapering  toward  the 
head,  with  crest  firm  and  longer  than  under  side  ; 
mane  fine  and  intact. 

U'l/ftfrs.— Elevated,  not  Tintloly  fine,  well  devel- 
oped and  muscled. 

Shoulder*.—  Long,  oblique,  well  packed  with 
muscle,  not  too  heavy,  smooth,  rnanded,  and  ao 
formed  as  properly  to  support  the  collar. 

Chfgt. —  High,  wide,  very  deep;  plump  in  front 
and  full. 

/^brpJcji.— Vertical  and  properly  placed :  with 
elbow  large,  long,  prominent,  clear  of  chest,  and 
well  placed:  fore-arm  wide,  thick,  long,  heavily 
muKled  and  vertical. 

Jf ri«*.  —  Xeatly  outlined,  large,  prominent,  wide 
in  front,  well  situated  and  wuU  directed. 

Back. — Short,  straight  and  well  muwcIeJ. 

Loins.  — Broad,  straight,  very  «h(pri  and  miw- 
cnlar. 

Itarrfl.  -Large,  increasing  in  size  toward  flanks, 
with  ribs  well  arched  and  definitely  fteparat*'d. 

Hind-quartfTf. —  Wide,  thick,  very  long,  full, 
heavily  muscled,  rounded  externally  and  well 
directed, 

rai7.— Fine  and  intact:  well  carried  and  firm. 

Huckt. — Neatly  outlineil,  lean,  large,  wide  from 
front  to  rear,  and  well  directed. 


Limbs.— Trom.  knees  and  bocka  downward,  verti- 
cal, short,  wide  laterally,  with  tendons  and  liga- 
menttf  standing  well  out  from  Ikiqc  and  distinctly 
defined. 

Pafteriat.  — Strung,  medium  length,  not  tm) 
obliiiuu,  and  well  directed, 

feel.—  Me<Hiiin  .siz*.-,  circular  in  shape,  sound  ; 
with  horn  dark,  smouth,  and  of  fine  ti-'Xture  ;  sole 
moderately  concave,  and  frog  well  developed,  sound, 
firm,  large,  elastic  and  healthy. 

R.-ich  horse  will  be  snbjecteil  to  a  rigid  ins[>ec- 
iion,  and  any  animal  thjit  does  nut  meet  the  above 
rei]uiruinenl^  shouUI  be  rejected. 

Long-legged,  IcKiHe-jointed,  l»ng<bodied,  narrow- 
chcstBd.  coarse  and  cold-blooded  horses,  as  well  as 
those  which  are  ri«tive.  vicious,  or  ttw  free  in  har- 
ness, or  which  do  not,  upon  rigid  inspection,  meet 
the  above  requirements  in  every  reapect.  will  be 
rejected.  A  horae  binder  five  years  old  should  not 
be  HCCBpteii,  unless  u  six^ially  fine,  well-<levelope<I 
anicnal.    No  while  or  gray  horses  will  be  accepted. 

Sp«iJlcaiion$  for  arliUcrii  hcr/fsfor  light  and  horgt 

baltcrifs. 

Thev^'  spwiflcations  are  the  samL-  as  those  for 

the  artillery  horses  for  siege  batteries,  except  that 

_the  height  should    be  Ibi    to  16   hands,  and  the 

weight,  l.loO  to  1,2,'^0  pound.>L   The  artillery  horse 

for  light  ami  horse  batteries  is  required  for  quick 

draft  purposes,  ard  should  Im  heavy  enough  to  move 

the  carriage,  ordinarily,  by  weight    thrown  into 

the  collar,  rather  than  by  muscular  exertion, 

Specijicaiiont  for  light  drt^l  [coach)  kortes. 

The  light  draft  horse  must  be  snnnd,  well  bred, 
of  a  .^ujierior  chiss.  and  have  quality  :  of  a  kind 
disposition  ;  thomughly  broken  to  harness  ;  with 
easy  mouth,  and  free,  prompt,  straight,  and  true 
action  at  the  walk  ana  trot ;  free  from  vicioua 
habits :  without  material  blemish  or  defect  :  and 
otherwise  conform  tn  the  following  description  : 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hardy  color,  in  phmI 
condition:  from  five  to  seven  years  old  ;  weighing 
from  LUX>  to  1.200  pound.-",  depending  on  height, 
which  should  he  from  Ir.^  to  IB  hands. 

//ciirf.— Small,  and  well  set  on  neck;  with  cars 
sniall,  thin,  neat,  and  erect :  forehead  broad  and 
full;  eyes  large,  prominent,  and  mild,  with  well- 
developed  brow  and  fine  eyelid  :  vision  perfect  in 
every  Fesp^cct ;  muzzle  small  and  fine  :  month  deep ; 
lipa  thin  and  firmly  compressed ;  nostrils  large  and 
fine:  and  branches  of  under-jaw  (adjoining  neck) 
wide  apart. 

.VecA",  —  Light,  moderately  long,  and  tapering 
toward  the  head,  with  crest  firm  and  longer  than 
underside;  mane  fine  and  intact. 

iri'M«"*.-~EtevatBd,  not  unduly  fine,  well  devel- 
oped and  muscled. 

Shoulderf.—  I/»ng.  oblique,  well  packed  with 
muscle,  not  too  heavy,  smooth,  rourwled,  and  so 
formed  as  prowrly  to  support  the  collar. 

rJiM(.  — High,  wide,  very  deep,  plump  in  front 
and  full. 

Forc-fcj/j.— Vortical,  and  properly  placed :  with 
tdbow  large,  long,  prominent,  clear  of  chest,  and 


HORSE 


HORSE 


473 


WL'II  placed ;  fnre-arm  wi(je,  thick,  tcwig,  henvily 
muscled,  nml  vertical. 

A'lifr*. — Fine,  thii^k,  and  widu  in  front,  |iri>inirn--nt, 
wellBituated.  wultdireott-d,  and  froo  from  blcraishus. 

Back. — Sliurt,  straiKlit,  and  wl*H  muscled. 

Loins. — Kroad,  straight,  very  short  and  muscular. 

Barrtl. — Lnrfje,  with  rihw  definitelj'  m*i>arati?(l 
from  pach  other,  anil  well-arched  from  girth  ti>waH 
tlank. 

f/i'nJ-^iwr*<Tjt.— Wide,  thick,  very  lonjf,  full, 
heavily  muaulL'd,  rtinnded  tixturBally,  and  well 
directed. 

TaU.—Viav  and  intact,  well  carrL-d  and  lirni, 

Hoob.— Ntiatly  outlined.  lean,  large,  wido  from 
front  to  rear,  and  well  directed. 

Limht. — From  knees  and  hnckfl  downward  verti- 
cal. Hliort,  wide  tatenilly,  with  teiidnnK  and  lign- 
mentji  Ftandin|{  well  out  frtmi  liuiiu,  and  distinctly 
defined. 

Vatierm.  —  Strong,  moxlium  length,  not  too 
obliquw,  and  well  directed. 

fpeV.— Medium  sizcv«ircular  in  shape,  and  Bound  ; 
with  horn  dark,  BmrKith,  and  nf  fine  texture;  sole 
moderately  concave,  and  frog  well  develojied,  Hoiind, 
finrt,  large,  elantie,  and  hcaUhy  in  ai)|iearanc.e. 

Kjurh  hoFKB  willlw  Hulijei;teil  to  a  riyid  inHjH.>clinn, 
and  any  animal  that  does  not  meet  the  above 
requirements  should  be  rejected. 

Speqfieatioat  for  medium  drafi  horia. 

The  medium  draft  horse  must  be  sound,  we!] 
bred,  and  of  a  HitpHrior  clana  ;  gentle  and  of  a  kind 
dJ.'^po^itiun ;  thnruu^hly  broken  to  harne.ss,  with 
easy  mouth  and  free,  prumpt,  straight,  and  regular 
action  at  the  walk  and  trot;  free  from  vicious 
habits,  without  material  blemish  or  defect,  and 
otherwise  to  conform  to  the  following  description  : 

A  gelding  of  uniform  and  hanly  cidnr,  in  gfitxl 
condition;  from  5  to  7  years  old  ;  weighing  from 
1,200  to  1,400  |Kmnds,  di^pendirig  un  height,  which 
should  tie  from  In^  to  16  hands. 

Head. —  iim:\.\]  and  well  set  on  neck;  with  ears 

all,  thin  and  erect ;  forehead   broad  and  full ; 

ea  large,  prominent  and  mild,  with  well-devel- 
bped  brow  and  line  eyelid  ;  vision  perfect  in  every 
mpect ;  muzi^le  line;  mouth  deep;  lt|iB  thin  and 
flrmly  compressed  ;  nostrils  hirge  find  fine,  and 
branchuK  uf  under  jaw  wide  apart  adjoining  nwk. 

-Vffit.— Moderutidy  long  and  tapering  toward  the 
head,  with  crest  firm  and  longer  than  underside  : 
mano  line  and  intact. 

H'i/Aer*,  — Klevatcd,  not  ondaly  fine,  well  devel- 
oped and  muscled. 

Skoaidrrt.  Iy»ng,  obttque,  well  miiiicled,  smooth, 
roumled  and  »o  formed  aa  projicrly  to  support  the 
collar. 

CheM. —  Fall,  high,  wide,  deep,  and  plump  in 
front. 

/"owJeffi.— Vertical,  and  properly  placed  ;  with 
elbow  large,  long,  prominent,  clear  of  chest,  and 
well  placed;  fore-arm  wide,  thick,  long,  heavily 
tnUFicM  and  vertical. 

A'wiT*.- Fine,  thick,  and  wide  in  front,  promi- 
nent, well  aitunted.  well  dinKrted,  and  free  from 
blemishes. 


^mA.— Short,  straight,  well  muse  led,  and  strongly 
coupled  to  hind-<iuartera. 

Luiiit.—hroiA,  straight,  very  short  and  muscu- 
lar. 

Barrel. —  Large,  with  ril»s  de^nitely  separated 
from  each  other  and  well  arched. 

Hinil-quartrrn.  Wide,  thick,  very  long.  full, 
heavily  muAoled,  rounded  externally  and  well 
directed. 

7Wi7.— Fine  and  intact;  well  carried  and  firm. 

HueJcs. — Neatly  outlined,  lean,  large,  wide  from 
front  to  rear  and  well  dirMCt«>d. 

Limb*. — P'rom  knees  and  hocks  downward,  verti- 
cal, very  short,  wide  laterally,  with  tendons  and 
ligamentH  standing  well  out  from  bene,  and  dis- 
tinctly defined. 

I'asttrixK.  —  Strtjng,  medium  length,  not  too 
obHi|ue,  and  weSl  din^ctutl. 

»c/,— Mitlium  siii-s  circular  in  shape,  and  sound  ; 
with  horn  dark,  smooth,  and  of  fine  texture,  sole 
moderately  concave,  and  frog  well  developed,  sound, 
firm,  large,  ela-ntic  and  hejilthy  in  appearance. 

Kach  horse  will  be  subjected  to  a  rigid  ins|»ection. 
and  any  animal  that  does  nut  meet  with  the  above 
re<|uirement»,  should  1>»  rejectfsd. 

Sptxnfieationi  far  mulfn. 

The  mule  must  bo  sound,  well  brod,  and  of  a 
superior  class ;  of  a  kind  disposition,  gentle,  and 
well  broken  to  harness,  with  the  exception  of  the 
pack  mule  ;  with  free  and  jirnnipt  action  at  the 
walk  or  trot  ;  frt'e  from  vicione  habits,  without 
materia!  blemlKh  or  defect,  and  otherwise  to  con- 
form to  the  following  description : 

A  gelding  or  mare  of  uniform  and  hardy  color, 
in  good  condition  ;  from  four  to  eight  years  old  ; 
weight.  de[)ending  on  height,  to  be  as  follows  : 

Wheel  mules  for  six-mule  li?ams,  to  weigh  frnm 
1,1.^  to  \,W0  pounds,  and  hn  frum  15  hands  3 
inches  to  Ifi  haiiiis  high. 

Swing  mulea  for  six-mule  team,  to  weigh  1.050 
to  1.1.">0  poimda,  and  be  from  15  hands  1  inch  to 
lii  handn  3  inches  high. 

Lead  mulea  for  six-mule  t^am,  to  weigh  from  950 
to  l.OTiO  pounds,  and  be  from  14  hands  3  inches  to 
li*!  hiuids  I  inch  high. 

Wheel  mules  for  four-miile  team,  to  weigh  from 
I.IOO  tu  1,2(X)  inmnds.  uiid  be  from  In  hands  2 
inches  to  16  hands  high. 

U'ad  mules  for  four-mule  team,  to  weigh  from 
I.OiiO  to  l.ltXI  pounds,  and  he  from  15  hands  1  inch 
to  15  hands  2  inches  high. 

Riding  mule3  for  wagons  and  pack  trains,  to 
weigh  from  1,000  to  l.OtSO  ponnd.>i.  and  tie  from  IB 
hands  tu  Ih  hands  1  inch  high,  broken  to  saddle. 

Saddle  mules  fur  mountjiin  batteries  to  be  broken 
to  saddle,  to  weigh  from  9rrf)  to  l.(KH)  jHrnnds,  and 
be  from  14  hands  2  inchc-s  to  IT)  hands  high. 

Pack  mules  to  weigh  from  STjO  to  1.00t.t  pounds, 
and  be  from  13  hands  3  inches  to  IIJ  hands  high. 

P.-ick  mules  for  mountain  batteries  and  for 
machine  gun  platoons,  to  weigh  from  950  to  l.OOO 
[■onnds,  and  be  from  14  bands  2  inclie*  to  15  hands 
high. 

WMrf.— Fine  and  of  medium  slae.  with  eoR  fine 


468 


HORSE 


HORSE 


bred  trotting  lines  werw  noiniieting  with  the  Flai^k- 
ncty,  tf8p»cially  in  thu  high-f^Leppinj;  cla^gt-s,  in  the 
nhciw-ring.  They  ware  more  or  less  freaks,  with 
the  hinli  sUjiiiinK  oxaKf^umtod  ly  h»;iivy  shoeing 
and  training,  hut  thuy  somutimes  tnadti  a,  more 
papular  ahow  than  the  Hackney,  by  hifiti)?  iihle  to 
go  fast  09  well  as  high.  There  was  Iitt1»  inetinn- 
tion  among  exhiltitars  at  that  time  to  titop  ami 
coDsiJer  that  fast  going  wiw  not  a  much  Kinight 
after  character iHtic  fnr  a  high-wtt'iipinK  or  a  hiaivy- 
hamuKH  hor^e.  A  let^fwiilng  ot  ihu  iotertiet  Jii  tUB 
mere  bifih  goer,  and  more  attuntiim  tti  thtt  travnw^ 
and  Ht>rvic«al)iUty  of  the  action,  has  don-i;  good  in 
reoont  years ;  and  the  outcome  has  lieen  to 
Btrongthen  tho  position  of  the  Harkney  and  make 
it  more  deciiledly  a  heavy-harnewa  h<irHe. 

lUgiribulion. 

Tlie  gixwl  (jualitii'sof  the  Hackney  haveattracted 
worlil-widu  attention,  and,  a*t  a  consequL>nce,  it  is 
now  found  in  many  lands.  In  gii'neral,  from  Eng- 
land it  has  gone  out  into  Franco,  Germany,  Hol- 
land, llpTimark.  Hi>Iginm.  Spain,  Italy,  far  east 
into  Japan  and  anuih  into  Africa,  Aui^tralta  and 
New  Zeahinil,  and  westward  into  the  Argentine 
Republic  in  South  Amerit'a,  and  i[ilu  Canada  and 
the  United  States  in  North  America,  It  ia  pressing 
its  way  into  every  land  wh^ore  heavy -harneas  horses 
are  in  demand.  In  America,  the  Hackney  is  bred  in 
tho  largest  numberH  east  nf  the  MisBiRaippi  river, 
Imt  numbers  of  tho  hreei]  have  be<:iime  very  brundly 
scattered  over  the  atatea  and  provinces. 

From  what  has  boon  written,  it  is  clear  that  the 
epecial  Held  for  the  Hackney  is  the  production  of 
heavy-harneSH  hnriWK.  for  the  breed  in  itself  has 
been  Hpecifically  hre-d  for  that  purpose.  Tho  high 
knee-folding  action  and  attractive  aji^K-ariLnce, 
either  standing  or  in  motiun,  a<iupt  it  for  the 
production  of  stylish  heavy-harness  horst'a  for  city 
driving.  Possessing  thette  qualities,  with  the  sub- 
etance  and  smoothness  nf  type  to  wear  heavy 
leather  Womingly,  the  Hackney  as  a  breed  has 
superior  claims. 

The  ilegree  to  which  a  breed  raity  be  useful  in 

Eroducing  a  marketable  product  in  a  factor  that 
as  to  IwooDsiderod,  as  well  as  the  brciMi  character- 
istics. However  useful  pure-bred  horseis  may  bo, 
yet  the  degree  to  which  they  may  cmtributc  to 
the  general  improvementof  thehnrsesof  acountry 
is  a  brooder  and  more  influential  factor  entering 
into  their  Htanding.  In  this  r6-tE<ect,  the  Hackney 
has  establitihed  a  n-piitatiun.  On  our  common 
maree  of  mach  quality  and  mime  action,  the  Hack- 
ney makes  a  desirable  croas.  As  Johnstone  says, 
"the  similarity  of  action  I  count  tho  most  salient 
of  its  features,"  and  it  is  because  this  mechanical 
action  is  so  dwjply  bred  into  the  Hackney  that  it  is, 
perhaps,  the  m«*t  likety  of  any  of  the  European 
light  horHes  to  trnn^tmit  it.  It  seems  to  be  ea-^ier 
to  produce  the  type  than  it  i»  to  secure  the  natural 
heavy-hnmeM  action.  The  tendency  toward  this 
action  and  typo  in  surely  stronger  in  the  produce 
of  the-  Hackney,  because  the  breed  itself  bos  been 


breil  for  years  for  juKt  those  thingx  :  yet  it  is  not 
safe  to  assume  that  it  will  come  spontaneous  to ' 
the  surface  without  propur  maonering  and  eaconr- 
agement. 

OrganizaiioTUt  and  nrords. 

The  societies  devoted  to  the  breed  are  the  Eng- 
lish Hackney  Horse  Society,  estabtiahed  in  188.'i, 
with  tbe  finit  stmlbixik  pnI>liNhe<l  the  following 
year,  and  the  Ameriwin  Hackney  Horse  Society, 
with  beodquartura  in  N'nw  York  City,  established 
in  IS^].  Tho  first  volume  of  its  studbook  wasj 
published  in  1S93. 

Liierature. 
For  references,  see  page  416. 

Hunter  Horse.   Fig.  471. 

By   ir.   r.  Bacon. 

The  Hunter,  as  bred  in  America,  canaot  yot  be 
cullod  a  breed  of  horses.  The  Irish  Hunter,  how- 
ever, hfUH  been  recognized  sh  a  distinct  breed  for  a 
hundred  years  or  more.  The  Hunter  and  the  !>tand- 
ardbred  trotter  have  come  fn»m  the  Thurough- 
bred,  the  Standanlbred  trotter  having  been  devel- 
oped in  America  as  tbe  result  of  the  de-sire  for  a 
fast  driving  horse,  and  the  Hunter  breiid  developed 
in  Ireland  as  the  result  of  the  di^mand  f«r  horses 
with  Thiiroughbri»d  or  ideal  wulillt-  conformation, 
that  were  able  to  carry  much  more  weight  than 
the  pure-bred  Tlioroughbrt'd.  Ireland,  tln-refore, 
may  lie  said  to  be  the  homo  of  the  Hunter,  or 
where  this  tyi^e  of  horses  has  Seen  bred  for  bo| 
many  years  that  it  bos  long  since  been  classed 
a  distinct  breed,  and  recognizerl  as  .such  at  all  the 
fairs  and  horse  shows  in  Ureat  Britain. 

Dttcription. 

The  Hunter  should  not  be  high-headed,  and  the 
longer  tho  rein  the  bettor.  Tho  fore-hand  should 
bo  light.  The  witheTs  should  be  higher  than  the 
croup,  and  the  bones  of  the  fnre-limb  compara- 
tively long,  so  as  to  l>e  able  efficiently  to  raiiw  the 
fore-hnnd  both  in  taking  and  landing.  The  shoul- 
ders and  pasterns  should  be  long  and  .tlopiug.  Tbu 
muscles  that  lie  abo\fe  the  fore-arm  shoold  be  well 
developed,  as  the  fore-arm  straightens  tho  shoul* 
dor  joint  and  the  latter  strai^teas  the  elbow 
joint,  two  actions  which  help  to  prevent  the  horso^ 
falling  when  he  lands  over  a  jumii.  The  tnuaclea 
over  the  loins  behind  tbe  sadd!e  shoald  lie  |)articQ- 
lorly  strong.  The  hiKks  should  be  large  and  gad- 
kins  broad. 

The  following  Js  a  detailed  description  of  tho 
(joints  of  an  ideal  Hnnter :  HniW. — Bars  fine,  not 
too  large,  approaching  each  other  at  the  tips, 
when  thrown  forward  :  cranium  broad  and  nketjr 
rounded ;  forehead  Bat  and  bnwul ;  eyes  wide 
apart,  prominent  and  bold  in  expre!).»ion ;  na»al 
bones  straight  in  front,  but  slightly  dished  on  lat- 
eral surface  ;  n^wtrils  firm,  large  and  flexible,  of 
large  capacity  when  the  animal  is  eKcited :  lips 
Rrn^,  mouth  mi.-dium-sized  :  muzzle  small  and  taper* 
ing  ;  cheeks  well  but  not  too  heavily  clothed  with 


476 


HORSE 


HORSB 


PRCing  Horse,  Stan dardb red.   Pig.  476. 

By  Jakn  A.  Crai^. 

The  pacer  is  not  a  separate  and  distinct  l)roed  of 
norses.  The  name  is  applied  to  a  class  of  hfimt^A 
that  are  characterized  by  th«  pacing  gait.  The 
Ami>rtcan  StandJirdbntd  trotting  borne  breed  in  the 
ntiu^t  potent  Kuurce  of  pocerK. 

DnKriptuyn. 

It  wfla  a  prevalent  opinion  eome  years  ago  that 
ttiL-n.*  warf  a  type  evolving  among  pactsrs,  but  this 
has  bwn  largely  dispelled.  Dan  Patch  (Fig.  47G)  is 
AH  smooth  and  graceful  in  line  of  mold  a-s  it  would 
he  pntiuiible  U^  conceive  nn  ideal,  and  Joe  Patt^hen  is 
ceitisidered  amimt;  hHrse-Uivers,  no  muttfr  what 
their  prefert'ncw  an  t«  hrwMl,  as  Iwitig  very  nearly  a 
raodL'l  in  finiah,  ayiniiiL'try  and  stylu.  So  many  old- 
time^  pacers  were  sti^L'p  in  the  hind-quarters  and 
some  crooked  in  tho  hocka  and  pitched  forward, 
that  it  became  the  opinion  of  a  cciterie  that  a 
pacing  type  w.i8  Iwing  evolved.  Time  < Lemons trateil 
with  the  pacer  an  with  the  trotter,  that  symmetry 
and  graceful  lines  and  t^tyle  in  action  or  repu»e 
WHre  not  opposwd  to  speed. 

Hittori/. 

From  the  earli&Ht  writings  referring  to  hones 

and  from  tho  earlieat  repreaentations  of  them  in 
sculptured  frieae,  we  loarn  that  pacing  or  ambling 
wa.1  a  gait  cnmnion  U)  the  hiirHe  in  earliest  time.i. 
This  gait  i.t  ahown  in  (ireek  sctilptur*!  and  referred 
to  in  the  publications  of  some  of  the  earliest 
writers  in  Spain,  Oreat  Hritain  and  Amerit-a.  It  in 
unnecessary  here  to  recount  these  early  rt^ferences, 
for  they  are  accessible  in  nearly  every  work  devoted 
U)  the  hfirse;  .and  it  in  equally  unnecessary  to 
attempt  to  Ifioiitf^  the  origin  of  the  gait,  for  there 
ia  no  feature  conni-'Cted  with  the  history  of  the 
horse  that  depends  mori;  on  legendary  lore  than 
this.  vSuflicc  it  to  Bay  that  in  .Spain,  where  the 
saddle  hor^e  as  a  pack  animal  and  for  tntvcling 
was  ranch  in  vogue,  the  pacing  or  ambling  gait  was 
conwidored  a  very  neceitsnry  attribute ;  and  the  same 
tf»  true  in  perh.npii  a  le-'Wt'r  degree  when  the  early 
hirttory  of  the  pacer  in  (Jreat  Britain  is  considered. 
Jfl  America.-- It  i»  in  America  in  colonial  days 
that  the  pncer  in  the  New  England  mtates  fieetned 
to  reach  the  highest  point  of  utility;  from  there 
and  from  Canada  the  pacer  seems  to  have  spread. 
The  .Narraganwtt  pacer  of  Rhode  Island  attained 
a  wide  notoripty  over  the  New  England  states  in 
colonial  tiine»,  but  with  the  improvement  of  roads 
and  the  abandonment  of  horve-back  riding  for 
long-distance  traveling,  this  i^train  became  extinct. 
Whether  or  not  it  drifted  over  into  Canada  and 
formed  the  foundation  for  the  remarkable  number 
of  pacers  common  to  the  I'rovince  of  IJuebec,  is 
not  detinit^-iy  known,  nor  is  there  any  other  satis- 
factory supposition  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Cana- 
dian pacing  families.  It  wnuld  aeem  mora  plausible 
to  account  for  the  Canadian  pacers  in  this  way 
than  to  accredit  them  to  French  origin,  for  they 
were  very  disaimilar  to  the  French  horses  of  that 
ttm«  in  their  charact«rLatics. 


The  theory  that  the  French-Canadian  Mcer  i» 
an  otfshoot  nf  the  Thoroughbred  has  auo  been 
udvancei)  and  in  some  instancee  it  may  bo  proved, 
but  in  most  instances  the  originator  of  tbo  strain 
was  by  a  Thoroughbred  out  of  a  pacing  mare. 
Again,  it  has  been  asserted  that  the  French-Cana- 
dian horse  is  a  descend  ant  of  the  French  Perche- 
r«n,  p^nluced  in  size  by  the  more  vigorotiK  condi- 
tions of  climate.  Tliis  seems  to  the  writer  the 
most  untonable  of  all  the  theurit.«.  I^ng  ubsorva- 
tion  among  the  more  common  types  prevalent 
among  the  Fronch-Canadian  people,  and  attend- 
ance at  their  winter  ice-racing,  where  the  moat  of 
those  with  spefld  would  cnngregate.  substantiate 
tho  writt'r'fl  opinion.  In  alE  its  characteriatics  the 
French -Canadian  cttmes  nearer  the  Morgan  in 
Himie  traits  ami  nearer  LhuThuniugbbred  in  ulhers, 
than  thtiMe  uf  any  othtT  breed  or  family.  While 
like  the  Morgan  in  type  and  stylo  of  going  when 
trotting,  yet  it  must  he  admitted  there  are  very 
few  pacers  among  the  Morgans.  Also,  not  many  of 
the  Thorough hredis  puce  unless  there  ia  a  strain  of 
pacing  Lhrtiiigh  the  dam's  side.  The  French-C'Bna- 
dian  familte»,  especially  those  showing  inclinalionii 
to  pace,  alLhuugh  moat  of  them  were  double-gaitod, 
huva  in  time  bucomo  submerged  in  the  foundation 
of  other  families  which  arc  now  of  most  promi- 
nence. Among  tho  Canadian  families  of  early  origin, 
the:  most  noted  spring  from  Copperbattom,  Pilot, 
Haniel  Boone,  Drennun,  Davy  Crockett,  Corbeau, 
.St.  Ijiwrence,  St.  Clair.  Of  those  «f  more  dis- 
tinctly Thoroughbred  origin,  might  be  mentioned 
•Smuggler,  Clear  Grit.  Uwhariv  and  Hiatogas,  white 
perhaps  the  two  moat  noted  of  all,  the  Hals, 
springing  from  Tom  Hal  in  Tennessee  and  Blue 
Hull  from  Indiana,  had  their  origin  so  .ihrouded  in 
misty  legend  that  it  ia  not  even  advisable  to  specu- 
late on  it.  From  all  thiit  we  know,  it  may  be  safe 
to  a.ssume  that  the  Thoroughbred  hunfe  has  had  aa 
much  to  do  with  the  evolution  of  the  pacer  as  any 
otheruptothe  time  of  the  introduction  of  the  stand- 
ards, although  we  have  to  admit  that  there  M'ems 
to  have  been  an  original  stock  on  which  the  Thor- 
oughbred, as  a  ncion,  w.is  grafted  with  more  or 
loss  succe.'W. 

The  Copperbottoms  and  Pilots  maite  a  reputation 
in  Kentucky  at  an  early  time ;  the  Columbus  fam- 
ily did  the  same  in  New  England,  the  Kt.  Claira  in 
California,  the  .St.  Lawrences  in  Michigan,  the 
Ulue  Hulls  in  Indiana  and  Ohio,  the  Hiatngas  in 
Virginia,  and  the  Hals  in  Tunnessee.  While  all 
these  were  in  a  general  way  known  ust  p.ifen«,  yet 
with  most  of  them  the  gait  was  interchangeable, 
and  many  of  them  could  trot  lu*  fast  ati  tbey  ooald 
pace,  and  %'ery  few  of  them  sired  a  majority  of 
pacers.  As  might  be  expected,  the  faaiwtt  of  their 
get  were  pacers,  and  those  made  the  n.'putation  of 
the  sire,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact  that  sire  would 
be  getting  mostly  trotters.  For  example,  IMue  Bull, 
a  fast  pacer  himself  and  a  getter  of  some  fast 
pacers,  aired  fifty-«ix  trotters  out  of  a  total  of 
sixty  of  his  in  the  list.  So  also  with  many  of  the 
others,  with  the  notable  exception  of  the  Hal 
family.  This  is  the  leading  family  of  pacere  that 
is  justly  entitled  to  be  called  a  family  of  pAcers, 


HORSE 


HORSB 


A 


und  the  writer  dtn-s  not  know  of  any  oth*r  liko  it, 
pacing;  in  (origin  ani]  brccilin^  on  at  tha  paciii;; 

gait- 

What  has  been  written  may  enable  the  reader 
to  understand  the  pivtition  of  the  pacer  iti  the  ear- 
lit-st  (JnyB.  But  to  explain  the  position  in  our  own 
diiy  \»  lilmnHl  b(>y<ind  the  puKxibilitie^  uf  the  tnoBt 
eiimeRt  stuilt-nt,  »i}  inturtwimid  in  breeding  and 
dt'velopmcEil  uru  the  Irottlnt;  nnd  |mcinK  f:cail». 
Wtien  thu  standard  for  Stiindardbred  horsta  wa* 
establi^thcJ,  paL-ere  and  trott4.TH  came  in 
on  alniu?4t  L'qual  footing.  At  the  races, 
too,  trotters  and  pacen*  at  that  time 
mostly  competed  on  eiinal  footing,  many 
ef  thi-  ptirsps  liein^  oiien-i'lasn  for  trot- 
Urn  or  pacHfM.  It  was  soon  ftiiind  that 
the  paoerH  wen'  nalurully  faster  than  tlie 
tnrttera,  for  they  would  win  mcist  of  the 
Tscea  when  both  eonipeted  on  ei^u&l  foot- 
ing. The  craze  for  spued  and  thi-  desire  to  put  the 
£!t  of  Btailions  in  the  list,  increased  the  popa- 
rity  of  the  p«cer  at  a  honnd. 

ft  was  fmind,  too,  that  it  wiw  a  very  easy  mat- 
ter t"  chiinK«>  tht*  y^\t  of  miwt  horseH  from  trnt- 
ting  to  puMng,  L>spec;iii]|y  with  thu  use  of  hohldea 
or  hopples,  as  they  art-  intt>rcbangeably  desiKnated. 
This  leads  U8  to«ay  that  thediference  in  the  gaits 
is  Rimply  that  in  the  paeer  thL-  two  legs  on  the 
same  fide  move  together,  while  in  the  trotter  the 
movement  is  diagonal  (fiee  i>age  423).  By  putting 
a  hnr*e  in  hobbles,  he  must  either  pace  or  break 
the  hiibhlei*,  which  are  so  strong  as  to  be  almost 
unbreakable,  or  he  thrown.  Hobbles  have  been 
permitted  in  races,  but  owing  to  the  danger  to  the 
driver  if  any  entanglement  occurs,  they  have  not 
become  popular  except  to  keep  horses  that  show  a 
tendency  to  pace  at  that  gait  or  train  them  until 
they  can  do  withont  them.  At  its  meeting  on  Feb- 
ruary n,  190R,  the  American  Trotting  Register 
AiMociatiun  adopted  a  reeoktion  against  the  use  of 
hobbles.  It  was  found  that  a  change  in  the  shoe- 
ing, such  as  shoeing  very  light  all  round,  would 
c-ncooragc  a  horse  to  pace ;  and  even  the  shifting 
of  the  bit  would  accomplish  the  same  purpose. 

After  the  craze  for  speed  at  any  cost  had  8u!l>- 
«ided  somewhat,  and  a  different  time  limit  set  for 
the  pacer  before  he  could  become  standard,  the 
winnings"  possible  for  green  trotters  increased,  and 
with  that  the  purees  and  colt  stakes  for  trotters 
were  angmcntM  »  that  trotting  as  a  part  of  the 
sport  of  racing  became  again  more  than  on  a  par 
with  pacing.  The  pacing  standard  now  in  force  la 
appended.  It  should  he  said  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  trotting  standard  except  that  the  word 
"pacer"  is  substituted  for  the  word  "trotter"  and 
the  word  "pacing"  for  the  word  "trotting."  and 
the  speed  standard  is  changed  from  2:30  to  2:25 ; 
furthermore.  Hale  6  ta  an  tuldition. 

The  paring  j*ij](/(irrf.— "\\Tien  an  animal  meets 
these  requirements  and  is  duly  registered,  it  shall 
be  accepted  aa  a  Standardbred  pacer: 

"( 1)  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  pacing 
horse  and  a  registered  standard  pacing  mare. 

"(2)  Any  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard 
pacing  horse,  provided  his  dam  and  granddam  were 


sired  by  registered  ntaitdard  pacing  horsef  and  ho 
himself  has  a  paeing  record  of  2:2o  and  is  the  aire 
of  three  pacers  with  records  of  2:2&  from  did'erenl 
mares. 

"(3)  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standanl 
pacing  hor»e  and  wbu^e  dam  and  granddam  w>t.«ru 
sired  by  registered  slandani  pacing  horees,  pro- 
vided she  hernelf  hiis  a  pacing  record  nf  li:25  or  i« 
the  dam  of  one  pacur  with  a  rwMrd  of  2:2.5. 

"[■I)  A  mare  sirwi  by  a  registered  standard 
pacing  horse,  provided  she  is  the 
aam  of  two  paceK  with  record.4  of 
2:25. 

"(5)  A   mare  sired    by   a   regis- 
tered  standanl    pacing   horse,    pro- 


M 


PIk.  4n.    YMa  Patcb.  l:S5K. 

vided  her  first,  second  and  third  dams  are  each 
sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse. 

"(6)  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  pacing 
mare,  or  of  a  registered  standiml  pacing  horse  out 
of  a  registered  standard  tniLling  roiire." 

Disfributton. 

From  the  New  England  states  and  Canada,  espec- 
ially Quebec,  the  wacor  was  gradually  scattered  alt 
over  America,  and  is  now  found  more  particularly 
in  Tennessee,  Kentucky.  Ohio,  Missouri,  California 
and  Indiana. 

Famiiiet. 

Among  the  modern  Standardbred  horses  it  is 
not  possible  to  separate  the  famites  into  thoeie  that 
pace  as  a  family  characteristic,  and  those  that 
trot.  The  Ilal  family  is  composted  most  d^tinctly 
of  pacers,  for  Tom  Hal  Jr.  has  fourt*M>n  in  the  list, 
all  pacers,  while  Brown  Hal,  one  son,  has  seventy- 
eight,  all  pacers.  The  latter  has  two  not4'd  sons. 
Star  Pointer. with  fifteen  in  the  list,  all  pacprs,  and 
Hal  Dil lard  with  forty-two  in  the  list,  only  throo 
of  which  are  pacers.  In  some  instances  there  is  a 
union  of  one  of  the  Leading  families  with  the  Ual 


47B 


HOKSB 


HORSE 


strain  which  prodncea  pacers  consistently.  For 
instanco,  Direct,  2:05^,  of  thi?  Dictator  family  is  s 
pacer  anni  hiw  sireH  fnrty-twn  pacers  anii  thirty- 
Beven  tnittt'ra.  Hr  sireii  Dirert  Hal  p.,  2:0'li,  the 
aire  of  ninB  in  thu  liHt,  all  pm'<TH,  and  thn  (n»l- 
esl  (freen  Ktallitin  of  19()7.  Whilsn  siinif  uf  the 
families  of  Standard hn-da  show  a  atrunjtLT  tHiniency 
to  trot  t}inn  in  pace,  the  reverso  is  not  common, 
althongti  it  is  possitile  thnt  in  time  this  may  result, 
as  it  i»  ofitensilily  the  aim  to  estabiiBh  two  sep- 
arate HtandarH}<.  The  champLon  pacirif^  Htallinn, 
Dan  Patch,  lifioj  (Fi(?.  476),  ia  airt-d  by  Jw 
Pat«:hen,  ft  nut^d.  face  horse  and  a  pact^r,  HirHl  by 
Patchun  Wilkea  of  the  V.vorge  Wilkes-Marnbrino- 
Potchen  crojw ;  and  thw  dam  of  Joo  I'atchcn  was 
by  Joe  YounK  of  Mor^An  hrfedinfj,  Tho  dam  of 
Dan  Patch  was  Ziidcia  by  Wilkesherry,  which  was 
a  WiikeH  on  his  ^'ik's  oido  and  a  Clay  on  his  dam'ti. 
There  U  very  little  of  what  might  Ihj  caibd  imcinK 
blnod  in  her  jmdiftrBe,  although  the  Wilken  strain 
and  the  Abdallab  !;'>  wtrain  have  produced  many 
fafit  pacers.  On  the  other  hand,  Ixm  Dillon,  the 
champion  trottyr,  hTiSj,  comt-a  as  near  being  of 
a  pacing  line  throngh  her  sire  as  almost  any  note- 
worthy pacer.  She  is  by  Sidney  Dillon,  no  record 
sire  of  eleven  trotters  and  eight  pacers,  by  Sidney, 
pacing  reconi  2:l[>3|.  sire  of  sixty-three  trotters 
and  forty-»ever  pacers,  inclading  Citation  2:0'il. 
the  pacing  iiut-en  of  11M>7.  Sidney  i»  idred  by  Santa 
Claas,  2:i7i,  trotting  horse  and  «ire  of  ninct^-en 
trotters  and  six  pacc-rs.  At  present  it  does  not 
seem  likely  that  the  pacing  familiea  will  become 
separate  from  the  trotting  families. 

For  racing  purpoties  the  pacer  cannot  be  said  to 
equal  th(-  trotWr  an  a  money-maker,  as  the  purses 
arc  not  generally  so  largo;  and  the  colt  »takc's  for 
the  trotters  are  also  large.  For  road  purposes  in 
Rvneral.  the  pacer  is  not  so  popular  as  the  trotter. 
although  for  matinee  H.»es  it  is  lield  in  high  favor. 
Fur  the  speedway,  the  pacer  i^  decideilly  popular 
for  Kveral  reasons.  One  is  that  in  bmshing,  a  pacer 
can  get  away  quicker  than  a  trotter;  and  ojciially, 
aido,  it  is  the  faster  gait.  Pacing  is  an  easier  gait, 
and  in  pacing  a  horse  does  not  strike  the  pavement 
so  hard,  a  matt«r  of  some  consideration  on  hard 
roadfl.  For  nsage  on  common  roada  or  in  snow,  tho 
^cer  cannot  be  said  to  be  as  popular  as  the  trotter. 
The  pacer  has  not,  as  a  rule,  so  evenly  a  rated  gait 
as  the  trotter.  Very  often  it  is  a  slow  amble  or  full 
speed.  However,  many  pacera  jog-trot,  and  when 
forced  to  full  speed  at  a  trot  strike  into  a  pace 
when  urged  to  do  more. 

]t  is  considered  by  some  peraona  that  the  pace  ia 
an  ungainly  gait,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that. 
like  all  other  gaits,  there  is  a  dilfereDce  in  the 
classes  of  it.  Some  horses  pitch  in  such  a  way  as 
to  be  lumlwring  in  gait,  but  others  go  as,  true  and 
as  frictionieiis  as  the  piston  of  an  engine.  Again, 
for  road-riders,  the  pacer  does  not  develop,  as  a 
rule,  into  a  pullor,  which  is  sometimes  so  trae  of 
the  tp)tt«r.  Whiie  the  pacing  gait  is  generally 
considered  to  be  the  faster  of  the  two  gaits,  five 
aecoods  is  thought  to  about  express  the  difference 


in  time.  Tho  pacer,  as  a  rule,  needs  the  lighter  rood 
rig,  for  the  trotter  seems  to  have  the  advantJigo 
slightly  in  pulling  power. 

Orgaitrzationt  an<i  rtvords. 

The  Hame  registries  and  the  same  aamciaticms 
look  after  the  interests  uf  the  pacers  as  those  that 
have  thuStandardbred  trotter  under  their  auspices, 
[See  page  507.] 

PercberOQ  Horse.   Figs.  42,  -177. 

I!y  Charlrr  F.  f  "tirdjw  and  JiAn  A.  Craig. 

The  Percheron  draft  brpfd  of  horsps  ih  native  of 
the  ancient  pnivince  of  l^a  Perchv.  a  territory  about 
one  hundred  miles  siiuare.  in  the  north-central  part 
of  France.  This  region  lic^  in  the  heart  of  a  fer- 
tile farming  country.  The  land  is  high  and  rolling. 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  the  farms  are  watered  by 
nnmerotiH  .opringH  and  small  stn^am-s.  These  springs 
luid  liTooka  give  rlw  t^i  uume  eight  or  t*!n  rivers 
dowing  into  the  English  Channel  on  the  north 
and  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the  west.  The  numer- 
ous valley.'*  are  rich  and  they  prodnce  sweet,  nntri- 
tions  grasses  and  bountiful  crops  of  grain.  The 
climate,  is  mild,  yet  sufficiently  tonic  and  invigorate 
ing  to  pnxince  horsew  of  good  temperament.  The 
land  is  held  mainly  by  tenant  farmers  who  are  fru- 
gal and  thrifty,  and  good  tillers  of  the  soil.  The 
natural  conditions  of  this  region  all  combine  t« 
make  a  most  favorable  environment  for  this  widely 
known  and  popular  brewl.  .Among  the  breeils  of 
draft  horws  that  have  lieen  im|HPrted  Ui  .America 
from  ?>ance.  the  Percberon  leads  both  in  nnmbera 
and  in  [Kipularity. 

De*crijttion. 

Nearly  a  century  ago  the  aim  of  the  breeders  of 
horses  in  La  Perche  was  to  produce  a  medium- 
weight  draft  horse,  .suited  In  type  and  action 
for  pulling  n  "diligence"  or  omnibiui.  At  an 
early  day,  the  demand  existed  in  Fnince  for  a 
horse  that  could  haul  a  toad  at  as  rapid  a  rate  as 
possible.  ,\t  this  time,  the  breed  was  repre,'<ented 
by  horses  of  upstanding  type,  somewhat  rangy  but 
strongly  built,  with  attractive  and  unusual  action 
for  draft  horses.  They  wpre  then  gray  in  color, 
and  these  were  the  first  to  be  brought  to  America. 
While  not  so  drafty  in  type  as  the  modem  Perche- 
ron,  they  were  horst-sof  suivrb  style,  full  of  vigor, 
and  they  had  powerful  action  which  enabled  them 
to  pull  strongly  and  more  quickly  at  the  same  time. 
Id  themselves,  the  gray  Percherons  of  early  days 
were  unusual  draft  horses,  and  it  was  the  degree 
to  which  they  combined  activity  with  pulling 
power  that  made  the  Percheron  a  very  popular 
horse  for  farm  work.  Put  the  demand  in  America 
liecame  more  initistent  for  a  heavier,  btockicr, 
shorter-legged  type,  that  would  grade  thw  produce 
of  our  lighter  mares  to  a  draft  weigJit  quicker. 
This  demand  resulted  in  the  modem  black  Per- 
cheron of  somewhat  stouter  build,  deeper  body, 
more  weight,  and  as  much  quality  as  tJie  prottv- 
tj-pe ;  but  there  was  some  sacrifice  of  style,  stand- 
ing or  going,  with  somewhat  lees  attractive  action. 


UORSE 


HORSB 


479 


Tha  modem  Perchemn  appruachw  more  closely 
the  •■aerttiais  of  a  ilriirt  horse  to  ni>eet  modem 
marlceta,  but  the  old  type  hod  nome  qualitii^R,  such 
as  Btyle,  endurance  and  activity,  whith  were  dilfi- 
cult  to  retain  in  a  ahortvr  and  stouter  built  horse 
of  more  weight. 

The  prusent-flay  PenchtTon**  exc-olloncita  are  to 
bo  seen  in  the  active  temperament,  intelligent 
bead,  deep  body,  wide  mnscalar  cronp  and  cle^n-cut 
leg*  of  the  typical  reprt'sentati^'e.  'JTie  joints  are 
Q^nally  clean  and  har>J.  and  the  legs  invariably 
show  an  abun<hnc«  of  quality  that  ^arant^^i^  dur- 
ability; but  frequently  the  set  of  the  legs  and, 
particularly,  the  shape  of  the  hind-quart«rs.  is  at 
fault.  A  croup  too  sloping,  with  deficiency  in 
mu^'le  below,  cannot  give  the  gji^at^st  pulliof; 
power,  especially  when  aaaociated,  aa  it  often  is, 
with  lefts  that  are  iniproporly  set,  being  aither  too 
straight,  sickle-hocked  or  othern-ise  cramped  in  the 
hind-^^uarters.  The  I'ercheron  is  rarely  deficient  in 
quality  and  activity,  and  when  the  weight  Is  «ufR- 
cicnt  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  modem  draft- 
honie  market,  a  draft  horse  of  unusual  excellencies 
is  tht-  result.  The  action  of  the  Percheron  is  almost 
always  quick  enough  for  a  draft  horao.  and  the 
f»ft  are  t'L-ni-rally  picked  up  with  snap  at  the  walk; 
but  the-se  should  not  be  allowed  to  overshadow 
desirable  mechanical  action,  which  1.1  straight 
and  distance-covering,  although  lets  showy  and 
attractive. 

In  sire,  the  Percheron  rangi*  from  fifteen  and 
one-fourth  to  sixteen  and  omvhalf  hands,  and  from 
l/iOO  to  ovur  2,000  poujids  in  wuight.  ThL-ri!  are  a 
number  of  medium  size,  althouuh  the  largnftt  take 
rank  with  the  largest  of  any  of  the  draft  breeds. 
In  France  there  la  a  tyiw  smalltT  in  -siae  than  the 
medium.  These  are  po|>ular  for  general  tralfic  and 
for  bus  and  tram  usu  in  cities.  The  demand  in  the 
1Tnite<I  Status  is  fur  the  larger  ty^ws. 

Hitfffry, 

France  has  long  boon  noted  for  good  horses.  The 
horses  of  France,  like  tho.su  of  other  countries,  wvre 
firflt  improved  for  the  purpose  of  war.  The  Fleraifh 
biood  wft«  largely  drawn  on  in  early  timns  and 
importations  of  orit*ntul  IiIoihI  wltu  made  at  a 
very  early  date.  This  blixid  \\.ia  infustnl  with  the 
native  horse  stock  of  France,  which  may  havu  bet- n 
Flemiab  in  its  origin.  Tha  oriental  blut>d  imparti-d 
a  degree  of  refinement  and  linish  that  has  ever 
flinoe  characterized  the  modern  draft-horse  stock 
of  FMnce. 

Since  732,  when  the  French  defeated  the  Sara- 
cens and  capttin-d  their  horseH,  infusions  of  Ara^ 
bian  blciod  hav«  lii>t;n  marie,  and  the  subserjiit-nt  use 
of  v\riibian  stulliouH  on  the  native  mams  c^mtinued 
ait  late  us  1830.  In  this  way,  a  foundation  wa« 
laid  for  a  br^-d  of  horaog  possessing  activity, 
quality  and  strength.  Tho  extension  of  railroads, 
nvlucing  the  une  of  the  omnibus,  seems  to  have 
divtirted  the  breed  towards  a  henvior  type.  This 
led  to  tliK  tise  of  F1i>miBh  stallions.  The  conditi^inn 
of  Iji  I'unrbt;  Iwjing  favorable-  for  thu  gniwth  of 
strong  ac-livij  honiutt,  the  biv«l  started  in  this  way 
nude  very  rapid  progress.  There  are  some  foaturee 


of  French  management  that  may  have  had  an 
influence  also  in  directing  the  d<;vt'lopment  of  the 
breed.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  work  the  staU 
liuns,  and  thi.**  may  huve  lieen  a  factor  of  some 
influence  on  tliuir  dispositions,  making  them  more 
amenable  tv  work. 

It  should  be  said  that  the  French  government 
recogniies  several  breeds  of  draft  horses,  but  the 
Percheron  and  the  lloulonnaJs  are  apparently  the 
only  two  that  may  bo  considered  pur^  as  they  have 
studlHjoks  separate  from  the  others.  In  addition, 
there  art  the  IJreton.  N'ivernuis  and  .\rdennais,  all 
of  which  may  be  recorded  in  tht-  Gtneral  Draft 
Studbook  of  France.  [These  breeds  are  discussed 
on  pages  460-462.] 

In  addition  to  controlling  the  matter  of  registra- 
tion, the  French  government  has  a  system  of  inspec- 
tion, which  in  some  degree  assists  its  horse- breeding 
interests.  The  veterinary  inspection,  however,  is 
limited  to  periodic  ophthalmia  or  moon  blindness  and 
roaring  or  thick  wind.  Johnstone  (The  Horse  Rook), 
states  that  there  are  only  two  maladies  for  posses- 
sion of  which  approval,  authorization  or  Certification 
is  refused  in  France— periodic  ophthalmia  and  thick 
wind.  This  being  so.  the  branding  system  carried 
out  by  the  French  government  does  not  carry  so 
much  weight  as  is  commonly  supposed,  for  inspec- 
tion apparently  only  discriminate.-!  against  these 
two  diseases^  and  there  Li  nothing  in  the  law  to 
prevent  any  breeder  using  such  unsound  stalliona 
on  his  own  mares.   The  author  referred  to  states 


Flf .  47T.     BUAdacaat.    CluiiniiloD  pMi'Tirron  «t»tll<>[i  at  all 

Icadioa  ll»«ntorli  ■bom  in  Aaortra  tn  ISM. 

furthf-r,  that  whi-n  a  ntjillion  is  prononnreii  free 
from  the  unHi>undm>KHi!S  nani*^t,  hf  is  branded  on 
the  necii  under  the  m:im>  with  n  five-pointed  star. 
The  colt  must  bo  over  thirty  montha  of  age  before 


480 


HORSE 


HORSE 


he  c&n  stand  for  public  serWce.  and  the  certificate 
of  freedom  fmm  tht-se  diwiases  covera  only  on© 
year.  If  the  colt  fuil^  to  pa^A  iti<4pecti»n  forthed<3 
disBa^e!!.  or  if  tbe  diseajiod  d^'velop  after  tht:  inspec- 
tion, thtn  the*  letter  "R"  nieaninpr  refused,  is 
branded  over  th<t  live-pointed  star.  Theae  are  the 
only  brands  used  by  the  French  government. 

The  French  IVrcheron  Society,  however,  uses  a 
brand  that  is  put  on  all  stallions  and  mares  recordwl 
in  its  .ilodb(fok.  Tt  \fi  a  monogram  wf  the  letters 
S.  and  1'.,  the  inttiab  of  the  Hociety.  It  is  branded 
on  the  neck  under  the  mane. 

After  snccessfnlly  paasing  the  inspection,  the 
liuraea  are  ctaasified  in  three  firadtwi.  Thw  first  are 
known  as  "subsidiwd"  or  "approved,"  and  to  auch 
a  cash  bonna  is  awanled  to  keep  them  in  FVance  on 
the  owner's  farmland  available  to  outside  maros. 
The  other  two  are  "authorized"*  and  "certilted." 
neither  of  which  crtrriefi  with  it  any  subftidy. 

In  Amenca.—Tti^  first  importation  to  America 
wa*(  made  in  18;19.  liy  Mr.  EdwanI  HarriK,  of 
Hooreatown,  New  .Jersey.  The  next  importation 
was  made  in  1851,  by  Me«sra  Pullinif^ton  and  Mar- 
tin of  Milford  Centre,  Ohio.  This  importation  was 
of  far-reachin^i  importance,  although  it  consisted 
of  but  a  single  horise  named  "Ixiui*  Napoleon." 
This  horse  was  .sold  and  taken  to  Illinois  in  1850, 
wheri!  he  afU-rwanl  patu^ed  into  the  bands  of  Mr. 
Dillon,  of  Xonnal,  lllinoi».  "lAiuiH  Napuleuii"  Btoixl 
fifteen  and  one-half  hands  high  and  weighed  abont 
sixteen  hundrL':d  pounda.  He  was,  perhaps,  the  most 
noted  horse  of  the  breed  that  hait  been  brought  to 
America.  It  is  ejntimated  that  he  aired  over  four 
hundred  c(»lts  that  were  uund  suwewsfully  for  stiul 
pnrpoHes.  In  18ol  and  Hiic;cetnlingy(='ar8,  other  impnr- 
Uitiona  Were  ro;u!e  which  helfwMi  to  hiy  the  foun- 
dation of  the  breed  in  America.  In  1870,  M.  W. 
Dunham,  of  Wayne,  Illinois,  took  up  th«  impur- 
tation,  since  which  time  he  has  imported  and 
bred  Percherona  very  extenm'vely.  Through  his 
efforts  the  breed  hns  gained  mueh  popularity  in 
America.  Many  other  imp**rt*ira  might  he  men- 
tiuimd,  but  the  lint  \a  now  a  b»ng  nne,  an  the 
importations  of  horM's  of  thia  breed  have  ifnen  very 
extf^nsivu.  The  I'orcheron  breed  ha*!  mad«  rapid 
progress  in  popularity  in  this  country.  It  is  the 
most  numerous  and  the  moat  generally  popular  of 
any  breed  of  dr.ift  horses  in  America.  This  is 
Bcr^unted  fnr  chiefly  by  the  degree  t"  which  the 
Percheron  is  miapted  for  the  wurk  on  the  mnjftrity 
of  our  farms,  a;;  well  an  to  prmluue  an  active  draft 
horse  for  the  market. 

DitfTibuthn. 

The  Percheron  breed  has  proved  generally  popu- 
lar in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  Statea.  par- 
ticnltriy  in  the  farming  regions  where  draft  horaes 
are  raise")  for  market.  It  is  well  ailapted  to  farm 
conditions  and  meets  with  favitr  on  the  markets. 
Plumb  (Types  and  Bre»is  of  Farm  Animals)  ([iHites 
Weld  as  authority  fur  the  statement  that  in  lSfi6 
there  were  fully  f>,0<W  Percherons  in  thi»  country. 
Illinois  has  been  the  chief  center  for  the  breed,  with 
the  adjoining  states  of  Ohio,  Iowa.  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin   following  with    lesser  numbers.    The 


I 


same  author  states  that  between  i851  and  1883 
nearly  4,<XX>  Percherons  were  imported  or  bred  in 
the  United  States,  and  these  were  distributed  aboat 
as  follows:  Illinois,  1834;  Ohio.  Indiana  and 
Michigan,  577;  Wisconsin,  Iowa  and  Minnesota, 
424;  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey, 
2S0 :  Missouri,  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  1^.  Tbe«e 
figures  are  an  index  of  the  retatire  extemivuien 
of  the  Percheron  breeding  interests  today,  although 
it  is  likely  the  western  sstatea  carry  more  compared 
with  the  others  than  they  did  at  that  early  time. 
The  southern  states  have  become  an  altogether  new 
field  for  the  Percheron,  although  not  many  of  the  _ 
breed  have  been  brought  into  the  South  or  into  I 
Canada,  where  the  British  breeds  seem  to  be  in  1 
more  favor.  Wilcox  (Farm  Animals)  has  stated 
that  there  are  :!C>,000  registered  Percheron  horses 
in  the  United  States,  which  is  a  decidedly  hirger 
numtter  than  any  other  draft  breed  may  claim. 

The  Percheron  has  little  use  except  as  a  draft 
horse  and  as  a  producer  of  grade  draft  hordes.  The 
usefulne!^s  of  this  breed  for  draft  purposes  is  so 
Well  known  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  that 
feature.  Dut  it  is  welt  to  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  a  large  proportion  of  our  draft  teams  contain 
Percheron  blood,  and  that  the  results  which  follow 
a  crews  of  a  pure-bred  Percheron  stallion  on  a  mare 
of  other  draft  breeds,  or  even  on  the  heavier  t}'pea 
of  our  common  majos,  are  most  excellent. 

Organizatiom  and  reeartU. 

In  France,  the  interests  of  this  breed  are  in  tbe 
hands  of  Societe    Hippique  Percheronne.    It 
organized  in  IS^,  and  in  that  year  puhUshi 
first  studhfKjk.   The  Pen-herim  Society  of  A 
has  publiaheil  nine  vulunios  of  the  Percheron  Stud- 
Look  of  ,\meriea,  the  first  two  volumes,  however, 
having  been  published  by  the  Percheron-Norman 
Horso  Association.   The  Percheron  Registry  Com- 
pany has  published  three  Btudtmoks. 

There  have  lieen  many  dini^enstims  among  the 
importers  and  liR'tsilera  »(  Frtineh  draft  horses, 
leading  to  the  formation  of  several  societies  and 
studbooks.  U  l>L<L*omes  ttecessitry  tu  dixeusa  the«e. 
not  because  of  any  desire  to  state  which  were  right 
or  which  were  wrong,  but  solely  for  the  purpose 
of  explaining  the  status  of  the  societies  and  stud- 
bonks  at  presiMil  representing  the  breetl. 

The  first  importations  c^f  draft  horses  from 
Prance  to  .America  were  almnjst  universally  csUim) 
Nffrniuns.  There  was  no  apparent  reason  for  the 
name,  for  none  of  thera  came  from  Normandy. 
This  name  at  that  time  was  intended  to  embrace 
all  the  breeds  of  draft  horses  in  France.  Those 
importers  bringing  horses  from  La  Perche,  con- 
sidered the  horses  fnjm  that  district  the  typical 
draft  horse."*  of  France.  The  French  government 
had  nut  at  that  time  established  the  Percheron 
studbuok  (its  publication  was  begun  in  IS8S),  con- 
se<)uently  there  was  more  room  for  the  discnssion 
of  the  claim  at  that  time  than  there  is  now.  In 
1876,  when  the  import4>rs  of  the  French  draft 
breeds  organized  and   issaed  the  first  stadbook 


I 


\ 


HORSE 


HORSE 


481 


under  the  editorship  of  i.  H.  SaDd«rs,  a  compromiw 
was  effected  br  the  adoption  of  the  title  Percheron- 
NormsD  Slodbook.  Some  of  the  members  withdrew, 
formiog  another  association,  which  publUhed  the 
National  Re}^t«r  of  Nonnan  horaea,  and  this  was 
afterwardii  chan^i^d  to  the  National  Begistar  of 
FVench  Draft  Hors(^.  \n  thu  sttidt^ok  are 
rt'gistert'd  all  importations  that  aro  Tveiiteni  in 
the  General  Draft  Stmlbook  of  France.  The  Per* 
cheron-Norman  Stndbook  was  changud  to  the  Per* 
cheroD  Stadbook,  and  it  hi  based  on  the  Percheron 
Stodboc^  of  France  which,  siikce  1885,  baa  accepted 
for  entry  only  horseft  whose  ancestors  are  reg- 
istttred  in  the  book.  Ah  the  proKent  stnilbuokft 
stand,  only  pure-breil  I'ercherons  may  be  recorded 
in  the  Purcheron  Studbook,  while  in  the  Register 
of  French  Draft  Horses  all  the  draft  breeds  of 
France,  including  Pcrcherons,  may  be  admittud. 
From  this  unfortanate  divt-rsity  of  atndbooks,  the 
Percheron  Studbook  had  reached  the  point  of  Iwing 
recoKnizeil  as  the  dislinct  representative  of  the 
Purchuron  breed,  when  internal  di^timtion  aroee 
over  the  [lowers  rested  in  the  st^rretary.  The  ont- 
come  lias  beun  a  division  into  three  asKix^^iations 
that  have  publiehed  or  intend  to  publish  sludbookfi. 
The  American  Percheron  Horse  Breeders'  and 
Importers'  Association  was  organized  in  l'J02,  bat 
in  1905  this  niime  wan  changed  to  the  Percheron 
Society  nf  America,  with  heailqoarters  at  the  Union 
Stock  Yards,  Ciiicagrt.  Ainu  in  1^>1,  the  Percheron 
Registry    Company    wa«    organized     with    head- 

? Darters  at  Columbus,  Ohio.   In  19(>i>,  the  American 
ireedcni'  and  Iniport*-Ts'  Percheron  Rojiiatry  was 
organized,  with  headqoartors  at  Ftainfietd,  Ohio. 

LiteraiuTe. 

rharlee  Du  Hayn,  The  Percheron  Horne,  New 
York  (IRGS).  [For  farther  references,  see  page 
41f;.) 

Poniea.   Figa,  478-186. 
By  S.  It.  miat 

The  dividing   line  between   the  horse  and  the 

Sony  was  vague  and  undefined  until  the  Hackney 
lorae  Sfictety  waHeHt:i))lbth<>d  in  Knglanil  in  1883. 
All  horeeamcftsuring  fuurtL-en  huudH  or  under  were 
then  de-sigoatod  pontes,  and  regitttored  in  a  separate 
part  of  the  studbook.  This  standard  of  height  was 
accepted  and  orficially  recognised  by  U-ading  agri- 
cultural and  horsT^-Hhow  societies  in  Plngland,  and 
BuhauKiuentty  in  America.  In  T90&,  the  American 
Hackney  Hon«>  Society  imireawl  the  height  of 
pontes  to  fourt4>en  handn  one  inch,  and  in  the  caw 
of  polo  ponies  the  limit  of  height  ImJ  previously 
been  raised  to  fourte4>n  hands  two  inches. 

Adverse  climatic  cnnttltions,  promisoQOUfl  breed- 
ing and  privation  have  had  much  to  do  with  the 
development  of  most  breeds  of  ponieit  Distinct 
types  of  ponies  are  found  in  almo-it  every  coun- 
try, the  chief  types  being  the  Arab  and  his  near 
allies,  the  Turks,  Barbs  and  Persianii,  the  Mongo- 
lian, Japanese,  Korean,  Burma  and  Manipuri  pony, 
Sumatra  and  Java  pnny,  Russian,  Scandinavian  or 
Norwegian   jwny,  the  Celtic  or  pony  of  Iceland, 

C8I 


the  pontes  of  the  British  lales,  and,  in  America, 
the  ponies  of  the  western  states.  While  some  of 
theae,  perhaps,  are  only  of  remote  interest  In 
America  at  present,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
discuss  most  of  them  briefiy.  The  following  index 
will  ud  in  finding  the  separate  discassions. 

Polo  pony 482 

Mnstaiig.  BroBoo  or  Indian  ponr 488 

Other  AnMsrican  podtim ,    .   ,   .  484 

Ponies  of  the  British  Isles 484-488 

Shctlind  pony 484 

Wflah  iwny 488 

Exmoor  and  Dkrtmoor  ponioa 487 

New  Fnnwt  pony 487 

HftckD«}'  pony 487 

pDoios  of  Scotland 488 

Gtllowar 488 

Coanfl■na^^  or  pony  of  Inland 488 

Celtic,  or  pony  of  Icelimd 468 

Arabian  pony 488 

Roaiian  pony if% 

Scandinavian  or  Norwegian  pony 488 

)ilic»1laii«ou8  puniias 489 

U*t  and  volar  of  Ike  pony. 

The  usefulness  and  vatue  of  the  pony  is  just 
beginning  to  be  appreciated  in  America.  Ponies 
cost  much  lees  to  feed,  consume  less  and  thrive  on 
rougher  fix)d  than  the  large  horse,  and  they  will 
travel  as  far;  many,  in  fact,  will  outdistance  the 
large  horse.  The  tblrt^eii-hand  [Hiny  will  do  a 
hiirw's  work  on  half  his  feed  and  requirt'S  luss 
attendant*.  Ponies  have  bettor  fi*t,  legs  and 
wind,  and  are  less  susceptible  to  disea-so  than  large 
horses.  Thuy  stand  more  hardship,  recover  more 
quickly  from  fatigue  anil  live  Inngpr.  They  have, 
moreover,  much  greater  intelligence,  and  for  this 
reason  are  much  lees  likely  to  take  fright  at 
objects  en  tbe  mad. 

The  principal  cause  of  the  marked  superiority  in 
constitution  of  tho  present -day  pony  over  the 
horse,  and  of  his  greater  intelligence,  is  accounted 
for  by  his  having  to  shift  for  himself  on  the  hills 
and  waste-s  and  this  hardinc^ss  and  intelligence  is 
transmitted  to  genenitions  bora  in  domtuiticatiun. 
Tbe  horse  reared  in  captivity  with  everything  done 
for  his  comfort,  has  not  the  same  toughness  as  the 
pony  ;  no  demand  is  made  on  his  intulligenee,  and 
his  mental  faculties  remain,  to  a  great  extent, 
undcvtdoped,  In  the  pony,  un»onndnees  of  wind 
or  limb  is  almost  unknown.  For  generations  ponies 
have  been  accnstomif]  to  pick  their  way  up  and 
down  stony  precipitous  hillsides.  Their  feet  and 
legs  consefjuently  are  of  tbe  very  best,  and  tbey 
are  remarkably  auro-foot«d. 

History  of  horses  in  warfare  is  replete  with  ac- 
counts of  tho  endurance  of  ponie-s  anil  their  ability 
to  thrive  on  poor  anil  scanty  fo*jd.  Sir  Walter  Gil- 
bey,  in  "Ponies,  Past  and  Present,"  gives  an  inter- 
esting account.  Sir  Te<!dy,  a  twelvo-band  pony, 
raced  with  the  I^ndun  mall  coach  to  Hxeter,  a 
distance  of  172  miles.  He  was  k^d  between  two 
horwjs  all  the  way,  and  ccrried  no  rider,  perform- 
ing th<;  jnnmey  in  2;i  hours  and  20  mlnntes.  beating 
the  coach  by  59  minutea.   Ur.  J.  C.  Appleby,  in 


4S2 


HORSE 


HORSE 


his  hook.  "Nimrod."  mention3  the  fact  tlint  dor- 
ins  tht'  (Irawinc  »f  the  Irish  lottery  the  news 
was  omveyed  hy  express  from  Holyhead  to  l/in- 
don.  chiefly  by  ponita,  at  the  rate  of  nearly  twenty 
miles  an  hour.  Mr.  Whyte,  in  his  "Hintory  of 
the  Britiah  Tarf,"  s'wga  an  atwunt  of  a  thirt4*n- 
hand  three-inch  mare  bolongiTtjr  tu  Mr.  Ltaniol 
Crocker,  that  in  April.  17ii4,  traveled  300  miles  on 
Newmarket  Heath  it  64  honra  and  20  minntes. 
which  was  7  hours  and  40  minutes  better  than  the 
time  for  which  she  had  been  backed  to  perform  the 
journey,  namely,  72  houn*.  On  one  of  the  days, 
Taesday,  April  23,  she  went  108  miles.  The  day 
before  and  the  day  after  she  covered  96  milca  each 
day.  She  waa  ridden  by  a  boy  who  weicbed  65 
poandd,  and  this  did  not  include  saddle  ana  bridle. 
In  our  own  country  there  are  many  accounts  of 
endurance  of  western  poniea. 

Nor  is  it  only  in  endurance  that  the  pony  eicels. 
His  greater  stamina  i?  also  evidenced  in  his  length 
of  life.  The  following,'  instances  in  which  ponies 
have  attained  to  great  age  are  cited  by  Sir  Walter 
Gil  bey :  "Mr.  Edmund  F.  Deane,  of  Gaulgtown  Co., 
Westniflath,  lost  a  pony  in  December,  1R94.  which 
had  reached  the  age  of  39  years ;  in  1896,  Mrs. 
Pratt,  of  Low  Pond  Uoose.  Hedale,  Yorks.  lost  a  pony 
mare  aged  45  years ;  on  Chri&tmafl  Day.  1863,  there 
died  at  Silwor'thy.  near  Clovelly  in  North  Devon,  a 
pony  that  had  arrived  within  a  few  weeks  of  hia 
sixtieth  year.  Accounts  of  ponies  which  lived,  and 
in  (tome  caiwa  worked,  until  tht^y  reached  40,  38, 
WI  and  3h  years  also  recur  to  mind." 

Ponies  in  .\merica  are  used  chiefly  for  children's 
purpoaea  and  for  playing  polo.  In  Europe,  in  Eng- 
land particularly,  they  are  used  for  a  much  greater 
variety  of  puriJOfteR-  Some  are  used  in  coal  mines, 
but  a  ^eat  many  more  are  put  to  iise  above  ground. 
Large  nnmbers  am  employed  on  Hpht  delivery 
wagons.  Green  grocer*,  fwh  mongers,  market  men, 
(tmall  merchants,  all  make  U8e  of  them  for  delivery 
purpoBKS.  Cfluntry  gentlemen,  doctors,  land  agentii, 
in  fact  all  piTson.-?  having  occasion  to  travel  we 
poniei"  a  great  deal.  There  is  good  reason  for  stat- 
ing that  poniefl  couJd  he  iiaed  to  far  greater  advan- 
tage in  America  than  they  are  at  present.  For  tight 
work  they  cunid  he  u.si-d  in  many  places  instead  of 
large  horses  at  a  considerable  saving.  Ponies  in 
America,  the  WL-st^-rn  ponies  in  particular,  have 
long  heon  nsed  foreiiddle  purpo6e3,  but  ponies  of  a 
first  mount  for  children  are  just  beginning  to  be 
appreciated. 

Tfob  Powi  Pony 

The  increasing  popularity  of  polo  is  attracting 
much  attention  t^i  ponies  suitable  for  playing  the 
gamfl.  Folo  originally  was  an  oriental  game,  being 
the  national  game  of  the  Kanipuri,  from  whom  the 
Europeans  first  learned  it.  It  was  first  intn'Mlnced 
into  India  proper  in  t8t5-t,  and  wiw  first  plj4ye<l  in 
England  hy  the  nfficers  of  the  10th  Hussars  in  the 
year  1872,  on  their  rpLwrn  from  service  in  India. 
It  is  miw  played  in  France  and  Jither  parts  of 
F,un)iie,  and  is  bocoming  very  popular  in  America. 
The  iM^t  type  of  ponioH  for  playing  the  game  are 
scarce  and  very  costly. 


This  pony  that  is  in  such  demand  and  brings 
such  a  high  price,  is  really  not  a  pony  hut  a  small 
horse.  He  dews  not  necessarily  belong  to  any 
distinct  breed,  and  is  generally  a  cross.  The  rfgu- 
lation  height  i»  fourteen  hands  two  inches,  and  ha. 
muH  be  a  iiuwerful.  speedy,  sound,  handy  animal, i 
with  great  staying  power  and  courage,  high  in 
front,  with  sweeping  shoulders  and  good  strong 
hocks.  The  necessary  speed  and  courage  are  rarely 
found  except  in  those  ponies  that  have  a  prepon- 
derance of  race-horse  blood  in  their  vein?.  He 
must  be  able  to  carry  160  to  200  pounde  weight, 
make  inceswant  tarns,  twists  and  stops  at  full 
speed,  and  make  short  fpurts  of  hard  galloping,  all 


Pi£.  47f,    A  Itdtt-weiKlit  wMtein  polo  roar.    B«itl«dor. 
fuurlo«u  tuuiiU.  cju»  Inch, 

of  which  take  more  oat  of  a  pony  than  would  » 
race  out  of  a  race  home. 

The  Thoroughbred  race  horse  has  the  speed  and 
courage,  but  rarely  the  strong  hind-^juarters  and 
the  power  necessary  to  enable  him  Ui  stop  quickly 
and  turn  sharply  at  the  gallop.  The  Arab,  while 
having  great  staying  power,  is  rarely  sufficiently 
speedy ;  and  the  Mustang  has  not  the  speed  or  the 
courage  to  make  a  gcKxl  polo  pony,  even  if  be  hi  "^ 
the  other  qualilications.  The  best  polo  pony  sevrns^ 
to  be  one  that  is  three-quarters  Thoroughbred.  Aa 
laid  down  by  Mr.  E.  L>.  Miller  in  his  book.  "Moderm 
Polo."  the  polu  pony  should  be  a  Thoroughbred  oafcj 
of  a  mare  by  a  Thoroughhred,  -that  is,  it  shouk' 
be  three-<tuarterfl  Thoroughbred  race  horse. 

In  .\merica,  the  ponies  used  to  play  the  gar 
are  secured  chiefly  from  the  West,  and  the  demandj 
for  poniea  here  is  not  yet  anything  like  what  it  ii 
in  England.  The  supply  is  entirely  inadequate  to 
meet  the  demand,  and  polo  ponies  are  sought  for 
the  English  market  not  only  in  America,  includinj 
Canada.  Mexico  and  Argentina,  bnl  in  every  corner' 
of  the  boree-breeding  world,  principally  in  Eg>*pt. 
Syria,  Rarbary,  Russia.  France.  Persia,  and  South 
.\frica.  While  the  ponies  thus  secured  are  not 
equal  in  speed,  endurance,  or  courage  to  the 
Knglish  or  American  race  horse,  the  best.  wHei 
trained  and  fitted,  command  very  high  prices.  Tbftl 
prici'S  may  be  said  to  range  anywhere  from  |3O0 
to  $3,000.  In  fiict.  there  is  no  limit  tfl  the  price, 
as  those  who  [il,ay  the  game.  are.  as  a  rule,  men  of 
meann  to  whom  a  really  good  animal  is  cheap  at 


BORSB 


hor.se 


483 


any  price.  The  exacting  qaalificAtions,  however, 
make  first-class  polo  ponies  rare. 

Breeding  polo  ponieH  at  present  is  aomewhat  of 
an  experiment  and  presents  niiiny  (lit1icuUie»,  the 
chief  WiiiR  the  Jimit  of  height.  Ail  hiveilinc  of 
horses  poea  to  prove  the  irapoasibilty  of  inBuring 
the  pruinjay  of  any  given  size.  In  Amurica,  the 
western  pony  mare  ia  hred  to  small  Thoroughbred 
stallions,  and  in  a  vory  few  cases  to  Arabian  horses. 
In  England,  to  keep  the  size  down,  pure  pony  Mood 
as  fogndation  stock  it*  bting  used  to  found  a  breed 
of  p(»lo  ponie:«.  the  lillifts  lieing:  bred  kick  to  stallionji 
of  the  iiamu  Ijreed  a«  their  Hires,  the  produce  of 
which  will  be  ihrwHjuarters  Thorou^hbrwi.  The 
Thoroaghbrecl  race  horse  of  late  years  has  been  in- 
croaeinj;  in  heip^ht  and  small  ones  are  likely  to  be 
only  runts  whose  produce  is  likely  to  exceed  the 
limit  in  height.  The  Arab  in  many  ways  m  desir- 
able, an  he  has  the  conjttitutii>n,  the  en>duranc«  and 
the  strength,  hut  not  the  (i|JiHn3.  The  Arab,  more- 
over, is  more  likely  to  be  of  the  right  sizv,  and  by 
reason  of  bis  great  antiquity  and  the  fixed  char- 
acter of  the  breed,  he  impresses  more  certainly  and 
more  markedly  his  likenesA  on  his  stock  than  any 
olher  breed, 

There  is  generally  a  good  demand  for  ponies  that 
have  lK«en  discarded  from  the  game  iMft'auseof  defi- 
ciency in  KfM^Kd,  courage,  or  othiT  sawuiitial  quaiifi- 
catiiins.  They  make  gftod  hacks  and  often  good 
saddle  ponies  for  children  and  young  persona.  The 
pony  Uattledor  (Fig,  478),  with  her  fore-legs  band- 
agerl,  as  in  playing  the  game,  is  a  type  of  light- 
weight western  jioliKpony. 

A  polo  pony  Ktudbook  hait  been  started  in  Eng- 
land, anil  there  is  every  Tuaaon  to  niip[K)Ki;  thnt  one 
will  be  starUMl  in  this  country  in  the  n«ar  future. 

The  Mirm'ANa. 

Thf*  ponies  of  the  western  states  of  America,  the 
MoKtangH,  lU'e  in  the  caite  of  tho.se  of  the  south- 
weiitern  states  apparently  of  Uoorish  origin,  com- 


L  WbK 


Fi|-  479.    A  trpiOAl  BiODCO.      Nluer. 

ing  into  thi«  country  by  way  of  Mexico  and  having 
Wn  broHKht  over  originally  by  the  Spaniards.  To 
these  ponit's  the  term  Hnmco  ig  often  applied, 
which  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  word  "  bronco," 


meaning  rough  or  wild.  The  pony  of  the  north- 
western states  and  Canada,  termed  Indian  pony, 
apiwars  to  Ik;  of  Norman  origin,  although  oft<*n 
thdse  two  breeds  are  more  or  leas  mixed.    Very 


'/••«r  ,', 


^^ 


-     f~^ 


Flc.  480.    A  bucking  Bronco. 

many  of  the  small  horses  at  the  prwtent  time  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Tnittil  Stales  have  been  crossed 
more  or  loss  with  the  .American  trotter,  the  English 
Thoroughbred  or  the  Arabian  hijr.«.e.9.  These  slill  are 
known  as  Bronctw,  althuugb  in  recent  years  they 
are  more  commonly  termed  "cow  iionies,"  from  the 
use  that  ia  made  of  them  in  herding  and  driving 
cattle  on  the  ranges. 

TTu  Bronee.    Figs.  479,  480. 

The  Broncos,  like  all  horses  in  a  semi-wild  stato, 
have  good  constitntions,  and  the  best  of  feet,  but 
because  of  inbreeiling  and  want  of  seleetion.  may 
not  be  gmid  in  genpral  ctm format) on.  "In  gpnenil, 
the  Itninco  is  an  fxcw^dingly  hardy,  wiry  little 
nnimal,  posw^wjii-d  of  considi^rabl^  endurunee.  In 
LhL>  l)fj(t  ty|ieA  the  head  is  small,  eli-nn-cut  and 
refined,  with  briRht,  piercing  eyes,  small  ears  and 
attractive  npjKtanince,  although  many  individnala 
have  ill-formed  heads.  The  neck  of  the  bettt-r  class 
is  of  me<!ium  length,  well  crested  and  very  well 
Carrie*!.  Tho  h<)dy  is  ahort,  deep  and  musindar. 
Broncos  are  frei|Uently  ridden  day  after  day  fur 
weeks  at  a  time,  witiiuut  shoiw,  over  the  rough, 
rocky  soil,  carrying  a  heavy  man  and  u  cumber- 
some stock  saddle.  They  weigh  approximately  SiiO 
pounds,  and  are  powteoBed  of  enormous  strength  for 
their  size  and  weight."    (W.  L.  Carlyle.) 

Theiie  ponies  of  the  Sonthwest,  aa  a  rule,  do  rot 
exceed  thirteen  and  one-half  or  fnurt^^en  hands  in 
height  unless  croM»-bred.  Some  of  them  are  hand- 
some, graceful  cr^aturea,  but  they  do  not  compare 
favorably  with  the  best  American  hon»es.  or  with 
imported  European  ponies,  nor  are  they  as  good  as 
the  more  northern  Indian  pony.  They  stand  a  ^reat 
deal  of  hard  work,  however,  and  if  bnikpn  young, 
could  be  made  very  serviceable.   It  Is  t4)  be  regret- 


ted  tiiftt  thlii  race  of  exceedinffly  tisefal  and 
pietoresque  animals  ia  decreasing,  caused  bj  the 
demand  for  a  larger  and  more  flt-et  hyrsc  by  the 
cowmen  and  by  croaaing  with  Standardbred  and 
Thoroughbrpd  8ir'?s.  The  Rrnnco  in  the  wild  ntate 
can  bo  ridden  down  ami  captured  without  much 
difficulty  by  goexl.  dtmieslic  honjen,  even  when  car- 
rying the  Wtfijiht  of  u  rider,  whenever  it  can  be 
approached  sufficiently  c1c«c  to  allow  anything  like 
an  equality  in  tko  stiut. 

The  Indian  pony. 

The  pony  of  the  northern  states  and  northwest 
of  Canada  is  a  belter  tmimal  than  that  of  the 
eoQthern  atates,  although  often  they  are  inter-bred. 
The  northern  pony  rarely  exceeds  thirteen  hands, 
almost  never  fourteen,  unless  he  is  crosit-brcd,  and 
is  more  compact,  better  ribbed  np  and  a  better 
boned  pony  than  the  Bronci*.  He  is  short  in  barrel 
and  strong  in  limb,  has  very  good  feet,  and  often 
has  considerable  h:iir  on  hi^  legs,  heavy  Ttmne  and 
tail  all  of  which  wonld  aeem  to  indicate  his  Nor- 
maa  oripn.  These  ponie-i  are  very  hardy,  and  while 
Bot  fast,  will  cover  lon^  distances  with  ea^.  They 
are,  moreover,  more  intelligent,  have  better  dispo- 
aitioos  and  display  more  courage  than  the  Bronco. 

Uaea. 

In  the  West  these  ponies  are  used  for  saddle 
I)ur|K)aeB,  ea[jecial!y  for  cow-herding,  although  they 
aro  fast  being  replaced  by  better  horses.  Ponies  of 
both  types  are  brought  e;ist  and  ti^ed  in  cities 
in  delivery  wagons  ami  for  lieht  driving  pur- 
poses, or  as  aaddle  ponies.  The  he^t  of  them  are 
BCmetimea  u»ed  as  puto  pontes.  They  are  nut  bred, 
as  a  rule,  except  in  the  western  atates  on  large 
ranches,  it  being  more  profitable  to  raise  other 
brin.-ds  of  horses  or  ponies  in  the  ea.'!tcrn  states, 
where  the  cost  of  fetnt  is  bo  high.  These  ponies  are 
nsod  as  foundation  stfwk  from  which  to  breed  A 
more  improved  type  of  pony  or  horse,  the  mares 
being  hreil  to  Hackneys,  trotting,  carriage,  Thor- 
oagbbre*!  race  horaea  and  Arabian  stallions,  often 
with  a  view  to  getting  pob  ponia*!.  It  is  difficult, 
however,  to  get  any  pony  or  horse  of  much  value 
from  one  cross. 

Other  Americvn  Ponies. 

Aside  from  the  Mustangs  of  the  western  states, 
there  are  in  North  America  the  Siible  iiilanii  ponies, 
the  ponies  fnnml  nn  the  coasts  of  thH  Sikuth  Atlan- 
tic st-iti's,  anit  the  Creole  [Hinles  of  U)uiHtuna. 

The  Snfile  i^nd  pan len  rar\!iy  find  their  wuy  into 
the  United  Slates,  principally  because-  of  the  duty. 
They  uru  fow  in  number  and  run  wild,  and  are  not 
to  good  as  some  other  breeds  from  which  seiection 
can  bo  hud  on  the  British  islands.  The  &ible  is  a 
small  pony  much  like  the  rellic. 

Poniexo/  South  AibtiUie  »iateji. — The  ponies  found 
along  the  const  of  the  .South  Atlunlic  states  have 
been  known  to  exist  there  for  many  years.  They 
are  nfiparently  of  Spanish  origin,  although  some- 
what smaller  than  the  ponies  of  the  weHtern  states. 
Little  effort  has  been  made  to  improve  them  and 
they  are  not  superior  in  any  way  to  the  Mustangn. 


The  ponies  if  {joumana,  sometimes  known  as  the 
Creole  ponies,  also  appear  to  be  of  Spanish  origin. 
Thoy  are  somewhat  amaller  and  finer  in  bone  than 
the  ponies  of  the  weatem  states,  but  are  little  dif- 
ferent in  other  respects. 

The  Ponies  of  the  BRrrisH  lai-ES. 

Ponies  have  beien  known  to  exist  in  the  British 

islands  from  the  earliest  times.  They  were  there 
at  the  time  of  Julius  Carsar's  conquest  and  he 
spoke  highly  of  them.  The  ponies  of  the  west  of 
England  are  said  to  have  been  brought  there  by 
the  PhuniciaTja  when  they  came  to  trade  for  tin. 
The  ponies  of  the  northern  part  of  the  British 
isles,  including  the  Shetlands,  have  many  charac* 
teristics  in  common  with  the  Scandinavian  pony, 
and  were  probably  introduced  by  the  Scandinarian 
invaders  some  time  prior  to  the  fifteenth  century. 

Owing  to  the  land  system  of  the  British  isles, 
dating  back  to  the  feudal  timea.  large  estates  have 
been  held  in  one  family  for  centaries.  and  the 
_  highest  intelligence  has  been  given  to  agricultural 
pursuits,  to  the  breeding  of  horses  as  well  as  other 
animals,  reganlless  of  monetary  considerations. 
The  finest  types  of  horses  from  the  Shire  and 
Clydesdale  to  the  Shetland  pony  are  secured  from 
here  for  every  part  of  the  world.  While,  with  the 
exception  of  tlie  Hackney,  the  ponies  of  the  Brit- 
ish isles,  like  all  other  ponies,  were  originally  the 
product  of  their  environment,  by  improved  meth- 
ods of  breeding,  careful!  selection,  the  intntduction 
of  superior  alien  bhxid,  and  better  keep,  they  have 
ht-en  greatly  improved  until  the  various  breeds  of 
ponitss  ara  unrivaled  for  symmetry  of  form,  action 
and  disposition.  It  is  from  these  ponies  largely 
that  American  breeders  have  to  select  their  foun- 
dation  stock. 

The  principal  ponies  of  the  British  isles  are  the 
Welsh.  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor,  New  Forest,  the 
Scotch  ponies,  the  Connemara  or  pony  of  Ireland 
and  the  i^hethind  pony.  The  last  is  discussed  first 
because  of  its  relattvt!  importance  in  America. 

The  Sfteilmid  pont/. 

The  Shetland  pony,  the  smallest  of  all  ponies,  is 
in  many  ways  the  most  important  in  America. 
While  in  England  and  other  cnnntries  he  has  been 
used  extensively  in  thij  r<inl  mini!S,  in  .\merica  his 
use  is  pnicticaUy  restricted  to  that  of  children,  and 
as  a  child's  pony  he  has  no  e<|ual.  Children  and 
Shetland  ponies  seem  to  have  for  each  othor  a 
natural  affinity.  Every  child  desires  a  pony,  and  asj 
a  considerable  proportion  of  Americana  hare  tb* 
means  to  gratify  their  children  in  snch  a  desire,  the 
Shetliiod  pony  is  in  great  demand.  It  is  imported 
in  considerable  numbers,  and  many  are  bred  here. 
There  are  also  many  in  America  that  are  croes-bred. 

The  Shetland  i^kudH  are  situated  to  the  north  of 
Scotland,  from  which  they  are  suparated  by  about 
l.'iO  to  200  miles  of  very  rough  and  dangerous  sea. 
There  are  some  120  islands,  many  of  which  are  un- 
inhabited, merely  affording  pasturage  for  a  few 
sheep  or  ponies.  The  existence  of  two  or  three  dis* 
tinct  tyjies  of  [HintMi  on  private  estates  has  girea 
rise  tu  the  untrue  statc-ment  that  a  more  or  leas  dl»* 


HORSE 


HORSE 


486 


tinet  type  of  the  fOiotland  uxi^ts  on  each  of  «t.>vi>ra] 
of  tbe  islundH.  Thcr«  are  no  tre«-8  nor  shrubs  on 
the  islands,  the  »nrface  being  a  HuccesHion  <>f  hills 
of  mck  formation  with  ppnt  and  decayed  vejfetable 
mutter  in  the  burins  and  alight  omvurinK  of  (toil  un 
which  heather  and  «i:anty  ^rass  grow,  affording  the 
only  jiftfituratii-  for  tho  ]>onio«. 

Aitho«;;h  far  to  tho  nurlh.tht!  climale  m  Rraatly 
modL-riiU.-d  by  the  earruundin^  waters  of  the  Kulf 
Btream.  There  \s  consetiut-ntly  much  mist  and  pre- 
cipitation of  moisture,  that  accnnnts  Largely  for 
the  Shetland's  very  lonj;,  fine  hair  whk^h  in  wet 
weather  matttand  is  alimwt  watarprcKif.  This  heavy 
coat  iR  thu  Sh«tland'a  unly  protwttion  agaimit  the 
incbmt^nL  wealhur,  a»  it  is  nat  hiJUUMi,  but  ii«  born, 
livcvt  and  diist  in  the  Quids,  thu  hilhidiu  and  Ktrmt!- 
walla  boinir  the  only  shelter  from  the  wioda  that 
aro  constantly  hlunrine,  and  which  in  winter  are 
very  penetrating. 

rtpjieription.  -The  limit  nf  height  entablished  by 
the  ^Shetland  I'ony  StudlHiok  Socii^ty  is  t»n  handa, 
two  inirhiut.  P'JHieji  ovur  thta  hBL{;ht  caniiut  Ih?  reg- 
iaCwrud.  atthouKb  in  America  thu  Shetland  Pony 
Club  has  increosL-d  the  height  to  devi'n  hands  two 
tnchea.  The  average  height  of  the  pure  Shetland 
raay  be  said  tn  he  nine  tn  ten  hands,  The  size  is 
more  or  If^s  »  renult  of  the  fi*ed,  and  whien  foxxl  is 
supplieil  in  abundance  thi^r^  is  a  grailual  increase 
in  nize  in  Huccessive  gHneratinnii.  This  increasu  la 
lesa  apparent  in  highly  bred  [Mjaias.  Tho  w^-ight  of 
mature  Sh*^tlandfl  shoold  approximatf  S25  t^  J175 
pounds,  for  ponlea  of  average  height.  The  beat 
specimena  are  compact  in  huild,  having  dei^p  body, 
heavy  muwular  quartern.  »hort  legs.  Hhort,  broad 
buck,  deep,  full  cheHt,  good  bone,  short,  rauBcular 
neck,  Hmall  head  and  e.Hm,  prominent  eyes,  and  are 
Very  docile  in  dLip<n<iliiin.  In  color,  they  are  com- 
monly  brown,  black  and  bay.  Thvre  art*  other  colons 
such  s%9  dun,  chestnut,  gray  and  a  fvw  with  white 
markings,  ['iebalds  are  not  considered  desirable, 
although  there  is  a  demand  fur  broken  colors  in 
America. 

The  coiit  of  the  Shetlnml  pony  ii»  a  revelation  to 
thittu  who  are  not  familiiir  with  htm.  The  young 
poniea  und&ir  two  yeiin*  of  age,  in  particular,  have 
very  long,  shaggy  coals.  Towanls  spring  thf  hair 
loses  its  luster  and  has  a  very  rusty,  shabby 
appearance.  Owing  to  the  hair  being  very  tine  and 
matted,  it  is  shed  in  patcht'i",  oft^^n  hanging  in  tag- 
locks,  which  makes  the  pony  the  very  roiight-st  and 
shaggieHt  little  un-atiire  imaginable.  Once  he  hiLs 
Bfaeg,  his  coat  i»  tine  and  gloasy  and  hi;  is  much 
morie  active  in  his  movements.  The  mane  ia  gener- 
ally heavy  and  long,  and  adds  much  to  the  attrac- 
tivene*!  of  a  well-kept  pony. 

Tlio  Shetland  pony  combines  with  the  highest 
onler  of  e.]Hine  intelligence  a  disposition  wonder- 
fully free  from  vice  and  irickiness. 

The  Shetisrhl  Rtallion  Howanl  H  (Fig.  4?H  won 
first  prize  in  the  Shetland  staUloa  clafis  at  the 
Worid's  Totumhian  Kxposition  in  Chicago  in  a  class 
of  nineteen,  the  largest  class  of  S'hi^tTand  ponies 
that  has  been  exhibited  to  dal<  in  this  country. 
The  color  of  this  stallion,  while  much  songht  after, 
is  very  uaasuaL 


HUiorj). — Ponies  have  been  known  in  the  Sht'tlaac) 
islands  from  the  earliest  times  of  which  there  is 
record.  From  the  finding  of  the  Itrwssay  stone 
recently,  there  appears  to  be  good  evidence  that 
they  were  there  prior  to  the  N'orwegian  invasion  in 
872.  According  to  some  early  writers,  the  Scan- 
dinavian invaders  introduced  the  foundation  stock 
prior  to  the  fifteonth  century. 

The  government  retnrns  for  1891  gave  the 
number  of  horses,  which  included  ponies,  in  the 
Islands  as  4,fi03,  hut  because  of  the  demand  of 
recent  years  the  ponies  are  steadily  decreasing. 
While  on  a  tour  of  the  Islands  in  l9(Jt>,  the  writer 
made  a  ciireful  estimate  of  tbe  number  of  ponii^s, 
and  could  not  account  for  over  4,000  of  all  ages 


/; 


.y 


fi>T»«- 


-r  -."  -i^ 


**>■• 


Plf.  411.    ebetland  poor  atjUlon.     Ileitkrd  B,  nlnt  hutdi, 
ihr-*  liirlMw. 

and  sexes,  and  he  doubts  whether  thero  are  much 
over  4(X)  foals  prodnccd  on  the  Islands  annually. 
In  America  there  have  been  rtigistercKl  in  the  stud- 
book  about  .leven  thousand  of  these  ptinies,  and  aa 
the  studbook  has  li^enopen  for  about  twenty  years, 
this  numWr  includes  those  that  have  died  in  that 
time.  The  Shetland  pony  may  be  considered  to  lie 
comparatively  rare. 

Fmiing  am!  oirf.— In  the  winter  time,  it  is  iisnal 
to  fe^l  the  ponies.  In  April  they  are  tnrned  on 
common  pasture  lards  to  shift  for  themselves.  In 
the  autumn,  the  ponieji  come  down  from  the  hills 
and  fv^  on  the  patches  of  frctih  grass  which  have 
been  preserved  around  the  cultivated  areas.  In 
MVere  winters,  when  feed  is  scarce,  they  eat  the 
seaweed.  Contrary  to  the  popular  impression  pre- 
vailing in  America,  the  ponies  do  not  run  wild. 
They  art-  all  definitely  owned  and  carwl  for  more 
or  less.  Ther<'  are  few  large  herds.  Most  of  the 
ponies  are  held  by  the  crofters  or  fanners  in  small 
numljers. 

I'tf*.  In  theShetland  islands,  the  pontes  are  used 
little.  They  are  sometimes  employcMj  in  carrying 
peat  from  the  hills  to  the  crofts,  and  are  the  most 
wonderful  weight-carriers  in  the  world,  n  nine-hand 
pony  being  able  to  carry  a  full-grown  man  over 
rough  ground  for  some  distance.  Tliey  are  wonder- 
fully hardy  and  will  cover  surprising  distances.  In 
the  coal  mines  many  of  the  ponies  travel  upwards 
of  thirty  miles  a  day,  drawing  a  load  of  1,200  to 
1.400  pounds  (on  rails).  In  America,  as  has  been 
said,  ihi-  chief  use  of  the  Shetland  is  a«  a  child's 
pony  and  for  light  driving.    Shetland  ponies  are 


I 


48« 


HORSE 


HORSE 


very  salable,  the  demand  being  far  in  excess  of 
the  supply.  The  ttmall^r  sizes  are  most  popalar 
in  ErLglund.  baC  not  in  America.  They  bring  good 
pricefL,  about  aa  much  at  maturity  as  the  average 
iarf^  horse,  and  are  easy  and  ioexpeosive  to  raide. 


\> 


'^\ 


V 


y 


"■.  \ 


\ 


y*'^.-L; 


^<^?^^ 


Pis.  481,    Welbh  DiouDULELTonT  aUlUoo.    UrerUj,'ht, 
tnelvB  ^tll^  Mtir»hiiir  Uniul*. 

They  break  easily  and  are  a  constant  source  of 
u-sofulness  and  pleasure,  aa  well  as  an  ornament  to 
any  farm. 

Orffanizaliont  ami  rw&rrf*.— The  American  Shet- 
land Pony  Ciyh  wan  organiiftii  in  1R88.  The  office  of 
iln  gticretary  i^  at  Lafayette,  Indiuna.  Seven  vol* 
umeA  of  the  American  Shetland  Pony  Studbook  Have 
been  isaaed.  The  Shetland  Pony  Studbook  Society, 
with  the  secretary  at  .Aberdeen,  Scotland,  is  the 
official  organixatiOQ  of  the  breed  in  Scotland  and 
Shetland. 

n«   Wtluk  jmitf. 

The  Welsh  pony  is  mora  numerous  than  any 
fithtsr  breed  that  comiffl  fnmi  the  British  ialca.  It 
is  <liiTii.'ult  to  discover  tbu  exact  number,  as  thtTu 
appear  to  be  no  sLatistics  on  the  subject.  He 
wanders  over  the  hills  and  waste-land»  of  all  the 
twelve  countiea  of  Wales,  and  also  on  the  borders 
of  Shro'pdhire-,  Hereford  and  Monmouth.  Inured 
from  the  earlieKt   foalhood   t*i  the  roufjhust  and 

C(K>rB8t  ;>a>4tura)^>,  he  ia  as  anre-footed  as  the  goat, 
]LH  ^uikI  Kbouldurs.  strong  back,  neat  head,  and 
the  butit  of  legs  and  feot.  Many  of  thu  best  Hun- 
ters in  England  trace  thoir  origin  on  the  side  of 
the  dam  to  a  Webh  mare.  The  breed  ha?  been 
improved  from  time  tn  time  by  the  introduction  of 
RU[)crinr  alien  blood,  chiefly  Thoroughbred,  .Arabian 
and  Hackney. 

The  Polo  Pony  Society  make  two  divisions  of 
Welsh  poniat,  those  of  North  Wales  and  those  of 
South  Wales.  By  tho  description  givt^n  in  Vol.  5 
of  the  studbook  of  this  socioty,  tho  ponies  of 
North  Wales  do  not  exceed  twelve  hands  two 
inches.  This  refers  nndoubt-idly  to  the  Welsh  pony 
in  a  pure  state;  an  the  writer  has  seen  many  Welsh 
Dohe  bred  in  Wales  from  Welsh  mure»  ami  Hack- 


ney stallions  that  were  fourteen  hands  and  over 
in  height.  The  pony  of  North  Wales  has  straight 
legs,  well-Mt-on  tail  and  good  t^houldera. 

The  pony  of  the  South  Wales  division  seldom 
exceeds  thirteen  bands,  and  in  a  pure  state  is  about 
twelve  hands.  The  writer  has  seen  many  of  them 
not  over  eleven  hands.  It  is  likely  to  be  low  at  tba, 
withers,  and  have  faulty  hind-qnarters,  the  nimj 
being  steep  and  the  hocks  sickled,  although 
defecta  are  being  overcome  by  improved  keep  cfl 
the  young  ponie-i  and  better  brveding.  The  colw 
of  the  W«Uh  pony  most  preferred  is  bay  or  brown. 
Gray  or  black  is  allowable,  hut  dun,  chestnut  or 
broken  color  la  considered  objectionable. 

The  strength  and  endurance  of  these  Welsh 
ponies  is  remarkable.  They  hare  legs  that  work 
cannot  seem  to  destroy,  and  have  wonderful  carry- 
ing ^ower.  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Wales  to  see 
roan  weighing  upward  of  2C)0  pounds  riding  one  of 
these  little  ponies.  As  a  rule,  they  have  good  car- 
riage and  action,  and  make  desirable  ponies  for 
children  who  bare  had  some  experience  in  horse- 
manship. In  England,  they  are  used  largely  as  a 
hack  and  by  tradesmen.  There  are  breeders  asing 
thiii  pony  as  a  basis  from  which  to  breed  polo 
poni>^s,  croAjting  with  small  Thoroughbred  racehorw 
or  Arab  stallions. 

In  America,  Welsh  ponies  are  used  principally 
for  children's  purposes.   Many  are  imported   and 
a  number  are  bred  here.   Now  that  the  pony 
becoming  more  popular,  and  the  demand  is  increis-l 
ing,  the  breeding  of  the  Welsh  pony  should  prove 
very  profitable. 

The  pony  Greyligbt  iTig.  482)  i.i  a  fine  specimwaj 
of  the  WelHh  mountain  {Kiny.   Among  other  prixes 
won  in  Great  Britain,  he  has  won  first  at  the  Hoyal, 
first  at  Bath  and  West^  and  first   at  the  Welsh 


pis.  40.    A  cbuapton  Vtlalt  pony  muv.    Tit  BIta,  t«*l*« 
h«nit>.  out  mli<l  Qii?'hal[  iueltoa. 

National.  The  Welsh  mare  Tit  Bit*  (Fig.  483),  a 
beautiful  specimen,  has  won  a  large  number  of 
prix«s. 

The  organization  interested  in  the  improvement 
of  these  ponies  is  the  Welsh  ?ony  and  Cob  .Society. 
with  heaiSquarters  at  Greenfield,  Penybont,  Rad- 
norshire, Wales.  At  present  there  is  no  society  in 
America. 


HORSE 


HORSE 


487 


k. 


Smoor  and  Darlmoor  ponies. 

The  piinie-s  f  rum  those  districts  id  EnfrlaDd  known 
as  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor  are  much  fewer  in  num- 
ber than  moist  of  the  other  breeds  in  the  British 
iales.  and  are  rarely  imported  into  this  conntry. 
They  ranj^e  in  height  from  eleven  to  thirteen  hanils 
two  inches.  The  original  ci^lor  of  the  Esmoitr  was 
a  tmffiiih  bay  with  meuty  muK-  It  is  suiienuu'^ij  to 
have  been  bruuKht  to  £n|;lan<l  by  the  rh>tniciant) 
when  they  visited  the  shoreti  of  Cornwalil  to  trade 
in  tins  and  metals, 

Studbook  No.  5,  of  the  Polo  Pony  Society,  con- 
taina  a  description  of  the  Bxmoorpony.  The  average 
height  is  giyen  as  twelve  hands.  The  best  of 
the  Rxmoor  ponies  have  xtrong  hack.t  ami  loinn 
and  good  aubatance.  They  are  generally  bay 
or  brown,  with  black  points,  wide  foreheads 
and  nostrils,  moaly  noses,  sharp  ears,  good 
sboolderB  and  backs,  short  lot^s  and  good  bone. 
They  are  very  tough  ami  hardy,  and  have  Iteen 
known  to  cover  long  distances.  Yonatt  st.-ite.'* 
that  in  the  year  ISHO,  a  farmer  who  weighwi 
196  pounds  rode  an  Exmoiir  ix>ny  from  Hri.i- 
tol  to  South  Moulton.  a  distance  of  HO  milei^, 
beating  a  coach  that  traveled  the  same  road. 

The  official  doacription  of  the  Dartmoor 
ponies  and  thoae  of  North  Wales  is  identical, 
with  certain  amendments  in  addition.  Those 
ponies  that  are  over  fifteen  hands  would  seem 
to  be  cross-bred,  as  the  pure  Dartmoor  never 
exceeds  thirteen  hands.  In  color,  the  Dart- 
moor ponies  are  brown,  black  or  bay.  There 
are  some  grays.  Utber  coloni  are  considered 
objectionable.  Efforts  are  now  being  made  to  im- 
prove them  by  the  introduction  of  good  stallions 
of  the  best  pony  breedls. 

The  AVw  Forext  pony. 

Poniea  have  been  bred  in  a  mmi-wild  state  from 
the  earliest  timea  in  the  county  of  Hampshire  in 
England,  a  district  covering  some  92,395  acres,  of 
which  44.978  aro  still  unenclosed  waste  land.  The 
greater  part  of  this  common  land  is  poor  and  boggr 
moor.  It  ia  estimated  that  there  are  about  2,500 
of  the-^w  ponies.  Like  moat  of  the  other  ponies  in 
the  British  inles,  they  have  been  much  impmved 
in  recent  years.  Lord  Arthur  Cecil  owns  a  large 
nomber.  and  he  turns  out  with  his  mares  thirty  to 
forty  good  stallions  every  season.  Many  of  his 
stallions  are  from  the  island  of  Rum,  off  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Scotland,  and  aru  the  original  black  Gal- 
loway, found  in  a  wild  atate  on  the  island  in  1840, 
by  his  father,  the  late  Marciuis  of  Salisbury,  and 
have  been  kept  almost  pure.  In  1888,  l^ord  .Arthur 
secured  the  whole  stock  of  these  Rum  ponies.  They 
are  inclined  to  be  a  little  coarse  in  the  head,  but 
this  defect  is  disap)n>aring  with  lin^ini;  and  gooil 
keep.  Most  of  the  Kum  ponie«  are  black,  although 
Bome  are  bay  or  brown ;  many  of  them  have  the 
hazel  eye,  although  this  is  not  unknown  in  the 
Exmoor  and  Welsh  ponies  also. 

The  NVw  P<in>st  [lony.  Iiecauscof  not  having  had 
to  endnrti  the  severe  climate  nf  the  hills,  iH  likely 
to  be  lesA  hardy  than  the  hill  ponies.  The  height, 
aa  given  by  the  Polo  Pony  Society,  is  twelve  to 


thirteen  hands.  The  writer  has  seen  some  of  these 
ponies  in  England,  and  they  are  not  equal  to  many 
of  the  other  breeds.  Iiut  I>ord  ,\rthar  Ciwil  is  very 
enthusiastic  about  them,  and  is  doing  much  to  tm- 
jirove  tht-m.  They  are  likely  to  be  low  al  the 
withers  anil  nut  gtHtd  in  the  h ind-quartors,  being 
droopy  and  cow-bockw],  Tlie  cross  of  the  vigorous 
Uum  pony,  however,  will  do  niuch  to  correct  this, 
(U)  he  is  very  strong  in  theso  points,  having  excel- 
lent hind-quarters  and  good  shoulders.  Aside  from 
the  Rum  pnnit«,  Thor^nghhrtnl  and  Arabian  stal- 
lions are  also  being  used,  with  marktxl  improve- 
ment. 


^ 


Flc.  ««4.    BDtUib  WHt  Hwieland  Pel  vmj  •tJOUoii. 
Uoro  II,  mdvD  Laud*. 


UouiiUiii 


The  New  Forest  ponies  are  generally  more 
spirited  than  moat  of  the  other  British  ponies. 
Like  all  ponies  that  have  been  brought  up  on  poor 
pasturage,  they  improve  wonderfully  on  good  keep, 
and.  with  careful  selection  in  breeding,  astonish- 
ingly good  results  may  be  obtained. 

The  organization  concerned  with  the  interests 
of  this  breed  is  known  as  The  New  Forest  Pony 
Association.  There  is  no  organization  in  America 
for  this  breed. 

Tfte  llar-kMy  ptmn.   Figs.  470,  473,  485,  486. 

The  Hackney  horao  has  long  been  bn»]  in  Eng- 
Eand  and  owes  his  present  status  to  the  most  care- 
ful m^ethods  of  breeding,  rearing  and  training. 
Contrary  to  the  impression  given  by  his  name,  he 
is  not  a  hack,  but  is,  on  hts  native  heath,  the 
highest  type  of  driving  horse.  In  !8K3,  when  the 
Hackney  Horse  Society  was  formed  in  England, 
the  standard  of  height  for  the  p<my  was  ei^tablished 
as  fourteen  hands,  and  a  separate  part  of  the  stud- 
book  was  set  aside  for  the  registration  of  ponies. 
Subsequently,  this  height  was  increased  to  fourteen 
hands  one  inch,  and  about  two  years  ago  the  same 
height  was  adopted  by  the  American  Hackney 
Horse  Society,  established  in  1891,  Inasmuch  as 
tho  Hackney  brings  a  higher  price,  both  in  England 
and  .\merica,  than  any  other  pony,  he  may  be  con- 
flidere'l  the  most  valuable  of  all  ponies.  In  Amenca, 
as  in  Knglaml,  judging  from  the  demand  and 
priceK  paid,  he  appears  to  t>e  steadily  growing  in 
popularity. 


488 


HORSE 


HORSE 


[The  Hackney  pony  in  tho  Bciull-stzed  Hackney 
horse.  For  fuller  notes,  see  Hackiuy  horse,  pp.  464- 

4(J8.] 

Thi  poniet  of  ScoUand. 

Docaaee  of  the  pruximity  of  the  f^hetland  tHlands 
to  Scotland,  there  are  miiny  Shutland^  there,  aa  in 
fact  there  are  in  England,  and  many  of  the  paniea 


Ptf.  465.    KackMjr-WeUte  pony.     Mool<om*rr  0«org«. 
thlrtMD  LftadB. 

of  Scotland  ar&  but  a  cross  t«twecn  tlie  Shetland 
and  a  Welsh  or  somo  other  pony.  Many  of  the 
larger  ponias  of  Scotland  reaemMe  much  the  WkImH 
cob.  In  timeH  pant  a  puny  waH  often  referred  to  aa 
H  Galluway.  In  fact,  to  this  day  the  name  is  often 
seen. 

71c  Galloway  pony.— Tha  Galloway,  Bo-called 
from  the  part  of  Scotland  known  by  that  name, 
was  once  very  popalar.  Youatt,  in  his  second  edition, 
1846,  describes  it  as  thirteen  to  fourteen  hands, 
BometiraeB  more,  hright  bay  or  brown  with  biack 
legs  and  small  head.    As  the  »\ze  wat*  not  considered 


IV- ^^^^^- 


Tic*  4M-    R«ekWT  pony  nure.     UayflowiT,  ihlrlMn  banda. 

desirable,  it  was  croased  vith  larger  breeds,  antil 
DOW  the  original  Gallovay  has  entirely  disap- 
pear ed. 

ne  OjfincTftaro,  or  pony  of  IrHantl. 

The  Cunnfltniira,  or  pony  of  Ireland,  is  found 
chiefly  in  thw  County  Gatway,  Ireland.  It  is  an  ex- 
tremely wiry  pony,  showing  a  preat  deal  of  the 
Barb  or  Arab  bloud.   It  stands  twelve  to  fourteen 


hands  in  height,  wimnlime*!  more.  Like  other  breeds 
that  run  practically  wild  in  a  hilly  country,  it  ia 
hardy,  active  and  sure-footed.  It  hau  a  thick  and 
shaggy  coat  in  response  to  the  climatic  condition 
of  its  habitat.  In  color,  it  is  black,  brown  or 
bay  and  Hometimes  che-stntit.  betraying  its  descent. 
Often  individualn  are  pacerti.  Sinr-e  the  middle  of 
last  century  it  ban  been  .allow<<d  to  ileteriorate, but 
for  some  years  \imi  «yBt«?matic  endeavors  to  im- 
prove the  bre«d  by  introduction  of  Thoroughbred 
and  Hackney  pony  stallicins  have  been  in  progreea. 

The  Celtic,  or  Pony  of  Icelanl, 

The  Celtic  or  pony  of  Iceland,  the  Hebrides, 
north  of  Ireland,  and  the  Faroes,  is  a  small-headed 
pony  with  prominent  eye»,  slender  limba  and  small 
joints.  A  typical  (Teltic  pony  is  ([enerally  of 
yellowish  dun  color,  with  a  dark  dorntal  band  aii< 
with  some  indication  of  strips  on  the  shooldi 
and  in  the  region  of  the  knees  and  hocks, 
ponies  have  a  cloito  reeembtnnce  to  the  Scandi- 
navian p<iny.  ami  it  in  pn)bable  that  they  have  a 
commcMi  origin.  The  Shetland,  Welsh,  New  Fo; 
anil  otb«r  jwjniei^  of  the  British  Isies  probably  haT0' 
a  Certain  amount  of  ('eltic  blood,  as  ponies  are  fre- 
(juently  found  of  the  former  breetu  with  strong 
characteristics  of  the  Oltic  pony. 

The  ponies  of  the  Hc-hrides,  the  Faroes  and  the 
north  of  Ireland  are  little  known  in  thiscoontry, 
but  the  Iceland  ponies  are  sometimes  imported  into 
AmericH,  although  few  are  brad  here.  They  are 
strong,  sturdy,  useful  little  animals,  rarely  exceed- 
ing thirteen  hands,  often  reaching  only  eleven  and 
one-half  or  twelve  hands.  They  are  used  for  light 
driving  pxirprjses  and  as  children's  ponies,  and  in 
Bngland  often  aa  pit  ponies. 

The  Arabian  Ponv. 

[The  Arab  pony  is  the  Arab  horse  nnder  the  givenj 
height.   For  full  diocussion,  see  /lra4  Hotk,  pa( 
446-443]. 

The  Rrs?i\N  Poky. 

Russian  ponies  are  traceable  to  eastern  oHgiiu 
They  ar«  hardy,  serviceable  and  often  of  beautifql 
appearance.    They  rarely  excet**!  fourteen  hands  iml 
height,  many  being  but  twelve  to  thirteen  har""" 
They  are  not  common  in  .\merica,  bnt  they 
often  seen  in   Kngliind,  where  Ihey  are  dsmI  fo 
light  driving  purpoites  or  in  the  pits.    In  Rossii 
they  are  used  for  trade  purposes  and  many  of  i\ 
cavalry  mounts  are  but  ponies.   They  have 
endurance,  and  the  best  of  them  are  not  surpassed"' 
in  usefulness  by  any  other  breed, 

TnB  ScANnrxAviAN  ob  NoBwtr.uM  Posy. 

The  Scandinavian  pony  is  closely  allied  to  tbej 
Russian,  and  ia  evidently  of  the  same  origin.  Nc 
only  have  these  ponies  worked  up  thronj^  Rnssia' 
to  Norway  and  Sweden,  but  in  the  old  days  of  the 
Vikings  there  is  little  doubt  that  many  fine  speci- 
mens of  the  Arabian  were  introduced  into  the 
country.  Like  the  Russian,  the  Norwegian  pony  is 
practically  unknown  in  America,  but  many  of  them 
are  imported  into  England  where  they  are  uett 


HORSE 


HORSE 


gmanny  for  li^ht  driving  purpoRes  or  Id  tfcep!t6, 
wme  being  ust^H  iik  polu  panies. 

iliSCELLANBOUS  PoNtta, 

The  Monnoliaii,  JafMJUM,  Kirrmn,  fturma  and 
Manipura,  Samalra  amiJafu  iiuini-a  can  hv  uf  littlo 
inturt^st  to  American  ljruL-i9i.-r<.  In  common  wiLli  all 
ponies  thoy  have  to  a  greater  or  lesser  exUint  the 
bardinL's^,  endurance,  8ound  feet  ami  legn  tKnt  are- 
the  inheritfince  of  a  half-wik!  existence  under 
adverse  cnnditi<fnB,  Thene  pnnies  are  exreeilinglv 
rare  in  America,  and  we  liavi?  muny  types  mucn 
superiwr  in  con  form  a  I  ion  and  other  deairublo  quali- 
ties nearer  home  from  which  to  brtsed. 

Literaiu.re. 

KofercnccR  cited  in  the  text  are  to  the  fdlowing 
works  :  E.  iK  Miller,  Modern  Polo.  W.  Thacker  & 
Co.,  Ijondon  ;  Hon,  Jamt?s  Petin  Boucatit,  The  Arah, 
the  Horse  of  the  Futun\  Hay  &  Binl,  Slnind, 
liOndon  (190o);  Pedn  Pony  Society,  Studtio«]k,  Vut- 
nme  5  ;  Yooatt,  seeond  edition  (li^G);  Kir  Walter 
Gilhey,  Small  Horaes  in  Warfare,  Bart,  Vinton  & 
Co.,  London,  K.  C;  Sir  Walter  Gilbey,  Thorough- 
bred and  Other  Ponies,  Bart,  Vinton  &  Co.,  [jondnn, 
B.  C;  J,  C.  Appteby.  Nimrod  ;  Mr.  Whyte,  History 
of  the  British  Turf.  Other  referenceH  are  here  given, 
that  are  of  interest :  Catherine  StncLiir,  ShetUnd 
and  Its  Inhabitants!;  L  Stejneger,  'Den  Celtinke 
ixmy.  tarpanen  of  fjord hesten.'  Natureti  (1904); 
M.  ilorace  Hnyes,  I'oinM  of  the  Honte,  W.  Thackcr 
&  Co..  Lond'^n.  E.  C.  (ISO?);  J.  C.  Kwart.  Tho 
Multiple  Origin  of  Honwa,  Trann.  Highland  and 
Agricuttural  Society,  EdinbDrgh  11904>;  W.  Ridge- 
way,  The  Origin  and  Influence  of  the*  Thonuighhred 
Horse.  Cambridge  (1905):  S.  B.  Elliot,  MJ).,  Tho 
Shetland  Pony,  Bedford,  Mass.  (1906), 

Saddle  Horse,  American,   Pig.  487. 

By  Dnrid  Oistkman. 

The  American  ttaddle  horse,  aa  its  name  indicates, 
w  a  saddle  horse  developed  in  America.  While  it  ia 
adapt'jd  tiritt  of  all  far  saddle  porpo^e^,  it  has  long 
since  demonsitraU'd  its  worth  for  light  harness  pur- 
pofiea.  Its  pecnliiir  grace  of  motion  and  aptitade 
for  the  iiafidle  gait«  In  their  perfection,  place  It  in 
the  forfr-front  of  horitea  used  for  saddle  purposes. 

DaeripiiDn. 

Th«  most  oiiUtAnding  cliaructeristks  of  the 
American  saddle  horne  ar«  courage,  docility  and 
BTiperb  finii^h.  His  courage  and  spirit,  coupled  with 
his  docility,  give  him  his  »[M^ciat  u»efulneKH  on  the 
haltle-Jield,  as  well  as  in  the  harne-w.  Breeden*  of 
this  horw  have  hoM  before  them  an  ivie.il  type,  and 
it  iu  not  loci  mtirh  to  wiy  that  thijt  ideal  ha»  lieen 
approached  ttomewhat  clowly.  The  ideal  .\merican 
saddle  honw  may  Iw  deiuTibisl  thus :  The  notzlu  ia 
small  and  delicate,  with  distended  and  seniiitive 
nostril.  The  heail  JH  bony,  rather  small,  with  gen* 
erally  ja«t  an  indication  of  a  dish  in  the  face  ;  the 
eym  full,  round  and  prominent,  and  set  wide  apart. 
The  small,  pointed  ears  are  set  well  apart,  and  are 
conMtantly  playett  ;  sometimnt  there  i»  a  slight  cup 


to  the  point  of  the  ear.  The  horse  should  bear  an 
expretwion  of  courage  and  gentlenesfi.  Behind  the 
«arH  is  the  fine  muncular  throttle,  on  which  the 
head  is  set  at  a  good  angle.  The  neck  ih  lung  and 
gnicL'fully  created.  The  shuutders  are  Hhiping. 
Then.*  is  gwxl  depth  through  the  heart,  a  short, 
strong  back,  the  barrel  rihbed  well  back  and  quite 
&»  large  around  the  last  rib  or  at  the  girth.  The 
horse  is  strong  acroiw  the  kidney?  and  the  coupling 
is  powerful.  The  f|uarter»  are  level,  strongly  mus- 
cled and  long  from  the  jioint  of  the  hip  tn  the 
hiick.  The  tail  cuinu»  out  well  up,  is  carried  high, 
and  is  heavy,  long  and  flowing.  The  hudy  is  set 
on  comparatively  short  legs.  The  bone  of  the 
teg  is  broad,  flat  and  closely  knit,  and  the  tendons 
strong.  The  fore-arm  is  powerfully  muscled  and 
the  fore-legs  atr.-iight.  The  hind-leg  is  not  so 
straight  lis  in  theThorotighhred.and  is  well  muscled. 
The  legs  are  short  from  knee  and  ho<.-k  to  ankle. 
The  pasterns  are  a  little  long  and  sloping.  The 
feet  are  hani  but  elastic,  heelfi  wl-II  spreaxi  and  well 
duv<j|oped.  The  average  height  of  the  *iaddle  horse 
is  ahoot  fifteen  hands  two  inches,  and  the  weight 
approximately  1,000  pounds. 

The  American  saddle  horse  is  the  outgrowth  of 
neceasity.  Before  railroads  were  estahlixhed  in  this 
country,  and  while  traffic  was  by  horseback  over 
unbroken  or  almost  impa-ssable  roailit.  there  waa  a 
demand  for  a  sure-footed,  stunly  horso  that  coold 
travel  long  distances  at  a  steady  rate  of  speed, 
and  at  the  same  time  carry  a  pack  or  a  rider.  Oat 
of  this  ntx-d  grew  the  American  .■uiddle  horse,  very 
crude  and  undeveb^ped  at  first,  but  to  be  gradually 
molded,  as  necessity  changed,  into  the  magnificent 
type  a*i  he  stands  tfiday. 

Virginia  and  the  south  Atlantic  states  had  given 
much  attention  to  racing,  and  at  a  very  early 
date  were  breeders  of  the  Thoroughbred.  One 
source  of  imfMirtation  was  Canada.  There  they 
had  raised  a  hardy  little  horse,  said  to  be  a 
cross  of  the  French  importations,  generally  with 
such  stallions  as  could  be  i*ecHred  fmrn  New  York 
and  New  England.  Incidentally,  these  stallions 
were  moet  often  of  German  and  Netherland  breed- 
ing. The  Canadians  h:id  given  much  .ittention  to 
the  development  of  the  pac«  or  amble.  Many  of 
these  ( 'anadian  horses  drifted  down  into  what  were 
then  the  horse-breeding  colonies.  They  had  gome- 
thing  of  the  gait  and  stamina  required,  but  lacked 
in  both  beauty  and  courage.  Some  of  the.se  Cana- 
dian mares  were  crotwed  with  available  Thorough- 
bred stallions  to  produce  a  saddle  horse,  with  most 
satisfactory  re^uttp,  certain  lines  of  Thoroughbred 
blood  giving  the  best  pnwiuct.  The  mast  satisfac- 
tory lines  of  the  TlioruughbreJ  blood  were  selected, 
an<I  all  others  rejected. 

The  majority  of  the  horses  brought  to  Kentucky 
by  the  earl;  settlers  were  theM  "wKldlent."  and 
many  of  them  the  best  that  had  been  produced  in 
the  older  stateit.  Tlte  natural  character  of  the 
Kentucky  country  led  tn  the  concentration  of  the 
l»wt  of  ihew  newsadiile  horses  within  her  Iwrdera. 
The  im|)urLance  that  ;itta['bed  tn  the  efforts  of  the 


1^ 


490 


HORSE 


EORSB 


saddle-horse  breeders  in  Kentucky,  le«3  to  the 
name  "Kentucky  saddle  horoe"  being  appEied  to 
these  horses. 

Imp.  Uedgeford  waa  a  brown  colt,  foaW  in  Eng- 
land in  1825  by  Pilh<j-d<j-Puta,  out  of  Mini*  Craigie 
by  Orviile.  He  was  bred  by  a  Mr.  Mylton,  im- 
ported in  1832  by  William  .Tackfwn  of  New  York, 
and  taken  to  Kentucky,  where  he  ditd  in  1840. 
AmO'ng  his  ^ex  was  the  great  Denmark,  which  was 
foaled  in  1839,  out  of  Betsey  Harrison  by  Aratus, 
and  bred  by  Samuel  Davenport  of  Kfntucky.  He 
waa  a  game  and  consistent  four-mile  race  horse. 
bnt  not  remarlcable  for  hin  Apet^d.  Denmark  wah 
bred  to  the  Stevenson  maru  -1^.  a  bniwn  Kaddle 
mars  by  Cockspur,  the  latter  a  saddler  of  one-half 
or  three-fourths  Thoroaghbre*]  blood.  In  ISTiO, 
Gaines'  Denmark  Gl  was  foaled,  out  of  the  Steven- 


US 


'» 


''<•    ^Ifii'i 


Ftc.  4B7.    A  ieiiii:MaUuv«  Aiiiciicda  Uddle  taSTW. 


son  mare.  He  waa  the  greatefitof  the  eons  of  ften- 
mark.  He  served  through  the  Civil  war,  along 
with  John  Dillard,  another  famous  Ha*id]er.  Nine- 
tenthfl  uf  the  naccesHful  miMjern  sires  trace  directly 
to  Gaines'  Denmark.  Following  the  war  Ihnre 
Clime  a  eraze  fur  spetjd  horses,  and  many  of  the 
betst  saddle  mama  were  flliuled  to  trotting  stal- 
lions much  t«j  the  detriment  of  the  saddle  horse. 

In  1891,  the  American  Saddle  Horso  Breeders' 
Aasnotatien  was  organized.  In  its  studbook  were 
inserted  the  names  of  the  "foundation  stock."  In 
most  of  these  foundation  BUiliions  there  waa  a 
strong  admixture  of  Thoroughbred  blond,  and  many 
of  them  trace  their  linkage  through  Ifeiinmrk'a 
dam.  tn  1901.  after  ten  years  of  carefvil  work,  the 
liat  of  foundation  niallionH  was  revtt»ii  to  include 
the  following  ten  horsefl  :  Denmark.  John  Dillard, 
Tom  Hal,  Cahtira  Ijexington.  Coleman's  Eureka, 
Van  Meter'a  Waxy.  Stnmp-the-dealer,  Feter's  Hal- 
corn.  Davy  Crockett  and  Pat  Ck-hume. 

John  Dillard  was  by  Canada  Chief  out  of  Imdy 
Jack<ion.  which  was  a  daughter  of  Blaekbum's 
Whip,  which  was  by  Imp  Whip,  and  he  was  by  Imp 
Saltram.  Imp  Saltram  got  the  Saltrara  mare,  and 
ahe    was    the    dam    of    Jenny   Cockracy,   which 


Sroduced  Ret£ey  Harrison,  the  dam  of  Dt;oruark ; 
enny  Cockrat-y  also  produted  Susettv.  this  dam  of 
Berthnne,  the  sire  of  Van  Meter'a  Waxy,  another 
of  the  foundation  list.  This  inu5trate.'>  the  con- 
ntant  interweat'ing  of  the  same  Thoroughbred  blood 
that  characlftriMsi  the  early  breeding  efforU.  The 
ttame  intricate  inter-relationjthip  could  he  traced 
for  the  other  foundation  etalliooa  if  iipace  par- 
mittLil. 

Tom  Hal  waa  a  Canadian  pscor  imported  to  Ken- 
tucky. Ho  was  a  blue  roan,  foaled  in  1R02,  and 
lived  to  the  great  age  of  forty-one  years.  He  was 
the  founder  of  the  Hal  family  of  Tennessee,  of  the 
Blue  Bull  family  of  Fndiana  and  the  nott^d  Turn 
Hal  fiaddle  horveK  of  Kentucky.  Among  many 
otherx,  he  waft  thu  tdre  uf  the  noted  horse  Bald 
Stockings  7ti,  which  waa  the  first  horse  ever 
noticL'd  to  go  the  running-walk.  The  dam  of 
Cabell'si  Lexington  was  by  Tom  Hal.  Here  we 
catch  giMiuine  Morgan  blood,  for  Cabett'a  I^xtng- 
ttm  W31S  iiy  Gist's  Black  Hawk,  which  wan  by 
IlbiiHl's  Black  Hawk,  which  wa«  by  Vermont  Black 
Hitwk.  In  0-oEcman'ft  Eureka  we  again  tind  Morgan 
bliHid  on  thu  aire't)  side  and  Thoroughbred  blood  on 
Ihu  dam's.  Hu  was  a  dark  chestnut,  sixteen  hands 
high,  and  won  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
premiums  in  saddle  and  combined  ringd.  Van 
Meter's  Waxy  was  unquewtinnably  a  Thoroughbred 
h*yrse.  On  the  sire's  side  he  traiceM  to  the  two  Barb 
IiorsfH  sent  tfi  Thoma*  Jvllerflon  by  the  Buy  of 
Tunis.  StumfHthiMiualer  was  a  Thurongbbred, 
tracing  on  the  sire's  sidv  to  ^Itram  and  on  tho 
dam's  side  to  Imp  Diomed.  He  was  a  famous  race 
horse.  The  Halcom  strain  is  recognized  as  a  sep- 
arate and  distinct  wuhlle  family.  Peter's  Halcom, 
the  head  of  the  family,  is  deticribed  as  a  remarka- 
bly handKonie  bay  stallion.  Df  the  breeding  of 
Davy  Crotkett  we  know  nothing.  He  waa  imported 
to  Kentucky  from  Cjinada  and  has  been  a  great 
producer  of  saddle  horses.  He  waa  character! wd 
by  power  and  endurance,  and  had  large,  yellow 
eyes  which  he  freciuently  imparted  to  his  get, 
Pat  riebiime  ts  noteworthy  for  hia  production  in 
the  hands  of  Missouri  lirHfdurH. 

ThiK  list  might  Iw  greatly  extended  by  thu  addi- 
tion uf  the  noted  horses  of  more  recent  years. 
Mention  should  bo  made  especially  of  the  famooa 
sires  Black  Squirrel  5S,  Montrose  lOG,  Black  Eagle 
74.1'he.ster  Dan.^  10,  Hijihland  Denmark  730,  Cecil 
Palmer  SI.S3,  Bourbon  Chief  976  and  Dominor  2631. 

Dittrihution. 

Tht>  stale  i>f  Kentucky  jatttly  claims  to  havH  been 
the  nur^ry  of  the  two  American  breeds  of  horaea, 
—the  American  saddle  horse  and  iiie  Standard- 
bred  trotter,  although  Tennessee,  and  more  recently 
Missouri  and  Illinois,  have  been  very  in.it rumen tal 
in  their  development.  The  saddle  horse  has  become 
distributed  over  most  of  the  Tniteil  States  and  parts 
of  CanaiEa.  There  are  at  least  two  very  creditable 
studs  in  Canada  and  one  in  Mexico.  Seven  slallinns 
have  bt^en  sent  to  ^outh  .America,  two  stallions  to 
Porto  Uico,  five  stallions  to  Cuba,  ono  stallion  to 
Hawaii,  one  to  New  Zealand  and  five  to  Japan. 
Three  maree  have  boon  ^ent   tu  England.    It  is 


HORSE 


HORSE 


491 


probable  that  repreoentatives  ot  this  breed  hav« 
also  reached  other  countrtuft. 

Breeding. 

Bnt  little  can  he  Mid  on  thiti  sabject  that  is  not 
atiplicalite  to  all  puru'brL'd  8loi:k.  Theoimuiiduavor 
Bince  the  foundation  of  the  t>'pe  has  btieo  to  pro- 
duce a  hor^u  litttnl  in  confontiiition  and  motion  and 
intulliKi^nce  for  a  definite  parp>.we ;  to  breed  a 
beautiful  borne,  with  a»  nearly  perfect  motion  as 
podsible.  To  thi*  end,  breedftra  have  bent  tliwir 
energies  in  using  the  proceaa  of  fiotection  and 
reJKCtion.  Out  ot  the  }x*ara  that  have  passed,  cer- 
tnin  leAAun.^  bave  been  learned.  The  remarkable 
profiuteney  of  the  bloud  of  Gaines'  Denmarli  Gl.  in 
the  male  lino,  has  been  conclusively  demon rttrated. 
He  U  a  reckleiw  man  who  undertakes  to  produce 
the  moden)  American  saddli^  horiie,  with  a  stallion 
heading  his  ftud  which  liicka  the  direct  niitle 
trace  to  thia  Rreatest  of  the  Denmarka.  Fortu- 
nately, hiii  blood  baa  been  ao  diffu^  that  there  is 
no  danger  of  inhreedinR.  The  years  have  also 
demonstrated  that  certain  linea  of  blood  have  pro- 
duced great  brood-mare  families.  The  daughters 
of  Peavine  ftS,  Dave  Alsin  775,  Harrixon  Chief 
160fi.  Indian  Chief  1718,  and  that  exiiuisite  son  of 
Magic,  Beauty  G04,  have  produced  very  auccesafully 
when  mated  to  stalHonA  posst-Ksing  a  direct  male 
lineaKu  to  Gainfs'  Denmark  61.  Not  yet  has  the 
Chief  family  produced  an  acceptable  etire. 

The  general  rulefl  followed  in  the  prdluction  of 
the  preflent-day  American  Raddle  horse  mav  lie 
stat«d  thuH  :  (1)  Have  the  KtaUitm  trace  directly  to 
GainiW  Penmiirk  fil.  (2)  Have  in  the  brood-mare* 
AH  many  crosfiiLfl  &s  poasihla  of  the  proved  great 
brood-mare  aires.  (3)  Line-breed  to  the  proved 
fjeat  brood-marea  of  the  bn>ed.  and  remember 
thai  of  these,  Nannie  Garrett  472  stands  eaAity 
first. 

It  seems  hanlly  necesj^ary  to  add  that  the  ques- 
tion of  individuality  id  even  mom  ]«?rtiru!nt  hern 
than  in  oUier  breeda.  No  Iwrw  of  this  breu-d  ean 
carry  »«ch  superior  blrxnl  lines  as  to  warrant  over- 
looking inferior  individuality.  The  ideal  must  be 
definite  and  mnst  be  adhered  to. 

It  ha-s  Iwx^n  le.-irneil  from  thi?  breeders  of 
ThuruuKbbrHils  thnt  the  esHential  gniwth  i>f  a  hi»r»e 
is  mainly  in  the  first  year  of  Win  life.  Hence,  we 
antedate  his  birth  and  ket^p  his  dam  in  prime  con- 
dition. For  twenty-four  hours  after  his  hirth,  the 
dam  has  no  food,  but  a  bucket  of  water  with  the 
chill  taken  off  is  kept  constantly  before  her.  At 
the  expiration  of  the  twenty-four  hnuni,  the 
attendant  should  lH>};in  to  feed  imth  f<ml  and  dam. 
By  the  time  tht;  fual  is  fteven  dnys  old,  he  and  his 
dam  are  on  full  fetv].  When  it  is  available,  this 
food  consists  of  one-third  wheat  bran  and  two- 
thinls  rolled  oat«.  This,  with  either  timothy  or 
Burt  oats  hay.  makea  a  well-balanced  ration  for 
mare  and  foal.  Thin  feed  is  place*!  in  a  tmugh  lnw 
enough  for  the  ftKil  to  reach  and  eat  with  his  dam. 
Bj  Uie  time  he  is  three  day.')  old,  he  will  have 
learned  to  eut,  and  then  he  muxt  be  fed  rt>gularly. 


^Tiatever  food  is  available  for  the  mare  and  foal, 
it  should  contain  a  liLeral  proportion  of  protein. 

It  may  be  admissable  for  the  writer  here  to  give 
a  warning,  even  though  it  may  i«eem  to  be  unnec- 
essary. iJoth  alfalfa  and  clover  are  dangerous  if 
fed  to  breeding  animals.  This  statement  is  made 
out  of  personal  experience  in  breeding  thia  horse. 
There  is  no  better  roughage  for  growing  horscB 
than  clover  hay.  Alfalfa  hay  will  do  for  horses  if 
clover  \i  not  availalile,  but  its  strong  diuretic 
etfect  makea  it  nec&«»ary  to  watch  it  carefully. 

The  satidie  horse  in  motioti. 

The  methods  of  educating  the  saddle  horse  would 
carry  us  too  far  afield,  but  we  may  consider  the 
motion  of  the  educated  hor.'ie,  Beautiful  as  this 
honte  iti,  he  must  lie  seen  in  motion  to  be  appre- 
ciated. [For  further  notes  on  gaita,  see  pagea 
423,  424  and  427.] 

Tke  fiai-foottd  uiilk  should  be  prompt,  brisk, 
elastic,  "dead  in  line"  and  i!i»i.  ftpeed  is  important 
and  should  be  et^ual  to  at  lea.«t  three  and  a  half 
miles  an  hour.  ]lar»e.s  will  occasionally  be  found 
that  will  walk  at  the  rate  of  fmir  and  a  half  milea 
an  honr,  but  the  tower  estimate  itt  good  walking. 
It  may  generally  be  aiutuined  that  a  hur»e  is  walk- 
ing properly  if  all  four  shoes  [nay  be  seen  from 
behind  him,  and  the  feet  on  the  same  side  are  in 
line. 

Thf  trol  should  be  true,  "dead  in  line,"  well  under 
the  horse,  balanced,  prompt,  and  with  both  shoul- 
der and  stifle  put  well  into  the  motion.  [<nle»s  the 
shoulder  Is  put  well  intu  the  motion,  the  mere  play 
of  kneiM  yiidda  a  racking,  uncomfortable  ride. 
t'nieas  the  stlHo  is  brought  into  full  play,  the 
recovery  is  nuceKsarily  slow.  This  is  not  only  a  bad 
fault,  but  gives  one  an  idea  that  the  hormi  is  going 
one  gait  in  front,  and  another  behind.  To  uiie  a 
trade  expression,  "the  horse  is  going  in  two  pieces." 
for  a  comfortable  ride,  knee  and  hock  action  must 
be  eigiial ;  and,  given  this  eauatity,  it  cannot  be  too 
high.  With  all  this,  the  ideal  saddle  horse  must 
accomplish  one  more  thing  with  his  trot:  he  mu^t 
trot  with  all  four  legs  nnder  him— (he  trot  must 
be  gathered ;  he  must  come  up  into  the  hit,  and 
still  not  pull  an  onnce.  The  trot  of  the  ordinary 
horse  is  straggly  and  too  much  extended.  The  men 
who  hest  aceumplirth  thia  "gathering"  of  the  trot 
are  the  most  succHSuful  educators. 

The  caiiter. — This  gait,  in  its  moiiem  development, 
is  a  thing  of  beauty.  The  old  '"lope"  or  gallop, 
which  seemed  to  ride  one  down  hill,  is  relegated 
with  the  sideniwiping  pace.  The  canter  of  today  is 
high,  hounding,  elastic,  gathered  slow,  and  right 
under  the  horse.  At  this  gnil  a  home's  hocks  shouhl 
lie  right  nnder  him,  the  motion  should  come  almost 
entirely  from  the  front,  while  the  quarters  are 
sparingly  used.  The  horse  should  lead  with  either 
foot,  and  change  lend  at  command  with  such  eape 
that  no  signal  can  be  detecte<l.  His  iiu.irters  should 
be  so  thoroughly  Hexed  that  they  an-  always  turned 
toward  the  cenUtr  of  the  circle  in  which  he  may  be 
sup[HWed  to  lie  (;ant4>ring.  That  is,  when  the  horte 
is  leading  with  thu  right  foot  bis  quarters  should 
be  well  under  him.  and  in  to  the  right,   in  other 


lORSE 


HORSE 


words,  the  horse's  body  should  take  the  curve  of 
tho  tfirck  in  which  he  ia  supjiost-d  to  be  cantering. 
This  is  the  only  pcssible  way  to  jjet  a  comfortablt- 
and  pk'aainir  canter.  At  the  mme  time,  the  rider 
Hhould  gently  raiw  thw  horse,  with  nn  iilnic»s.t 
imperoeivtilile  i)rf-aflun!  on  the  Uit,  at  each  u|)war<] 
hound.  This  h  the  canter  in  writraiiint-inction  to 
the  irallop,  and  the  American  Buddie  hontc  seems 
almost  to  do  it  naturally. 

The  slow  tjait  may  be  any  one  of  three,  that  i&. 
(1)  the  ranninK-walfc ;  (2)  the  fui-trot ;  (3)  the 
atepping-pace. 

( 1 )  Tli.c  runuvi^'WtiH:. — This  i.s  the  intermediate 
de%'eloj)ment  between  the  llat-f(xit«d  walk  and  the 
rack.  The  mnttcm,  rhythm  and  recovery  arc  identi- 
cally the  same.  It  is  a  "single-foot."  just  Bri  lire  the 
flat-footed  walk  and  the  rack.  But  the  tempo  is 
proator  than  in  the  walk,  and  less  than  in  the  rack. 
It  ift  much  the  most  gracx-ful  of  the  slow  gaits,  and 
the  eusiei!t  on  both  horde  and  rider.  At  thi»  gait  a 
horse  can  cover  mile  afLer  tiule,  up  and  down  hill, 
without  (ItBtrt-siting  either  himself  or  his  rider.  A 
spwd  of  s\\  to  eight  miles  an  hour  is  not  unusual, 
and  occa-^ionally  a  "running-walker."  U  found  that 
can  do  nine  riik's  or  better.  Not  all  members  of 
this  brefd  ean  In?  taught  to  go  th*'  ninning-wjilk 
well,  and  for  that  reii.'*on  it  has  beeiii  d^'creeti  that 
either  the  fox-trot  or  the  .stepping- pace  may  be 
acce|»ted  as  a  substitute. 

(2)  Tlie  ./V-(r«/.— This  may  be  best  desipnotod 
as  a  mongrel  gait.  It  is  not  so  graceful  nor  so  easy 
as  either  the  rnnning-wallc  or  the  Btepping-pace. 
At  this  gait,  the  faurtte  goes  a  jog-trot  in  fnmt  and 
paces  behind. 

(I!)  Thf  xtfpping-pace  is  nearly  as  graceful  a  gait 
as  the  ntnning-walk.  and  when  well  done  iscjuite  us 
easy  on  the  rider  and  only  slightly  harder  on  the 
horse.  It  is  not  the  .side-swiping  pace  of  the  har- 
ness horse.  At  thi«  gait  the  horse  is  going  the 
running-walk  with  bis  fore-feet  and  pacing  with 
hin  hind-fe«t. 

The  rflj-i*.— This  gait  is  the  highest  development 
of  the  flat-footed  walk.  It  is  nothing  but  the-  flat- 
footed  walk  developed  to  high  speed.  The  rhyihra 
and  motion  are  identical,  and  the  old  name  of  "ain- 
gle-foot"  wiLS  an  aptly  descriptive  term.  The  feet 
hit  the  ground  in  succession,  one  at  a  time.  It  is 
the  flashiest  and  most  attractive  gait  a  horse  can 
go,  and  while  tiring  to  the  horse,  there  \i  no  gait 
more  delightful  to  the  rider. 

Ustt. 

As  a  Mvalrit  Aorjw.— tn  both  the  Civil  and  Span- 
ish-Amtjrican  wars  the  American  caddie  horse  haa 
b»en  put  to  the  test,  and  in  both  cases  the  testi- 
mony has  been  to  his  unsurpassed  excellence  as  a 
cavalry  horse.  His  endurance,  combined  with  his 
smooth,  fast  walk,  enable  him  to  titand  the  hard 
strains  with  the  minimum  of  fatigUL*  to  himself 
and  bis  rider.  He  is  reliable  on  the  field  and  quick 
to  adapt  himself  to  the  maneuver*. 

A*  a  c&mm(rcial  A«r*f. -The  same  qualities  that 
adai>t  the  .■American  saddle  horse  for  cavalry  pur- 
poBW  make  him  valuable  commercially  wherever 
ooTMa  are  kept  under  the  saddle.  Uis  winningei  in 


the  show-ring  attest  his  jHiptilarity.  In  the  ten 
years,  IS96-19(.I5,  at  the  national  hnnw  show  in 
Madison  Square  Garden,  New  York  City,  the  Amer- 
ican saddle  horse  won  twelve  out  of  a  total  of 
eighteen  champiti'nMhipti  open  to  all  breeds  of  horses 
that  wear  the  smldlo.  His  show-ring  winnings  aild 
to  hia  commeri^iftl  value.  Within  a  recent  year, 
the  following  sales  were  made  :  The  Moor,  a  three- 
year-old  stallion,  was  »jld  for  ?7,r)00  ;  Tattersall 
and  Mate,  a  pair  of  geldings,  sold  for  JG,000 ; 
Eugenia  and  Magna,  a  pair  of  mares,  bronght 
$6,000 ;  American  Girl,  a  four-year-old  mare,  sold 
(or  S5,000.  Prices  up  to  $1,(XK)  for  a  single  horae 
are  nut  uncommon. 

As  a  flri  iff  J  fiortr.  —The  demand  for  gaited  horse^i 
is  met  hy  memK-rs  of  this  br**d.  StuJdIe  horses  «f 
other  brecls  do  the  three  natural  gaits,  the  walk 
trot  and  canter.  The  American  saddle  horae  u  dis- 
tinctive in  that  he  can  be  readily  taught  to  go  the 
five  gaits,  the  walk,  trot,  canter,  rack  or  single-foot, 
and  the  running-walk,  fox-trot  or  slow  pace.  The 
gaits  are  largely  n  matter  of  training  with  any 
horse,  but  the  American  saddle  horse  may  lie  sHid 
to  have  an  inherent  t*'ndency  and  aptitude  t» 
master  the  gaits  more  quickly  and  perfectly  than 
honk'S  of  olliej"  breeds. 

An  a  karni'«t  Auric.— The  American  saddle  horse 
has  a\fO  a  place  as  a  light  harness  horse,  as  is  indica- 
ted by  the  following  examples  :  Emily  STiS,  World's 
Fair  Champion  at  Chicago  in  1893,  has  frequently 
gone  a  mile  in  2;3ri  to  2:50.  Hitched  double  with 
Dorothy  1210  (winner  of  seventy-two  blue  ribbons 
in  succes-sion),  the  pair  have  driven  a  mile  in  2:52. 
Rex  Arbuckle  1467.  champion  light  harness  horse 
at  the  Kentucky  .^tate  Fair  in  llKKi,  has  driven  a 
mile  many  times  in  bcttiT  than  a  "forty"  gait. 
This  same  stallion  ha.-*  won  priice  in  many  five- 
gaited  rings.  Among  others,  John  Dillard  K.  S. 
should  be  mentioned  as  a  notable  sire  of  the  dams 
of  light  harness  racers. 

A»  a  kuntt-r.  -  iiiiny  of  these  American  saddle 
horses  have  been  e<Iucated  as  hunters.  A  notable 
example  was  Copeland  1153.  whose  name  was 
changed  to  I'isgah.  This  horee  won  many  ribboaa 
in  hunter  rings. 

Orf/arniaiiiin*  and  reeorde. 

The  organisation  devoted  to  the  interests  of  this 
breed  is  the  American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  .\8SO- 
ciation,  with  headquarters  at  Loui.>(ville,  Kentacky. 
When  this  organisation  was  first  effected,  in  1891, 
it  had  the  name  National  Saddle  Horse  Itrcederv* 
Association.  The  change  was  made  to  the  present 
name  in  18{K>.  The  Association  has  published  six 
volumi^  of  its  register,  containing  6,327  horses. 
It  has  on  its  files  at  the  present  time  additional 
registrations  sufficient  to  bring  the  total  number  of 
registereil  animals  up  to  a  little  more  than  8,500. 
At  this  writing,  the  Association  is  engaged  in  a 
revision  of  its  reffister. 

Literalu.T(. 

Literature  relating  to  the  training  of  horsea,  that 
may  be  of  interest,  is  cited  on  page  424.  [For 
further  references,  see  pajie  41G.] 


HORSE 


HORSE 


49a 


Shire  Horu.  Pigs.  41.  488,  489. 

By  John  A.  Oai?. 

The  Shire  horse  i«  recognized  aa  one  of  the  lead- 
int;  breeds  of  draft  horsea.  Thu  best  type  is  spt^cially 
adapt4>d  Tor  tirwdinK  thu  buaviuat  cla«H  of  draft 
horses,  suited  fur  slow  work,  when  weij^ht  and 
gtrength  are  yrmti  essentials.  For  hauling  large 
luadii  on  lurrtiu  Lhrongh  crowded  city  streetit, 
without  JLTking  but  steadily  prugresfting,  weight 
and  strength  are  the  main  factora,  and  it  is  hecause 
of  the  poRsi-saion  of  tht^i^e  qunlitieR  th&c  the  Shire- 
mnititainH  itR  pn^^ition  lui  a  draft  liitr»e.  A  mudium- 
Weight  hunn;  maysucci'ed  in  iiulUng  mort-  tlian  one 
of  hb-avior  weight  if  per- 
mitted to  rush  at  it ;  hut  to 
start  a  load  steadily  and  keep 
vv  it    moving  alowly,    and   re- 

peating thiH    frequently,  m 
must    ho  dime   on   crowded 


L 


Flk.  MS.    Pint  VCli«  seed  SUlrt  sUllidB.     AmxirtM*  Dnko. 
lDt»rDBtl<inii1  Llvr  4t(xk  KipoKiiloo.  190(. 

ttreetj,  weight  muat  supplement  strength.  Herein 
lies  the  reason  for  the  popularity  fif  the  Shire  for 
drayage  parposes  in  England,  where  it  originatwl. 

Dexriplioit. 

Id  general  characters,  this  breed  is  very  like  the 
Clydesdale,  heing,  perhaps  ^  little  shorter  in  the 
legs,  and  slightly  larger.  The  common  colora  are 
bay,  brown  or  black,  with  white  markings  on  the 
face  and  on  the  let^  helow  the  knees  and  hocks. 
Otiier  colors  are  fonnd  but  are  not  common.  In 
oaformation.the  Shire  is  generally  low,  broad  and 
•tout,  being  heavy  in  build  and  slow  in  ntovement. 
Th«  ahoulder  is  likely  to  bo  too  straight,  making 
the  action  in  front  short  and  stilt<*d,  although  it  is 
generally  considered  that  more  power  in  the  collar 
comnensatefi  for  the  deficiency  in  action.  The  body 
of  the  typical  Shire  is  of  large  girth,  deep  and 
strongly  coupled,  with  broad  back.  Tho  quarters 
arebtravilymu&cled  in  the  best  type.  Owing  to  their 
weight,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  some  of  them  are 
Bubj^t  to  the  criticism  of  being  deficient  in  quality 


and  too  ulugginh  in  temperament.  In  general,  they 
may  be  considered  to  be  of  heavier  weight  than  the 
Clydeodale,  although  the  difference  is  not  likely  to 
be  great  between  representative  animala,  as  the 
following  weights  and  measurements  of  two  prize- 
winners will  inJicate:  Vulcan  (-11-15),  a  yhire 
atalUoQ  that  was  champion  at  the  London  Shire 
Show,  in  1889  and  1801,  when  eight  years  old 
weighed  2,240  pounds  in  show  condition;  height, 
17  hands;  girth.  8  feet  7  inches;  around  fore-arm, 
2  feet  7  inches ;  around  Imine  )x;low  knee,  12  inches. 
Plaahwood  (360-1).  a  Clydesdale  stallion  that  was 
Grat  at  the  Glasgow  Sjiring  Stallion  Show,  in  the 
sama  years  and  munth-s  that  Vulcan  was  first-prise 
stallion  at  the  Ixindon  show,  and  at  thm  game  age 
(eight  yearn),  weighed  ^240  pounds;  height,  17 
hands ;  girth,  d  feet ;  aronnd  fore-ann,  20  inches  ; 
around  bone  below  knee,  11  inches;  above  hock, 
21^  inches;  and  below  hock,  12}  inches.  In  the 
bej^t  types  the  legs  are  strong,  bone  flat  with  a 
"  feather"  of  fine  hair  va  the  rear  of  the  cannons, 
below  the  kniHW  and  hocks.  Tho  feet  ar«  large  and 
somewhat  flatter  at  the  heel  than  is  desired. 

HiMory. 

The  Shire  is  considered  to  bo  descended  from  the 
old  war  horse  of  Great  Britain  and  has  been 
referred  to  as  the  War  horse  and  the  Great  horse 
in  Great  Hritain.  It  is  reported  of  Cawar,  that 
when  he  invatleil  Great  Britain,  55  B.  C,  he  was 
imprejwpd  with  the  excellence  of  the  horses  that 
WL-re  aUacIied  to  the  war  chariots  of  the  Britons. 
Thi."  breed  attained  its  greatest  development  in  the 
lowlands  of  England,  in  Lincolnshire  and  Cam- 
bridgeshire especially.  Other  nearby  counties  con- 
tributed more  or  less  to  the  development  of  the 
breed.  In  early  times,  heavy  active  horses  were  in 
givatest  demand  for  war  imrpiutes,  and  this  led  to 
the  importation  of  heavy  horses  from  Flanders  and 
Normandy.  Large  importations  of  the  heavy  Klack 
horaes  of  Flanders  were  made  as  varly  as  the 
eleventh  century,  and  in  snccwding  years  in  the 
reigns  of  King  John,  Edward  II,  and  Henry  VIII, 
One  of  tho  early  improvers  of  the  Shire  was  Robert 
Bakewell,  who  introdnced  blood  of  imported  Hol- 
land mnrps  in  hw  breeding  efforta.  The  (!e%'elop- 
mcnt  of  the  breed  received  much  impetus  in  1878, 
when  the  English  Cart  Horse  Society  was  formed. 
The  name  of  the  Hocioty  was  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  Shire  was  known  primarily  as  a  cart  horse. 

The  history  of  the  Shire  shows  a  slow  but  per- 
sistent development  of  an  improved  type  through  a 
great  space  of  time.  The  improvement  of  acticm 
and  qaality  have  received  most  attention  from  tlw 
breeders,  and  the  results,  as  shown  in  a  moden 
Shire,  have  been  marked. 

In  .America.— The  progress  of  the  Shire  in 
America  has  been  aabstantial  but  yet  not  so  rapid 
as  might  be  expected,  considering  the  decided 
merits  of  the  brewi.  This,  in  a  moasore,  has  resulted 
from  the  dislike  of  the  American  trade  for  hairy- 
legged  boraw  deficient  in  quality.  It  seems  that 
hairy  legs  are  more  or  less  characteristic  of  all 
heavy  breeds  o(  horses  reared  in  low  countries,  and 
they  have  been  a  breed  characteristic  of  the  Shire 


494 


HORSE 


since  its  inception.  At  a  very  early  time  the  hair 
was  very  nhundniit,  and  the  wriUir  has  rwh  some 
of  the  old-timu  Shires  with  even  the  Iwk  of  hair 
'  ([rowing  from  the  region  of  the  Itnee  in  front,  and 
otiior  toL'kM  growing  fnim  neiir  thi>  pmnt  of  the 
hock.  C^arseneaa  and  unuHiial  pr<ifuni«n  of  hatr 
iniiicate  too  much  groBSriesB  of  yrgiinitution, 
althniigh  a  fine  feather  ftnishoj)  a  hvavy-bodted 
horse  at  the  ground  in  a  way  that  i«  u-sually  pleas- 
ing to  the  eye.  The  first  KhirL-a  to  come  to  America 
showed  th«se  chanicteristics  to  an  extreme  de;n*e, 
and  the  pa'judfc'e  of  the  American  trade  hn$  not  in 
any  degrw-  abated  with  time.  The  first  importation 
to  roach  America  waa  in  !}:<.%,  and  was  made  to 
London,  Ontario.  Canada.  The  first  yhires  to  come 
to  the  United  States  wer«iinporl*'d  in  IHnU,  and 
taken  tn  Aunira,  III.  The  importations  since 
then  have  been  m*wtly  into  the  states  of  Uli- 
noia  jird  Iowa,  and  ;it  no  time  have  heen 
mim*;roui),  except,  perhaps,  between  1880  and 
1890. 

Distribution. 

Thig  breed  enjoys  mach  prominence  in  Eng- 
land, as  indicatwl  by  its  prominence  in  horse 
8how9,  FVom  there  it  has  spread  into  most 
Other  English-speaking  countries.  Germany, 
Anstralia  and  Ar£;entina  have  made  importa- 
tions. In  America,  it  is  moat  popolar  in  the 
north-central  state.''. 

Um. 

For  rfrtyi.  — Like  the  Clydwdalft,  the  Shire 
is  a  heavy  draft  horao,  slow-moving  but  suro 
an<t  itteady,  and  makes  no  clainia  for  other 
uses,  except  for  crossing  on  native  draft  stock 
and  for  improving  other  breeds  with  an  injec- 
tion of  its  blood. 

For  erfw^ n^.  — The  use  of  the  Shire  has  been  an 
important  factor  in  improving  our  horse  Rtock  for 
draft  purposes,  as  attested  by  the  extent  to  which 
the  best  drafters  of  our  modern  markets  have  Shire 
blood  on  the  maternal  aide.  The  Shiru  ia  creditwl 
with  having  produced  the  highest-priced  gelding 
that  has  beon  sold  by  auction  on  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket, and  many  more  of  the  best  have  traced  to  Shire 
blood  on  the  aide  of  their  dams.  Dr.  Alexander  is 
authority  for  the  statwment  that  a  gradfl  Shire 
gelding,  weighing  2.210  pounds,  sold  for  $i>SO  on 
the  Chicago  market  in  1004.  which  is  the  highest 

Srice  paid  on  that  market  that  has  been  reported, 
'nr  breeding  stwik  have  surely  not  suffered 
because  of  the  use  of  Shire  hhxKl.  and  there  is  a 
feeling  that  if  the  Shire  had  been  more  lil»enilly 
us^i  our  breeding  mares  woiild  mure  surely  pro- 
duce the  higheat-selliiig  cla.si*  of  draflers.  It 
remains  to  be  said  that  the  use  of  the  Shire  in  our 
draft-brei-ding  to  such  a  limited  extent  iiLay  \w 
dne  in  a  mea^^ure  to  the  fact  that  the  source  of 
supply  for  imporl-ltion  is  not  so  large  as  that  of 
some  of  the  other  continental  breeds  ;  and  further- 
more, it  is  a  ditlieult  matt^ir  to  induce  the  home- 
bn-iiiers  to  part  with  their  \'ery  best  type*,  so 
ranch  desired  in  thoir  native  land  for  brewling 
purposes. 


Organizatirmji  an<f  rtenrtln. 

The  first  orgnnrzHtinn  to  care  for  the  interesta 
of  this  brceil  in  En^tand  wiih  the  English  Cart 
Hume  Society,  urganizi'*!  in  187H.  Si.K  years  later 
it  changed  its  name  to  the  Shire  Horse  Society. 
lb  undertook  the  publication  of  a  studbook,  of 
which  twenty-nine  voiumea  have  appearnd.  The 
American  Shire  Horse  Association,  with  headquar- 
ters at  Wenona,  111.,  was  established  In  1885. 

Liierature. 

•  Sir  Walter  Gilbey,  The 
Great  Horse  :  the  Shire,  Lon- 
don  (1899);  same.  The  Old 


jm 


[^: 


W- 


Pis.  «9.    A  fUan  OM. 


English  War  Horse.  London  (1888).  [For  further 
references,  see  page  41fi.] 

Suffolk  or  Suffolk  Punch  Horse.   Figa.  490.  491. 

By  John  A.  Craig. 

This  breed  of  draft  horses  has  not  beconie  so 
widely  known  as  other  European  broods,  such  as 
the  Clydesdale  or  Percheron.  It  cannot  be  said  to 
he  as  |)op(ilar  as  either  of  these  two  breeds,  yet  it 
has  many  ardent  admirerx.  It  is  bred  in  greatest 
numbers  in  Its  native  district  of  Suffolk  county,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  England.  It  gets  its  name  from 
the  county  and  from  the  round,  full-made  type  of 
body  that  characterizes  the  breed. 

Dejicription. 

The  Snffnlk  is  about  sixteen  and  one-half  hands 
high,  and  weighs  about  two  thousand  pouttd.>i.  l^e 
color  is  exceptionally  uiiifnrm.  and  it  is  gener- 
ally some  shiide  of  chestnut,  lirewiurs  have  long 
adhered  closely  to  a  chestnut  c*»lur.  In  general 
type,  it  is  a  low-set,  short-logged,  deep-hodted, 
muscular  horse,  with  clean  bone  and  durable  feet. 
The  feet  were  once  much  criticised  becaoae  nf  their 
flatness  and  brittle np.'W,  b*;t  have  nnderemie  grent 
improvement  in  these  respects.  The  faeaS  is  clean- 


HORSE 


HORSS 


495 


cut,  with  Rmall  ear,  full  forcheail,  and  a  morn  or 
\em  Kaman  ncwc  The  neck  i»  full,  with  a  very 
strong  ereet,  as  a  rulo,  in  i^tallioBs.  Too  much 
tfaickneos  in  the  throat-latch  8nnietlm4>j«  re^iiltis  frnm 
undue  coarseneiui  of  the  nnnk.  The  Hhtmhli-r  shnws 
good  leagth  and  is  uf  tru4i  (tmft  form,  not  b(<in^ 
too  oliliqae.  Tht;  choKt  is  daep.  wiJe  nnd  inoiililecj 
with  muacle.  The  body  or  barrt'^1,  ony  uf  thi;  lnnd- 
ing  poittte  of  merit  in  the  i^uftolk,  is  deep,  round- 
ribbed,  and  specially  well  let  down  on  the  hind 
flank.  This  undoubtedly  contribntes  tn  the  strength 
of  the  aHflertioD  that  it  is  an  easy  keeper,  and 
pr>HseKBed  of  onuHtial  endurance.  The  lt*fpi,  devoid 
of  lonjj;  fiair,  are  clean-cut,  cunly  and  well  mUKiOed 
at  the  armc  am!  thit;hs.  Thu  depruH  to  which  the 
SuiTolk  Is  intt;acled  in  the  hindHjuiirters,  and  especi- 
ally in  the  lowtir  thifihs,  is  one  of  the  Bpeeial  fea- 
tures of  the  br6i>d.  Pulling  contests  at  an  early 
time  were  common  among  the  adherents  of  the 
hreeil,  and  it  is  said  that  the  ultimate  mitcome  nt 
these,  has  Iwen  tii  deveh>p  the  muselRS  (if  the  thigh 
and  the  quarter  much  beyond  what  is  commimiy 
otnterved  in  the  representativea  of  the  draft  breeds. 
Tha  Seeming  lightness  of  limb,  compared  with  the 
depth  and  weight  of  body,  and  fullness  of  neck,  has, 
in  many  caws,  given  the  Suffolk  an  appearance  of 
being  greatly  lacking  in  the  proper  proportion  nf 
BUch  parts.  It  is  a  free  mover,  and  thiH,  with  its 
somewhat  lighter  weight,  easy  keeping  and  docile 
dispositirin,  iKicuIiarly  adapts  it  for  farm  work, 
expreiw-wagon  work  and  drayage  purposes,  wht5re 
a  certain  amount  of  weight  may  be  sacrificed  for 
activity  and  durability.  Individually  and,  to  a 
remarkable  degree,  collectively,  the  Suffolk  is  a 
BDperior  model  of  the  draft  horse. 

The  SofTolk  can  trace  itia  history  back  to  the 
dawning  of  the  eighU»enth  century,  and  as  early  as 
1851  It  carried  off  most  of  the  prizes  for  draft 
horaes  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  .Show,  at 
Windsor.  At  that  time  it  had  a  distinct  lead  over 
other  British  draft  breeds,  hut  it  seemed  to  be 
content  with  home  popularity.  Volume  one  of  the 
Saffolk  Studbook  Is  an  exc^'ptiiinally  eliibiirate  and 
ist«r«eting  compilution  of  the  early  history  of  the 


ing  in  Sussex.  Hia  blomi  has  lieen  carefully  prs- 
survud,  and  only  horKett  that  are  traceable  t"  him 
are  eligible  forreKistratiou  in  the  Suffolk  Studbuofc. 
Outside  blood  was  introduced  in  an  effort  to  im- 


Tig.  49D.    Cbamploa  Snlfiitk  >tiUUOD.    Suitbniiru  Cmmt  {3D'). 

brwd  and  should  be  consulted.  Mention  shoold  be 
made  here,  however,  of  the  so-called  "  foondatton  " 
borne  of  the  breed  -  the  Crisp  horse,  foitled  in 
1768.  snd  owned  by  a  man  of  that  name  resid- 


L>s. 


f-*s';;'-\v*>i* 


PIb.  491.     SuAotk  tDMtt-     N»'-1ar(4ITTI. 

prove  thn  .Suffolk,  but  it  had  little  effect.  Docility, 
prolifii^acy  and  length  of  life  characterise  this 
brewi.  These  horses  havt>  lK*n  much  improve<l  in 
the  last  thirty  yearn. 

tn  ./Iffimrti.— Although  it  was  firet  imported  to 
the  United  States  in  1^,  by  Powell  Brothers,  of 
Pennsylvania,  yet  the  progrcTSw  of  the  breed  does 
nut  seem  to  be  at  all  commensurate  with  its  merit. 
The  importations  have  been  very  slow  and  very 
small.  In  1S88,  Peter  Hopley  &  Co.,  of  Iowa,  and 
Galbraith  Brothers,  of  Wisconsin,  made  importa- 
tions, and  these  parties  have  since  been  the  It^ading 
exponents  of  the  breed  in  this  country.  A  large 
importation  is  reported  as  having  been  made  in 
1903.  Some  other  importations  have  been  made 
since. 

Dittrihution. 

This  breed  has  foand  favor  in  a  number  of  coun- 
tries aside  from  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 
is  represent^  in  .Spain,  France,  Germany,  Austria. 
Russia  and  Sweden  on  the  continent,  Australia, 
South  and  North  ,\frica.  New  Zealand,  Argentine 
Republic  and  other  countries ;  and  it  has  t)een  the 
self-evident  merit  of  the  bree*l  that  has  l>een  the 
cause  of  this  wide  distribution.  The  breed  has 
suffered,  in  America,  particnlarlj.  because  of  the 
need  of  more  freely  distributed  information  regard- 
ing its  good  qualitie-s. 

I'tts. 

For  (ir(}jl.—'Th&  Suifolk  ranks  well  as  a  medium 
draft  horn*  because  of  its  free  action  and  endur- 
ance. As  an  agricnltural  horse  and  as  an  express- 
wagon  horse,  the  Saffolk  grade  is  superior,  while 
those  individuals  that  meet  the  requirements  as  to 
weight  can  hardly  bo  improved  for  the  heavier 
draft  purposes. 

For  cpofTjinjj.  — The  popularity  of  the  Suffolk  in 
thus  country  has  been  held  in  check  by  the  fact 
that  it  does  not  make  m  heavy  a  cross  on  the 
tighter  native  mares  as  the  weightier  representa- 
ti\-&sof  the  other  draft  breeds.  Against  this  is  the 
counterclaim  that  it  is  very  desirable  for  crossing 
on  range  mares,  fur  the  well-known  even  temper 


496 


HORSE 


HORSE 


and  docility  of  the  Suffolk  is  a  valianble  attribute 
to  )^aft  un  to  Kuch  pnront  rstock. 

Onianizationt  and  rtettMt. 

Thu  Suifulk  Stittlbook  Society  is  the  publisher  of 
the  Btudbook  fur  thf  brued  in  England.  Tim  first 
vohmo  was  pjblLshfd  in  1880  ;  and  fiftuen  volumta 
have  been  iasDc^i  ti>  date.  The  breed  is  repriisonted 
on  this  continent  by  the  American  Suffolk  Hnrse 
Aibioi'iakitm,  with  htaui quarters  at  JanesviUe,  Wis- 
cojmin.  The  firHt  vulutciH  uf  tbt^  studliiiok  »f  tliEs 
lalt«r  association  was  published  in  1907. 

Liieratu  rr . 

For  references,  see  page  416. 

Thoroughbred  Horse.   Pigs.  492-494. 

By  Curl   W.  Can. 

The  term  Thorn  ugh  bred,  in  iU  correct  applica- 
tiun,  ]&  restrictud  to  deaiKnaU'  the  Knjflish  race 
horso  or  runner,  onty.  The  iticorroct  uae  of  thi.' 
tenn,  as  synonymous  with  purc-brod,  is  80  common 
aa  to  lead  to  much  confnaion  and  miaunderstandinR. 
A  "thorouKhbrr:'d"  trotter  would  be  an  anomaly 
and  a  "thorou^^hbrwl"  Percherun  im})a>tH,ibte.  When 
it  i»  intundud  to  iiidieatf;  the  total  abKenue  uf  alien 
blood,  purv-brud  is  the  proper  adjective.  Thorough- 
bred is  a  noan. 

There  \s  no  one  iK'st  brcL'd  of  hora.ei>,  but  because 
of  a  more  Reneml  w^aptability  to  a  widi-r  range  of 
conditions  and  a  conaetiuent  broader  usefulness,  or 
as  marking  .some  Hpecial  achievement  in  the  breed- 
ing art,  we  may  jutitly  a^tsign  to  one  breed  more 
importance  than  to  othiTS.  In  conaideration  of  the 
grcutor  number  of  view  [winte  from  which  the 
Thoroughbred  takt-a  precedence  over  other  breeds, 
one  eeems  joetilled  in  proclaiming  it  the  most 
imfmrtant  of  all  breeds  of  horses.  Its  right  to 
superiority  may  he  sustained  on  the  baaJs  of  the 
following  fiu!t8 :  It  waa  the  firKt  breed  improved 
and  the  one  on  which  the  principles  of  breeding 
have  been  most  systematically  practised  ;  barring 
the  Oriental,  from  which  the  Thorooghbred  Is 
derived,  his  is  the  purest  lineage  possessed  by  any 
breed,  and  for  it  the  tirat  sUidbook  for  the  rt<iord- 
ing  of  pedigrees  was  estalilished ;  Thoroughbred 
blood  has  been  most  freely  drawn  on  in  the  im- 
provement at  other  breeds  and  types— in  fact,  there 
\i  scarcely  a  harness  or  saddle  horse  living  today 
that  does  not  owe  it»  mi'-rh  in  a  large  measure 
to  the  Thoroughbred  crosses  in  ttrt  ancestry ;  the 
Thoroughbred  has  been  a  moat  important  means  of 
indulging  a  love  of  sport  on  the  turf  and  in  the 
field  for  three  centuries. 

DaeriptMJi. 

The  Thoroughbred  conforms,  in  fact,  ia  the  truest 
exponent  of  the  long,  lithe,  rangy,  deep,  narrow, 
angular  type  conaist^^nt  with  speed,  and  which  is  in 
BDch  striking  contrast  to  the  low,  broad,  compact, 
and  ma<*aive  form  significant  of  power  in  the  draft 
horse.  When  it  ia  burne  in  mind  that  locomotion  is 
accomplished  by  the  alternate  flexion  and  extension 
of  the  articulations  in  the  limbs;  that  the  propul* 


sinn  of  the  mass  is  by  means  of  the  moecular  power 
of  the  hind-tjuartera,  while  the  weight  is  sastained 
cihiefly  by  ths  Mupiiortive  actiitn  of  the  foRvlimbs  ; 
that  an  elimgaU'ii,  cunly  munclu  has  a  greater  de- 
gree of  contractility  and  consuijaently  t«nds  toward 
A  grtatLT  length  of  stride  and  more  rapidity  of 
movement  than  the  short,  thick,  balky  muscle 
essential  to  power  rather  than  piice,  tho  speed 
type  which  the  Thornughbred  represents  is  better 
understood.  It  is  p«K»ihle,  howeTOf,  to  enumerate 
certain  characters  that  are  more  particularly  and 
distinctly  Thoroughbred  than  this  tyiw,  which  ia 
more  or  less  eomnion  to  all  apeed  horaes.  Thcie 
characters  are  derivL-d  in  part  from  the  Oriental 
progenitors,  while  some  may  be  regarded  as  strictly 
Thoroughbred  in  their  origin.  Moat  characteristic 
are  the  extreme  refinement  and  clear  definition  of 
features,  the  small  proporticne<l  head  and  ear.  the 
straight  face  line,  the  neut  throttle,  sloping  shoul- 
ders, sh.irp  witherrt,  muscular  cjuarters,  and  clean, 
hard.  Jlat  bone.  These  are  associated  with  a  low, 
pointing,  ctose-to-tbe-ground  way  of  going,  which 
insures  the  greatest  stride  with  tho  least  effort. 
Then,  in  addition  to  a  racy  form,  the  Thorough- 
bred has  a  racy  tem|)erament.  possiessing  a  moet 
highly  organized  nervous  system.  The  character- 
istic "  bm-k  knees  "  are  all  tiw  commonly  noticeable 
in  the  Thoroughbred  from  the  galioping  yearling 
to  the  seasoned  campaigner.  Another  objectionable 
feature  fretincntly  noticed  in  tho  breed  is  the  ten- 
dency towards  woedinett,  as  it  is  t<-rmed,  i.  e.,  long 
legs  and  light  body.  The  prevailing  colors  are  bay, 
brown,  and  chestnut,  with  one  or  more  white  mark- 
ings. The  most  important  miwlilication  in  tj-po 
daring  tbe  development  of  the  Thoroughbred  is  an 
increase  in  stature,  which  Sir  Walter  Gilbey  esti- 
mates to  have  been  one  hand  two  and  one-half 
inches  from  the  year  1700  to  the  year  1900,  the 
average  height  of  the  modern  Thoroughbred  being 
fifteen  hands,  two  and  one-hal  f  inches.  The  averacft 
weight  may  lie  given  as  about  one  thousuid 
pounds. 

A  detailed  description  of  the  Thoroughbred  fol- 
lows :— Weight,  900-1,050;  height,  fifteen  to  six- 
teen hands;  color,  bay.  brown  or  chestnut,  with 
more  or  less  white  in  the  face  or  on  limbs ;  a  very 
"breedy"  head,  wiih  sharply  defined  features,  a 
straight  face  line,  trim  muzzle,  larpe  nostril,  full, 
clear,  prominent  eye,  broad  forehead,  neat  ear  and 
clean-cut  throttle;  neck  long  and  rather  straight, 
giving  a  moderately  low  carriage  of  the  bead ; 
shoulders  sloping  and  well  finwhed  at  the  withers  ; 
strong  back,  loin  and  coupling,  altogether  making 
a  short  top-line  compared  to  the  length  of  th« 
under-line.  although  having  length  sufficient  to 
insure  freedom  of  stride  ;  a  very  iifoji  fore-rib  and 
chest,  lung  capacity  being  secured  in  this  way 
rather  than  by  thickness  and  fullneaa  of  cbest ; 
croup  long  and  a  bit  straight ;  deep,  full,  muscular 
quarters  and  gaskins ;  clean,  smooth  joints;  a 
broad,  Hat.  bony  leg  of  more  qaality  than  sub* 
stance ;  oblique  pasterns  and  a  rather  small  foot  of 
demte  horn.  A  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair  with  & 
total  abKencu  of  any  feather,  and  a  soft,  delk»ttt 
skin  with  the  superficial  blDod-vessels  well  marked, 


HORSE 


complete   a  general    appearance   of  quality  and 

rt^finement. 

Hutory. 

A  knuwiedfce  of  the  early  h(»r»e  history  "f  Great 
Britain  is  necenaary  for  a  comiilyte  undenstaniling 
wf  thf  ortKin  of  thu  Thorouahbrt-d.  Thri*  thiiijiPi 
ari^  invulvL-d  :  the  native  foundation  sti)ck,  the  top 
crosae^  of  foreign  hlond  on  this -base,  an<]  the  ideal 
in  the  minds  of  the  hreeders.  It  In  interesting  to 
note  first,  that  there  nre  no  indications  of  any 
hornen  having  bc-en  inilignnouH  to  Britain,  although 
the  most  rucent  n'warclitis  reporU"'!  by  Ridgeway 
inJicatw  that  hnrwfl  of  thy  north  African  typy 
Were  in  iri-land  as  early  as  the  sixth  [-entury.  The 
h«r&e.f  with  which  Britain  was  first  stocked  are 
generally  held  to  have  been  derived  from  the  pony 
typea  native  to  northern  Europe,  and  cnnscjucntly 
were  small  in  slatiin'.  We  know  that  the  first 
effortfl  at  improvement  were  in  the  way  of 
increajfina  the  »i/t'.  The  Norwmen  were  the  first 
to  introduce  the  war  hi)rsL>.  and  the  bloiHl  of  Nor- 
mandy and  Flandent  vaa  thereafter  drawn  on  in 
an  attempt  to  proiiuco  horaes  of  a  guHicient  size 
and  strength  to  carry  an  armored  knight.  Among 
other  edipls  enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, 
wiu)  one  limiting  the  ^.izc  of  sires  to  be  used  to  not 
less  than  fourteen  hands. 

The  horse  aa  a  feature  in  the  sports  of  the  timea 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth 
centary,  when  races  of  a  primitive  character  and 
mounted  sports  were  condocted  at  Smithtield,  a«  a 
recreation  for  the  people.  The  firat  race  reported 
was  run  between  Hiehard  II  and  the  Karl  of 
Arundel  in  1377.  Henry  VIII  was  the  first  king 
who  ran  horses  fir  his  own  amusement.  In  1580, 
the  horsea  of  (Ireat  Britain  were  claswifted  by 
Thomas  Ulandeville  aa  followi* :  "a  breed  »(  Great 
Horses  m«et«  for  warre  and  to  serve  in  the  Geld," 
"ambling  horacit  of  a  meaneittritnre  for  to  journey 
and  travel  by  the  waie,"  "a  rac*  of  swift  runners 
to  run  for  wagers  or  to  gallop  the  buek  and  a 
breed  only  for  drafles  or  iitsnlen."  It  in  ini[H)rtant 
to  note  that  at  this  early  time  horses  were  exten- 
sively iwed  for  racing  and  hunting.  Tliey  were 
undoubtedly  the  dei^cendanti)  of  the  llarW  and 
TurVa,  which  are  known  to  have  bt-en  in  On-iit 
Britain  at  an  early  date,  the  Arab  not  having  Imen 
introduced  until  ICAd.  Racing  increased  in  popu- 
larity under  Jamt.<s  I,  who  imported  thu  limt  .Ara- 
bian forthopur)K>iw  of  breeding  horsea  of  Kreater 
spee<l.  After  the  example  of  James  I,  other  and 
fre)U«>nt  importations  of  Arabians,  Barlw,  and 
Turku  were  made  from  the  Orient  and  Spain.  By 
the  time  of  CharW  1,  the  wntlment  in  favor  of 
racing  had  become  so  ulrong  that  murh  coni^em 
was  foil  for  the  defense  of  th«  kingdom,  a«  ai> 
little  attention  was  then  beinf;  paid  to  the 
production  of  the  (Jroat  or  War  hoi-w?. 

Thrt  real  era  of  the  Thornughiired  is  usually 
dated  from  the  time  of  Charles  II  (H)G0-l*'>8:i). 
He  not  only  took  an  active  interest  in  racing,  hi;t 
import4?d  dirv<'t  from  th>i>  Ijevartt,  His  mt)««l  nota- 
ble importation  waa  of  the  liarb  mares,  rommonly 
known  as  the  King's  or  Royal  mariut,  which  aru 

C!t2 


regarded  by  somo  authorities  aa  the  foundation 
dams  of  the  true  blood  horse.  Others,  however, 
tloubt  the  accuracy  of  thu3  limiting  the  base  of 
the  ItreexJ. 

The  three  most  important  Oriental  sires  in  tho 
foundation  of  ihe  Thoroughbred  were  the  Darley 
Arabian,  now  known  to  have  been  a  pure -bred 
Anaaeh,  imported  in  171X1;  the  Byerly  Turk, 
importe*J  in  1689 ;  and  the  (lodolphin  Barb, 
brought  in  1724  from  Paris,  where  he  was  found 
hauling  a  water-cart,  having  been  discarded,  no 
doulit,  by  some  member  of  the  royal  family  to 
whum  he  had  been  presented.  Eclipse,  the  greatest 
horse  of  his  kind,  is  a  direct  descendant  four  ^n- 
erations   removed   from  the  Darley   Arabian,  as 


Pis.  492.    Tlu»ini£libTE>il  Biie.  Buustar.  Wluuvr  of  Brooklni 
haiHllcNii.  \m>. 

were  also  Blaze,  three  generations  removed,  the 
foundation  Hackney  sire,  and  lmiw>rted  Mewenger. 
six  gttntirations  removed,  the  foundation  American 
trotter  sire.  From  the  Byerly  Turk  comes  King 
Herod,  another  noted  aire,  while  .Mat^:hem,  a  great 
race  horse  and  successful  sire,  was  a  grandson  of 
the  Godnjphin  Barb.  Furthermore,  Justin  Morgan, 
who  shares  honors  with  Imp.  Metwenger,  alrt-aily 
referred  to  as  a  foundation  Ameri<;an  sire,  is  said  to 
be  a  direct  descendant  of  GiMlulphin  Barb.  It  is 
Mid  that  American  Thoroujihhreds.  as  a  rule,  are 
]pj«  rem^ite  from  their  Oriental  ancvstry  than  the 
avt-ragi-  Engljj*h  horse,  and  that  they  follow  more 
clost^ly  thfir  type. 

Thoronghbreds  have  been  bred  for  nearly  threo 
centuries  under  a  mi>»t  rigid  system  of  selection, 
turf  performance  being  the  standard.  The  high  de- 
gree of  ecpiinc  perfection  exem[dilie<I  by  the  l*st 
Thoronghlinwl  individuals,  aj*  well  as  the  prominence 
to  which  the  breitl  haK  attained,  can  be  attributed 
in  large  iiart.  no  dniibt,  to  the  fact  that  the  destiny 
of  tlie  Thuri'U};hbn-d  has  been  cast  with  men  who 
ha<i  unlimited  ri^ourees  on  which  to  draw.  The 
Thoroughbred  has  been  given  every  chance,  but  he 
has  been  tried  out  in  must  severe  and  diverse 
ways,  and  bus  triumphed. 

Time  and  altereal  customs  have  wrought  impor- 
tant ehanges  in  the  system  undt-r  which  ttieaa 
horses  are  raced,  with  some  corresponding  modifi- 


498 


HORSE 


BORSB 


catkn  ID  lypi.  VChnrmti,  op  to  1830  these  raceD 
\iiui  Iwflti  in  four-mile  heatft,  the  costom  now  ia  to 
run  dashefl,  carry  lesA  weie^it,  and  start  a^  two- 
yuar-olclK,  a  cuKtom,  which,  tike  the  horKu,  hatt  come 
to  u»  from  EnRlanJ.  Th*  wisdom  of  thf  ijrfsunt 
coare«  is  doabtc-d  by  somo  who  hold  the  f^taniina 


'^:^l 


j'K- 


V-T 


Flf.  *K.    Ruater  typt.    Pari-broil  hvnv.    Chkppl*  Lw. 

and  weight-carrying  ability  of  the  uld  fonr-milcrB 
in  higher  ttftftem  than  th*-  great  flights  oi  extreme 
FjHftNi  for  a  Tkw  furl«ngH,  Hh<iwn  liy  mir  modern 
si^rintere.  Cytillictinn  u(»ini(in8  arK  t-xpreHsed,  tim, 
with  regard  to  tht?  [jrobability  of  thw*!  twantieth- 
centnry  horaes  buing  capable  of  lowering  tliH  difi- 
tance-records  of  a  century  ago.  Those  who  know, 
however,  are  reluctant  tf>  a<!mit  that  the  Thorongh- 
bred  of  UKlay  in  a  degenfirati?  in  any  Bense,  and,  in 
support  of  their  view,  they  maintain  that  in  olden 
tim«*H  tht!  horsea  ran  but  a  few  races  a  ypar,  with 
no  handicaps,  and  thoy  were  especially  trained  for 
each  race-.  Againut  thia,  the  modern  horse  h  crBditwi 
with  being  kept  in  racing  form  nine  months  in  tliL* 
year,  running  m^ny  racoa  in  a  Hingle  season,  and 
these  closely  contejited  hecrjiiiKe  of  the  number  of 
ccmtet^tantx  and  the  method  of  adjusting  handicaps. 

The  three  cluattjc  evenU  run  in  Kngland  are  the 
Derby,  tlie  St,.  Leger,  and  the  Oaks.  The  first  nerl)y 
was  run  May  4,  ITSO,  for  a  Btaku  valued  at  fifty 
(^iQaao,  open  to  three-year- olds,  coita  to  carry 
eif^ht  Bt^ne.  tilHea  seven  etone  eleven  pounds,  over 
a  distanrte  of  one  mile.  It  was  won  by  Diomed. 
The  first  and  only  .^morican-hred  horse  to  win  the 
Engliith  Derby  wiut  lnx|ii(>iK,  a  line  dei^cendant  of 
Dionied,  racing  in  the  colors  of  Mr.  Pierre  I»rillan]. 
This  horae.  the  «ime  sejiaon,  won  the  St.  Iieger,  a 
most  notable  feat  in  view  of  the  fact  that  both 
Derby  and  St.  Leger  have  been  won  by  the  same 
horse  but  nine  times  in  over  a  century  of  racing. 

/re  Aimriea. — It  is  natural  that  this  country 
shnuM  have  he^n  the  first,  after  England,  to  take 
uj)  the  Thwruiigh br4?d  and  Hytematicalty  breed  and 
race  hiin.  It  wan  not  long  after  the  ccdonlsation  of 
the  southern  provinces  by  the  English  gentry  that 
there  was  establit^hed  an  American  turf  with  its 
Thoroughbred  Ettuds. 

In  connection    with   the    introduction    of    the 


Thoroughbred  inta  America,  sone  mention  of  tbft 
so-called  native  horaefl  iihould  be  made.  While 
th'Hre  i)!  abundant  evidence  in  the  way  of  fossil, 
remaioH  of  the  {la-sencv  and  poesibly  the  erolattcal 
of  a  prehisturic  horsti  on  the  American  continent, 
stilt  there  wore  no  horses  of  any  deacription  found 
hero  by  Columbus.  Ho  it  was  who  on  bis  second 
expedition  made  the  firat  importation  of  which  we 
have  any  record.  These  horses  are  thought  by 
some  tn  have  |>eriflhed  Knnn  after  their  arrival, 
while  other  authorities  aittiert  that  th^y  eventually 
gainetl  the  mainland  and  constitute  a  part  tif  our 
foundation  stock.  Cortex,  in  his  conquest  of 
Mexico  in  151^,  is  credited  with  having  landed  the 
Rrst  horses  on  American  soil.  Id  1527,  Cabeza  de 
Vaca  brought  horees  to  St.  Augustine.  Florida, 
which  were  afterward  liberateil.  Again,  hi)rse« 
constituted  a  part  of  the  eijuipment  of  De  Suto'.s 
expedition  in  IMI,  on  which  he  diseovenNi  the 
Misuisfiip])!.  TJiuK  far  those  were  all  Spanish  horsea] 
of  Oriental  extraction^thu  same  original  source 
from  which  the  Thoroughbred  sprang.  In  1G04. 
the  FVench  took  horaee  into  Nova  Scotia,  and  four 
years  later  intnidiiced  Ihcm  Into  Cana<ia.  Then 
follnweii  the  importation  of  one  stallion  and  sixn 
mares  into  Virginia  fmm  England.  Dutch  howw 
arrived  at  New  Netherlands  in  1625,  and  in  16£ 
the  first  horse  to  inhabit  New  Kngland  arrived 
Boston  from  England.  As  early  as  16TS.  ther»- 
ranged  over  parts  of  the  Miaeitwippi  valley  vast 
bands  of  wild  horses,  the  descendants  of  thotie 
escaped  or  lilierated  from  early  conqumts  and 
expeditions. 

In  viaw  of  the  character  of  the  early  settlers  of 
Virginia,  New  York  and  New  England,  respectively, 
it  is  not  strango  that  the  craille  of  the  Thorough- 
bred in  .America  should  have  been  in  Virginia. 
Horse-racing  was  not  consistent  with  the  Puritan] 
traditions  of  New  Engtanders,  and  the  Dutcbman'a 
horw  in  New  York  was  BKsentially  a  lieast  uf 
burden.  It  remained],  therefore,  for  the  cavaliem 
of  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and  Maryland  Ut 
becomt)  aponsora  for  this  horse,  which  was  later  to 
play  such  an  important  part  in  American  sporting 
and  industrial  progress. 

The  first  rac«    horse    imported    to  America    is 
thmight  to  have  Ive^n  Hnlle  Rock-,  son  of  the  Darley 
Arabian,  bmughl  into  Virginia  in  1730.  The  first 
racing  organization  of  which  we  have  reeord  was 
formed    in    17fiO  at    ('hitrleston.   South   CaroHi 
Subsequently  there   were   brought    over  many  ol 
England's  best  horses,  the  ma'*t  notable  of  which 
was  Dinmed.  winner  of  the  first  English  Derby. 
This  hiirae,  imported  as  a  two-year  old  in  1799,  byj 
Colonel  Hoomes,  much  against  the  advice  of  hUi 
cotinselura,  is  regardwl  as  the  real  progenitor  of 
the   American  race  horse.    In  a  regular  line  of 
descent  from  him  come  Sir  Archy.  the  first  tnilyi 
.American    Thoroughbred ;    UosU>n,   his    grandsoi^j 
conceded  to  have  been  the  great^at  American 
horse ;  and,  in  tarn,  his  son.  Lexington,  a  acaroel] 
less  remarkable  performer  than  Boston,  and  amt 
influential  »ire,  espect.illy  through  the  female  Ul 
in  the  American  trotting  and  saddle  families, 
well  as  of  the  Thoroughbred. 


HORSE 


HORSB 


499 


Th»;  trend  of  TTioroughbred  sentiin*nt  was  first 
northward  from  its  original  seat,  about  the  middle 
of  the  eiEhtwnth  century,  centerinE  later  aboat 
the  Union  course  on  Long  Island,  then  westward 
into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  where  the  first  race- 
course wa?  established  at  Lexington,  some  time 
previoas  to  the  organization  of  a  chartenxl  aiuoci- 
ation  in  1828.  The  environment  of  Kentucky 
proved  bo  congenial  to  the  horses  bred  there  that 
it  soon  attained  its  premier  position  among  the 
h<rr8e-producing  states.  Then,  in  the  natural  coarse 
of  events.  !<ome  of  the  beat  blood  of  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  found  its  way  into  Califoniia,  and  there 
were  noon  founded  studR  which  later  achieved 
national  fame.  The  Civil  war  proved  a  serions  set- 
back to  the  breeding  operations  thi-n  well  under 
way,  but  the  Thoroughbred  soon  recovered  from 
this  interruption,  and  with  the  reeslablishmcnt  of 
affairs  on  a  stable  basi.-,  became  generally  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 
While  he  is  still  more  extensively  bred  in  tho«e 
regions  where  he  ftnst  came  to  his  own,  there  in 
hardly  a  state  at  the  preivnt  time,  the  general 
honte  stock  of  which  has  nxit  been  bene^ted  by 
this  blood.  Notable  [Mitrona  of  the  Thorooghbrtd 
in  America  have  been  Washington,  Jackson,  Clay, 
Jefferson,  and  John  Randolph. 

The  record,  l;.^r>i  for  one  mile  straightaway, 
was  made  over  the  Monmouth  track.  New  Jersey, 
by  Palvator,  as  a  four-year-old,  in  1890.  The  record 
price  for  a  Thuruughbre<i  i«  $lS7,r»00,  paid  for  Fly- 
ing Fox.  The  premier  American  aire  of  recent 
times  is  generally  ceni'edod  to  havci  been  Hanover, 
owned  by  Milton  Young,  of  Ltixington,  Kentucky. 

DintrUiuiiint. 

The  Thoroughbred  has  found  its  way  into  all 
countries  where  ftpeed  horaew  are  popular.  OthL-r 
countries  to  follow  the  precedent  of  Knglanit  in 
the  eBtablishment  of  the  Rour»e  and  the  patronage 
of  the  ThoroughbrHi,  were  -•America,  FVance,  Ger- 
many, Australia,  and  Argentina  esi)ecially. 

Part-hrtd  km-KS. 

In  accord  with  the  idea  that  the  term  Thorough- 
bred implies  that  a  honu>  is  totally  of  the  blood. 
the  term  part-bred  ha**  k'^come  a  common  means  of 
designating  a  horte  that  is  not  altogether,  but  only 
partly,  of  th*-  lilwxl.  It  w  even  customary  further 
to  indicate  the  pro(>ortiou  of  hot  or  Thoroughbred 
blood,  by  applying  ttrn  ItirmK  two-parts  or  half- 
bred  to  the  get  of  a  Thoroughbred  sire  out  of  a 
common  br*^  mare,  and  thrw^-parts  or  thret>^uar- 
ten>  bred  to  the  individual  whose  sire  wa.'^  a  Thor- 
oDghUfMl,  while  hiK  dam  was  two-part«  bred  oa 
above.  En  thutw  sevtions  of  the  country  where 
ThoroQghbn>d  siren  have  Un^n  available,  horaes  of 
this  fractional  breeding  are  common,  and  in  view 
at  the  commendable  niovemi'nt  of  the  American 
Jockey  Cloh  in  e^^tahjii^hing  br>.-*-<ling-hi]reau»  in  the 
different  states  for  the  di.><tribatinn  of  Thoronghbred 
Rirea,  the  part-bred  horse  may  be  expected  to  HII  a 
slilt  more  prominent  place  in  the  future.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  horseM  produced  in  thi-t  way  have  nuch 
a  wide  field  of  usefulness  as  to  keep  them  ia  vteady 


demand ;  therefore  this  is  a  line  of  breeding  that 
may  he  strongly  commended  to  many  farmers,  who, 
with  their  present  practice,  have  occasion  to  com- 
plain of  the  market.  While  the^  horses  are  pro- 
duced principally  as  green  hunter  material,  the 
part-bred  home  is  a  most  versatile  equine.  It  i« 
questionable  whether  there  is  any  type  of  horse 
that  can  till  more  acceptably  go  many  different 
vocationi)  as  he.  While  somewhat  deficient  in  style 
and  trotting  speed,  his  sabstance  and  stamina  make 
him  a  jitont.  all-day  road  horse.  He  can  be  easily 
schooled  to  the  walk-troi-canter  standard,  while  his 
greatet^t  accompliohment  is  to  take  up  one  hundred 
and  eighty  to  two  hundred  |>ounds  weight  and 
carry  it  safely  for  long  distances  cro8«  country  at 
considerable  speed,  doing  all  the  jumping  requisite 
to  such  a  performance.  It  has  been  further  demon- 
strated that  the  part-bred  horse  has  a  place  on  the 
farm. 

I  '«■*. 

For  iporting  jmrpotet. — There  may  be  some 
i]ne«tion  as  to  the  propriety  of  claiming  any  real 
usefulness  for  a  horse,  the  only  purput^e  of  which 
is  to  serve  as  an  active  factor  in  the  s{>ort8  and 
pastimes  of  nations.  Bo  that  as  it  may,  no  one 
can  deny  to  the  ThoroughbrL-d  full  meed  of  praise 
for  a  most  efficient  Jiervice  in  his  own  jieculiar 
field.  The  turf,  originally  an  English  institution, 
wof.  early  tranjiplanted  to  other  countries,  and  all 

{■eoplfift  among  whom  Hat-racing,  ^teenle-chaKing, 
muting,  and  polo  are  in  vogue,  may  be  expected 
to  testify  to  the  usefulness  of  the  Thoroughbred. 


Pl|.  (M. 


A  Tboroucbbred  iMte  ot  tbe  HddU  tne. 
Clvanipluii  J«iimh»i. 


Tliere  is  such  diversity  of  opinion,  even  among 
autliuritie»,  as  tv  the  relative  merits  of  the  Thor- 
oughbred and  the  American  i^addle  horse  for  sad- 
dle work,  and  the  Thoroughbred  and  the  part-brod 
horse  as  hunters,  that  the  fairest  way  to  treat 
them  would  be  a  review  of  the  evidence  on  both 
sidejt.  By  his  opponents  the  Thoroughbred  is 
objected  to  IB  a  saddle  horw  because  of  his  div- 


600 


HOKSE 


HORSE 


proportionate  height  at  the  withers  and  croup, 
hia  unsymmetrical  appearance  frum  the  3atMle, 
hb  low  "diiisy  cutting"  way  of  eoinff.  which  thoy 
asaert  is  conducive  to  stumbling,  atirl  h'a  erratic 
nervous  temperament,  which  renders  him  untract- 
ably  under  restraint.  Opposed  to  thew  objection- 
ftbte  features  are  the  spirit,  th'O  indomitable  cour- 
age, speed  anH  stamina,  which  are  po^nseised  by  n 
other  horse  in  the  same  decree.  For  riding  tu 
hounds  the  Thoroughbred  is  said  by  soiru-  to  lje  ill- 
adapted  because  of  his  temperament,  which  makes 
him  fretful  at  checks  and  diflicnit  Vt  control  when 
running.  Furthermore,  the  average  Thoroughbred 
ia  not  ap  to  the  weight  imposed  by  many  riders 
who  care  to  indulge  in  this  «port.  On  the  other 
hand,  bis  supporters  maintain  that  his  aimnA, 
Htamina.  courage,  and  nervw  force  may  In*  relied 
on  to  bring  one  in  safely  at  the  death  when  others 
fail.  It  is  said  that  be  do«,s  not  get  "doppy"  at 
his  fences,  but  will  jump,  as  well  as  ran,  on  hia 
courage  when  fatigued,  and  that  altogetlier  his 
performance  \a  more  in  keeping  with  the  sport 
than  that  of  bis  colder-blooded  contemporary.  A 
logical  conclusion  seems  to  be  tliat  thu  Thwrough- 
bred  horae  is  best  adapted  to  a  thoroughbred 
rider.  As  stated  by  one  authority,  "Thorough- 
breds are  horsemt-n's  horsus,"  and  one  who  under- 
stands their  disposition  and  eccentricities  is  not 
likely  to  be  satisfied  with  any  other  kind  of  a 
mount ;  whiK-,  fur  tlio^e  leits  accomplished  in 
horsemanship,  and  satisfied  with  a  more  moileraLe 
ride,  the  liorsi?  which  hax  his  fire  coolwl  to  Sufine 
exttsnt  by  a  dip  of  plebeian  biood  iit  more  suitable. 
For  rrttmntf.— To ^lim:df  proiH'riy  thu  full  util- 
ity value  nf  this  race,  it  is  riL-L-L-iksary  tocunsider, 
in  jidiiition  to  th«  servie^^  which  individuals  of  the 
brood  have  rendere<l  in  performance  on  the  ilut 
and  cross  country,  the  great  influence  of  the  blood 
in  union  with  that  of  other  stocks.  Nntwithstrind- 
ing  the  fart  that  this  horse  hjw  been  the  creation 
of  generations  of  sportsmen,  with  spe-'d  perform- 
ance the  standard  of  selection,  it  i«  the  [jotency  of 
bin  blood  when  blended  withcijnimon,  native  stocks 
which  is  of  greatest  value  in  the  prtHluction  of 
market  horses  for  use  outside  the  realm  of  spnrt. 
In  all  but  the  draft  breeds  the  infiuence  of  the 
Thoroughbred  may  be  demonstrated.  In  the  heavy- 
harness  division,  the  fimndiition  blood  lines  of  the 
recogniijcd  breeds  are  significant.  The  H.ickney 
descetid.s  from  Shale-s,  a  son  of  Blaze-,  Thorough- 
bred, out  of  a  strong  common  mare  of  Norfolk. 
Thoroui:hbred  sires  have  proiluced  from  native 
Fn-neh  mares  the  half-blood  horses  from  which  the 
Krench  coach  has  K-en  evolved.  They  ore  still 
called  l>emi-vSang  (half-blood)  in  France.  The  Ger- 
man coach  horse  has  less  of  the  Thoronghhrefl 
character  and  foundation,  but  even  here  "  the  trail 
of  the  blood"  may  be  traced.  The  Yorkshire  coach 
horse  represents  a  Thoroaghbred-C' level  and  Bay 
crofts.  The  representative  light-harness  horae  is  the 
American  trotter,  and  the  two  individaala  accred- 
ited with  being  the  foundation  sires  are  Imp. 
Mewenger,  Thoroughbred,  and  .lustin  Morgan,  said 
to  be  of  Thoroughbred  extraction.  The  American 
■addle  borse,  as  a  braed,  isdeaoendant  from  Den- 


mark, Thoroughbred,  son  of  Imp,  Uedgeford,  and 
repeatu-d  intiiaions  of  Thoroughbred  blood  are  still 
admitted.  Furthermore,  the  ranks  of  the  hunter, 
jumper,  and  polo  pony  classes,  not  breed.%  but 
market  types,  are  chiefly  filled  by  either  full-  or 
pirt-bred  blood  horses. 

AUjiuilU. 

It  cannot  be  said  that  there  are  any  dtfieades 
puculiar  to  Thoroughba>ds.  nor  that  they  show  a 
marked  predisposition  toward  any  of  the  alfectiona 
tn  which  all  horses  are  heir.  It  h  true  the  disease 
known  as  Osteopon)sis.  or.  more  commonly,  "big- 
head."  is  frejuently  found  in  some  of  the  large 
Thoroughbred  breeding-studs.  We  have  reasoD  to 
think,  however,  that  the  disease  is  due  rather  to 
the  conditions  under  which  Thon'Ughbreda  aro 
especially  likely  to  b«  kept  than  tu  the  borse  inde- 
pendent of  thosu  coDdiCion."!.  Tboroughbroda  in 
training,  especially  youngsters,  are  prone  to 
devetop  sore  shins,  which  involve  the  fore-limbs  in 
much  the  same  manner  th.it  athletes  are  affected 
under  similar  conditions.  The  most  common  aboor- 
mality  to  which  Thoroughbreds  are  subject  i:^  th& 
jwculiar  attitude  uf  the  fore-legs  termed  "buck 
knetvt."  In  other  horseK,  a  similar  condition  resalta 
from  hard  road  or  track  work,  but  in  Thorough- 
breds this  standing  over  may  be  noticed  in  year- 
lings that  have  biul  practically  no  work.  It  is  said 
by  some  trainers  that  cnlt^  which  show  this  ten- 
dency will  stand  up  under  severe  training  better 
than  those  which  stanil  straight  on  their  fore^lega. 

Organization*  and  jwcir(/jt. 

The  first  pahlication  of  recorded  pedigreett  ami 
performances  was  in  1829.  The  official  organ  and 
record  of  the  Thoroughbred  in  England  is  tho 
General  Studbixik  of  Great  Britain.  In  this  country. 
Thoroughbreds  are  ret-LsteriHl  in  the  American 
.^^tudlHKik  for  Thonnigbba-ds,  the  official  organ!- 
7.atiun  being  the  Americaa  Jockey  Club. 

LUeratitrt. 

Sir  Walter  Gilbey,  Hart.,  Thornughhred  and 
Other  Ponies;  Horses  Past  and  Present;  Ridgeway. 
The  Origin  and  Influence  of  the  Thomugbbred 
Horse,  Cambridge  (l90Fi>;  Trevelhan.  The  .\mL>ri- 
r-an  Tliomnghbred,  New  York  (UHXi);  Peer,  Criisa 
l^Aiunlry  with  Hor»e  and  Hound  ;  Ware,  First  Hand 
Kita  of  Stable  l,ore  ;  (Inited  States  Uepartment  of 
Agriculture,  Nineteenth  Annual  Itepurl  of  tba 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Trotting  and  Pacing  Horse,  American  Standard- 
bred.   Figs.  4-1,  476,  4%. 

By  John  A.  Craig. 

The  trotting  horae  has  entered  more  largely  Int 
the  pleasures  and  osea  of  the  American  people  thaa' 
any  of  the  other  classes  of  light  hor«e«,  nithougli 
the  gailed  saddle  horse  has  ixan  to  some  exl^-nt  a 
competitor  in  the*e  directions  in  recent  years.  For 
trotting  purpa'*e«  on  the  tnick  or  on  the  road,  no 
other  strain  or  breeil  has  approached  the  .\iner>i 
ican  Standard  1 1  red  trott«r.   lt«  development  to  Un^ 


HORSB 


HORSE 


501 


present  excvlluoco  is  due  whully  to  Ihy  work  <if  tho 
American  bn-eder.  althouj^h  most  of  the  original 
nuiterial  that  entereiJ  intti  the  ftmndatjon  of  the 
AiDfriciin  Standartlbred  trotting  horse  came  from 
ontiiiilK  itcturceH. 

Dticription. 

Tbere  arc  many  pronounced  types  amnng  the 
StandarrfbrH  Irottinj;  horsea.  Some  are  apeod  mar- 
vels*, as  l»u  Dillon,  ?liin,  gract-ful  and  of  htt;h 
nervous  orcaniBation  :  others  are  of  the  campaigner 
type,  BtrongiT-franitv!].  fuller-miisclt'd,  of  larger 
size,  with  controllalile  dia|itwition,  no  as  to  l»e  eiwily 
rated,  and  of  rcniarkaMu  Hlrength  and  durahility. 
Of  such  is  Swtfot  Marf«.  The  mmt  ttticceswful  Wend 
of  these  two  typfst  is  CrescouB  (Fiy.  4yo),  both  a 
speed  marvel  and  a  campaignor.  A  pen  description 
of  him  w(»uW  embody  the  attributes  of  the  beat 
tyjiH  MO  far  evolved.  In  genenil,  mich  a  horse  ehoald 
be  about  sixteen  handit  high,  u^Kttanding,  well  set 
np,  and  have  that  poise  of  b4nly  which  horwmen 
refpr  to  when  they  say  a  borne  in  "above  himself," 
either  standintf  or  in  action.  The  head,  propor- 
tioned evenly  with  the  other  parta,  is  clean<utand 
carried  high.  The  neck  ha-s  length  and  is  muBcular, 
making  a.  noticeable  cre^t  in  the  stallion.  The 
Bhoiilder  id  deep,  covered  with  muscle,  and  the  cheat 
is  low  and  only  modiTstttly  widt>.  Thtj  fore-leg  is 
long  from  elbow  to  knw,  and  short  from  knee  to 
f<!tlixrk.  The  knee  i.^  wide  in  front  and  itharp  behind, 
and  the  tendon  drops  from  there  almost  vertically 
to  the  pai^terii.  The  piuitemH  kI»ik'  nicely,  and  the 
feet,  linth  before  and  behind,  are  even  in  size, 
modoratidy  large,  and  of  a  healthy,  oily  color.  The 
hack  is  well  covered  with  muscle  and  is  rounding, 
nn'l  the  swelling  tnuewles  of  the  loin  cause  it  to  rise 
slightly  ;  those  of  the  hind-quarters  make  the  croup 
plump  and  the  qunrt^rH  full  and  deep.  The  leg  is 
long  from  hip  point  to  liwk,  and  sh»rt  fmm  there 
to  the  pastern.  Tha  wub  of  the  hwk  la  thin  and  the 
leg  below  decidedly  (luted.  The  m-tion  ahoutd  be 
cleAH,  quick  and  frirtionk-M.  Above  all,  the  dispo- 
sition shnuld  \te  ea-Hity  controllable,  and  yet  ever 
realty  to  rac^  with  ze«t.  Good  weights  arc  900 
poundii  fur  a  mare  and  perhaps  l.l.'tO  pounds  for  a 
stallion.  The  colur  ia  not  fixed,  but  brown  and  bay 
arc  very  common. 

Bitt^>r}l. 

In  eiimmnn  with  all  breeds  of  ligiit  horsw,  the 
American  Standardbred  horse  (the  writer  uses  the 
word  "bn!e<l"  advisedly,  for  he  will  show  that  oar 
liorees  olUcially  known  untler  this  name  are  as  much 
entitled  to  it  as  any  other)  traceii  hack  through  the 
Thoroughbred  to  the  Arab.  The  Arab  in  the  original 
Bourc*  (if  the  Thoroughbred,  and  nearly  every  broed 
of  light  horsetf  worthy  of  note  has  drawn  so  largely 
on  lti«»e  two  that  it  makes  the  Darley  Arabian,  the 
Byerly  Turk  and  the  Godnlphin  Barb  the  triune 
root  of  all  of  them.  (See  the  articW  on  the  Thor- 
oughbred and  tile  Barb  and  Turk.) 

Previous  to  the  advent  of  those  Eaatem  impor- 
tations, racing  hiul  not  attracted  much  public 
putnmage  in  Great  Britain.  A  writer'  rufers  to 
'  Ligtit  Uortes :  Br«eda  and  Management. 


the  time  of  their  advent  as  follows :  Byerly  Turk, 
about  1689;  Darley  Arabian,  early  in  tho  eight- 
eenth century;  Godolphin  .\r3bian  (probably  a 
Barb),  1728.  Trotting  matches  seem  then  to  hava 
iKH^n  Diknown.  but  it  was  about  that  time  that 
marked  the  era  of  running  nicea.  In  ITol,  Reginald 
HeWr  puhlifthed  the  first  number  of  the  Racing 
Calendar,  and  the  light  h or*:-- breeding  interests  of 
Great  Britain  began  to  assume  noticeable  propor- 
tions. 

The  Darley  Arabian  aired  the  first  great  Thor- 
oughbred   or  running   horse    in    Flying  Childera. 


'^ 


t 


Pis.  4H.     AtneiluiQ  Uottins  hocte.     CiyMcan*,  3:9!^. 
UWDPj  bj  W,  W.  HaTaCD. 

While  Flying  Childers  w,a.i  a  stout  race  horse,  yet 
it  Vila  through  hiji  brother,  Bartlett'a  Childers.  pro- 
genitor of  EclipHe.  thiit  the  most  turf  performers 
trace.  Flying  Chtldern  sired  Blaze,  foaled  in  173:1. 
whose  pedigree  is  given  very  completely  by  Cajv 
lain  Llrton  [Newmarket  and  Arabia).  This  pedi- 
gree shows  that  Hlaie  was  deeply  bred  in  Oriental 
bliKwj  linp.i.  and  yet  from  him  it  .'*i>em8  a  little 
stream  of  trotting  blowl  emanate**,  which  history 
pronounces  to  be  the  most  ancient  oource  of  two 
moiiern  breeds,  -the  American  Stardardbred  horse 
and  the  Hackney.  Perhaps  the  chief  notoriety  of 
Blaze  in  Thoroughbred  circles  wasattained  through 
his  being  the  sire  of  the  dam  of  Herod.  He  also 
bad  two  Bona  of  interest  in  thia  discttsaion,  namely. 
Sampson  and  8haiea.  Sampi^on  ^hows  aderivation  in 
type  from  other  Thorough  bred  s  of  the  time,  being 
considered  a  very  large  honw.-.  l.'i.'i  handii  high.  an3 
said  to  be  the  largest-boned  Thoroughbred  home 
ever  bred.  He  was  a  noted  and  proved  race  horse. 
He  sired  Kngineer,  sire  of  Mambrino,  sire  of  Mes- 
aenger.  He  was  also  the  graniliiire  of  the  dam  of 
Useful  Cub,  that  trotted  uevenleen  miles  in  leai 
than  an  hour.  Shales,  the  other  son  of  Blaze,  sired 
Driver  and  Scott's  t^halca*,  both  of  which  were  trot- 
ters, and  considered  by  careful  investigators  to  b« 
pillars  of  the  Hackney. 

Mrtxraffrr  wa.t  imported  in  1788.  His  line  is  an 
unbrokeQ  series  of  trotters.  He  sired  Mambrino, 
which  had  about  a  dozen  trotting  sons,  in  three  of 
which  we  are  chiefly  interested :  Mambrino,  Bishop's 
Hambletonian  and  the  mare  .Silvertait.  Mambrino 
sired    Mambrino    I'aymaster,  and    Abdallsh,  the 


602 


HORSE 


HORSE 


former  the  sire  of  Mambrino  Chief,  foander  of  the 
family  of  that  name  among  Standardbred  horses. 
Abdallah  aired  Hambletonian  10,  the  founder  of 
the  Hambletonian  family  in  the  Standardbred 
breed.  Silvertail  was  the  dam  of  One  Eye,  the  dam 
of  the  Charles  Kent  mare ;  and  this  mare  was  by 
Imported  Bellfounder,  which  traces  back  through 
the  Fireaways  to  Driver,  the  son  of  Shales,  the  son 
of  Blaze.  To  get  all  this  clear,  the  following  chart 
is  submitted : 


public  in  1838,  and  for  fifteen  years  raced  the  moet 
successful  trotters  of  her  time.  The  almost  equally 
famous  mare,  Green  Mountain  Maid  (not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  mare  of  the  same  name  that  was 
Electioneer's  dam),  and  Princess,  another  notable 
campaigner,  were  of  this  blood.  Happy  Medium 
ipight  also  be  said  to  be  an  inbred  Messenger. 
Wlien  we  consider  that  his  daughter,  Nancy  Hanks, 
2:04,  was  out  of  Nancy  Lee  by  Dictator  by  Ham- 
bletonian 10,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  deeply 

Darley  Arabian 

I 

Flying  Childers 


Blaxe 


Sampson  — 

I 

EnginMT 

I 

ICambrino 

I 

MeBsenger 

I 


Shales 


Useful  Cub 


Driver 

I 

The  Fireaways 


Scott's  Shales 


Mambrino 


Hambletonian 
(Bishop's) 

L 


Silvertail 


I 


Uambrino  Pay- 
master 


UambriooChief  11 


Abdallah 


One  Eye 

I 

Chas  Kent  mare 


Pretender 


Bellfonnder  5 


Achilles 


Fireaway 
(Triffifs) 


Bellfounder  55 


Hambletonian  10 

With  the  advent  of  Messenger,  the  trotting 
instinct  becomes  decidedly  more  pronounced.  The 
chief  feature  of  his  pedigree  is  that  he  was  not 
only  a  Thoroughbred,  but  dips  deep  into  the  foun- 
tain sources  of  that  breed.  The  records  are  preg- 
nant with  the  performances  of  his  progeny  and 
also  attest  to  his  value  as  a  progenitor  of  trotting 
speed,  through  the  get  of  his  sons,  and  the  degree 
to  which  their  blood  permeates  the  pedigrees  of 
even  our  most  notable  of  modem  trotters.  In  the 
catalogue  of  the  International  Stock  Food  Farm, 
there  appears  an  exceptionally  erudite  pedigree  of 
Dan  Patch  l:55i,  the  champion  pacer  of  the  world, 
and  it  is  shown  that  he  traces  forty-three  times  to 
Messenger.  The  first  noted  performer  of  this  strain 
was  Topgallant.  Paul  Pry,  a  grandson  of  Messenger, 
was  ridden  by  Woodruff  18  miles  in  a  fraction  less 
than  57  minutes.    Lady  Suffolk  began  racing  in 


bred  this  remarkable  trotter  of  our  day  embodies 
Messenger  blood. 

Before  taking  up  the  influence  of  other  Thor- 
oughbred sources,  there  are  other  scattering 
streams  of  Messenger  blood  that  should  be  men- 
tioned. The  Clay  family,  through  the  founder, 
Henry  Clay,  has  a  very  distant  infusion.  The 
Morgan  family,  also,  has  a  considerable  infusion 
of  Messenger  blood.  Among  the  old  Canadian  fami- 
lies having  Messenger  blood,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  is  that  of  Royal  George  9.  Royal 
George's  descendants  today  hear  out  the  fact  that 
the  Messenger  family  was  the  most  prolific  source 
of  trotting  speed  in  Canada.  Another  Canadian 
family  that  runs  into  some  of  our  best  Standard- 
breda  originated  in  the  Bullock  horse,  which  traces 
directly  to  Messenger.  Strathmore  (408),  the 
founder  of  one  ot  the  very  best  families  of  the 


HORSE 


HORSE 


603 


L 


Standard  bred    trotter,   carried    mach    Messenger 
blaod. 

Thejti  pefHrencea,  showinj;  the  infusion  of  Mes- 
aengt^r  M^kmI  intii  tbe  fiunilinH  of  Mambrino  C'hiof 
11,  HanibEetonian  10,  Morgan,  Clay  and  otbers, 
will  enabltf  uno  t4]  form  Bomu  idua  of  thc!  de^r^e  to 
whtcb  MiissonfCL'r  blood  forms  &  widespread  founda- 
tion for  th<?  present  .Standardh(pd  trotter. 

Othtr  imjiarU'd  finntrifmlnrg.  -  Kef<idtu;  Messenger, 
several  uther  imported  ThonmghbrMlH  have  ciin- 
tributed  to  tbe  breeding  of  tbt^  Standardbred 
trutt^T.  SufficH  it  to  HiBHtion  Bonjiit>  Scotland, 
AtiHtrulian  Trustee,  Lapidiut  and  Ulencoe.  The 
intlucnMof  these  was  chiefly  through  their  Ameri- 
can-brerl  sons  and  daughk'rs. 

Injliienee  of  American  /utrtrt. — Let  na  row  con- 
aider  the  status  of  the  horaes  in  UHe  on  this  conti- 
nent aa  roail  homes  or  IrotU^rs,  about  the  time 
(1788)  that  Mt«aen;rer  was  iniporttid.  In  the  eaTti- 
eat  colonial  days,  moat  of  the  traveling  was  done 
on  horseback,  and  a  race  most  popular  for  joarnoy- 
ing  thia  way  was  the  Narragansett  pacer,  bred 
moRt  largely  in  Rhode  Island.  In  addition,  this 
pacer  was  the  racing  horse  of  the  people  of  Rhode 
island  and  Virginia  us  early  as  the  lant  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Dr.  McMonagle  states  :  "The 
combination  of  thcw  (Narragansett)  with  the 
Fr4jnch  stock  imported  from  France  to  yuebec,  in 
16*>i3,  prodacod  tho  Canodiun  pacers.  Out  of  that 
combination  we  have  the  Mlots.  which  were  taken 
to  Kentucky  and  proved  to  be  the  producers  of 
some  of  the  Ijest  trotting  horses  there.  From  the 
aamH  stwk  we  have  the  ColumbuAes,  which  wi?re 
taken  to  Vermont,  where  they  produced  trotters  of 
which  the  fa^kst  wtrnt  in  2:19j  -a  daughter  of 
Phil  .Sheridan,  the  most  potent  sire  of  the  family." 
It  seema  clear  to  the  above  writer  that  the  Narra- 
gansett  pacer  was  largely  the  original  source  of 
the  Canadian  blood  so  largely  taken  to  Kentucky 
&Bd  other  st:iU>ji  at  an  early  day. 

Justin  Morgan,  the  founder  of  the  family 
of  that  name,  woa  foaled  in  1793  (some  aathori- 
tiea  give  it  1789),  and  Pilot,  about  the  first 
to  attract  the  attention  of  the  American  public, 
was  fiiaU'd  about  1826.  The  Pilots,  St.  I>awren<:t!a, 
St.  Clair.'',  Columbiises  and  Copperhottoms  wer* 
taken  from  Canada  at  the  beginning  of  the 
iaflt  century  to  Vermont.  New  York,  Kentucky, 
California  and  other  statee  that  were  trotting- 
hotse  centers  at  that  early  day,  and  blended  woll 
with  the  other  families  that  were  forming.  The 
Uorgau  were  well  under  way  at  this  era.  The 
three  Mub  that  formeil  leading  branches  of  the 
family  were  Sherman,  foaled  in  18C>1>,  Bulninh, 
foal«d  in  ISlli.  and  Woodbury,  foaled  in  1816. 
Then,  too,  the  Baxhawn  and  the  Clays  were  start- 
ing under  way  ;  for  (Jrand  IJashaw  wa.i  imfwirted 
in  1820.  He  sired  Andrew  Jackson,  foaled  in  IS'H, 
which,  in  turn,  aired  Henry  Clay  and  Long  Island 
Black  Hawk,  both  foaled  in  1837.  The  latter  sired 
Green'e  Bashaw  in  1855.  Andrew  Jackson  ranked 
and  waa  contemporaneous  with  .Uidallah,  the  latter 
being  foaled  in  182:1.  A  little  later  Mambrino 
Chief  11  was  fonled  in  1844,  and  five  yeara  later, 
in  1849,  Hambletonian  10  was  bom. 


It  is  Seen  that  about  the  middle  of  the  past  cen- 
tury the  leading  familie«  of  the  Standardbred  trot- 
ter had  their  inception,  and  the  breoJ  began  to 
awume  formation  on  this  continent,  for  the  chief 
familiea,  tbe  Canadian  Pilots  and  others  of  that 
nationality,  the  Morgans,  the  Clays,  the  Mambrino 
Chiefs  and  the  Harabletoniiuis,  were  making  it  evi- 
dent that  there  were  certain  blotMl  lines  more  pro- 
lific than  others  in  proiliicing  trotting  spetwi. 

Karl}/  froUintf  ncord». — The  firat  trotting  per- 
forniancB  in  America  of  whiuh  we  have  record  is 
that  of  Yankee,  at  Harlem,  New  York,  July  6. 1806. 
when  a  little  lesti  than  a  mile  waa  trotted  in  2:1)0. 
In  1859.  Ethan  Allen,  of  the  Morgan  lino,  trotted 
against  Flora  Temple,  when  the  latter  trotted  a 
mile  in  2:2.'j.  In  the  same  year,  Crfjo.  M.  Patchen 
beat  PUhan  Allen  in  2:24,  and  in  turn  was  beaten 
by  Flora  Temple  in  2:21.  Dexter,  which  liegan  his 
racing  career  in  18S4,  defeated  George  WHkea  in 
2:22i.  According  to  official  rocords.  Lady  .Suffolk 
was  the  first  to  trot  below  2:80,  in  1845,  when  she 
won  a  heat  in  a  race  in  2:29^ ;  Pelham,  breeding 
unknown,  in  184;(  re<luced  this  to  2:28;  Highland 
Man,  of  Thoroughbred  breeiiing,  in  1853  reduced  it 
to  2:27;  Flora  Temple  retluced  this  aeveral  timea, 
finally  bringing  it,  in  18.i9,  to  2:19|;  in  1867, 
Dexter  reduced  it  to  2:17^;  and  then  Goldsmith 
Maid  continued  lowering  it  until  1874,  when,  going 
against  time,  she  matle  a  mile  in  2:14. 

The-  TrnUing  Rrfjjjtter.  —  About  thia  time  the 
greatest  interest  was  Ijeing  taken  in  trotting  races 
and  trotting  familiet^,  and  it  wa.s  further  added  t<) 
by  thn  founding  and  compiling  of  the  American 
Trotting  Rogist^-r  by  John  Henry  Wallace,  which 
waa  begun  about  18(Jr),  Wallace's  Monthly  and  the 
Yearbook  also  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  study  of 
the  pedigrees  of  the  Standardbred  horse,  and  oat 
of  the  racing  and  the  data  coliected  grew  the 
enthusiasm  for  better  breeding. 

It  waa  not  until  Volume  IV  of  the  Trotting  Reg- 
iitter  was  pulili»k-d  that  the  entries  of  stnllions 
were  made  numortcally.  For  that  volume  a  fltand- 
ard  was  prepared  in  which  [wrformance  waa  given 
precedence  and  pedigree  n  minor  place.  Under  this 
standard,  Volumes  IV  to  VII,  inclusive,  were  com- 
piled. Various  changw  were  made,  from  time  to 
lime,  until  we  now  have  the  following  standard,  as 
revised  and  adoi>ted  by  the  American  Trotting  Reg- 
ister Association,  to  take  effect  Novemlier  I,  1898: 

"When  an  animal  meets  these  requirements 
and  is  duly  registered,  it  shall  be  accepted  as  a 
Standardbred  trotter. 

"(1)  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horse  and  a  registered  standard  trotting  mure. 

"(2)  A  atatlion  sired  by  a  registered  standard 
trotting  horse,  provided  his  dam  and  granddam  were 
sired  by  registered  standard  trotting  hor^KS.  and 
he  himself  has  a  tr<>tting  record  of  2:30  and  is  th« 
sire  of  three  trotters  with  records  of  2:30  from 
different  mares. 

"(3)  A  mare  whiK^e  sire  is  a  registered  standard 
trotting  horse  and  whose  dam  and  granddam  were 
sired  by  registered  standard  trotting  horse*,  pro- 
vided she  herself  has  a  trotting  record  of  2:30  or 
is  the  dam  of  one  trotter  with  a  record  of  2:30. 


HORSE 


HOUSE 


"(4)  A  mare  sired  bv  a  resMtereii  atsiwlard  trot- 
tinpc  horse,  provided  nha  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters 
with  records  of  2:30. 

"(5)  A  mare  sireii  by  a  registered  standard  trot- 
ting horse,  jirnvidwi  her  first,  fiecond  and  third 
damn  are  each  wirRd  by  a  registered  i^tandard  trot- 
tintr  horxe." 

Til  asxiitt  still  further  in  the  eitUbliithmcnt  of  u 
M  liryed.  tht  Ro^ifUir  Aissuciation  ha^  made  known 
(February  Ti,  1^)8)  a  contomplal^nl  chatigti  in  thd 
reqiiirijniL-nta  fnr  admiiuion  to  thie  Ktnndurd,  looking 
to  thf  elimination  of  all  the  foregoing  mles  except 
nile  number  one, 

influence  qf  the  ftamtard. 

At  fir^^t,  thu  importance  of  the  i^andanl,  both  m 
to  {lerformiini'u  ami  |Hwligree,  had  uu  undue  influ- 
ence. If  a  iiortie  was  standard  it  wa»  thoii;(ht  thnt 
that  was  atl  that  was  necesaary,  and  if  a  »)re  suc- 
ceeded in  piling  up  a  large  2:lii)  list  that  was  later 
considered  the  sum  total.  Now  breeders  are  also 
considering  the  fact  that  a  performance  of  2:30. 
with  improver)  trackH,  Hulkies  and  applianc^H,  doeH 
not  mean  much,  and  they  art^  cimttiilering  the 
amount  of  extreme  sjn^wl  ivt  a  very  doiiiruble  (jual- 
ity,  with  a  long  line  of  |jr«ducing  lineage  in  the 
pedigree.  At  this  point,  the  importance  of  the 
breeding  of  the  dam  and  her  value  as  a  producer 
of  speed  entered  into  the  operations  of  most  breed* 
ing  farms.  In  conjunction  with  this,  the  money- 
making  value  of  coH  trotters,  because  of  the  large 
stakes,  l)egan  to  receive  more  attention.  Breedera 
also  began  to  find  out  that  a  horno  might  be  a  fine 
"loO'ker"  and  at  the  »ame  time  a  good  race  horse  or 
a  getter  of  fine  "lookers"  and  rac«  horses. 

}'re»etii  ttnius. — This  brings  uu  dnwn  to  the 
present  era.  during  which  the  modem  breeder  aeeks 
performance,  indivulaality  and  pedigree,  and  it  is 
all  traceable  to  the  several  nt;ige«  of  evnhitinn 
through  which  the  breed  hap  gone.  To  guide  the 
beginner  in  bree^jing.  it  may  hv  ^aid  that  nearly 
all  the  familiefi  must  necessarily  Iw  embraced  in 
np-to-date  breeding  operations,  for  the  history  of 
the  breed  will  show  that  they  nearly  all  have 
desirable  qualities  that  ahould  he  apparent  in  the 
modem  representation  of  the  Standardbred  horse. 

Ditirikition. 

Other  governments  have  recognized  the  worth 
of  the  Standardbred  trott«r,  for  recently  those  of 
Japan  and  China  have  made  large  importation», 
Extensive  sales  of  Standardbred  trotters  of  high 
merit  have  boon  made  to  prominent  horae-lovera 
and  breeders  in  Russia.  France.  .Austria.  ItaHy.  Cier- 
many.  England,  Australia  and  the  South  American 
countries. 

Fam  Uir^. 

The  origin  and  importance  of  the  headi  of  the 
ieveral  prominent  trotting  families  has  been  dis- 
cussed above.  It  remains  only  to  call  attention  to 
the  notable  horses  of  each  family. 

Tlif  HamUeionian  family,  through  the  male  line, 
includes  the  following  sons  of  Hamldetonian  10, 
with  mention  of  some  of  the  moat  noted  performers: 


fl)  Klertioneer,  160  in  the  Ii,st,  and  sire  of  many 
producing  «ons.  Some  of  the  holders  of  the  fastest 
recorda  repreHenting  this  line  of  breeding,  are 
Adbell,  holding  the  fastest  mile  record,  2;23,  for 
yearling  trotting  stallion-.  Arion,  the  fastest  mile 
resrord,  2:10j,  for  two-ye^ir-old  trotting  stallion; 
Kndow,  the  faKteot  mile  record,  '^:14j,  for  two- 
year-utd  trotting  gelding;  Fantasy,  the  fastest  mile 
record.  2:0ftj,  for  three-year-tdd  trotting  mare,  aad 
also  the  fastest  mile  record,  2:CHi,  fur  four-year-old 
trotting  mare.  Boralma.  which,  with  John  Nolan, 
is  joint  holder  of  the  faatest  mile  record,  2:06,  for 
four-year-old  trotting  gelding;  Major  Ikdmar.  the 
fiifltest  mile  rec.ont.  2:l).'iA,  for  live-yearH)ld  trot- 
ting gelding;  Bingen,  the  fawteKt  mile  record, 
2:0f!J,  for  five-year-tjld  trotting  8tall ion,  held  jointly 
with  Hulph  Wilke)4.  In  addition,  Simol,  2:<tHi,  held 
the  champion  trotting  record  in  1K91;  The  Abbot, 
2:03i,  held  the  champion  trotting  record  in  19()0, 
and  Palo  Alto,  2:01^}.  was  champion  trotting  stal- 
lion in  1891.  In  summing  up  the  standing  of  the 
frtmiliea  in  regard  to  the  proilnclinn  of  colt  tmttera. 
Volunteer,  in  a  very  able  tjibul.it  if  in,'  gives  Elec- 
tioneer second  place  to  tieorge  Wilkea,  with  thirty- 
three  aires  and  seventy-one  performers. 

(2)  tjeorge  Wilkes,  S3  in  the  list,  and  aire  of 
many  notable  producing  sons.  Xome  of  the  holders 
of  the  fastest  records  representing  this  line  of 
breeding  are  Belle  Acton,  holding  the  fasteat  mile 
recunl,  2:20i,  for  yearling  pacing  mare;  Extaay. 
the  fastest  mile  record,  2:10j,  for  two-year-old 
pacing  mare;  Peter  Sterling,  the  faateat  mile 
record, 2:11^,  for  thrce-yeor-oid  trotting  gelding; 
Hymettus,  the  fastest  mile  record,  2:(J8i.  for  three- 
year-old  pacing  gelding  ;  Palmyra  Boy,  the  fastest 
mile  record.  2:07^,  for  foor-year-old  pacing  geld- 
ing, held  jointly  with  King  of  diamonds;  Rrenda 
Yorke,  the  fastest  mile  ri'cord,  2:083,  f^r  three- 
year-old  pacing  mare ;  Online,  the  fusteat  mile 
record.  2:04,  for  four-year-old  pacing  stallion  ; 
Coney,  the  fastest  mile  record.  2: 02i,  for  five-yeaiv 
old  pacing  gelding  ;  Searchlight,  2:  OMi,  joint  holder  I 
with  Audubon  Uoy  of  the  fastest  mile  record  t<xt\ 
five-year-old  pacing  stallion;  and  Ralph  Wilkes, 
the  fastest  mile  record,  2;06i.  for  five-year-old 
stallion,  held  jointly  with  Ringen.  In  addition. 
George  Wilkes,  2:22,  held  the  champion  Htallion 
trotting  record,  in  1868-71;  Axteli.  2:12.  held 
the  champion  stallion  trotting  record  in  1889 ; 
.Mlerton.  2: 09^.  hold  the  champion  stallion  trotting 
record  in  1891;  Dariei,  2:001.  18  the  fastest  pac- 
ing mare,  and  Dan  Vatch.  l:55i  (Pig.  476).  is  the 
champion  pacing  statlioc.  In  the  production  of  colt 
trotters.  Volunteer  gives  this  line  fir^t  place,  with 
forty-seven  sires  and  ninety-eight  performeTw. 

(3)  Abdallah  15,  5  in  the  list,  and  aire  of  many 
notable  producing  sons.  Some  of  the  holders  of  the 
fastest  record  of  this  line  are  Pansy  McGregor,  the 
fastest  mile  record,  2;2aj.  for  yearling  trotting 
filly,  and  Paul  D.  Kelly,  the  fastest  mile  record. 
2:20},  for  yearling  pacing  colt.  In  addition, 
Cresceus  (Fig.  495),  2:021,  is  the  champioD 
trotting  stallion,  as  well  as  holder  of  a  ^«at 
many  world  records  for  different  distaoow  and 

'  Hone  Review,  ivsimry  26. 1906. 


HORSE 


HORSE 


50& 


haat«.  Nutw(K>i]  Icailfl  all  other  siroa  as  sire  of 
prodncing  hro<Kl  munw.  This  lint*  has  het-n  notable 
lur  thu  irruiluctiun  of  i:ani|>ai{;tti>rn(  ami  racu  honacs 
rather  than  for  colt  trotters,  although  Volunti-er 
ranks  it  among  Hambletonian  10'h  Ron.H,  with  ti?n 
nirt*  and  sixteen  performers.  Surh  rat«  horses  afl 
Roliert  McGregor,  2:17}.  rre»cKu«,  2:02i,  Nut- 
bearer,  2:09|,  winner  of  the  faalest  wuht-hwat 
race  on  recent,  and  IliKbbull,  2:(Xii,  thi3  fit)!test 
green  1,'ekling  of  1907,  mid  Nutboy,  2 :07i.  Turley. 
2 :07i,  Robort  Mac,  2  ;08J,  were  of  this  line.  Gold- 
smith Maid,  2:ilJS.  of  this  strain,  the  champion 
trotter  in  1871-72.  and  again  in  1874.  when  she 
Tedaced  her  reconi  to  2 :  M,  has  benn  concetled  to 
be  the  grRate«t  campaigner  of  any  timp. 

f'l}  Happy  MetHinm,  94  in  the  list,  and  Hire  of 
many  ntntalile  pri)ducing  sons.  Nancy  Hanks,  2;C4, 
was  thp  champion  trotter  in  1S92.  and  Maxic  Cobb, 
2  :KiJ,  was  champion  trotting  stallina  in  1884-89. 
In  his  table  of  sires  of  cilt  trott«ra,  Volunteer 
ranks  Happy  Medium  seventh  among  Hambletonian 
lO'fi  sons,  with  two  sires  and  six  performers. 

(fi)  [tictatnr,  S2  in  the  list,  and  sire  iif  many 
notable  pnnlucing  sons.  !fame  of  the  holders  of  tht; 
fastest  records  in  this  line,  are  Directly,  holding  Iho 
faflte«t  milu  record,  2:07j,  for  two-yaar-old  pac- 
ing stallion,  and  Directum  (Fig.  44).  holding  the 
fastest  mile  record,  2;0oJ.  for  fonr^year-old  trot- 
ting stallion.  In  addition,  .Ijiy  Eye  See.  2:10,  wap 
champion  trntter  in  ISS4 ;  Phallas.  2:13}.  was 
champion  trotting  stallion  in  1884,  and  Directum, 
2:05i,  w!iB  champion  trutting  stalliim  in  1893. 
This  line  is  also  noted  fur  its  number  of  race  hones. 


trotting  itnd  pacing,  for  it  includes  Director,  2:17, 

lal,  B.,  a: 
2:05^,  and    Norman   H.  2:(»r»i,  winner  of  fa8t«-st 


Dir«ctam 


tnu   DELCII 

,2:fei. 


Utreet  Hal,  p.,  a:(Mi,  Direct,  p., 


fonr-heat  race  in  1907.  In  the  production  of  colt 
trotters,  the  writer.  Volunteer,  in  reference  already 
given,  placi^s  l>ictati)r  ftiurth  as  his  rank  among 
the  Sons  of  Ham  hi  Etonian  lU,  with  six  sires  and 
sixteen  (wrformen). 

(61  .Slrathmore,  62  in  the  tint,  and  sire  of  sev- 
eral notable  sons.  Klatawath,  2:05^,  is  the  holder 
of  the  fastest  milo  record  for  three- year-old  pac- 
ing .'Stallion.  Ixiu  Dillon,  1:58^,  of  this  line  is  the 
champion  trotter  of  the  present  time.  This  line 
ranks  very  high  in  producing  brood  mares- 

.Among  other  noted  sons  or  Hambletonitin  10  are 
Egbert,  85  in  the  ti.nt ;  Aberdeen,  fJ2  in  the  list; 
Harold.  4"i  in  list  (sire  of  Maud  S,  2:08^,  champion 
trntter  1883-5,  ind  sire  of  Lord  Kusaell,  sire  of 
Kremlin.  2:08^,  champion  stallion  in  1892);  Vol- 
unteer, 34  in  list  (sire  of  St.  Julien,  2:lli,  cham- 
pion trotter  in  1880);  Jay  Gould,  29  in  list  and 
champjoo  stallion  in  1871-2.  The  Hambletonian 
family  u  a  whole  iagivein  first  place  by  Volunteer 
for  airing  colt  trottens.  with  106  sires  of  22a  per- 
formers to  its  credit. 

Thf  \famfirina  Chi^  family,  through  the  male 
line,  includes  the  following  sons  of  Mnmbrino 
Chief  11.  wich  mention  of  some  of  the  most  Dot«d 
performers : 

(H  Woodford  Mapibrino.  13  in  the  list,  and  sire 
of  Bcverot  notable  producing  sons.  Helen  Hale  la 
bolder  of  the  fastest  milo  record,  2:Vik  for  two- 


year-old  trotting  filly,  and  John  Nolan  is  holder  of 
the  fastest  mile  record,  2 :08,  for  four-year-old  trot- 
ting gelding.  Mix.  2 :0;ij,  was  champion  trotter  in 
1894.  In  the  table  that  Volunteer  has  prepared, 
Prodigal  is  credited  with  eleven  colt  trotters,  which 
placcj;  him  in  the  lead  of  all  sires  of  colt  trotters. 
A  striking  feature  of  this  line  is  the  purity  of  the 
trotting  gait,  for  there  are  bat  few  pacers  among 
them. 

(2)  Mambrino  Patchen.  25  in  the  list,  otre  of 
several  noUble  producing  sons.  This  line  has  a 
reputation,  to  which  it  is  entitle*],  for  having  in 
its  rankK  a  large  number  of  producing  brm>d  mants. 
Many  n»>te<l  xtalliuns,  pons  of  George  Wilkes,  bava 
Mambrino  Tatchi^n  dams,  a  blend  that  has  been  pro- 
lific in  spei.>d. 

(3)  Clark  Chief,  6  in  the  list,  sire  of  Kentucky 
Prince,  41  in  the  list,  which  in  torn  is  sire  of  Dex- 
ter Prince,  62  in  the  list.  Itexter  Prince  sired  Ele- 
ata,  2:08i,  Lisonjem,  2:(iH\,  and  James  I..,  2:09^. 

(4)  Mambrino  Pilot,  9  in  tht?  list,  wire  nf  Mam- 
brino Gift,  Caliban,  Hannis,  and  others.  Mambrino 
Gift.  2  : 2(1,  was  champion  trotting  stalliun  in  1874. 

7"Ac  f-Vajz/umi/y  i«  gum-rally  cunaidered  to  start 
with  Henry  Clay,  but  it  really  traces  back  through 
the  mate  line  to  Grand  Ifashaw,  imported  in  1820 
from  Tripoli.  The  Latter  was  fourteen  and  one- 
fonrth  hands  high,  hut  wns  reputed  to  be  a  horse 
of  beauty  and  some  speed  for  thtise  early  days. 
Grand  Rjishaw  was  bred  to  Pearl  by  Pintt  Consul 
out  i>f  Fancy  by  Messenger,  and  from  this  union 
n^siilltsi  Young  Itashaw.  the  sire  of  ,\ndrew  Jack- 
son. Andrew  Jackmm  was  a  trotter  of  note  in  hia 
day,  especially  as  a  two-milur.  The  Long  Island 
Black  Hawk  line  has  gi\'cn  us  Knshaw  <5().  17  in 
the  list  and  Wnp^ie,  with  11  in  the  list.  Hnshaw 
50  is  the  sire  of  the  dam  of  Joe  Young.  2:18.  Henry 
Clay  sired  Cassius  M,  Clay  18.  which  sired  Geo.  M. 
Patchen.  2:2Iti,  champion  trotting  stjiUion  in 
18ii9  fiO,  and  sire  of  four  trrjtlers.  PerhapH  the 
most  prolific  speed  line  cumes  through  Cassius  M. 
Clay  20,  a  son  of  Caaaiua  H.  Clay  IK  for  Harry 
Clay.  2:2!t.  with  four  trotters  in  the  list  and  sire  of 
the  dam  of  mectioneer,  is  by  C.  M.  Clay  20,  and 
Clav  Pilot  is  also  by  the  latter.  Clay  Pilot  sired 
The  Moor.  G  in  the  list,  sire  of  Sultan.  2 :  24,  52  in 
the  list,  sire  of  Stamboul,  2  :07i,sireof  forty-eight 
trotters  in  the  list.  StambiJul.  2:07i,  is  generally 
conceded  to  have  held  the  stallion  record,  but  it  waa 
disqualiAi-d  because  of  a  i^mnll  technicality  which 
many  did  not  accept.  This  family  attains  ita  noto- 
riety mofit  largely  through  the  remarkable  great 
brood  mares  that  are  of  this  descent,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  Green  Mountain  Maid  (by  Harry 
Ciay).  dam  of  nine  tmllers,  including  Electioneer 
and  lieauliful  Bells,  dam  of  eleven  trotters  and 
eight  producing  sires. 

The  Morgan  famiia  takes  its  name  from  Justin 
Morgan  by  True  Briton  by  Imported  Traveller  by 
Morton's  tra%"eller.  which  traces  in  near  and  direct 
lines  to  the  Byerly  Turk.  Curwen'a  Bay  Barb,  the 
Lowther  Barb,  Bloody  Buttocks  and  the  Godolphin 
Arabian.  In  faLs  book,  published  in  1857,  D.  C. 
Lindsley  deecrtbai  Jostin  Uorgu  a»  about  foarteen 
hands  hi^  and  weighing  9w  pounda.   His  color 


506 


HORSE 


HORSE 


was  dark  bay.  with  black  points.  He  waa  a  very 
8tj"Iish  horee,  of  indomitable,  tiiuu[rh  easily  con- 
troUabta  spirit.  The  three  .tons  of  Justin  Morgan 
that  were  most  proiific  aa  auurces  of  tn>ttt!ra  were 
Sherman,  Woodbury  and  Bulrush,  Sherman  aiTud 
Black  Hawk  5,  sire  of  '-i  in  the  list,  and  alao  sire  of 
Ethan  Allen,  2:28,  champion  trotting  stallion  in 
1S5U.  Ethan  AII«n  sired  Danict  Lambert,  the  sire  of 
3H  trottvra  in  the  liet,  includinp:  Ben  Franklin,  sire 
of  33  trotters  in  the  list,  and  Aristos,  sire  of  30  in 
the  Hat.  Black  Hawk  5  also  sired  King  Herod,  sire 
of  Uerod,  2:24J.  Vermont  Hero  was  also  a  Hon  of 
Black  Hawk  5,  and  he  sired  General  Knox,  sire  of 
15  trotters,  incloding  Charles  Caffrey,  «ire  of  19 
trottert;  in  the  lift.  (leneral  Knox  sired  General 
Washington,  sire  of  15  in  the  list,  including  Poem. 
2:lli.  with  24  in  the  Hat.  Flying  Cloud  134  in 
another  son  of  Black  Hawk  5,  that  aired  Trojan, 
the  aire  of  Bun  Lomond,  a  prodncing  sire. 

From  the  Bulrut^h  line  com«3  Old  Morrill,  sire  of 
Yonng  Morrillp  sire  of  Winthrop  Morrill,  sire  of  3 
in  the  list,  including  Draco,  the  sire  of  Draco 
Prince.  Winthrop  Morrill  abw  aired  Feamaught, 
2:23^,  nire  of  5  trotters  in  the  lijtt,  in  turn  the  sire 
of  Royal  Feamaai^ht,  with  2ii  in  the  liaL  The  other 
BOD  of  Jofitin  Morgan,  namtly,  Woodbury,  sired 
Morgan  Eagle,  whose  son  of  the  same  name  got 
Mai^a  Charta,  siro  of  5  in  the  list,  Woodbury  also 
sired  Barnard  Morgan,  which  in  turn  sired  Vermont 
Morgan,  sire  of  Gotddust,  the  foundar  of  that  strain. 
The  fastest  trotterfl  of  thu  Morjjan  line  include 
Ixrd  Clinton.  2:0Si,  Lamp  Girl  and  Ethel  Downs. 

WTiile  the  Morgan  family  lia«  prodm^wl  ctinaid- 
eralile  Hpeeii,  yet  its  popularity  is  baawi  chii^tly  on 
the  ttnduranc*',  b«auty  and  style  of  its  membors. 
PauL>rH  arii  exceptionally  r.ire  among  tbom,  and 
the  purity  of  their  action  being  bold,  free  and  tire- 
less, is  perhaps  the  moat  valuable  attrihiiU*  of  the 
family.  In  this  connectiftn,  it  may  b(>  stated  that 
the  government,  having  n'cognixed  the  tratitable 
ftnd  energetic  diKpottition  of  the  Morgans,  aii  well 
as  their  wiill-iwtabligh'ed  reputation  for  endurance, 
has  estabtiuheil  a  breeding  station  in  Vermont  in 
cooperation  with  the  Vermont  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment StBlion,  with  tho  object  of  "saving  the  Mor- 
gan." Tht-re  are  twenty-three  horsen  in  all  in  this 
etud,  headed  hy  the  .stallion  General  Gates  by  Den- 
ning Allen  (thesireof  liOrd  Clinton  2;0Sjl  am!  out 
of  a  Thontughbred  man?.  Carmon,  the  stallion  at 
the  head  of  the  stud  at  Fort  Collins,  ('olo,,  in  the 
efforts  to  HfiLabJish  a  breed  of  .American  carriage 
horses,  carries  tuime  Morgan  blood. 

The  blood  of  the  Morgan  horse  has  become  rather 
widely  scattered  over  America,  although  there  are 
comparatively  few  Morgans  nvailable.  Moet  of 
these  are  found  in  New  England  ami  other  Bastem 
states,  although  there  are  pure-bloixled  Morgans  in 
parts  of  Iowa.  Indian.!,  Illinois,  Kentucky  and  Mis- 
souri. The  American  Morgan  Horse  Register  is 
published  at  Middlebury,  Vermont. 

Vte  FUotfamils  takes  its  name  from  old  Pilot,  a 
Canadian  pacer  from  near  Montreal,  aflerwanis 
traint-d  at  both  gaite.  After  passing  through  many 
hamU  and  sojourning  in  Connt>c*licut,  New  York, 
and   Louisiana,   he    reached    Kentucky    in   ISX2. 


There  he  sired  Pilot  Jr..  oat  of  a  mare  of  Thorough- 
bred breeding.  He  gired  eight  trotters  in  the  list, 
but  his  blood  was  chiefly  valuable  through  the 
female  line  because  of  the  number  of  great  brood 
mares  he  sired.  Pilot  Jr.  sired  Tattler,  sire  of  5  in 
the  list,  including  Indianapolis,  sire  of  10,  and 
Itumor.  sire  of  'Ia  in  the  list.  Another  son  of 
Pilot  Jr.  wa&  Woodburn  Pilot,  sire  of  Ai^onaut. 
with  5  in  the  Hat.  Among  the  brood  nmreis  sired 
by  Pilot  Jr.,  Miss  Russell  «  most  noted. 

Other  famiiks. -In  addition  to  the  foregoing 
recognized  families,  there  are  a  number  of  others 
that  have  been  very  aptly  termed  the  submerged 
familieii.  Many  of  these  are  of  Thoroughbred 
origin,  but  they  are  motitly  of  Canadian  pacing 
origin.  Among  thoae  of  Thoroughbred  breeding 
are  American  Star  14,  sire  of  the  dams  of  Guy, 
2:09i,  Dexter,  2:174,  Robert  McGregor.  2:174, 
Aberdeen  and  other  noted  sires.  Blackbird  401  is 
another  Thoroughbred  that  enters  into  many  trot- 
ting |>edigree.s.  lli.s  son.  Blackbird  402,  sired  3  in 
the  limt.  and  another  son,  .\.  W.  Kichmond,  sired 
Columbine.  The  Canadian  pacing  families  are  dis- 
cussed in  more  detail  in  the  history  of  the  Stand- 
ardbred  pacing  horse. 

Use*. 

For  racing. — The  Standardbred  trotter  occupies 
a  position  about  equally  divided  between  pleasure 
and  utility.  The  degree  to  which  the  trotter  em- 
braces the  former  Held  depends  on  the  popularity 
of  racing,  both  in  the  circuits  and  for  matinee 
puriKiseji.  Trotting  races  are  an  adjunct  of  nearly 
every  connty  fair,  and  occupy  a  prominent  posi- 
tion at  all  state  fairs.  However  much  the  attend- 
ant gambling  may  be  deplored,  the  fact  remains 
th^it  trotting  and  pacing  races  are  popular,  and 
they  also  assist  in  developing  a  speedier  and  more 
durable  breed  of  horses.  The  racing  is  under  the 
.iuritwticlion  of  the  National  Trotting  Association 
and  the  American  Trotting  Register  Association, 
the  rulefl  governing  the  races,  und^r  the  auspices 
of  either,  being  almost  identical ;  and  they  prevail 
at  all  race  meetings  and  on  all  tracks  over  which 
officially  accepted  reoonls  are  made. 

Far  inatiiiK  roWnj.— .4 fter  having  finished  their 
racing  career  and  having  reduced  their  records  so 
that  their  money -winning  capacity  is  reduced, 
many  trotters  are  purch^ist^  for  matinee  racing  in 
our  larger  cities.  This  sport  has  grown  in  popu- 
larity to  such  an  extent  that  a  n.Uional  lA-ague  of 
Amateur  Driving  Clubs  has  been  formed. 

.4^  a  rva<Me.r. — It  is  as  a  roadster  that  the  trot* 
ting-hreil  horse  is  most  useful.  This  demands  a 
horse  of  medium  height,  irj.2  to  IG  hands,  of  grace- 
ful lines,  without  the  Ic^ast  tendency  to  coarsenMS 
in  any  part.  Quality  of  bone,  cleanness  of  limhs, 
define*!  tendons  and  all  other  characteristics  that 
forecast  durability,  should  be  very  much  tn  evi- 
dence. With  it  all  there  is  a  rellnemeut  of  form 
that  differentiates  this  ty])e  from  the  coach  or 
heavy-harness  class.  Easy,  elastic  action  and  an 
ever-prvsent  williugness  to  cover  the  ground  in 
jaunty  style  are  desirable  characteristics.  At  aa 
early  day,   tha  Thoroughbred  was  recommended 


HORSE 


BIITLE 


SOT 


strongly  for  crowing  rni  common  light  mares,  and 
such  brnN?ding  re»ulte«3,  in  many  instanrts*,  in  road- 
sters Doted  fur  their  al)tlity  to  cover  long  dia- 
tanceii  at  the  trot,  and  to  continue  it  day  after 
day.  The  Murgan  horso,  however,  waa  soon  recog- 
niZA-'d  as  the  strain  poa.'^easing  the  highest  type  of 
roadster  charucteristicfl,  chiefly  becauae  of  its  in- 
domitable perseverance  and  endurance,  its  wiiling- 
oess.  and  the  style  and  buoyance  with  which  it 
Stood  the  strain  of  contitiuous  roiid  riding.  The 
roadster,  in  addition  to  having  ytyle,  action  and 
dnrable  individuality,  must  be  in  type  in  harmony 
with  the  light  harness  and  light,  easy-running  road 
rigs  now  popular.  A  heavy,  slow,  but  maybe 
Btylish-moving  horse  is  an  much  out  of  place  be- 
fore a  rood  rig  as  a  slim  racer-like  horse  would  be 
in  heavy  harness.  While  there  are  many  speedy 
trotters  that  are  far  from  pleasurable  n>ad  horse*, 
because  the  ability  to  go  fast  for  a  Hhort  distance 
{fl  not  the  chief  ru4]uirem'ent  of  &  road  hors;e,  yet 
the  result  of  the  continuous  racing  which  the 
trotter  has  undfrgone.  undoubtedly  hm*  given  it  the 
durability  and  the  "  do  or  die  "  spirit  that  is  a  valu- 
able attribute  of  the  roadster.  At  this  day  some 
speed  is  required  of  the  roadster. 

At  hmfyhamcM  hon^.—Ot  recent  years,  atten- 
tion has  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  some  families 
of  the  American  Standardbred  horse  have  shown 
marked  excellence  for  heavy  harness  use.  Daring 
the  time  when  the  horse-shows  were  perhaps  most 
popular,  about  1890,  the  breeding  of  the  trotting 
Dorse  was  under  a  depression.  For  that  reason. 
many  stallions,  well  bred  in  trotting  lines  but  of 
heavy  hurneiw  conformation  and  action,  were  pur- 
chased at  gelding  prices  and  shown  in  heavy  nar- 
nesft  daises  at  the  leading  horae-*ihowg.  Ilndoubt- 
edly  they  may  properly  be  called  freaks,  for  they 
were  not  bred  for  this  purpose,  but  that  does  not 
dinpo.*e  of  the  worth  of  the  ai*quisition.  The  trot- 
ting-bre<l  heavy  hameBs  horse  and  high  stepper 
became  a  strong  comiJetitor  of  the  Hackney,  and 
in  some  inotances  defeated  the  latter  in  theM 
cla.«wes.  Th»>  result  has  been  that  the  government 
had  realiied  the  possibility  of  wtablishing  a  family 
or.  in  time,  a  breed  of  heavy  harness  horses  as  an 
offshoot  of  the  .Standardbred  trotter.  The  Colo- 
rado Experiment  Station  is  conducting  the  work 
under  the  auspicw*  of  the  iK-partment  of  .Agricul- 
ture at  Washington.  Carmon  32^U7,  a  grandsrm 
of  Roht.  Mcr.rfgr.r.  2:l7i,  is  at  the  head  of  the 
stud.  Previous  to  purchase  by  the  government,  be 
h;td  been  a  prominent  winner  at  leading  horse- 
shows  in  the  harness  cla.sseLS  Qnder  the  name  of 
Glorious  Thunder  Cloud. 

For  brtfiiing  "cow  p-yniff." — At  this  point,  to 
Indicate  farther  the  versatility  of  the  Standard- 
hred  trott«r,  it  will  not  be  not  of  place  to  mention 
the  fact  that  un  many  of  the  large  cattle  rancheM, 
where  'Vow  imnies."  as  they  are  calleii,  iin-  in 
heavy  demand,  the  Standardbred  trotter  m  being 
used  OB  a  sire  in  preference  to  the  Thoroughbred. 
The  reason  for  this  preference  was  given  the 
writer  to  be  the  belter  disposition  of  the  Standard- 
bred  JiH  compan>d  with  the  Thoroughbred,  said  to 
be  a  result  of  the  reotrnint  under  which  the  trot- 


ting hoffie  has  bL-un  held,  and  thu  necessity  of  a 
trotter  having  a  controllable  disposition. 

Organitations  and  records. 

The  National  Trotting  .Aswociation  wan  organized 
in  1870.  The  oilice  of  the  present  secretary  is 
at  Hartford,  Conn.  The  .\merican  Trotting  Asso- 
ciatiun  was  organized  in  18S7,  and  has  beadquar- 
tera  in  Chicago.  The  American  Trotting  Kegister 
appeared  in  1868,  with  J.  H.  Wallace  as  pub- 
lisher. The  first  volume  contained  some  3,000 
entries,  Walhico  al.so  e.stabli.shed  the  Vearbook, 
now  in  ita  twenty-third  volume.  The  Register, 
the  Yenrboiik,  and  Wallace's  Monthly  were  dis- 
poned of  by  Mr,  Wallace  to  the  American  Trot- 
ting Register  .Vssociation.  in  1891,  and  the  latter 
now  publijihes  the  Kegister  and  the  Yearbook.  As 
has  been  said,  a  League  of  Amateur  Driving  Clubs 
has  t>ecn  formed,  with  headquarters  in  Boeton, 
This  league  publishes  a  yearbcKik,  giving  a  sum- 
mary of  matinee  races  and  the  time  made.  The 
first  volume  includes  the  races  of  1901-2. 

Littratart. 

Itufiby.  The  Trotting  and  Facing  Horse  in 
America,  New  York  {1904);  Helm,  American  Road- 
sters and  Trotting  Horses,  Chicago  fl878»;  Lins- 
ley,  Morgan  Horses,  New  York  (1867);  Iy)we, 
Breeding  Race  Horses  by  the  Figure  System,  New 
York  (1898);  Marvin,  Training  the  Trotting  Hwr^, 
New  York  (1892):  Merwin,  Road,  Track  and  Stable. 
Ik-ston  (1893>;  Splan,  Life  with  the  Trotters,  Chi- 
cago (1889):  Woodruff.  The  Trotting  Horee  of 
America,  Philadelphia  (1868J.  tFor  further  refer- 
ences, see  page  416.} 

MULE.    Figs.  49U,  497. 

Hy  Char!e»   IVm.  liurkttt. 

The  mole  ia  a  draft  animal,  it  is  not  a  true 
breed,  but  is  a  hybrid,  a  cross  between  the  horse 
and  the  ass.  An  offspring  of  the  male  ass  or  jack 
and  the  mare  is  known  as  a  mvie,  while  the  prt>geny 
of  a  stallion  and  a  female;  aes  is  designated  as  a 
A  inn  jr. 

DcKripfion. 

Of  these  two  classes,  the  mule  is  the  more  valu- 
able, since  there  is  greater  size,  to  whic>i  are  added 
f^tyle,  finish,  Btrong  bone,  and  other  requisites  that 
go  to  make  the  animal  so  valuable  for  draft  pur- 
poses. From  this  deiicription  it  follows  that  the 
ninny  is  smaller  in  size,  somewhat  unsightly  in 
form,  lacking  in  fini.-«b,  and  adapted  to  environ- 
meatfl  that  call  for  lighter  work  and  effort.  Still, 
the  hinny  Ih  able  to  endare  drudgery  and  hardship 
equal  to  and  often  greater  than  the  mule. 

Like  all  other  animals,  the  mulu  and  the  binny 
naturally  inherit  (lualities  from  both  parents. 
With  the  former,  the  body  follows  the  matomal 
type,  but  closely  adheres  to  the  paternal  side  in 
the  head,  foot,  ear  and  bnne.  The  voice  of  the  mule 
is  not  like  that  of  the  jack,  as  popularly  sup- 
posed, but  slightly  resembles  it.  From  the  paternal 
side  come  also  patience,  endurance,  faithfulneits  and 


t 


m 


MDI,E 


MITI.R 


Tig.  *». 

A  COOd  inytMcDUtiTe 
ot  the  Urte  bM<ry 


ability  to  do  hard  wnrk  and  much  nf  it ;  and  from 
the  mother  come  thnpe  qiialitii'S  that  hnve  made 
the  hortit^  ko  pniminent  an<l  si>  famf^tu;,  namely, 
cuurH;!;e,  hardiiitiiu  ami  Htn>ri(;Lh. 

Poinlf  of  Ike  iileul  /,i/;t.  —  Thu  raule  that  most 
nearly  approaches  tho  ideal  ty|K.'  follows  thv  horse 
cloeely  in  all  points  of  symmetry  uf  furm,  Tho 
hody.  howevff,  ia  commonly 
morp  cylindrica]  and  some- 
what smaller  than  the  liody  uf 
the  horse,  a  factnr  ant  alto- 
gether in  favor  of  the  mule.  A 
large  body,  Iheruftire,  ii*  more 
(iBsirnhli^  than  a  sidhII  body  ; 
bulIargeneHBor  body  mumt  not 
bc<  confusL-d  with  paunchinees, 
for  thin  is  alwaya  objt'ction- 
ahle.  ['he  type  in  which  the 
lm\y  cunforma  as  nearly  aa 
liMSsible  to  that  of  the  ideal 
drsrft  horne  nhonld  lie  selected. 
IVoducera  of  mulea  an?  ru'alit- 
inji  that  a  critical  tradt  ia  dts 
manding  mules  of  a  su|K-riiir 
conformation  in  the  region  of 
the  h+jdy,  much  more  m  than 
this  same  trade  demanded  a 
few  years  ago. 

Males  that  most  nearly  meet 
the  ideal  type  {lottm^Hii  fine. 
hani  hfp,  showing  superior- 
ity with  every  movement.  The 
boneo  should  be  amooth  and  dense ;  the  tendona 
should  show  considt-rabk-  prominence;  and  the  mus- 
cles must  ho  well  developed.  While  the  feet  of  the 
mule  ari^  narrower  and  longer  than  those  of  the 
horse,  a  large  foot  h  always  to  b«  desir*^. 

HuUory. 

The  mule  has  been  known  from  the  earliest 
times.  Kome  of  the  old  Roman  writer?  havinc;  dia- 
ciisAtrd  the  mulii  in  their  descriptions  of  Roman 
agriculture. 

In  America. — In  America,  the  male  has  been  in 
us«  from  colonial  days.  As  early  aa  1591.  jacks 
were  bronght  to  this  country  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  first  of  the  kind,  no  doubt,  went  to  Mexico. 
With  a  more  settled  condition  in  our  country,  and 
a  demand  for  better  work  animalf<,  the  mule  came. 
One  of  the  first  men  to  engaKe  in  the  production  of 
molen  was  (rtjnoral  Washinjjton  f'ftt«B  paco  27^).  The 
snperior  qualities  of  the  mule  were  early  recog- 
nised by  southern  planters.  During  the  tint  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  mule-breeding  extended 
c"er  much  of  the  country. 

DutrUiution. 

The  mule  ia  distributed  Ihroughoat  the  world. 
An  English  writer  descxilxat  the  geographical  dia- 
tnbntion  m  follow*  :  "Tile  mulo  Ime  extt.nda  north 
from  the  wiuator,  inoludiiig  Africa  and  Europe,  up 
to  4B°  of  latitude,  and  in  At^ia  ami  North  America 
SB  fur  ait .%°.  On  the  south  aide  of  the  eciuator  we 
can  include  most  of  Africa,  the  northern  part  of 
AuBtralia  and  ^uth  .America,  as  far  south  ait  35°. 


Within  thiR  vai;t  r.idtUR  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
mulen  are  bred  each  year.  Many  of  the  raule-S  are 
big,  heavy  animals,  with  great  power  and  hone, 
and  atand  sixteen  to  seventeen  hands  high." 

/«  .-IfwiTMra.— Mules  arc  now  found  in  ua«?  in 
every  states  in  the  Union,  but  more  largely  in  the 
southern  states.  The  table  below  shows  tlie  t«a 
fltates  having  the  largest  numbers  of  mules,  accord- 
ing to  the  cenHuti  of  1900: 

ULwDuri      242,006 

TeniKtfMPi^ 2S8;,976 

Miwiwippi 206,678 

Gefirgia 206.832 

.Alalinma I87.37& 

Kentncky 169,966 

ArkMBM 166,267 

Louisiana 141,645 

Norlh  Carolina 132I&34 

liouth  Carolina I16;849 

Kentucky  and  Tenneiuiee  have  been  noted  from 
early  days  as  mule-brt^eding  centern.  To  these 
state.><,  many  noted  jatks  hiivo  gone,  not  native 
only,  but  those  representing  the  bi.'st  of  the  Anda- 
lusian,  t'atalonian,  Majorcan  and  the  Matter  types. 
During  recent  years,  it  haw  Ix'en  learned  that 
while  soil  and  climate  may  inHuence  ([uiility  in  the 
individual,  care  in  the  selecti^in  of  Jtv*U  and  in  the 
breeding  types  are  also  fundumental  among  the 
requisites  of  sucoetjRful  mule  production ;  and  hence, 
where  thew  latter  are  heeded,  mules  may  be  pro- 
duced. Cimsequently,  Texas,  Georgia.  Missouri, 
Kansas,  and  Oklahoma,  as  well  as  many  other  states, 
are  vying  with  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  in  produc- 
ing muies  of  high  quality  that  find  favor  tn  all 
parts  of  the 
world. 

In  1006.  the 
estimated   nu*n-  ^Mtf7'       £^  l£^ 

ber  of  mnko  in  J^^       ClIjS 

the    United  ©IS:? 

States  was    3,- 
404.361,  valued 

at$:i:54,6GO.OOO,      J^    1F^W^>\' 
an  average  val- 
uation of  nearly 
one  hundred  dol- 
[ant  per  animal.    ^^  tfJl^i^^^HMSByVI 

The  bmdt  qf 
jacks. 

Up  to  the  lime 
of  the  Civil  war, 
but  two  breeds 
of  jacks  were 
used.the  .Maltese 
and  the  Spanish. 
The   .\ndaluKtan 

and    Tatalonian  p,^.  ^„.  ^  nmchrf  mule  teun. 

from  the  main- 
land, and  the  Majorcan.  from  the  island  of  Majorca^ , 
were   formerly  known  as  Spanish.    So  great  hasi 
been  the  demand  for  jacks  of  Malta  that  practi-1 
cally  all  havi>  been  exported,  and  now  bat  few  are 
left  on  the  ii^land. 

The  jacks  of  Italy  have  not  been  successfot 


UULE 


MULE 


mule>-prodQc«ni  in  thi»  country,  and  rnniiequently 
have  entered  hut  slightly  into  the  mtiie  stfM'k  here. 
At  the  present  time,  there  are  three  nuUxI  hret-clu 
of  jacks:  the  native,  Iho  Pnittm,  und  thi!  C'utu- 
lonian.  In  reji'irrf  1(j  favur  and  imtHirlunee,  perhapa, 
thuiM>  brutiiltt  KhoukI  Ih>  rankiMj  as  mt^ntiunud  heri'. 
Many  of  our  noted  roulo-brooders  prefer  native 
jacks  to  those  of  foreign  breeds.  The  native  jack 
profJuces  a  good  flni.<«h,  a  good  form.  Btrong  lerga, 
i^roail  hocket,  and  ia  already  pecaltarly  adai>te<l  to 
njr  environmentH.  BfRidei*  these  qiuilities,  he  ex- 
teniL-*  to  his  progeny  immunity  from  diseaaiw  to  an 
unusual  dejfree,  and  an  excejjtion;illy  lonj;  lifu. 

Ih^  I'oitou  jack  ifl  a  French  breed  of  Spanish 
orijrin,  and  ia  ranked  by  some-  i)reed<.'r8  as  first 
om^ing  jack  br<>eds.  He  is  liked  esp^-'cially  for  ajjri- 
calturat  u»e,  bctcau-'^e  of  the  size  of  hi»  limbit  an<l 
feet.  The  legs  are  short  and  straight  with  plenty 
of  bone,  white  the  pa-sU^rna  are  short,  as  required 
of  a  draft  animal.  Thy  h)^  are  tljit  ami  hard. 
whilst  the  feet  are  lurge  and  mon:  expanded  than 
those  of  any  oth^-r  l-ree-i  of  jacks.  In  thia  respect, 
the  Catalunian  jack  is  not  equal  tti  the  French 
linked,  althou<;h  the  CataloniiLn  h  liner  in  Ifmba 
than  th'?  Poitou. 

With  the  I'liitou  jack,  both  the  head  and  ears  are 
enormous :  in  fact,  French  breeders  are  inclined  to 
regard  these  ai  of  very  great  importance, — more 
valualilc  thiin  the  smaller  kind.  The  neck  la  strong, 
thin  and  broad.  There  \s  a  want  of  withers,  hut 
this  is  true  of  all  jack  races.  Thv  broad  cheat  and 
enormoaB  legs  of  the  Poltou  jack  promise  much  in 
muie-brccding. 

Tile  Poitou  jack  varies  from  thirteen  and  ono- 
half  to  fifteen  handa,  which  is  about  the  height  of 
native,  Catalonian.  and  other  Spanish  breeds.  The 
height  of  a  jack  ia  not  nearly  so  important  iw.  the 
character  of  th€  head,  earn.  I«gs,  feet  and  barrel, 
If  height  can  be  secured  fn>m  the  dam,  it  is  better 
to  sacrifice  height  in  the  jack,  in  order  to  get  othtT 
and  more  dei^irabk-  qualities.  The  breed  in  of  le^ 
importance  than  individual  qualities. 

Prices  for  in'itividujilrt  nf  the  Poitoa  breed  ar*  a 
little  higher,  perhaps,  than  for  either  the  Catalonian 
or  natiw,  but  it  w  poiwible  to  get  a  goo<l  Pvitou 
jack  for  $l,Oi')0  to  tlSM.  although  some  have 
wild  at  $2,500  to  i'AJM  f-ach. 

Raitittg. 

The  raising  of  mules  is  demanding  more  atttsn- 
tion  from  year  to  year.  Some  of  the  reasons  for  their 
increaaing  popularity  may  W-  briefly  flummarizt-d  ax 
follows  :  (1 )  It  coHiM  letM  to  breed  and  raise  a  muk^ 
to  a  suitable  nize  than  a  horse.  (2)  I.e-fts  time  in  re- 
qnirerl  to  prepare  a  lot  of  muten  than  a  lot  of  colta 
for  the  market.  (.1|  Young  mules  may  be  sold 
readily  at  any  period,  and  in  any  amounL  (4) 
Male  colts  uniformly  command  u  higher  price  than 
horae  colCe  of  similar  relative  (|ualtty  and  value. 
(fii  Mules  are  aubjt^ct  to  fewer  diseases  and  k-ss 
liable  to  fterjouR  accidentn. 

The  ttfpe  ofjaek  In  unr. — The  jack  for  mule  pro- 
duction i^hould  ln>  at  lea^t  liflet-n  handK  high  and 
should  carry  a  maximum  weight.  By  this  in  not 
meant  that  the  jack  must  be  fat ;  rather,  large 


sise,  that  with  it  may  go  heavy  Ttnne,  a  bniad  cheat, 
and  great  strength  in  the  region  of  the  hips,  ('on- 
neckni  with  »hv  will  usually  bw  found  a  ruther 
large  head,  aoinniwhat  heavy  and  course,  an<i  not  of 
the  beat  quality  ;  l^ut  it  is  tietter  to  sacrifice  quality 
here  90  as  t«  secore  weight  and  snhstance,  re(jui8it*>8 
of  the  first  importance  with  the  mule.  A  large 
heiivy  ffHtt  h  desiralile  also,  ami  to  these  qualities 
should  be  ailded  all  lh«  style  that  is  attainable. 

The  Had  of  mare  In  bned  Jrom.  —  A  ctimnion  en  or 
is  Ui  suppose  that  as  soon  as  a  mare  becomea 
diseased  and  unfit  for  horse-brc'oding  sht-  may  bo 
uswi  for  the  production  of  muleti.  Perhaps  this 
accounts  for  no  many  inferior  mule  colts.  II  mat^ 
ters  not  how  superior  the  jack  may  be,  tinleas 
the  dam  \»  equally  sound,  and  of  equally  gwd  con- 
formation, one  will  seldom  suci'eed,  if  ever,  in  pro- 
clutring  coltrt  of  high  quality  and  of  ^eat  usaful- 
ni'S!*.  A  mare  that  is  sound  and  free  from  blemishes 
is  lo  lie  choMen.  She  must  poswesa  gisxl  length,  with 
a  targe  welt-rounded  barrel :  her  head  mu.'^t  be  fine 
and  clenn,  and  attached  to  a  neck  of  desirable  pro- 
portions ;  her  chest  should  be  broad,  her  hi|JB  wide  ; 
and.  finally,  her  style,  bearing,  and  breeding  should 
be  of  high  order. 

For  the  prrxluction  of  large  mules,  large  draft 
marea  ^nly  will  serve.  One  may  take  good  grade 
mares  of  the  Percheron,  Clydesdale,  or  Belgian 
breeds;  either  is  good  and  all  arc  satisfactory. 
These  are  the  brewla  most  commonly  used,  but 
grades  of  any  of  the  draft  breeds  will  do. 

tViw.— IVrhajw  color  is  but  a  pUy  of  the  fancy. 
Still,  in  the  case  of  the  jack  it  suggests  lineuge 
and  purity  of  breeding.  Generally  speaking,  a  dark 
color  is  preferable,  if  not  altogether  demanded  of 
the  jack.  Black,  with  white  i>oint.t,  is  tlie  best 
fashion.  With  mares.  let  the  color  be  dark  also ; 
bay.  black,  brown  or  chestnut.  Good  color  in  the 
dam  will  help  with  good  color  in  the  colt,  a  matter 
of  no  small  importance  if  a  discriminating  public  is 
to  be  catered  to.  Otherwise,  one  need  not  bother. 
There  is  no  special  merit  in  the  color,  and  the 
breezier  must  be  careful  not  to  sacriflce  quality  and 
size  and  substance  for  color. 

There  is  a  prevailing  opinion  that  males  may  be 
fed  on  less  food  than  liorsea  of  the  same  siie  and 
Weight ;  but  this  is  an  error.  While  it  may  lie  true 
that  the  mule  will  utilize  inferior  feeding-stuffs  to 
a  bettor  advantage  than  his  more  aristocratic 
aj*8ociate.s  still,  lo  do  the  work  that  he  is  called  on 
111  do.  demands  for  the  mule  a  quantity  of  food 
equally  as  great  afi  that  of  his  horse  relatives  The 
mule  hari  marked  preference  for  certain  foods,  or  a 
marked  dislike  for  other  foods,  a  discrimination 
even  more  aunattive  than  that  of  the  horse. 

Market  d<u»r»  of  muleg. 

\\w\v»  are  generally  grouped  into  four  geaeral 
claa.'tefi  on  the  larger  mule  markets. 

{11  Suffar  ami  colton  males. — The  fint  class  that 
may  be  m»-ntioned  is  the  cotton  and  sugar  mulus. 
While  thesi-  ari-  raised  in  the  West,  a  great  ma- 
jority of  them  find  their  way  into  the  southern 


t 


510 


MDLB 


tfULE 


sUteft,  where  they  are  u»ed  on  cot  ton- farms  or 
Bu^^ar -farms.  It  id  a  good  class  of  mules  that  goes 
into  this  petition.  They  are  large,  heavy,  and  of 
splendid  tyi>e.  On  the  Kansas  City  market  the 
ciittrjn  arii  ftugar  mitleft  Rttind  fiftt^im  U»  Rixtoen 
hiindK,  while  tb»  rhicai^u  m^rkitt  cal]«  for  a  »oma- 
wh:it  hi^hur  animal.  Tlie  cotttin  or  flu)rar  mult; 
that  «taiul«  sixteen  hands  should  weigh  1.050  to 
l,;ir)0  [H)umlH. 

The  class  of  mules  that  ia  used  on  the  sngar 
plantations  is  of  the  best  quality,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  sugar  plantations  are  worked  hy  weaJthy 
eynilic-aten  that  ctinld  not  alTnnl  to  use  poor  molet^. 
It  shnws  a  very  smoiith  finish,  a  markeit  refiniv 
miniL  about  the  hea<t  and  nmk,  and  a  fine  tjuulity 
of  burii'.  In  faet,  no  cliisa  is  8upL-rii>r  to  the 
i^ugar  mule  in  emoothness  and  finish  and  polish. 
Thu  sugar  clasH  of  mules  shows  also  greater  uni- 
formity in  quality,  height  and  weight  than  do 
thnwe  nsed  for  any  other  piirjiose.  Totton  mules, 
as  a  rule,  are  piKirly  grtirierf,  and  lar.k  Ihi;  uni- 
ffirmity  cihHPfvi'd  in  the  augar  tslaiw.  Hoth  witton 
and  Httgitr  mtilcD  bi>gin  survici!,  unuajly,  at  Ihrt^e 
or  four  years  of  age,  although  soniu  at  five  years  ; 
hut  they  are  at  their  heet  age  when  six  to  nine  or 
U.-n  years  of  ago, 

(2)  LttmiHrr  mw^wi.— For  the  necessities  <if  the 
wonds.  where  mnlea  are  used  in  great  nnmWrs  for 
piirpo«es  of  lumbering,  a  very  honvy,  strong  and 
rugged  animal  is  needed  ;  hencp,  we  find  tho  lamher 
mulBH  extremsly  tuH  and  large,  usually  fifteen  Ui 
oeventeen  or  more  handtt  in  height,  Quality  is  not 
of  so  much  importance  as  the  ability  to  do  hard 
and  rough  work,  and  a  lot  of  it ;  therefore,  weight 
U  especially  essential  when  heavy  logs  are  to  he 
moved.  There  is  great  variati'm  in  this  clasg 
of  mules,  everything  being  sacrifice*!  excepting 
capacity  to  Ho  hard  work,  ruggeilness  to  endure 
hardnhtiM  and  fatigue,  and  aim  and  height  to 
supply  power. 

iS)  The  general'purpoiv  male.— The  general-par- 
po9*  mule  is  more  or  leas  familiar  to  the  reader. 
This  animal  is  seen  wherever  railroad  construction 
is  in  progress ;  he  h  often  observed  on  tho  farm ; 
he  is  fotind  on  the  nmnts  wherever  heavy  hauling 
is  Iteing  done,  in  the  cities,  in  towns,  along  rivem. 
One  of  the  re^iuirementa  of  this  class  id  that  it 
be  rngged,  strong,  and  capable  of  doing  hard  work. 
!t  is  this  class  that  compotes  with  the  ordinary 
draft  horse,  and  compared  with  the  average  draft 
horse  it  is  snperior  for  many  binds  of  work.  In 
height  this  class  ranges  from  fifteen  to  sixteen 
and  one-half  hands.  The  weight  varies  from  1,000 
t'.>  l,40<.t  pounds.  The  Chicago  market  grades  the 
general-pnrpose  mule  a  little  heavier  and  a  little 
higher  than  either  the  Kansas  City,  the  St.  Louis, 
or  the  St.  PanI  markets. 

(4)  The  mint  /nu/f.^-Mine  mules  are  generally 
classed  as  either  pittera  or  surface  mules.  They 
grade  into  the  smallest  of  theiw  four  groups,  stand- 
ing ten  and  one-half  to  fifteen  hands  high,  are 
chunky  and  hardy,  and  possess  a  heavier  bone  in 
proportion  to  size  than  those  of  the  other  classes. 
The  white  mule  in  never  used  in  the  mines,  for  the 
reason  that  it  tends  to  frighten  other  animals : 


hance,  dark  bay  or  black  are  the  only  colors 
desired  for  this  purpose.  Those  maka  s<-'lecLed  for 
the  pits  are  of  heavy  bone  and  of  good  weight, 
capable  of  long,  sl«*ly  pulls  with  rather  heavy 
loads.  The  surface  cla»&,  while  heavy,  are  some- 
what taller  than  those  in  the  pit,  and  may  be 
lighter  in  bone. 

fw. 

Tho  mule  is  a  draft  animal,  found  wherever 
drudgery  is  performed  and  strenuous  effort  de- 
maacletl.  If  the  earth  on  which  the  fi-ot  must  go  is 
broken,  marKhy  and  wet,  there  you  will  find  the 
muli;  in  use;  if  climates  are  hot  and  sultry  and 
liarmful  to  health ;  if  [latliii  are  pn<cipitous  and 
dungiTous,  ru(|uinng  »urefuutt'<)ness  and  steadiness; 
if  bold  courage  and  large  demands  are  made,  it  is 
the  mule  that  is  draftL-d  into  service,  because  it  is 
welt  known  that  ho  wilt  be  found  equal  to  meet  the 
occasion.  He  is  found  in  the  cotton-fields  of  the 
niack-belt,  in  the  sugar-fields  tif  the  South,  on  the 
stiff  jirairie  latids  of  ihw  West,  on  the  difTiciilt 
mountain  IraiU,  Thu  mule  has  been  born  and  brwd 
Lu  thu^  envinniment.  In  it  he  st-rvus  better  than 
any  other  beast  of  burden,  for  he  a^s  less  and 
doesi  more  ;  because  ho  enjoys  immunity  from  dis- 
ease in  a  largo  measure ;  because  his  span  of  life 
is  many  yt-ars ;  and  iKTause  his  demands  on  hia 
master  are  few,  simjile  and  reasonable. 

Thu  mule  hns  also  a  pliire  nn  a  saddle  and  a  car* 
riage  aniiual,  notably  in  parts  of  the  South  and  the 
central  Went. 

Diseanc  immunitj/. 

The  mule  shows  considerable?  disease  immunity. 
which  give,^  him  a  marked  advantage  over  the 
hor^e.  While  it  is  not  true  that  he  is  exempt  from 
disorders  or  complaints,  as  has  been  »aid  at  timiiS, 
it  is  to  lie  said  to  his  credit  that  he  is  not  so  liable 
to  disease  or  disorders  as  the  horse,  and  even  when 
aCTected  with  certain  ailments  he  is  likely  tn  be 
less  disabled  than  the  latter. 

Organizations  and  records. 

It  has  been  within  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  only  that  a  national  society  in  America  has 
undertaken  to  advance  the  interest  in  jacks,  jen- 
nets, and  in  mule-broeding.  An  American  associa- 
tion', called  the  "American  Breeders'  Association  of 
Jacks  and  Jennets,"  has  published  to  date  six  stad- 
booki?.  The  first  one  iipi>eared  in  1H91,  The  number 
of  jacks  and  jenm-ts  registered  to  date  is  aboot 
1.700.  The  oflice  of  the  secretary  is  at  Columbia, 
Tennessee. 

Literature. 

Ilarvey  lUley.  The  Mule  :  Tegetraeier  and  Suther- 
land, Horses,  Asses,  Zebras,  Moles  and  Mule  Breed- 
ing; Burkett,  Our  Domestic  Animals;  Tlurab,  Types 
and  Breeds  of  Farm  .\nimals:  Feeding  Horses  and 
Mules,  Balletin  No.  72.  Florida  Agricultural  F.xp(>r- 
iment  Nation;  Feeding  Farm  Horses  and  Mul««. 
Bulletin  No.  189,  North  Carolina  Agricultural 
Experiment  .Station.  [For  further  information,  con- 
sult the  references  cited  on  page  41(>.] 


OSTRICH 


OSTRICH 


511 


I 


OSTRICH,     f^ntthh.  8pp.    Slruthtonida.     1n^ 

-liijs-rvoo. 

By  Waima  PietnU. 

Th<>  ORtrich  U  the  larpe  African  ninnin^bhd. 
It  has  been  succeaafally  donnisticattH]  in  America 
ind  eLsewhere  for  hs  feathers.  Most  of  the  ostriches 
JD  America  arc  from  S<mlh  .'\frica,  and  are  of  the 
Bpeciea  StruViic  aut(ralis.  There  are  a  few  from 
North  Africa  of  the  epecivs  S.  Camdus. 

DcMTiplion. 

The  ostrich  is  very  much  the  larReBt  of  any 
e.Yistinf?  bir(i.  A  full-Efown  fat  ostrich  will  ww^h 
37^  to  450  pounds,  and  will  stand  eif^ht  foot  hipih, 
but  can  eaftily  reach  lo  a  huight  of  t«ii  or  wlevcn 
feet.  "There  are  no  true  d»wn  fealhors  but  the 
cun ton r- feathers  are  soft  and  lax,  with  fiw  harbs 
and  no  aftBrHhaft,  and  are  dlKtribiited  unifttrmly 
over  the  skin.  On  the  budy  the  v'iiniaK«  '»  bliu-k 
or  blackish,  with  the  quill  plumes  of  Lhu  wint;ti  and 
tail  white.  Tht  head  and  neck  are  nearly  and  lhu 
leifp  quite  naked."  WinRS  and  tail  are  not  promi- 
nent, and  the  former  are  not  used  for  flying  but 
are  of  much  aiutiKtanire  in  running.  The  pltimeR  are 
very  uretly.  The  neck  irt  long,  upright  and  nirved, 
and  the  head  small.  The  speiM]  »f  the  binl  h  great 

Hitiory. 

About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  South  African  colonies  saw  the 
oetrichos  fast  diflappfaring.  They  enacted  laws 
roiilricting  their  Hbutghter,  and  later  paF.<4ed  laws 
prohibiting  their  ulaunhUr  altogether.  For  age« 
there  have  bt'on  ostriches  kept  in  captivity  in 
menageries  and  zoiilogical  f^rden^.  About  186r>, 
persons  in  South  Africa  tiegan  to  domesticato  them 
for  feathers.  Iteforo  they  were  domesticated, 
nearly  alt  the  ofitrich  featherB  of  commerce  were 
taken  from  dea^l  binia. 

In  Amerini.^Th*i  tSrst  ontrichpB  imiKirted  for 
farming  in  America  were  intro<kcfld  ny  Doctor 
SketchLey  tn  i«8i  He  left  South  Africa  with  two 
hundred,  and  landed  in  (.'atifornia  with  twenty-two. 
In  1884,  fifty-live  ostriches  were  imported,  and  in 
1886,  forty-four  more,  all  from  Africa  to  Califor- 
nia. In  1901,  there  were  twelve  iwnlriches  imported 
from  Nnbia;  fix  went  to  California  and  six  tt> 
Arizona.  All  of  the  outrichtw  in  America  came 
from  these  imijortatioos. 

Ostrich-farming  in  Ameriea  is  really  only  in  ita 
infancy.  It  has  been  only  twenty-six  years  since 
the  first  ostrich-farm  was  started.  The  early 
■ttemptii  met  with  varying  degrees  of  success. 
The  pioneer  breedera  in  this  county  had  to  get 
most  of  their  knowle^lge  from  their  «wn  experience. 
In  fact,  more  than  half  the  u^triches  now  in  the 
United  States  are  the  progeny  of  a  single  pair 
owned  in  Arizona  in  1891.  Great  progreas  haa 
been  made  in  the  last  five  years,  and  therc^  are 
now  2,rjfK)  ostrichee  on  farms  in  the  United  States. 

Dulribution  and  adaplaluin. 

Oatriches  thrive  l>eat  in  a  warm,  dry  climate, 
bat  caa  be  grown  in  any  of  the  ttouthem  alatoa 


\\ 


.tV 


and  territorien  in  this  country.  In  a  moist  climate 
they  should  have  protection  from  cold  and  rain. 
Of  the  ostriches  in  America,  over  two-thirds  are 
in  Ari£ona,and  the  remainder  in  California,  Florida 
and  Arkaiwas.  Salt  River  valley,  Arizona,  a 
thought  to  be  the  best  place  in  the  United  States 
for  ostrich- farming.  They  are  also  found  in  Egypt, 
North  and  South  Africa,  and  Australia. 

Raixing. 

The  description  of  methodi<  which  follows  U 
based  almost  entirely  on  the  experience  and  obeer- 
vation  of  the  writer,  and  applies  especially  to 
ostrich-farming  as  practiced  in  Arizona. 
Ostriches  come  to  maturity  when  about 
four  years  of  age.  The  female  matures 
six  months  to  a  year  before  the  male,  but 
shi-  will  seldom  lay  a  f^irtile  egg  until  she 
is  three  and  a  half  yearx  ohl.  The  next  iH 
a  ronml  hole  In 
,'.- -"^    .  the     ground 

which  the  male 
/^  .     scoofis  out  with 
,        his  feet.  At  first, 
f|K^^^/*'  '"fllB^         '    th^  female  may 

'  nest,    but    may 

lay  her  eggs  on 
the  ground, 
whereupon  the 
male  will  roll 
them  into  the 
nest  Generally, 
after  the  mate 
has  put  three  or 
four  eggs  into 
the  nest,  the  female  will  lay  there.  In  about  thirty 
days  she  will  lay  twelve  t«  sixteen  eggs,  and  will 
Iw  ready  to  liegin  incubation. 

hicubatiott  under  domestication  is  effected  in  two 
ways:  (1)  Ity  natural  and  (2|  by  .^rtilicial  means. 
S.omo  growers  prefer  the  first  method,  others  the 
second.  Kither  has  been  found  to  yield  satisfactory 
results  with  fertile  eggs.  About  forty-two  days 
of  Very  careful  attention  arc  required  for  good 
resultfi. 

(It  In  natural  incuhai.ifm,  the  male  takes  a 
prominent  part,  covering  the  eggs  fifteen  or  six- 
teen hours  out  of  the  twenty-four.  He  will  usually 
go  on  the  neat  about  five  o'clock  in  the  evening 
and  remain  there  till  eight  or  eight-thirty  the 
next  morning,  the  female  taking  her  turn  during 
the  day.  It  is  thought  that  the  color  of  the  sexes 
has  had  something  to  do  with  developing  tbene 
instincta.  The  male,  being  black,  is  not  so  easily 
seen  at  night,  and  the  female,  lieing  drab  or  nearly 
the  color  of  sand,  can  not  be  sw-n  so  reailily  in 
daylight.  The  male  usually  beginti  sitting  three  or 
four  days  before  the  hen  steps  laying.  If  the 
weather  is  cold  during  the  laying  period,  the  male 
may  often  be  found  covering  the  eggs  at  intervals 
during  the  night  t<i  prevent  their  becoming  chilled. 
The  binis  are  also  very  watchful  during  the  warm- 
est season  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  becoming 
overheated  by  the  sun.   Often,  in  the  heat  of  the 


m.  4«.    Ponr-7Mr<old  male  ostrich. 


612 


OSTRICII 


OSTEUCH 


4lay,  one  or  Uie  other  of  the  old  birds  m&y  he 
foand  sitting  on  its  ankWjointa  with  both  wings 
extended  to  shade  the  ejfKS  from  the  sun.  The  care- 
ful ostrich -farmer  should  mnfco  this  work  unneces- 
sJir>'  by  providioK  artificial  shade  durins  the  hot 
season.  The  birds  sit  very  mueh  cUk^bf  to  the  nest 
during  the  liri^t  half  of  the  tncubatron  period,  the 
internal  heat  of  the  eggs  making  thi»  leim  neces- 


^- 


Pic  499.    OAtrldi  cblcks  tort  from  the  i1>elL 

sary  during  thu  last  half.  .\»  ia  u.tnally  the  case 
with  all  egg»  in  a  dry  ciimHL4>,  the  shell  of  the- 
ostrich  e)i]i  becomes  dry  and  hard,  and  very  difli- 
cult  fur  the  chick  io  lireak.  When  the  time  arrivi-a 
for  the  liberation  of  the  younfr.  thoy  will  be  heard 
to  chirp  and  to  move  in  the  shell.  The  parent 
bird  seems  to  undi'rstani]  the  s^ituation,  and  will 
often  crack  the  shetl  with  itn  hrea.st~boPie,  .wne- 
timea  taking  the  young  bird  by  the  head  and  draw- 
ing  it  oat  of  the  shell.  Sometimeti  three  or  four 
<iay8  elapse  between  the  hatching  of  the  first  and 
the  last  egga  in  the  nest.  I>uring  thi^  time  one  or 
the  other  parent  bird  takes  care  of  the  chicks, 
while  the  other  is  attentive  to  the  nest.  Owing  to 
liability  of  injury  to  the  young  binis  by  rea-scn  of 
anxiety  of  the  parent  birds,  it  ia  a  good  practice 
after  the  firat  egg»  have  hatched  U>  remove  the 
remaining  eggs  to  an  incubator. 

(2)  Artiiinal  inculxilion  can  be  [lerformed  8UC- 
ceasfally  with  any  good,  well-regulated  machine 
that  will  hatch  egsp  of  common  fowls,  provided,  of 
course,  it  ia  constnicted  on  a  large  enough  scale  to 
accommodate  ostrich  eggs,  which  are  five  inches  in 
diameter  and  .^even  inches  long.  It  has  been  foond 
best  to  U3e  an  incnbator  that  will  hold  onjy  thirty 
to  thirty-five  eggs,  a.^  in  caae  of  a  blunder  or  an 
accident  to  the  incubator,  the  Ions  will  be  com- 
paratively small.  The  incubator  should  be  heated 
two  or  three  days  before  the  eggs  are  put  in,  to 
see  that  everything  is  in  proper  working  order. 
The  incubation  should  be  started  at  a  temperature 
of  101°  Fahr.  In  three  weeks  this  temperature 
will  be  .slightly  increased  by  the  heat  generated  in 
tht>  eggs  thenmelveB.  Every  egg  should  be  turned 
at  least  once  or  twice  a  day.  To  Iw  on  the  safe 
aid*  it  ia  wwll  to  .idopt  the  rule  of  turning  the  eggs 
three  times  daily. 

The  regulation  of  the  temiwrature  ia  not  the 
only  thing  to  be  considered  in  natching  eggs  in  an 
incnbator.  The  question  of  moi.'itnre  presents  a  seri- 
ous problem.  Inside  the  8hell  of  the  egg  are  two 
fibrouft  coat«,  one  of  which  adher&t  ctottely  to  the 
shell  am]  the  other  tncloflee  the  contents,  tb^ey  being 
Separated  at  nap  end  of  the  egg  by  a  Kmall  air  xpace. 
Tliis  air  «pac«  ahuuld  be  chisely  watcheti  by  the 
attendant,  as  its  sise  indicates  the  moisture  condi- 


tioD  of  the  egg.  If  this  space  becomes  abnormally 
large,  small  pans  of  wat^^r  tthould  he  placed  in  the 
incubator;  if  it  becomes  too  small,  the  moisture 
shoald  lie  reduced.  An  intelligent  .iml  watchful 
attendant  wit)  ex])erience  mi  dilTiculty  in  this  mat- 
ter. Moisture  paiui  are  seldom  required  before  the 
fourth  Week. 

In  a  warm  climate,  the  incnbator  house  should 
be  80  constructed  as  to  be  as  cool  as  possible,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  frw  from  drafts  and  not  subject 
to  sudden  changes.  I>uring  the  |K'riod  of  incuba- 
tion the  attendant  should  ntwerve  the  growth  of 
the  embryo  at  leiwl  once  every  two  days. 
This  he  can  do  by  sba'ling  the  egg  with  the 
a(H.-a  hand  and  holding  it  to  a  tighied  candle. 
Careful  observation  will  tenable  him  to  delect 
and  remove  the  infertile  eggs  by  the  i-nd  of 
the  aecoiid  week  ;  but  whenever  there  is 
room  for  doubt,  the  egg  should  be  allowed 
to  remain  longer,  perhap.s  t*!  the  end  of  the  third 
week,  when  the  internal  heat  of  the  egga  will  be 
sufficient  to  indicate,  unmi^itakably,  the  live  egga. 
Near  the  end  of  the  ai.xth  week  the  eggs  ahould  b« 
watched  more  clostdy.  Hy  placing  an  egg  to  the 
car  one  can  hear  the  unhatched  chick  scratch  the 
in.><ide  of  the  shell  and  chirp;  also,  the  airspace 
wil!  be  observed  to  become  filled  up.  It  ia  then 
time  to  crack  the  shell  and  thus  aid  the  chick  in 
liljeratirig  itself. 

It  is  not  well  suddenly  to  transfer  a  newly 
hatched  chick  from  the  incubator  temperature  of 
101"  to  that  of  the  open  air.  A  well- ventilated 
brooder  kept  at  1*0"  Fahr.,  is  the  proper  place  for 
the  first  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  the  tem- 
perature may  be  brought  gradually  to  that  of  the 
outside  air.  The  chicks  should  never  be  allowed 
to  be<;onie  damp  or  cold,  and  they  should  not  be 
fed  for  the  first  three  or  four  dayss  but  they  may 
be  allowed  to  pick  up  sand  or  gravel.  Dry  feed  is 
preferable  for  the  first  week.  Cracked  wheat  and 
moistt^ned  bran  are  excellent,  but  the  chicks  should 
never  be  given  feed  that  has  begun  to  sour.  The 
inclosure  should  always  be  kept  clean.  At  the  end 
of  the  first  week,  green  alfalfa  cut  very  fine  may 
be  fed.  but  not  too  freely  at  first,  k  should  not  bo 
allowed  to  become  drv.  Fresh  feed  ehouid  be  the 
ostrich-farmer's  watchword  at  all  times. 

Young  ostriches,  like  young  chickens,  should  be 
housed  and  protected  from  coo!  drafts  antil  they 
are  two  or  three  months  old.  the  length  of  time 
depending  somewhat  on  the  climatic  conditiona. 

Ostriches  are  called  "  chicks"  until  six  months 
old.  or  as  long  aa  they  have  their  first  crop  of 
feathers.  From  then  nntil  one  year  old  they  are 
called  "young  birls,"  and  from  one  to  four  yean 
they  are  known  as  "plucking"  or  "feather"  btrdft. 
It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  age  of  on  ostrich 
when  it  ia  more  than  three  and  one-half  years  old. 

Hnrulling. 

Young  ostriches  are  usually  kept  ia  troops  <rf 
twenty-five  to  fifty.  When  tbey  are  one  year  old, 
the  malutt  should  Ihj  separated  from  the  females. 
When  they  are  three  and  one-half  years  old,  the 
birds  should  be  paired  off,  each  \mT  or  sut  of  a 


OSTRICH 


OSTRICH 


&13 


cock  and  two  heriH  he'mg  placed  in  a  separate 
enclosure,  which,  in  case  the  binla  are  to  grare  on 
alfalfa  or  other  ^een  food,  should  bv  lar(!>e  enoutfh 
to  furniah  them  autticient  food.  If  they  are  f«(i  cm 
dry  fe«l,  the  enclosuK  need  only  be  larne  enongh 
to  allow  plenty  of  exercise. 

The  Mual  way  to  fence  an  ointrich  farm  is  to  uae 
&  vroren  wire  for  the  outside  fences,  ahoat  five 
and  one-half  feet  high,  and  with  n)04>he8  .small 
enough  U'  keep  out  wolvfS  and  dogs.  The  fenctas 
uxed  tu  divide  the  farm  into  amatl  paddoclu  may 
he  ahout  fHvp  fH>t  hi^h  and  nefnl  not  extend  nearer 
than  eiKhU-tn  irichw  to  the  j^Tuund.  I'addocks  for 
chicks  ahoald  hi;  enclosed  with  woven  wire,  which 
xhoiild  extend  to  the  ground  hot  need  not  be  so 
high. 

Ostriches  are  eiwily  move<l  from  one  field  to 
another  by  one  per-^un  £?)ing  ahead,  calHng  them, 
and  tiling  them  on  with  grain,  whilt!  another  fol- 
lows on  a  horsf.  The  liirds  are  very  timiil  and  do 
nut  like  to  hu  dris'en  unluiw  aoinu  onu  goes  ahead  of 
them.  After  ostriches  are  over  one  ye.%r  old.  no  one 
should  go  among  thuni  without  a  hrush  or  stick  in 
hand,  as  at  times  they  will  want  to  light,  and  a 
penton  going  among  ihem  in  li,-ih]e  to  injury  unlejw 
he  ham  something  with  which  to  drive  or  frighten 
them  away. 

Feeding. 

One  of  the  very  beat  feeds  for  ostriches  is  alfalfa. 
Whiin  pastured  or  fed  on  green  iLJfalfa  they  arij 
always  healthy.  Where  good  alfalfa  pasture  has 
been  availabk"-,  the  birds  bred  in  America  have 
grown  larger  than  those  first  imported.  The  writer 
has  known  trnopn  (if  more  than  one  hiimlrt^d  to  be 
kept  on  alfalfa  fur  Ihrea  or  four  years  without  a 
death.  Ostrtchwa  thrive  well  on  any  gruen  foragw, 
and  they  prufer  thti  kind  thu-y  have  been  tiviight  to 
oat.  hinig  fed  on  hay,  when  turned  out,  often  re- 
fuse to  eat  grass  until  they  become  very  hungry. 

For  dry  feed,  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  exit  up.  mixed 
with  bran  and  miji-steneii.  is  excellent.  An  oatritrh 
will  consume  about  thnn]  pounds  of  hay  and  one 
[Hjuiid  of  bran  daily.  It  should  have  gnivel  and 
broken  bone  at  all  times.  Ostrichi^^  may  be  fed 
any  kind  of  grain— corn,  wh^at,  barley,  oata  or 
peaR.  Some  farmers  fei?<l  a  little  grain  while  the 
birds  are  ni?»ting.  Oniinnrily,  however,  if  wstriche« 
are  in  g«<xi  tle.ih  and  have  plenty  of  good,  green 
feed  they  need  no  grain.  If  fed  much  grain,  they  are 
likulv  to  Iweome  crowt  and  hard  to  manage.  They 
also  oecome  liable  to  digL'^tivt-  Iroubk^.  <^!ood  nutri- 
tion is  most  important,  as  the  quality  and  produc- 
tion of  feathers  is  thereby  enhanced. 

Although  .African  writera  assert  that  ustrichw 
will  live  for  yenrs  without  water,  American  farm- 
em  find  that  they  drink  water  freely  every  day  if 
it  is  auppliid  to  thttin. 

FluekiDff.   (Fig.  500.) 

The  ostrich  is  plucked  the  first  time  when  six 
month.4  olrl.  and  should  he  plucked  about  every 
eight  months  thereafter  during  its  lifetime.  The 
only  feathers  removed  are  those  of  the  wing  anil 
the  tail.  The  process  of  plucking  con»itit«  in  cutting 

C33 


■^: 


PU.  itxi.    Piuoklos  u  osnlcli. 


the  tail  feathers  and  one  row  of  the  largest  ituill 
feathers  in  the  wing  with  pruning  shears,  and 
drawing  by  hand  thtsw  of  the  remaining  two  or 
thrdd  rows  in  the  wing.  Two  months  later  the 
quills  of  the  cut  feathers  may  t>e  removed. 

At  plucking  time  the  ostriches  are  driven  in 
from  the  pasture  and  placed  in  a  small  pen  sur- 
rounded by  a  t  ight  board  fence  five  or  six  ft-et  high. 
The  plucking-box  is  about  four  fuet  high,  twenty 
inches  wide,  and  three  and  oue-half  feet  long,  ojmn 
at  one  end  and  closed  with  a  door  at  the  other.  An 
ostrich  is  caught 
and  a  hutsl  placed 
over  iU  head ;  an 
old  black  stocking 
makt^g  a  very  satis- 
factory hood.  The 
hooded  bird  is  very 
easily  handled.  It  ts 
placeil  in  the  pluck- 
ing-box with  its 
head  next  to  the 
closed  door.  The 
plucker  stands  be- 
hind the  bird  while 
removing  the  feath- 
eni.  This  is  neces- 
sary, because  the 
ostrich  can  kick  or 
strike  very  hard, 
but  it  al  w  ay* 
strikes  out  in  front 
and  never  behind,  so  that  the  plucker  is  perfectly 
safe  if  he  stands  in  the  rear. 

When  n-moving  the  feathers  from  the  (wtrich, 
the  pluckers  usually  tie  in  a  bunch  the  feathers  of 
each  length  as  they  are  taken  from  each  bird. 
When  through  plucking,  the  feathers  ure  ]iluced 
on  a  grailing  table,  having  enough  compartments 
in  it  tn  hntd  all  the  gradi-s  and  lengths  of  feathers, 
which  are  many.  The  sine  of  each  compartment  is 
iilmut  four  inches  wide  and  four  inches  deep,  and 
ths  length  viiries  from  four  to  thirty  inches.  In 
sorting,  the  feuthfrK  of  the  male  are  kept  separate 
from  those  of  the  female.  The  formerare  the  moet 
valuable. 

Grade*  nf' ffttihrr*  and  their  vaiiu. 

ManufacturiTs  in  this  ci>untry  usually  reqaost 
that  the  feathers  lie  graded  as  nearly  ns  posaihle 
as  they  are  in  the  I^ndun  market,  where  nearly  all 
the  feathers  uf  the  world  are  marketed.  A  lyondon 
report  shows  the  following  classification:  While, 
femina,  bayocks,  black,  drabs,  floss,  spadones  and 
boos,  with  numerous  subdivisions  or  grades. 

The  value  of  the  American  feathers  depends  on 
the  London  market.  In  an  .American  fKtory  they 
will  bring  ir»  per  cent  more  than  the  London  price, 
plus  the  freight  charges.  In  January.  1907,  "white 
primes"  and  "blood  feathers"  —  the  most  valuable- 
sold  in  l^ondon  for  thirty  pounds  sterling  ($146) 
per  jiiiund.  It  takes  ahniit  ninety  of  the  largest 
feathers  Ut  weigh  a  pound.  The ''white  primes'* 
and  "hlcHMS  feathere"  are  taken  from  the  malefl,  as 
well  as  must  of  the  "white  firsLs,"  although  ucca- 


OSTRICH 


sionally  a  fcTnalu  bird  will  bave  what  the  feather 
men  call  a  "firnt  whiU;."  The  black  feathers  are 
plucked  from  the  male  birds  and  the  drab  frum  the 
fernaltiB.  "Spadonea"  are  chick  feathyrs  of  thts  firat 
plucking.  "II003"  aro  tail  feathers.  "FaycickA" 
(mix«l  colors)  rome  nnwtly  from  thi^  male  birdji. 
Thtf  shortest  drab  fenLliers.  wliJch  are  freiiuenUy 
used  io  miikiiii:  f^athtr  duHti-rs,  arts  wurth  about 
four  dollar*  pt-r  paiiiid.  An  aviTitgL^  (wtrich  will 
yield  one  and  one-half  pnunda  of  feathers  annually, 
worth  twenty  to  t»t?nty-live  dollara  per  pound. 

The  United  ytates  is  one  of  the  largt'.st  cnnsum- 
era  of  ostrich  feathers  in  the  world.  America 
impurti^  about  two  and  a  t^uarUfr  million  dollars' 
worth  of  rawer  unmanufactured  f^iathera  anmiaity, 
which  is  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  world'a  supply. 
The  featheni  protuced  in  America  arc  fully  as  good 
as  those  coming  from  Africa,  and  it  is  said  that 
they  are  broader  and  finer  lookinj;,  although  some 
manufacturers  contflnd  that  they  are  not  so  strong 
and  tough  as  the  wild  feathen. 

The  value  of  the  ostrich  aa  a  domestic  bird 
depends  on  its  production  of  feathers  far  ornamen- 
tal purposes.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  the  rela- 
tions between  supply  and  demand  will  so  change  as 
to  make  the  ostriL-h  more  valuable  as  a  source  of 
food  in  the  form  of  meat  and  eggs.  The  flesh  of  the 
domestic  ostrich.  h'Owever,  &  said  to  be  much 
relished  by  those  who  bave  eaten  it.  The  e^'pt  are 
fine  for  making  omelets  and  are  good  scrambled. 
One  egfr  will  make  aa  much  omelet  as  two  and  a 
half  dozen  hen's  egps.  An  ostrich  has  been  known 
to  produce  over  three  hundred  pounds  of  egg  food 
in  a  year.  There  is  no  re;fuiar  market  for  young 
birds  or  eggs  except  for  farming  purposes,  the 
only  sales  being  to  persons  who  desire  to  engage  in 
the  ostrich  business. 

Nothinir  is  piositively  known  as  to  how  long  an 
ostrich  will  live.  Some  writers  ajwert  that  it  will 
livQ  one  hundred  years.  Ostriches  which  are  known 
to  have  been  in  captivity  for  forty  years,  are  still 
breeding  and  producing  feathers.  It  is  the  experi- 
ence of  Arizona  farmers  that  among  birds  having 
goiKl  nutritious  green  fe«d,  deaths  8«?ldoiii  occur 
except  as  thti  result  of  accident.  A  dog  or  othur 
small  animal  will  sometimes  frighten  an  ostrich 
and  cause  it  to  run  into  the  fence,  which  may  result 
in  a  broken  leg.  When  this  happens,  the  bird  may 
as  well  be  killed,  as  few.  if  any.  ever  rernver  from 
mch  an  injury.  Ostriches  are  exceptionally  free 
from  disease. 

LUerature. 

Hownthal  and  Harting.  Ostriches  and  Ostrich 
Farming  (1887);  Martin,  Home  Life  on  an  Ostrich 
Farm  (1801);  Duncan.  Report  VmtM  StateA  De- 
nartment  of  .Agriculture.  1SS8;  Paul,  Ostrich  Farm- 
mn  in  California,  runmupolitan  Magazine.  Vol.  XI, 
New  York  (1891);  Newton,  Dictionary  of  Birds, 
New  York  (I89C),  which  contains  numerous  ref- 
ervncea. 


PETS.   Figs.  501-523. 
Ry  C.  II.  L'llard. 

The  subject  of  pets  is  of  widespread  interest  and 
includes  a  Urge  variety  of  animals.  The  moat 
common  and  important  of  thette  in  America  are 
dogs,  catti,  rabbits,  cavie^  or  guinw  pigs,  mice. 
rattt.  ^uirrels,  pigeotiit,  bantams  and  etge-birds. 
The  extent  to  which  pets  are  kept  is  greatly  in- 
creasing. The  localities  whert  they  sw.'ra  to  be 
most  numerijus  are  about  the  manufacturing  towns 
of  New  Hngland  and  the  middle  Atlantic  states. 
thinning  out  as  the  West  is  approached.  Stati5ti<:s 
indicate  that  there  are  more  petti  in  the  state  of 
I'ennsylvania  than  in  any  other  state. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  this  Cyclopedia  to  dis- 
cuss at  length  the  flubj-j-ct  of  jvts,  as  they  are 
scarcely  to  be  considered  farm  animals.  For  that 
reason,  the  accounts  here  given  must  b«  brief.  Farm 
dogs  are  considered  on  pages  383-389  :  cat**  on 
pages  299-'i01  ;  Belgian  hares  on  pages  412-415, 
and  pigeons  and  bantams  in  ihetr  agricultural 
relations  in  the  following  pages  under  Poultry. 

Doffs. 

The  dog,  since  the  earliest  time,  has  been  more 
or  less  a  help  to  and  companioo  of  man.  It  haa 
gradually  become  useful  in  many  fields,  and  now  ig 
the  most  universally  kept  pet,  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  the  canary  and  the  cat.  Hunting  dt»g8 
were  evidently  the  first  to  be  used  and  trained  by 
man.  Of  these,  the  setters,  Pointer  and  spaniela 
are  the  breeds  now  rwiognized  other  than  the 
hounds.  These  are  all  strong,  speedy  dogs,  pos- 
sessed of  unusual  intelligence  in  the  work  of  the 
huntsman.  There  are  three  varieties  of  s«tter8 
recof;niEe<l  today.— the  English,  the  Irish  and  the 
Gordon  ;  all  are  similar  in  shape,  and  differ  chiefly 
in  color. 

The  jtrticnf.— The  EitglUh  setter  is  a  trim,  strong, 
speedy  dog.  with  rather  long  hair  and  with  the 
feathering  that  characterizes  the  setter,— that  is, 
a  fringe  of  longer,  rather  wavy  hair  along  his 
lower  outline,  his  back  being  smooth.  The  English 
setter  is  usually  black  and  white,  or  liver  and 
white.  The  Irigh  gftUr  is  red,  the  only  reason  for 
calling  him  Irish  seemingly  being  the  color, 
»lthouKh  that  kimi  of  dog  was  uM.'d  considvrably 
by  Irish  landlords.  The  Gurdoti  idler  is  a  bit 
heavier  than  the  others  and  is  black  and  tan. 
Good  specimens  of  these  latter  dogs  are  not  very 
plentiful  and  are  striking  in  appearance. 

Thf  spniiitU  embrace  a  number  of  different  Ya- 
rieties,  and  to  this  typo  of  dog  the  fitters  belong ; 
in  fact,  the  spaniels  were  known  in  early  tinea  aa 
the  setting  spaniels.  The  Oxkvr  spanitl  is  the  noet 
widely  bred  of  all  th^  varieties,  and  some  very 
handsome  specimens  of  it  are  seen  in  oar  large 
dog-shows.  It  comcBt  black,  red  and  parti-colored, 
anil  an  occasional  one  of  some  other  color  appears. 
It  wa/t  originally  used  for  hunting  small  game  bnt 
is  Dow  chieJir  a  houite  dug.  The  spaniel  has  a  mel* 
low,  large,  hrown  eye  that  is  vt-ry  expntfsive  and 
rather  an  important  charact«-ri.<;tic.  as  is  also  the 
feathering  of  the  tegs,  as  in  the  setter.   The  FSttd 


PETS 


PET^l 


515 


j^PmM  is  of  about  the  name  atyle  t»  the  Cnclcvr, 
and,  indeed,  U  reallv  a  larger  Cocker.  It  is  longer, 
and  hence  appears  lower,  heavier  bnilt  but  not 
clumsy.  This  variety  ia  not  very  widely  bred  in 
America,  but  there  are  a  few  studa  of  repute  in 
England,  The  Clumhtr  spankl  haa  most  of  the  char- 
actenutica  uf  the  other  npaniela,  bat  the  "Ftop," 
the  indenture  at  the  union  of  the  forehead  and 
muzzlo.  is  deepijr.  The  dog  is  ahorter  than  the  Field 
Hpaniet  and  larger  than  the  ('ockt-r.  The  Irish  Waier 
tpaniel  ia  a  dog  used  by  the  water-fowl  huntsman, 
and  ia  a  Ftnrdy  intelligent  "retriever."  Several 
atuda  are  maintained  in  Canada,  hut  few  are  bred 
in  the  United  States  and  few  are  tieeo  at  the  dog- 
showB.  The  dog  u  covered  with  a  long,  brown, 
slightly  curling  coat,  of  which  there  w  not  enough 
for  his  face  and  tail,  both  of  which  are  practically 
bare.  To  the.w  varieties  may  be  addwd  the  more 
unnsual  SufM-s  and  S'orfolk  fpaaUif,  few  of  which 
are  bred  in  America. 

The  I'ointer  and  "lietriever"  i»  the  outcome  of 
a  Qe«d  for  a  dog  trained  for  wing  shooting.  It  ts 
more  of  a  boand  than  a  spanit'l,  and  is  rather  com- 
mon, especially  id  region*  wher«  there  in  much 
shooting.  It  is  msnally  a  straight,  ehort-hairtid  dog 
with  a  predominance  of  white,  spotted  and  marked 
with  black  or  liver. 

T^-r  Chtmptakt  ba^  dog  is  bred  for  water  shoot- 
ing along  the  bay,  the  name  of  which  it  benrR,  and 
tip  into  Ohio  and  along  the  Potomac.  It  ia  fl>'m- 
metrically  built,  with  only  loodt-rato  "  feathering  " 
z»  compared  with  the  setter.  It  is  strong,  and  of 
about  the  color  of  wet  sedge-grans. 

The  Uaimathin  or  Cfiack-dog  waH,  perhaps,  origi- 
nally a  hound  from  Dalmatia,  but  moe.i  of  the  bound 
characteristics  are  cone  in  the  motiem  Coach-dDg. 
It  is  spotted  with  black  on  a  white  ground,  and  is 
peculiar  and  striking  when  ideally  marked.  It  U  a 
running  dog,  and  hence  is  lightly  bat  strcjngly 
built.  Its  euloranoe  is  Mmetime.-!  wonderful.  It  is 
a  stable  dog,  and  is  alert  and  du>crimjnating.  It 
should  approximate  fifty 
pounds  in  weight. 

For  the  fW/if  and  the 
Sfieep-doif  the  reader  ia 
referred  to  the  special 
articles  on  pages  383- 
389 

Thf.  hiildog  (Fig.  m\) 
originated  in  the  brutal 
bull-baiting  coiitesUi,  in 
which  the  dogs  wore 
trained  to  pull  down  the 
bull  hy  the  ears.  To  do 
this,  a  heavy,  tenacious 
hrute  was  necw«*ry. 
was  tried,  and  as  it  worked 
better  than  the  "ear-huld,"  the  dogs  were  trained 
for  thia.  .Vs  a  smaller  dog  of  greater  agility  wa« 
neci'Sfiary  for  the  latter,  the  hnlMog  decreased  in 
BlK.  Bulldogs  are  pnrticularly  homely,  with  their 
hnge,  heavy  head,  broad  shouldersi,  lK>w-leg8.  and 
the  hind-quarters  and  loins  »  tritle  higher  than  the 
sboolders.  As  a  rale,  thfw  dogs  uxe  under-shot,  and 
ahow  their  t«eth  more  or  lew.  They  are  renowned 


Pll.  Ml.    BuUdOC. 
I^ater.  tha  "nrnw-hold 


for  their  faithfulness,  tenacity  of  hold  and  watchful 
care  of  proj)erty.  They  have  been  bred  for  a  long 
tim«  f^implyait  a  fancy  dog,  and  a  kink  wa.«t  bre<I  in 
their  tails  to  keep  these  down.  The  Frtnch  bulUag, 
while  not  so  lively  and  alert  as  the  Boston,  is  a  very 
popular  house  dog.  It  has  a  broad,  square  jaw  and 
large,  dark  eye,  It  is  seldom  over  twelve  inches 
high  and  should  be  smaller  than  the  Boston.  It  is 

usually  of  a 
darker   hrindln 
than   the    Bow- 
to  n,  although 
the  latter  is 
now   being  xbown  in 
black  and  while.  The 
French  bulldogs   are 
generally  of  uniform 
color.    Their  ears  are 
erect.     Recently    they 
^  have  enjoyed  the  envi- 

P.£.  »!.     FOX  U^«,  3i,,^  p,^^-  ^j  ^^^  ^^^^^ 

of  the  wave  of  fashion  in  dogs. 

The  (trriert!:  were  used  for  a  long  time  for  the 
hunting  of  foxe?,  badgers,  rats  and  other  small 
game  and  vermin.  Of  these,  the  little  Fox  terrier 
iFig.  50:;)  id  the  most  popular.  It  was  bred  as  early 
as  1S02.  It  should  ahow  a  predominance  of  white, 
mark<-d  with  liver  or  black.  The  nose  should  be 
black,  the  skull  flat,  rather  narrow  and  decrf,ifling 
toward  the  eyes.  The  ears  should  be  V-shapM  and 
always  have  a  forward  fall,  pointing  toward  the 
tajwring  muzzle.  It  should  lie  over-shot  slightly, 
hot  the  teeth  should  come  together  with  the  upper 
ones  ju«t  on  the  outside.  The  neck  and  body  should 
be  trim  and  muscular,  without  coarseness.  The  tail 
should  be  carried  high  but  not  over  the  back  nor 
curled.  The  Fox  terrier  is  a  lively,  active,  intelli- 
gent dog.  that  makes  an  excellent  watch-dog  and 
companion.  It  is  an  indefatigable  ratter  and  ver- 
min exterminator.  It  is  very  widely  bred.  Recently 
there  has  been  bred  the  IVm-hatrcd  Foi  terrier. 
This  is  simitar  in  all  rejipecta,  except  the  coat,  to 
the  smooth-haired  variety.  In  all  probability  it  waa 
the  original  Fox  terrier.  The  AircdaU  terrier  was 
probably  produced  by  the  croeaJng  of  the  grizzle 
and  tan  terriers  with  other  dogs  of  the  vicinity  in 


Us.  va.    BoQ  tenln. 

Yorkshire.  It  has  a  stronger  ^w  and  muo 
the  Fox  terrier  and  the  ears  are  wider. 
the  bulldog  on  the  terriers  gave 
(Fig.  503.)  It  was  first  noted  as  a  dt» 


PETS 


PETS 


1820.  It  has  a  wide  brisket,  rather  long,  very  iqbsco- 
lar  jawsnd  a  rather  round  head,  an  appearance  diiL^ 
krjrely  to  the  hujje  jaw  mtijtclw.  It  grows  to  very 
(fciud  Kizft  and  ut  nitnally  hi^avily  built.  Imt  nnt  in  tht^ 
least  awkward.  It  poi«esfte«  many  of  this  traiU  of 
thw  bulidoK.  and  th«  activity  wf  Ihw  tL-rritT  Iriliii. 
With  thi?se  terriers,  the  old  Blark-aiitJ-Uin  terrier, 
the  HetilintitiirL  terria-  and  the  /rij<A  terrier  might 
be  clatwed.  The  Skj^e  terrier  is  a  rather  large  dog. 
Weighing  over  twenty  poonils  and  covered  with  long 
hair  of  a  hliiiflh  tint.  Ite  ear*  are  either  erect  or 
fallen,  the  former  being  a  hit  more  correct.  It  in 
a  long,  luw  (lu^,  and  a  great  favorit(>  iut  a  hi>iiKe 
pet  with  thoii«  who  can  care  for  it^  rojit.  The 
Seottith  terrier  \b  a  long,  low  grJEzIy  little  dog  of 
verj' ancient  Itneagts,  but  rnily  very  recently  seen  in 
America.   It  i.-*  prick-t-ared,  nine  to  twelve  Int-hes 


M 


W. 


J^-. 


Pic  }M.    GrerttMind, 


high,  and  glvw*  the  impresflion  of  an  odttity  in  dctg- 
dom.  It  iH  an  artive  hunter  nf  rndenti  and  other 
vermin.  TIih  Weink  terrirr  m  vnmham  nixed,  being 
lietween  the  Irish  and  the  Fcix  terriers.  It  in 
usually  lilm.'k  and  tan,  hut  not  rnKresHarily.  The 
Huttori  terrier  is  essentially  an  American  dog,  hav- 
ing been  produced,  it  is  Katd,  by  the  crossing  of 
the  small  bulldog  and  the  Mull  t*^rrier.  and  dieplay- 
ing  the  bent  f]ii.ililie8  of  oarh.  The  skull  ahowld  Ite 
square,  prai^ttcally  the  Rame  width  nl  the  earn  iLnd 
at  lh«  eyiin.  The  nuiyj  tthtiuld  be  bllu^k  and  the  face 
niarkwl  with  a  whilw  blazo  ;  a  white  collar  and  four 
white  fuet  are  ideal,  but  color  is  not  an  essential 
feature.  The  color  is  usually  one  of  the  three  brin- 
dies  on  the  remainder  of  the  body.  The  eycfl.  ears 
and  back  are  covered  with  golden  seal  or  mahogany 
brindle.  Ocrasioaatly  ^  Mack  or  a  blitek  brindle  in 
3een,  ami  \v»»  often  a  fawn  color  with  a  brown  nose. 
This  is,  perlmpH.  the  most  popular  dog  of  the  day, 
sharing  honora  with  the  Frunch  bulldog.  The  Mai- 
ifgr  Irrrierg  are  small,  pure  white  dogtt  with  drop 
ears,  like  some  varieties  of  the  Skye.  Their  coat  ia 
long,  straight  and  ailky,  reaching  to  the  ground. 
They  are  always  small  and  never  should  exceed 
the  twelve-pnimd  limit  set  for  "toys."  The  Ynrb- 
tkirr  ttrrier  in  a  pigmy  in  the  terrier  family,  pni- 


dnctfd  from  the  same  general  crossing  that  gave 
the  I']ngli.th  fanciers  the  .\iredale.  Itu  coat  is  long, 
straight  and  even,  of  a  bright  steeUblue  color,  with 
t:Ln  markings.  The  Yorkshire  is  raifled  as  a  ]iel 
to  a  large  extent  abroad.  Not  a  very  large  nara- 
l)er  ar«  seen  in  this  country,  but  sume  are  in 
evidence. 

The  Great  Dane  is  a  strong,  speedy  dog,  with 
moreof  the  lithene-s  of  the  Greyhound  than  heavi- 
ness of  the  Mii^tilL  The  minimum  size  i»  thirty 
inches  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  for 
males,  and  two  inches  and  twenty  pounds  less  for 
femiiles.  As  murh  greater  height  lis  ptiRnible,  retain- 
ing lype,  is  Sought  by  brei-ders.  fJreat  I}.sneJian* 
of  «!Veral  colors,  the  gray,  nil,  hbck  or  juitche<l 
tx^ing  the  moat  desired,  although  an  occasional  fawn 
or  white  one  is  seen. 

Tilt'  !\faitt(f  is  one  of  tho  very  olile«t  types  of 
dogs.  It  is  massive,  combining  great  courage 
and  dtjcility,  and  hnilt  after  the  bulldog  1)^16.  The 
no»e  is  blunt  ami  stjuare,  making  a  muzzle  nlxtut 
one-fourth  the  tutal  length  of  the  hea<).  It  is  not 
nearly  so  popular  as  formerly. 

The  .SV.  livniard  in  America  is  a  purely  fancy 
dog,  ditferent  in  type  from  that  used  at  the  Hoe- 
pice.  It  is  a  symmetrical,  ma.>«sive  dog,  with  a 
sijuare  mu7.xle,  black  nose  and  usually  a  wliit«  blaze, 
The  coat  is  long  and  not  bo  thick  as  that  of  the  tlog 
useii  at  the  Hospice. 

The  Neu^onmUand  dog  has  very  largely  diaap- 
peared  from  view.  It  originated  in  Newfound- 
land. It  is  black,  at  leiut  twenty  inches  high,  and 
Is  a  water  dog.  The  coat  is  thick  and  long,  the 
head  slightly  domed,  with  rather  a  pronounced 
"stop." 

The  htmnii  j'nmily  includes  a  numWr  of  dogs  of 
[teculiar  rU'velopment,  built  to  nm  and  pull  down 
the  quiirry.  ThL'-»e  dogs  follow  mostly  by  scent, 
although  in  the  (.iruyhoitnd  and  some  others,  eight 
seems  often  to  play  an  important  part.  The  fjrrjf- 
kmindn  (Pig.  504)  are  slender,  strong  dogs,  with  a 
muftcuEar  but  graceful  biwly,  long,  tapering  muzsle. 
lined  with  the  sharpest  teeth  anil  manned  with  strong 
jawmurti'les.  They  area  vi>ry  early  tyjie  of  dog.  The 
Wulfhmtnd  iM  much  like  the  Ortyliound  in  build,  the 
head  being  a  little  longer  and  narrower  and  show- 
ing more  of  tho  Roman  nose.  It  stands  twenty- 
eight  to  thirty-one  inches  high.  The  Hnmian  L^err- 
haumt  is  the  most  common  of  this  family  of  dogs. 
There  is  also  the  irifh  (now  being  jfromoted  by 
Irish  fanciers)  and  the  Seoleii  rktrhauadt.  The  latter 
is  rart.-  in  America.  These  have  long  iihaggy  coats 
and  are  ho-ivier  than  the  (Ireyhound.  The  Whippet 
is  closely  related  to  the  (Ireyhound,  and  is,  indeed, 
a  »raa,ll  Greyhound  in  tj-pe.  It  is  trained  for  racing. 
These  dogs  are  lined  up  and  started  like  race  horsoa, 
and  without  rider  or  other  incentive  on  Ibe  conrw. 
fairly  fly  to  the  finish.  In  the  liiixvfbuunii  we  have 
the  exaggerated  type  of  hound,  with  its  pecoliar 
accuracy  of  scent,  its  hanging  lip  nnd  dewlap,  and 
the  falling  under-eyelid.  the  penduloos  ears  and 
strong,  thick-set  body  en  rather  short  leg*.  The 
bead  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  show  Blood- 
hound. ,\s  a  wnteh-<!og,  it  has  a  reputation  forvigi- 
lance  and  discrimination.   The  Faxhaund  is  perfaaps 


PETS 


PETS 


617 


theuommonetttof  thchotini]t<;in  America,  and  hat;  the 
misfortHrifl  of  having  no  vpry  distinctive  type,  ll  is 
ki-|it  mOMtly  in  packn  on  m)iiLhem  fstatfti,  »ml  \b  umhI 
fur  ihf' hunt  BiUierof  the  anise  iia^;(iri)f  arRiil  "Itey- 
nanl."  ThftH  an?  Iwn  ifri»iHiH,  kntiwn  as  the  Knj;liHh 
anil  thi'  American.  Wt  as  lliu  tyjw  is  not  (iistiin-'t- 
ivi-,  ctifTLTL'iitiatinn  LsiltiTiL'ull.  Thu  Koxhimiiil  ninj^eii 
from  Iwenty-ony  to  twenty-four  inohes  hinli,  and 
ahonld  not  weiph  more  than  sixty  poumls.  The 
Hr-aylehimnit  is.  the  smallest  of  the  hound  family, 
excepting  th^p  dwarf  Haiwet  find  Darhtt.  IViigU-a  iire 
raiwsl  »nd  tniini>cl  in  largi'  niinibpri^  in  vnrimtH 
partH  of  Ainaricil,  where  Ihey  are  alHo  often  i-allwi 
ralibit  hounds.  Th«y  aru  distinct  in  lyix*,  with  a 
fairly  ton^,  slightly  dumc«1  skull.  Tht-y  comv  in 
aeverni  colors,  in  which  white  is  a  common  admix- 
ture. The  Utilina  Gn-yhntiinl  in  a  small  g^ilden  fawn 
dog  of  the  Ramp  (ffnenil  charactfr  sm  thi!  larger 
dog,  but  of  even  urea-ter  Hymmelry,  with  a  prsnu- 
inj(  action  of  limh  that  carries  wiUi  it  the  impn^s- 
sion  of  uQUitunI  ktucv. 

TTie  i'otfJkJi,  with  their  oarly  and  corded  "locks," 
form  a  family  of  dogs  very  tractable  indeed,  and 
■re  invariahly  the  mainatay  of  exhihitors  of  trained 
dogs.  Th+'y  are  rhielly  hnw!  aa  hoane-dngn  or  for 
fancy,  and  in  fither  i:uim  always  apparently  como 
up  to  the  expectations  of  those  who  fancy  this 
type  of  dog. 

7Xe  I'omeraninit*  are,  pttrhaiis,  a  development  of 
the  honnds  of  Italy  or  (Jreece.  They  were  also 
known  a«  the  "SpitK."  They  are  a  fad  and  win 
many  prizeH  at  shows.  The  larger  sperimens  are 
atMiiit  fifteen  to  twenty  inches  higli,  and  the  small 
ontw  nut  more  than  t*m  iniJifJt  imd  often  !««.  They 
have  a  long  fine  coat  and  lots  of  it  except  on 
the  face,  whiTL-  Ww  hair  is  short.  The  tnil  is  wyll 
covered  with  long  hair  and  is  usually  curled.  They 
have  a  quick,  fox-like  ap|jearanco  and  manner,  that 
often  grows  into  a  snappish  disposition. 

TV  Pai) '»  a  dog  «f  arienta.1  origin,  from  all  that 
can  he  giitliered,  and  is  useful  unly  a»  a  pet.  It 
JB  a  «|u«re  little  <io^'.  with  a  large  pn>portii)n  of 
individuality. 

Thf  Unjftm,  with  wiry  coat  and  rongh  head, 
the  A'iftj  Charfrx.  with  its  out-of-proportion  hfad, 
short  face  and  large  eyes,  but  pretty  mannor,  the 
Biertheim  and  PfkinexF.  are  all  ladies'  dogs ;  and 
while  ppta  to  which  many  a  woman  de\"ot*3  her 
energies,  they  are  not  possessed  «t  any  very  re- 
mnrkahle  gift^  of  intelligence  nor  are  they  a  very 
safe  dog  when  children  are  atKJtit. 

RahbiU. 

The  domestic  rabbit  is  bred  in  many  variettea  in 
America.  All  varieticjt  excoptthe  Impenal  and  the 
Silver-brown  are  represented  among  the  hatchMof 
the  fanciers  in  the  American  Fur  Fanciers'  Associa- 
tion. Kach  variety  has  a  type  of  Its  own,  distinct- 
ive in  shape,  carriage,  sir,e,  and  often  in  color. 

The  raising  of  pet  stock  brings  fair  monetary 
returns.  While  there  is  hut  small  profit  in  raising 
rabbits  for  the  foreign  element's  market,  and  caviea 
and  mice  for  the  bacteriological  laboratories,  there 
is  mach  more  in  the  raising  of  good  pure-bred 
fancy  stock ;  and  few  fanciers  with  an  exhibition 


record  and  a  reputation  for  "square  dealing,"  fail 
to  pay  their  feied  bills  and  make  a  little  profit. 
Must  fanciers  combine  the  two  praetic&s,  disposing 
of  the  |MHir  specimens  or  "culls"  to  the  market- 
man  or  dealer  at    market   prvoe  and  selling  the 


.-'■TiA 


--.^■^ 


Fix.  SOS.     A  fit*  AAfoiA  dK.     "  Bn««bBlL*' 

better  specimens  to  new  fanciers  or  othera  wishing 
good  atandard-hred  st^ck. 

Hdgutit  bnrp.  nrW*!/.— This  was  the  most  popolar 
of  the  rabbit,  family.  It  is  di,'<cU8,'<ed  at  length  on 
pages  412  4ir>,  and  will  not  l>e  consideretl  here. 

,'ln,tf(*ru.  The  aristiK-ratic;  .Angora  (Figs.  506, 
50fi>  is,  pyrhaiwn,  second  in  popular  favor  and 
fancy.  It  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and  hand- 
some varieties  of  the  rabbit  family.  These  rabbits 
are  grown  in  France  for  the  wool  they  produce, 
the  length  and  fineness  of  texture  in  reality  taking 
their  coatji  out  of  the  fur  clas,s.  The  Angora  wool 
used  fiir  babies'  cajw  is  miide  from  the  wool  gathered 
from  iAi'i  nests  of  thew  rabbits,  for  which  cotton 
wool  is  substituted.  France  has  regular  farms 
devoted  to  this  enterprise.  No  similiar  uf«e  is  made 
of  the  Angora  rabbit  in  this  country. 

The  Angora  should  Ite  rather  large,  with  its 
he.id  and  b'tily  almost  obliterate^)  in  outline  by  the 
woidly  coat.  The  fwt  and  legs  are  c'*mpletcly 
hidden,  and  good  sjat-imens  show  a  heavy  coat  of 
wool  all  over.  Th..-  chctt  di-velof«  a  huge  fluff  or 
apron,  into  which  the  rabbit  detight«<  to  sink  its 
chin,  and  a^  the  fur  on  its  cheeks  and  neck  comes 

forward     about 
^^  the  face,  it  lose* 

all  rabbit  ap- 
[learance  except 
for  the  ears. 
These  should  be 
short,  wide  and 
covered  with 
for.  The  tips  are 
u.iuallv  topped 
by  little  tufU  of 
wool  that  give 
them  the  appearance  of  being  tanele<l.  The  Angoras 
are  bred  in  uniform  and  broken  color.  Of  the 
former,  the  whit«  or  albinos  seem  to  be  the  most 
nearly  perfected  so  far,  Mually  producing  larger 
coats  and  larger  spocimenii.  There  are  also  bluea, 
fawns,  blacks  and  yellowH. 
Flrmiih  Gtanf.—Next  to  the  Belgian  hare  mb- 


Ple.  im.    ADKotJi  doe  wita  Dutch 


618 


PETS 


Pfi're 


bit,  Ik's  commercial  spirit  would  place  the  Flemish 
Giant  (Fig.  oOT>;  in  fact,  iL«  [Aacv  in  Ifefnre  the  Hel- 
giao  hare  in  the  efltimatioi  of  many  pi-rsons.  A« 
itK  name  implies,  it.  is  thv  frinnt  uf  Lhe  tucu.  It  waK 
intriKluctjii  intn  England  by  the  pruatnt  8wn-'tary 
(if  the  Natiftiml  Pli;iiiiith  fliant  Club  of  that  country, 
in  the  Barly  "uightii!s."  It  was  thun  a  bugt%  sanily 
gray  rabbit,  but  today,  a  dark  sti-el  pray  in  tbu 
propLTcnlor  and  snnilineKSt  is  »  diNguallfyiii);  mark. 
It  was  brought  to  Ameriya  during;  the  Ilelgian 
han^  craze,  ai*  were  sisveral  othur  type:*,  and  much 
cnwBJng  was  dona  1"  intTwaAH  the  size  of  the 
Belgian. 

The  Flemish  tthould  bu  a  dark  stoul-gray,  with  as 
even  and  deep  a  color  over  all  part**  of  the  body  aa 


PIK.  507.    Toirnc  Plemnb  GMnt  doe,  tyrlcaJ  lor  Mux  Ud 

COLor-     A   iiit/^n  pDiind  upcr i tnR n , 

posaihle.  The  trnder-biniy  and  under-tail  are  excep- 
tions to  this.  They  »hi>uld  he  white  or  at  least  of 
a  light  slate-(Wur.  The  hack,  sidet;  and  chent 
shnald  all  be  wuvily  licked,  but  nut  so  much  so  as 
to  he  smudgy.  They  whould  lie  bright  in  color,  hut 
not  light  gray  nor  sandy  or  brawriiflh.  In  almost 
all  specimenti  a  little  brownit;]]  patch  appears  at 
the  neck,  just  back  of  the  ears.  The  feet  too  often 
show  a  little  inclination  tii  riiddineiw.  They  often 
reach  sixteen  and  <>cca«iona.lly  twenty  poonds  in 
weight. 

Tie  Dtttth  rnhhil  (Pig.  fiOS)  is  one  of  the  uldest  of 
all  the  varieties.  It  has  changed  much  in  tyi>e,  but 
the  present-day  Dutch  haf  the  same  gi-nerul  mark- 
ings as  the  original,  those  of  the  t^utch  ItelU-d 
cattle,  ajiproximately.  The  eye  and  ear  are  included 
in  n  patch  nf  color  on  the  cheek,  while  a  V-shaped 
white  patch  should  separate  these  between  the 
eyes,  and  in  a  hair-line  betwrnm  the  ears  join  the 
white  collar  that  includes  the  fore-feet,  chest  and 
neck.  Just  back  of  this  is  the  saddle,  of  tlie  same 
color  as  the  cheeks,  and  covering  the  rvM,  of  the 
body  except  the  hrjcks,  which  should  also  be  white. 

These  and  the  saddle 
should  be  level  all 
arounil.  Ti)  n-ach  the 
ideal  in  the  markings 
of  the  Dutch  rabbit 
is  no  mean  task,  and. 
abr  nail ,  twenty 
ponndf  is  not  thought 
exorbitant  f  fir  ,i  nearly 
perfect  one.  It  is  hred 
fijctenaively  by  farm- 
er^ boys  throughout  the  country,  in  ■  more  or  Um 
hipbaiard  way. 

The  Dutch  rabbit  was  introtluced  with  the  Bel- 
gians frum  abroad,  when  the  latter  were  used  as 


He.  SOB.    Dutck  rabbit. 


PU.  »9.    EuUtb  TtMit. 


footer  mothers  to  rear  the  young  of  other  rabbita 
whose  cjijality  i»  not  diflcernable  at  birth.  The 
Dutch  rabbit  is  growing  rapidly  in  popularity. 

71ie  EnnHth  rabbit  (Fig.  500)  or,  as  it  was  known 
at  first,  the  " spotted"  ralihit,  .a  the  Dalmatian  nf 
the  rabbit  fancy.  U 
has  what  is  known 
as  the  "butterfly" 
snont,  a  nose  mark- 
ing which,  viewed 
directly  in  frwnt, 
looks  like  a  «preail- 
ing  butterfly.  Ilie 
back  is  to  have  an 
unbroken  herring- 
bone marking  following  the  spine.  The  sliles  should 
be  spotted,  running  from  the  shoulden  to  the 
thighs  :imi  widening,  but  each  sjiut  clear  and  dis- 
tinct. The  cheek  should  have  a  spot  and  the  eye 
a  circle  of  color  with  a  e|K»t  just  clear  of  it.  The 
ears  should  be  the  same  color  as  the  spots. 

These  rabbits  come  in  black,  blue  and  tortoise, 
the  lilaeic  usually  presenting  the  most  effective  and 
pleasing  comhiniLtiun  with  the  white,  which  the 
rest  of  the  fur  other  than  the  S]iots  should  be. 
There  are  three  studs  of  those  rabbit*  in  this  coun- 
try, from  which  they  have  spread  rapidly.  All  the 
originals  were  imported  within  the  last  decade. 

The  HmnUujan  rnbl/it  (Pig.  .^10)  has  been  fifty 
years  or  so  in  the  making.  It  is  probable  that  from 
black  or  silver-gray  rabbits  an  albino  has  sprung 
with  crdored  extremities.  This  ha^  Wen  inbred  and 
developed  until  wo  have  our  fireaent-4iay  pretty  litthj 
ral)bit  that,  it  is  said,  famishes  a  grt'at  deal  of  arti- 
ficial ermine.  The  entire  Iwdy  is  white,  eyes  pink, 
but  the  cars,  nose,  feet  and  tail  are  nearly  blaok. 

The  stJitement 
is  often  mnde 
that  it  came 
from  the  Hima- 
layan m  o  u  n  - 
tsina.  bat  the 
evidence  aeens 
rather  to  sap- 
port  the  origin 
in  the  breeders' 
art.  It  should 
be  compact, 
with  fine  -cut 
limbs,  but  not 
chubby  like  the 
Dutch  nor  yet  racy  like  the  Belgian,  ['articular 
care  has  to  lie  used  in  the  amount  of  light  admitted 
to  the  hutches.  It  dtres  not  develop  it^i  full  color 
in  the  dark,  and  direct  sunlight  fades  the  black 
extremilipH.  It  must  also  be  kept  carefully  dry,  as 
accumulation  of  moiature  and  manure  soon  failes 
the  leg  color. 

Tlie  Lap-enre4  rafihit  was  one  of  the  earliest  of 
all  fancy  rabbits.  There  are  perhaps  a  half-dosen 
breeders  of  this  variety  in  America.  The  main 
desire  of  the  fancier  of  "  Lops "  is  to  get  great 
length  of  ears  combined  with  breadth  and  thick. 
tough,  leathery  substance.  The  ears  grow  rery 
rapidly,  and  in  three  or  four  montha  nearly  reach 


PiR.  SIO.     A  HiniiiUvan  rdlsbit,     Winn*r 
OnrJi-l],  1D07. 


PETS 


PETS 


619 


their  maximum,  although  they  grow  ntiffhtly  until 
a  yejir  old.  It  has  been  raised  on  the  iplan(l  of  Jersey 
to  measure  thirty-one  inrhe«  acniiw  the  heiwi  frwm 
tip  t(i  ti|i  of  Hiini.  Thi-  (jreatwHt  width  ftwii  ji  thi^ 
coantry  ih  ahuut  twunty-mie  or  twunty-twu  inrlics. 
For  tho  most  part  it  laoka  in  ^uhstancv  and  width 
as  well  as  in  luiidth.  The  "Luj)"  is  a  big,  he«vy- 
bon{--d  animal,  with  rather  an  awkward,  unwieldy, 
molish  appearance. 

Tftf  SUi^er-tfrfu  mhltU  ia  as  oW,  if  not  older  than 
thfi'MjOp."  Ithaalwen  raiw<I  itiEnKlanfl  for  its  jiiilt 
for  a  jwriiid  of  tira«  cuvi-riiiji  ««veral  j»KueraliijnK. 
The  for  i^  cIci:m>  and  of  thu  sht^n  and  brilliancy 
of  silver.  The  coat  in  an  admixture  of  white  and 
Mack  hair,  with  an  even  and  uniform  tick  ing 
all  over  the  animal.  One  of  the  prime  re<]tiisit4«  of 
a  Rood  Silvpr-grey  rahhit  in  the  eveTini>)W  of  hitt 
coat,  whirh  ahijuld  show  n»  slruakii  darker  cir 
lightt^r  than  the  rt-st  of  the  iMxiy.'ll.  in  a  chunky, 
oompaet  Uttlt!  rabbit.  It  is  brtid  in  this  coontry  in 
grey  and  fawn, 

Tkf-  Tan  rahl/it  m  the  prodact  of  the  breeders' 
art.  devnti^l  to  developing  a  little  wild  hedgerow 
rabhit  intn  one  of  the  handHnmoBt  of  the  rare  It 
is  either  black  or  blue  in  body  color  (hy  blue  ta 
meant  a  grey-blue,  a  cadet-blue,  somytimt-a  catled 
multwii  in  c^ttt,  although  the  Latter  iR  darker  than 
the  blue  in  rahbita).  The  eyes  are  surrounded  with 
circles  of  rkh  tan,  an  are  the  n(»i*trils.  The  outer 
and  inner  marginn  of  the  ears,  thw  uniiiT  jaw  nr 
jowl,  the  cheat  and  innir  jiarta  of  the  legs,  the 
lielly  line  at  the  Bidf,  rthuuld  all  be  of  rich  tan 
color ;  and  a  hand-^omc!  combination  of  color  it 
_.^--^,  makes.    The 

typo  is  cobby 
and  should  bo 
small.  Th  urea  re 
but  fow  Htoils 
of  Tan  rabbita 
in  America 
worthy  the 
name.  There 
are,  however. 
»om  c  good 
Tana  bred  in  Ameriea.  'ftHien  it  ia  at  all  near  the 
ideal,  it  is  one  of  the  prettiest  of  the  rabbit  family. 
Thf  rdi»k  Toiint,  often  miscalled  the  English  or 
common  rabbit,  is  a  sprightly,  bounding,  little  ball 
of  fur.  It  is  the  toy  of  the  rabbit  family  and  the 
smaller  it  can  bt.*  IifmI  the  greater  its  value.  It 
differs  from  thu  common  rabbit  in  other  imrticu- 
lars  than  size.  The  ears  should  bo  very  short  and 
very  closely  set,  so  that  when  turned  baek  the 
flanges  meet.  The  eye«  should  be  red.  not  pink.  It 
shtfold  have  a  very  small  ball-like  body,  with  limbs 
as  delicate  and  fine-honed  a»  possible.  These  rab- 
bits are  bred  alnumt  wh<dly  as  pets  and  have  of 
late  lieen  enjoying  a  very  extensive  "b«iora"  in 
England.  There  are  but  two  stuOs  known  in  thin 
country,  and  both  are  in  New  York.  T)r>  rolisli 
rabbit  was  exhibited  at  Madison  Square  Oarden  for 
the  first  time  in  December,  lOtyT. 

Imperial  rahiiit. — Tn  the  above  varieties  might  he 
added  the  Imiwrial  rabbit,  lately  inlmdiicc^t  in  the 
English  fancy,  but  not  bred  in  America  at  all  so 


FIb.  51t.    BnfcRl  Drin  Peruvian  ca-ry. 


far  as  known.  It  in  all  h)u<^  and  of  the  »<Jime  type 
as  the  Tans  in  general,  lacking  the  markings,  of 
course. 

Capy. 

The  cavy  is  a  little  pet  more  commonly  known 
by  its  misnomt-r.  guinea  pig.  It  was  introduced 
into  Flngland.  it  ia  said,  by  some  nailors  on  their 

return  from  a 

i.  «-x  ._,  r-^'(*iET^i^^K^      K-nn    voyage, 

where  they 
found  the  na- 
tives making 
a  domestic  pet 
of  it.  The  nat- 
uralist   gives 

^  ._  UB    a   list    of 

Fi£,  ill,    AttTWlDUm  cMvy.  , 

several  varte- 
tiea  of  this  species  found  in  South  America.  The 
domestic  cavy  has  been  kept  and  bred  in  England, 
FVance  and  now  in  Germany  and  America,  to  a 
very  large  extent,  as  a  pet  and  asa  bobby  for  thone 
interested  in  stiwk-breeding. 

There  are  threo  main  varieties  recognized  by  the 
atandard.s  of  the  various  OHSociations  in  each  cour* 
try.  These  are  the  Peruvian  or  long-Lain--d  cavy, 
the  Abyssinian  or  rough-coat*.<l  cavy,  and  the 
smooth  or  English  cavy.  To  these  might  be  added 
the  Angora,  or  what  is  now  really  a  Peruvian  sport 
and  called  a  "silkey"  or  pwudo- Angora.  The  real 
Angora  cavy,  acconling  to  French  authorities,  has 
disappwired.  The  geogniphieal  names  used  have  no 
significance  as  to  origin  in  any  of  these  varieties. 

TV/'frur!fl7Teurj(Pig.  Till)  is  said  to  be  the  result 
of  a  cross  of  the  Angora  on  the  Abyssinian,  and  its 
general  type  hears  this  out  to  a  certain  ilegree.  It 
has  an  exceeding  long  coat,  completely  oblilpmting 
the  general  contour  of  the  biKly.  The  young  show 
more  or  less  rough  rosettes  in  their  costs,  but  as 
these  lengthen  with  age  the  rough  spots  are  over- 
whelmed with  the  long  silky  tresses.  The  fancier 
divides  the  coat  into  three  main  parts,  via.,  the 
"sweep"  oT  hair  over  the  loins  iinH  haunches  ;  the 
mane,  th.it  on  the  shoulders ;  and  llie  head  furnish- 
ing, which  inclndea  thu  parts  that  grow  from  the 
forward  part  of  the  shouidurs,  the  neck,  the  fore- 
head and  about  the  face.  The  latter  should  com- 
pletely hide  the  head  and  face  when  in  condition,  a 
quality  much 
sought  by  the 
breeder  of 
this  variety. 
An  individual 
possessing  it 
scores  highly 
i  n  competi- 
t  i  o  n .  The 
mane  should 
b(?  long,  thick 
and  heavy, 
and  often  is  even  harder  to  secure  than  houl  fur- 
nishing. The  swoep  is  the  eibniest  point  in  which  to 
excel,  tn  caring  for  the  coata  of  thfwu  pets,  one 
has  to  be  careful  to  have  no  litter  likely  to  tangle 


Ptf.sia.   A ti»tfitM-aD4-whlt» Mvy.  Wln- 
iivr  ut  iiiftnjr  |>r1u<«.  lavlailins  MBdltun 


t 


G20 


PETC 


PETS 


Fl(.  514.    Bbuk  Duteb  Clvy. 


the  cciat.  When  the  coaU  get  so  long  &»  to  draig 
Bliing  the  flour  of  the  huti:h  they  must  be  rolled  up 
ami  tiei]  on  []a|K?ra  tu  kwji  them  fnim  wearing  otF. 
Thr  AfjjfxsiniiLN  cai'//  (Kiji.  T>12)  la  thiTiiugli-coaLed 
niiimliisr  of  his  trilii!.  lit'  should  pri-suiit  a  coal  radial^ 
inn  from  centers  all  over  the  body  ;  the  (jrvJiter  tht* 
number  of  radiating  centers  the  more  valuable  the 
specimen.  The  coat  ahmilcl  Iw  harsh  and  wiry,  and 
BO  Rpecimens  are  lirw!  where  tha  average  tempera- 
ture is  cool.    Thia  cavy  nefdn  no  e«j)bcial  attention 

other    than 
^--        .^^^^  cleaning   and 

k:.^^'  -^^^^  fmniJng,     ex- 

cept to  Rive 
the  coat  an 
occaHi  onal 
lirnflhing  to 
keepthiToset- 
ting  a»  d  iB- 
tinct  aa  poa- 
si  ble.  It  is 
bred  in  broken  and  uniform  colors,  the  coat  often 
taking  the  pattern  of  the  Dutch  marking;  and 
many  handaome  tnrtoiReH'olorod  nnea  are  bred. 

Tiuimwiofh  or  Kaffligk  eavie»  are  hrtvi  in  a  variety 
of  cruUnrs,  btith  uniform  and  bmken.  The  speciea 
stiow«  a  strong  tendency  to  a  broken-eolorod  eoat, 
and  it  was  only  by  persiHtent  ttno-breeding  that 
uniform  coats  were  secured.  The  first  good  ones 
were  the  red,  then  black  appeared,  and  now  we 
have  cream,  fawn,  both  grilden  and  Bilver,  agcniti, 
white,  chtwidate.  and  the  near  fuiura  will  probably 
see  a  blue.  These  have  all  been  produced  by  per- 
siatenl  work  on  the  part  of  fanclura. 

Mice  and  raft. 

itice  are.  perhaps,  the  smallest  pots  we  havo  and 
also  the  ones  with  the  most  enemies.  These  little 
fellows  are  fast  becoming  favorites.  They  jire  bred 
to  a  very  great  extent  fur  biological  research. 
The  period  of  (j^station  is  twenty-one  days  and  the 
young  grow  very  quickly,  brewling  when  they  are 
eight  to  twelve  wttka  old.  They  are  bred  in  a  largo 
variety  of  colors,  from  the  pink-eyed  white  to  the 

fiink-eyod  silver.  There  are  black-eyed  white,  yel- 
ow,  fawn,  agouti,  tan,  cbnc^ilate,  red,  lilack,  riiitch- 
marked,  hrok en-colored,  luid  oftinies  a  remarkably 
variegjited  type. 

/?«/x»honid  be  classed  with  the  mice,  although 
they  are  not  bred  no  widely  nor  are  they  *a  popu- 
lar. There  are  jieveral  varieties  besides  the  white 
rat,  but  thcv  arc  not  nearly  bo  various  in  their 
range  of  colors  as  the  mice.  Itlack  rats,  the  so- 
called  Japane.'K'  n«ts,  white  with  black  fare,  shoul- 
ders and  a  black  stripe  following  the  spine  to  the 
tail,  brown  and  Irish,  are  about  the  extent  of  pres- 
ent varieties, 

Squirrelft  can  hardly  be  considered  domestic  pete 
as  yet,  uaaally  being  capturwl  young  and  not  bred 
in  captivity.  The  pets  acquired  from  the  wilda 
most  needs  be  gradually  accustomed  to  their  new 
eorronndings  and  the  confinement.  Squirrels  and 
similar  animals  should  have  <)iiarters  calculated  to 


simulate  their  natural  environmeiot  as   nearly  as 
possible. 

Vignm/.   [See  article  on  pigeons  and  squabs  under 
I'oitltrtf.l 

It  is  fairly  well  demonstrated  that  the  origina- 
tor of  all  diyiientre  pigeons  is  the  little  rocky  pigeun 
common  from  Norway  to  India.  From  it  the  vari*J 
0U9  types  of  wild  and  domestic  pigeons  have  been 
developed,  influenced  largely  hy  environment,  but 
murp  by  the  mini!  and  hand  of  man  in  selection  and 
breeding.  I'igeonft,  perhaps,  of  all  domestic  animals] 
have  the  longest  and  most  brilliant  hintory.  Darwin 
asserts  that  pigeons  huve  be>en  doEn«itticated  for 
5,000  years.  The  actual  records  are  available  to 
ehow  their  domestication  prior  to  UXXl.  In  I(i76.  a 
Latin  bonk  on  "Ornitholiigie,"lty  Willoughby,  men- 
tionn  sevt>ral  variettes  of  pigeons.  In  1678,  this  was 
publishwi  in  Kn^Iish.  In  it  seventeen  varieties  were 
enumerateil.  some  of  which  are  still  with  as,  giving 
them  a  straight  English  history  of  over  two  cen- 
turies. This  early  writing  was  followed  by  ,lohn 
Moore's  "Columbarium  or  Pigeon  House"  in  1735.  in 
which  many  of  the  m<Hlern  varieties  are  described. 
From  then  to  the  present,  succeiwive  treatiiDeshave 
appeart^^d,  so  that  the  pigeon  has  not  lieen  neglected. 

The  amateur  pigeon  men  in  Americji  are  well 
organiTcd  and  each  variety  has  it«  own  club,  to 
which  most  of  the  reliable  breeders  of  the  variety 
belong.  Fvery  ponltry-show  includes  pigeon*  as 
part  of  itfl  exhibit. 

ne  Pitulfr  (Pig.  nlfi)  Ih  usually  the  leader.   Its 

history  dates  back  to  before  the  beginning  of  the 

seventeenth  c+'ntiiry. 'it  is  charaeterized   by  the 

peculiarity  of  inflating  its  crop  until  it  is  almost 

out  of  Bight,"  except  for  crop  and  legs.    In  1735, 


Fiff.  SIS.    Poam  piCMB. 

Moore  Bpeaki>  of  Pouters  as  having  a  twenty-inch 

body,  although  the  average  was  seventeen  to  eight- 
een inches,  and  legs  nearly  fteven  inches  long,  the 
average  length  then  being  six  and  one-half  to  six 
and  three-fourth  inches.  These  pigeons  now  have 
feathered  leg?,  and  are.  perhaps,  not  bo  popoUr 
they  were.  There  is  a  smaller  variety  known 
Piymij  Pouter  that  has  the  iiame  characteristic  of 
inflating  it^lf. 


PETS 


PETS 


621 


The  OirHtrs  were  first  deRcribtrtl  hy  Willouphby 
in  1677.  Tht«e  pi){iM>ns  orii;iiiaIlji'  woru  britiight 
from  Pureia,  and  are  remarkablo  for  tho  length  and 
strength  of  beak  and  the  canificulatiiin  of  Imre 
akin  about  its  base  and  ahmit  their  r^yw.  They  are 
rather  mflnHtroan-looktng  birds.  Thuy  are  hrwd  by 
a  ntimber  n(  fnncieni  heru  and  abroa^l,  and  arv 
purely  fancy  birds,  and  nut  the  piguims  u^ed  to 
tran:«[nit  m(!»ia.Kiw. 

Uarit. — L'losL-ly  allied  to  the  Carrier  ia  the  Barb, 
a  pLK«on  of  the  samu  general  devt-lopnient,  tye,  cere 
and  wattle,  but  whose  beak  is  short  and  the  wattle 
nut  so  exaggerated.  This  variety  and  the  Carrier 
are  prnbably  frum  the  same  original  Htix^k,  the 
Barb  lifinR  in  all  {irobabilily  Uiu  titder  tyjie,  and 
from  it  tlm  long-bvak  bini  has  dovLdopod.  The  pic- 
turvK  of  Aldronvandi  (1U4M),  about)  Hocm  to  represent 
the  Barb  rathor  than  the  Carrier. 

TRfi  Draffnon  is  altin  tn  the  Carrier,  and  it  ie  said 
was  produced  by  judicious  cniswing  on  the  Carrier 
and  then  liads-bn^-ding  to  the  "llonwman"  «f  the 
earlier  times.  It  is  a  KU»cky  bird,  being  shorter  in 
buiJy  and  huaviur  than  tho  Carrier,  and  with  a 
very  charactt-Tistic  carria;^  from  which  thi*  name 
Wat  di'rived. 

The.  Faatail  aoems  to  trace  its  history  back  to  the 
Sanskrit  days  in  India,  where  it  was  kept  before 
HyIK).  This  variety  is  to  many  the  mnst  attractive 
of  all  the  varieties.  The  wide-spread  in};  tail,  whuee 
feuther  ends  are  plunaeii  tike  "  my  lady's"  fan,  the 
proud  carriase,  with  the  head  touching  the  over- 
shadowing tail,  and  crop  and  chcet  extended,  give 
it  a  very  fascinating  appearance.  It  is  bred  to  as 
targe  an  extent  as  almrwt  any  nthi-r  variety.  It 
comea  in  variiais  solid  or  uniform  culors,  as  block, 
white,  yellow  arid  ri*d. 

Htioiled  Janitjiii.  —  WHh  the  Fantails  may  he 
classud  the  hutKlud  .lacobin.  Those  pigeons  existed 
before  1000.  but  were  not  nearly  ho  well  dovt-toped 
aa  today,  nor  was  the  head  white  aa  in  the  modem 
type.  These  pige^ins  wear  a  nilf  altout  the  neck 
and  head,  ofU>n  concealing  the  hejul  eomjiletety. 
They  are  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  breeds. 
Tliey  are  medium  in  size,  with  a  long,  Blender  body, 
and  the  frilL  or  "boa"  covers  the  nLM^k  and  head  to 
the  eyes.  The  combination  of  color  with  this  odd 
neck-drewing  makes  a  very  pretty  little  bird. 

The  TSirhitt  were  proli,Tbly  the  old  curtbecJt  of 
the  early  writ«n4,  and  appear  frtr  the  first  time,  as 
we  knuw  them,  <tetwrilK-d  by  Willougbby.  They  are 
Very  pretty  birds,  with  Khort,  rather  curved  beaks, 
and  have  a  topknot  or  crest  at  the  back  of  the  head. 
The  head  ia  round  and  rather  broad.  Lonkmg  down 
on  it  from  above,  the  beak  should  be  Uk)  short  tn 
lie  seen,  or  at  mnai,  only  jinl  seen.  The  gidkd  is 
deep.  Down  the  front  the  Turbit  wears  a  frill  nf 
feathen  turned  so  as  to  resemble  the  uld-fashioned 
frill  our  ptrandfathers  used  in  plao*  of  a  cravat. 
These  birds  aro  bred  in  white  with  wing  colors 
alone,  no  uniform  colored  turbits  having  yet 
appeared  that  can  be  classed  with  the  winged 
birds.  These  are  rather  ex[iensive  pigeons ;  good 
uneA  are  stddom  prire<I  liwJer  Ave  dullars,  and 
prixe- winners  often  sell  at  fifty  dollars  and  more. 

OrieiUal  FriiU,  SaiurtUtt,  Btowbnettet.—liie»e 


beautiful  little  pigeoM,  with  their  genera]  IriBt- 
nuss  and  Turbit  typo,  and  their  beautifully  colored 
plum:ige,  are  the  product  of  the  modern  fancier 
with  bis  re.-«ly  adaption  of  pttculiar  t>7)es  to  his 
Sense  of  the  beautiful. 

Oirl  piijrons  are  of  this  same  type,  a  trifle 
smaller,  with  a  jaunty  air  and  carriage,  and  usu- 
ally in  uniform  colors.  Their  breeder*  make  evi^ry 
effort  to  bring  them  near,  at  least  in  head  and 
beak,  to  the  type  of  the  owl. 

Tilt  TuinUcrs  were  known  in  India  before  IfiOO. 
although  it  was  not  until  after  ir,87  that  they 
maile  their  apjnianuice  in  Europe,  when  Willoughby 
diwrilHw  a  "fiKjthaU  pigeon."  The  peculiar  flight 
of  these  birds  has  been  the  subject  of  remark  by 
almost  (!very  natural  history  writer  of  the  last 
two  centuries.  While  this  tumbling  flight  is 
retained  or  augmented  by  the  selet^tion  of  the 
fancier,  the  chanu/tera  of  the  face  have  been 
changwl,  and  we  now  have  the  Ixing-  and  t^bort- 
fa;ed  Tumblers  as  well  as  the  "  Muffed  "  and"  I'ar- 
lor"  Tumblers. 

7^e  Hitiih,  ScatidertKnii^  Qjid  Hen  /jr-jftiris  are  large 
birds.  The  first  carry  the  tail  in  the  usaal  man- 
ner, slightly  slanted  downward,  while  the  .Scande- 
roon  has  a  very  phort.  nsrrow  and  elevated  tail. 
The  Hen  pigiHin,  No-imlled,  seems 
to  lie  very  eldfiely  allied  to  these 
as  (nr  as  general  appuaranct.'  is 
concerned. 

The  Hmner  or  Homing  piffenn, 
used  so  much  for  message-carry- 
ing and  racing,  is  a  wtout,  stocky 
bird,  built  to  Hy  long  and  swiftly. 
It  ifi  trained  by  short- 
di«tancnflights,grad- 
ually  being  increased 
up  to  several  hundred! 
miles.  Its  fanciers 
are  organized  into 
an  association,  which 
regulates  carefully 
the  rtwords  of  these 
racing  Aights.  This 
variety  has  been  much  exploited  for  srioah- raising. 
TTif  ArthangeU,  Sicallaws,  Hrimrts,  Magp'iex,  Sjmtti 
and  iVjinxare  pigeons  in  which  the  greatent  distin- 
guishing featuren  are  color  .Hnd  marking.  Some  of 
these  colored  varieties  are  *'  bout*-!!,"  that  is,  wear 
feathers  on  their  legs  like  the  Pouters,  while  others 
are  clean-legged.  The  ArchangLds  are  a  rich  cop- 
per-hronw  on  the  head,  neck  and  bre-iat.  This 
shailes  o^  in  the  wings  and  rump  U>  a  bronEe-bliLck, 
with  a  blue-black  tail.  The  Nuns  are  smaller  than 
their  aboriginal  ancestor,  but  have  retained  for  a 
very  long  time  their  cbMracU-ri.-'tic  markings,  and 
are  pridiably  the  originals  of  the  other  similarly 
marked  varieties.  They  are  very  pretty  with  their 
symmetrical  markings  on  head,  wing  and  tail.  The 
feathers  on  these  parts  of  the  binI  are  black  or 
red,  the  remainder  of  the  feathern  U-ing  white. 
Spots  belong  with  the  Nuns,  and  differ  only  in  car- 
rying a  spot  in  the  foreheatl  ami  tail  of  the  sam« 
color,  the  remainder  of  the  bwly  being  whit*'. 
Swallows  are  a  more  recent  breed,  although  bred 


y\z.  lie. 

Duk  laotUs  tlpplei  coek. 


s^ 


PETS 


PETS 


before  1796  in  Gennany.  Thuy  art?  now  brod  with 
the  wings  colored  and  the  legs  feathered.  The  beak 
iH  a  trifle  longer  than  that  ot  the  wild  pigeiin,  and 
they  rnrry  n  larger  body,  hut  yet  dci  nnt  iijipear  oh 
Imlky.  The  Majfi)ies  and  Helmet«  shijohl  Ik*  im-iudwl 
with  tht  Nun-t.  Spi>U  and  Swalhiwu.  The  former  is 
tM  to  iiiiitato  the  bird  whose  name  it  bears,  in 
color  particularly.  The  Hulmet  is  a  Nun  whose 
color  is  confined  to  the  top  of  ita  head  like  a 
helmet. 

Tifcc  TnimpttrrtaaA  /^tfjftrritarerharacteriMd  hy 
their  peetiliar  coo,  mid  the  fdrmpr  liy  the  oi\A  tnirl- 
ing  feathenj  at  the  beak,  curvinjc  forward  over  iUi 
base.  Their  tegs  are  excessively  feathered. 

The  FriH-Backf  have  a  peculiar  curl  backward  or 
upward  to  their  feathers,  especially  on  tho  wing 
coverts, 

Thf.  Cumiilrf*  or  "Hiifk-fii/ers,"  or  they  are  called, 
are  de3cril»ed  beet  hy  theirsecund  name.  With  them 
and  the  Tipplers  and  Ih,'  Homt<rx,  the  fancier  can 
easily  u«e  the  barn-loft  for  housing.  Theiw  varie- 
ties delight  in  being  up  in  the  air,  ami  are  built 
for  flight. 

The  number  of  cage-bints  kept  as  pets  is  very 
lariie.  Maiiyci'mmnii  wild  binia  have  heendomei^ll- 
cat«d  as  wiM  be  pointed  out  Iwlow,  All  of  the  binds 
here  roentioni^  are  duniijsticated  and  found  in 
aviaries.. 

The  mnarm  ugnally  kept  in  America  were  for- 
merly hivd  for  the  most  part  in  Germany  or  Kng- 
land,  bat  now  a  large  numi«er  are  bred  here,  espec- 
ially the  fancier  onen.  These  birds  are  about  live 
and  a  half  inchwt  long,  with  rather 
stout,  compact  bodies,  and  vary 
in  color  from  a  very  light  mealy 
yellow  to  nearly  a  clear  green. 
Some  of  those  bird*  have  crests, 
but  this  is  rather  an  uniiyual  ad- 
dition. Their  voices 
arc  mellow  and  play 
over  a  long  rang^  of 
not*«.  The  St.  An- 
drrnshurij  canary  is 
bred  in  the  same  dis- 
ti'ict  in  Germany 
an  the  other  Hart^ 
birds.  It  is  a  small 
bird  of  aboat  the 
same  colors  ae  the 
Otlwrs,  bat  with  n  song  of  a  greater  variety  of 
notes  than  the  regular  llartz  canary.  Thew  cana- 
ries  are  u.'iuaHy  a  light  yellow  or  yellow  and  green, 
and  are  one  of  the  umalle-st  varieties,  being  four 
to  five  inches  long.  The  Kn^lxth  cunaritt  are  much 
larger  and  of  higher  color,  and  sing  loader  than 
the  Gennan  canaries.  They  have  many  odd  wild- 
bird  notes.  The  Miaclmrtcrs  are  the  largest  cana- 
rie:;.  Some  of  them  have  plain  headii  and  others 
have  thick,  full  crests  falling  over  the  eyes.  The 
Norwifh  eanarif  (Fig.  517l  is  nnt  flo  large  as  the 
Manchejiter,  but  ban  higher  colors,  -lieep  gold. 
both  clear  and  mottled  :  odd  cinnamon  colorH  are 
also  popular.  The  Red  eanary  is  secured  by  breeding 


tit-  M7.    Vonrieh  CAiunr. 


Pic  3ib.    Goldfliidi. 


from  the  gold  or  gold  and  green  colore,  and  feeding 
for  color  during  molt.  (!M  .V;«7tj(jW  I,iTitrd  ecna- 
riep  have  bright  gold-capped  heiids  and  continuous 
lines  of  spanglm*  from  the  ne-ck  down  the  back. 
Kach  spangle  is  decided,  its  clear  gold  e<lging  aai 
olive-green  center  being  distinct  lind  regular.  The 
SUver  iijaiigkd  are  marked  exactly  like  the  gold, 
having  silver-colored  spangles  where  the  others 
-.^  have  gold.  The 

y»  tX  Goldjineh      ca- 

''*^'        ^^S,..  niT/.  or  canary 

^       ^  mv!e,  is  secured 

mw?'^--    :Al,  ^y    breeding   a 

Wtm"'    '^""^v^^^  malegoldfinchto 

'^,__^^         "^^^^     has    descended 
/"/  ^^    from     several 

generations  o  f 
clear  yellow 
hens.  It  is  a  free 
singer,  with 
enough  of  the  goldfinch  traits  to  be  pert  and  gay. 
It  is  a  very  IwauUf  ul  bird.  Other  mules  are  seenred 
by  mating  the  female  canary  with  the  linnet,  hull- 
finch,  siskin  and  other  finches. 

Gddfineh.—ThQ  true  goldfinch  (Fig.  518)  is  one 
of  the  most  delightful  cage-birds,  both  for  its 
beauty  and  for  itJi  song.  It  is  very  easily  tamed. 
There  are  many  varieties,  shown  by  the  difference  in 
markiuga  or  color  of  the  plumage.  The  most  highly 
prised  is  the  Scarlet-hc-wied  or  Crimson,  which  has 
the  entire  head  colored  in  scarlet  or  crimson.  The 
White-breasted  Cheveral  or  King  goldfinch  has  a 
pure  white  breast  and  a  clear  white  ring  arcmnd 
the  neck.  The  pure  white  is  also  highly  prised. 
The  goldfinch  is  found  throughout  Euroite,  ami 
when  caged  sing^  throughout  the  year  with  the 
exception  of  the  molting  season. 

TTie  linnet.  (Fig.  519),  either  gray  or  brown,  is  a 
beautiful  songster,  and  is  generally  kept  through- 
out Europe.  It  is  of  hardy  coaHitution  and  easily 
domesticated.  There  is  scarcely  any  bird  that  puU 
on  so  many  different  dresses  in  the  course  of  its 
life  as  tho  linnet.  The  linnet  male  will  sometimea 
mate  with  the  canary,  but  the  males  are  not  so 
beautiful  as  those  of  the  canary  and  the  goldfinch. 

The  fhaffinfk  is  one  of  the  many  European  eiong 
birds,  and  should  be  generally  kept  for  its  sweet 
song   and  for    its    sleek 
plumage.    It  is  extremely 
docile  and  can  be  easily 
tamed. 

The    nighlhiffale    (Fig. 
520)  is  decidedly  the  most 
melodious  of  all  singing 
birds,  and  when  caged  and 
well  treated  will  sing  for 
six  or  eight  months  dur- 
ing the  year.    Improper         p,,_  j^.  unrt. 
feeding  with  other  causes 
have  seemed  to  render  it  impoeiible  in  many  ci 
to  keep  this  bird  more  than  a  few  months.   Tha 
nightingale  is  a  very  hearty  eAter. 

The  biack  tap,  sometimes  called  the  mock  night- 


PETS 


PETS 


52S 


ingale.  is  a  delightftil  singer  whom  aotii;  is  heard 
the  year  round  except  at  the  molting  Bvason. 

Tie  tkylark  cornea  from  all  part^i  o(  tlurope.  It 
has  a  moat  poculiar  manner  of  fiy'mg,  the  more- 
m«nt  bein^  upward  in  a  perpend icnlar  line.  After 
leaving  its  Rr-iMy  neat,  it  begins  tt«  son^.  which 
it  continuo^  unceaainniy  until  nearly  out  of  sight ; 
then  it  descends  in  like  manner,  still  singing  until 
within  a  short  dintance  of  the  nest.  The  skylark 
fan  readily  imitate  the  songs  of  other  birds  and 
learn  tunes.  In  confinement  it  aings  daring  half 
the  year. 

7^^  wood  hrk  resembles  the  skylark  in  rolor,  bnt 
is  amaller.  It  porches  on  branches,  bat  like  the 
skylark  build:^  its  ne«t  on  the  ground.  This  bird  ts 
more  easily  tamed  than  the  skylark  and  is  happier 
in  captivity. 

Thi  ifmg  thru$K  ia  a  melodious  singer,  singing 
only  during  the  spring  in  the  wild  state,  but  with 
careful  treatment  and  good  caging  will  sing  eight 
or  nine  monthB  of  the  year.   The  male  and  female 

are  very  similar 
in  color,  the  fe- 
male being  the 
smaller.  The 
male  has  great 
imitative  pow- 
ers and  will 
readily  loar  a 
tunes  played  on 
wind  instro- 

„     «.  ._,      ,  menlrt  or  whi»- 

tltfj  to  nim. 
Tht  blackbird,  whose  plumage  is  a  purti  velvety 
black  with  an  orangw-yullww  bill,  ia  a  fineaonggler. 
His  notes,  although  not  so  various  as  those  of  a 
thrush,  are  of  a  more  flute-like  tone.  He  has  the 
ability  to  imitate  airs  that  are  whistled  to  him. 
He  also  teams  to  imitate  the  songs  of  other  birdd 
and  in  hiit  wild  state  often  mimics  them. 

The  starting  has  a  natural  song  that  is  rather 
poor,  but  it  has  a  good  memory  and  will  learn  to 
repeat  airs  that  are  played  to  it.  It  also  teams  to 
pronounce  words  distinctly  or  imitate  any  sounds 
rei«atedly  heard.  It  btjcvmes  very  tame  and  can  be 
let  out  of  its  cage  to  walk  about  the  room. 

The  taSkiag  minor  or  mufical  grakie  ia  &  good 
talking  bird  and  can  whi^itle  In  sweet,  full  tonei; 
any  song  that  may  be  taught  it.  It  is  about  the  alzv 
of  a  dove.  The  beak,  feet  and  legs  are  orange- 
colured.  The  prevailing  color  of  the  plumage  is  a 
glofwy  black,  tingeil  with  purple,  violet  and  green, 
■cconling  to  the  light  in  which  it  is  viewed.  It  is 
■  n&tire  of  the  Ka«t  Indiea.  As  a  talking  bird,  the 
minor  ia  unsurpassed.  It  speaks  plainly  and  can 
n*t.iin  a  large  number  of  words. 

The  bui^nek  has  no  natural  song  but  haa  the 
ability  to  imit.ite  with  great  accuracy  almoitt  any 
air  that  is  whistled  or  played  to  it  on  an  instru- 
meijt.  In  Germany,  partimilarly  in  t[f»*e  and 
f^xony.  largo  numbera  of  these  birds  are  taught  to 
pipe  popular  or  clai>sical  airs. 

Troopial.—Thi}  South  American  troopial  has  a 
beautiful  rich  plumage  and  looks  very  much  like 
our  American  golden  robin  or  Baltimore  oriole,  the 


Of-'t'i^- 


Pic  3J1.    StocklDKblid. 


chief  difference  being  that  he  ia  mach  larger  and 
the  orange  of  thu  body  ia  more  of  a  yellow.  Few 
birds  have  a  natural  song  at  onca  so  sweet  and 
powerful,  and  none  has  a  nicer  ear  or  a  more 
retentive  mem- 
ory. 

rft<  Brazilian 
eardinai  is  one 
of  the  beautiful 
whi.-*tling  bird.*" 
of  the  tropics. 
The  back  ift  dark 
gray ;  the  »)uiil- 
feathers  of  the 
wings  are  a 
darker  shade  of 
the  same  color, 
and  the  tail  ia  nearly  black ;  the  head,  crest,  cheeks 
and  throat  are  bright  red,  of  an  orange  hue,  deep- 
est on  the  chejtt,  where  it  ends  in  a  point ;  the 
lower  part  of  the  body  is  grayish  white,  and  th« 
fent  and  legs  are  black  :  the  strong  beak  is  dusky 
gray ;  the  crest  is  pointed  like  that  of  the  Vir- 
ginia nightingale  and  is  raised  and  depressed  at 
pleasure.  The  brilliant  scarlet  head  forma  a  beaa- 
tiful  contrast  to  the  saowy-whito  of  the  body. 

Vie  Jam  sparrow  takes  its  name  from  the  .lava 
iahnJs,  where  it  abounds.  Its  chief  recommenda- 
tion, is  the  great  neatness  of  the  plumage,  the 
glossy  black  head,  clear  white  cheeks  and  delicate 
rose-colored  bill.  The  body  is  an  ashen  gray,  the 
plumage  being  ao  neat  and  smooth  that  the  feath- 
ers all  Seem  to  lit  into  one  another.  It  can  be 
taught  a  variety  of  tricks,  perhaps  more  than  any 
other  cagwl  bird. 

The  American  mockingbirJ.  (Fig.  521.) — This 
songster  unites  in  himself  all  the  excellences  to  a 
greater  extent  than  any  other  living  bird.  The  songs 
of  other  birds,  the  rattling  and  creaking  of  gat«a 
and  swinging  sign-hoards,  the  cries  of  jiuppiea  and 
the  katydid,  and  all  oth<?r  familiar  sounds  are  pos- 
sible with  the-  mockin^bftd.  It  is  a  general  favorite. 
The  Virifinia.  niyfUiniialc  (Fig.  522),  or  Virginia 
rtdftird,  sometimos  called  the  cardinal,  is  a  native  of 
the  southern  state.**,  and  i.-*  one  of  the  h3nd.some(it 

birds  of  the  N'ew 
World.  The  color 
is  a  brilliant  red, 
with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  part 
aronnd  the  beak, 
which  is  black  ; 
the  wings  are 
darker  than  the 
body  color.  The 
bead  ia  orna- 
mentod  with  a 
crest,  which  the 
bird  ran  raise  or 
depress,  and  which  gives  it  a  commanding  appear- 
ance.  It  haa  a  very  pleaaing  Aong  or  whistle. 

Thf.  lirti  linnrt  is  a  beautiful  Kingt>r  or  whistler 
and  HhouM  Iw  kept  as  universally  as  the  canary. 
It  sings  all  year  round,  with  the  6XoepCion  of  tho 
moiling  sfiason,  and  in  oonlinomont  becomes  tame. 


Pit.  Hi-     ViietnU  BlclitlRE>le  or 


L 


S8A 


PKIS 


PETS 


The  Ameriean.  pdlotrhir^t,  or  what  Is  really  the 
American  gcArfJinch.  is  a  bwautifnl  IwmoTM^olored 
bird  with  a  black  cap  and  white  winfjg.  It  w  a 
universal  favoritu.  The  song  has  a  brisk,  chi.>erful 
rinp;,  although  perhaps  deficient  in  variety. 

The  nonpareil,  as  the  name  indicates,  is  withont 
an  wiual.  It  has  bwn  called  by  many  the  "  painted 
tinch"  or  "painted  bunting."  It  hue  a  violet  head 
and  nt-i'k.  a  nA  circle  around  the  eyes,  th«  Irla, 
buak  and  fei-t  brown,  the  upper  part  of  the  back, 
throat,  ch«8t,  and  whole  unou-r  part  of  the  body  an 
well  as  the  upper  tail  coverts  bright  red  ;  the 
wing  coverts  are  grecii,  the  quills  rt'ddiah  brown 
tinj^ed  with  green,  and  the  tail  reddi.sh  brown.  It 
in  about  the  it i^  of  an  English  robin  and  resem- 
hlw  thjit  bird  in  many  ways. 

Tlie  Japuncac  rt^in. — "The  head  of  the  nibin  is 
bronze-green,  beak  yt;l!i)w,  IxKly  the  c<iIor  of  a 
mourning  dove,  eyes  black  with  a  cirelft  of  white, 
throat  ecru  tint  of  yelluw  shawling  uu  the  bruai;t 
into  orango,  wing-feathera  block  with  juirti-colored 
Btripes  of  gold  and  white,  and  tail  feathers  glotwy 
bla«k  barred  with  white."  In  siKC,  the  bird  is  ninii- 
liLr  to  iL  bullfinch.  ItK  voice  emhrai^efi  the  notes 
and  8emi-notpj!  lietwet-n  the  !<>w  contralto  and  high 
tenor.  It  can  tiIho  imitate  the  wild  binl'H  noteH  and 
whi-stltw  uvury  month  in  the  year. 

The.  tivailarat,  comes  to  \i&  in  great  numbers 
from  ('hina,  Asia,  Africit  and  Jndia.  Unlike  other 
birds,  it  change?  ita  plumage  yearly  until  the  third 
year.  At  this  time,  the  head  and  under  part  nf  the 
Imdy  are  a  liery  red  tinged  with  bliick,  the  V>ficV 
brown,  tail  black,  wing8  a  reddish  brown  ;  all  the 
foathers  are  tipiHid  with  white,  giving  the  bin!  an 
appearance  of  lieing  specked  with  white  apiit.s. 

The.  Gray-hhu:  Jiaeh  ha^i  a  song  that  aeema  to  bi' 
a  mixture  of  the  canary's  and  bohnlink'.s.  but  much 
finer  than  either.  It  aiihere-s  to  the  southern 
tnipiral  spring  month  for  ita  breeding  and  rearing 
oeason.  In  November,  it  begins  to  build  in  the 
aviary  and  rears  its  young  in  midwinter. 

The  SUwT-ii'dl  ur  Qmiker  birti.  the  Ortt nyt-cfieek 
warbiU,  the  Hebni  or  (hanff-iireatJ  iiafhiJi,  the 
ChcMriul  finch,  and  the  Xftifipif  fineh  are  all  aviary 
binis,  and  are  much  sought  for  their  song  and 
peculiar  manneriHms,  their  diminntive  aiie  and 
lirilliant  c-otorH. 

Xunn. —  No  aviary  is  complete  without  the  nuns, 
both  black-  and  white-cap  [ted,  thiir  white  headu 
forming  a  rich  contraat  to  the  cliocitlaLe- brown 
and  black  bodice.  Japanese  nuns  are  n  combina- 
tion of  the  purest  white  intermingled  with  the 
much  admireil  cinnamon  color.  Theae  pets.  Iteing 
bred  in  cages,  are  very  tame  anil  of  a  quiet  diapOHi- 
tion,  and  ning  very  merrily. 

Tie  Cordan  Blw.  a  native  of  .Africa,  i.s  a  small 
bird  of  great  Wauty.  .Sometimes  he  if*  failed  the 
Crimson-ear  waxbill.  The  male  baa  a  soft,  pleas- 
ing song  and  is  usualty  heard  cooing  an  if  for  his 
own  pleasure. 

The  Cut  fhroat  ttpttrrntr,  a  native  of  Africa,  in 
HbfiHt  half  the  size  of  a  canary,  of  a  deltcat*  gray- 
ish fawn  color  spangkHJ  with  white  splits. 

T^**  St.  Hflenn  wash'tU  ctmnes  frimi  Africa  in 
great  numbers.  The  beak  ii>  «  \\T\^\\i  red,  re»em- 


bUng  8ealiDg-wax.  with  a  darker  shade  of  the  sanae 
color  pawing  through  each  eye,  and  a  dash  of  the 
same  color  under  the  body,  the  rest  of  the  body 
being  a  grayish  brown.  The  winga  and  tail  are  a 
i^hade  darker.  All  the  feathers  have  blackish  wavy 
lines  all  over  thum,  giving  them  a  poft  and  silken 
appearance. 

The  Diamond  fpajrvw  is  a  native  of  Aiuttralia 
and  i«  a  short,  fltMit  bird  f>omewhat  larger  than  the 
8t.  Helena  waxbill.  The  under  jiart  of  the  liody  is 
white,  and  the  ttide^  under  the  wings  black  with 

oblong  white  8[iot;5. 

The  Firxjineh  is  very  much  like  the  avadavat  at 
certain  seafions  of  the  year.  Et  is  larger  but  does 
not  poese-ss  much  song,  being  kept  chiefly  for  its 
beauty  and  cheerful  liirtpOFition. 

TOr  .S'ajfroa  fineh  is  very  similar  to  the  cuitary, 
although  not  »o  large, 

y*fi  rrots. 

The  parrot  is  the  l>cist  known  among  the  talking 
birds.     Many    individuals    have    acqnired    several 
languagen  and  whistle  and 
sing  any    song    that    they 
hear. 

7%p  Afriean  Graft  pa.rTtit 
(Fig.  f'2:^),  with  gray  IkmIv, 
black  bill  and  scarlet  tail, 
taken  high  rank.  It  rarioa 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
in  length.  It  is  an  excellent 
talker  and  whistler,  but  in- 
dividuals vary  greatly  in 
their  ability  to  learn,  i -J 

The  !hmhU-   YfUou-henfM 
Mfxiran  jxii-nit  is  the  oper-        Jjjg^'j  .     -'/-Jf^'N 
atic  star  of  the  parrot  fam-        '^i\  '  .  >'V*^'^-\v 
ily.  Hisgiftofsongis  great, 
and  his  voice  in  clear  i4.nd 
sweet.     He    is    a    beautiful 

gn-eu  thnmghout  the  btwly,     fIje.  3U,    Giay  miot. 
with  pale  orange  fori-head 
and  acurlet  and  blue  feathers,  his  feet  and  beak 
white. 

The  CarlJiagena  parrvl  is  thirteen  to  Bfteen 
inches  long  tind  h.n,'*  all  green  plumage,  except  on 
the  back  of  the  neck,  where  there  ia  a  pale  orangu 
marking  abimt  the  size  of  a  half-dollar,  and  in  the 
wing  and  tail  feathen*  where  red  and  blue  mark- 
ings occur.  TKij<i  bird  becomes  a  good  singer  and 
whistles  and  talkr*  very  well, 

TTir  .Sinif/r  YrVnW'i^xidpd  pnmi  is  smaller  than 
the  double  yellow-headed,  but  has  the  same  cilors. 
except  that  the  beak  is  dark  instead  of  flesh  color. 
It  makes  a  fair  talker. 

Th  Amazrm  is  a  native  of  upper  South  America- 
It  \*  not  so  large  as  the  Mexican  but  is  an  apt 
pupil  and  easily  learns  to  talk  and  sing. 

Thp  Hhif  h\-oT>t  is  twelve  nr  thirteen  inchee  long, 
with  plain  green  Iwidy  and  blue  forehead,  and  slight 
n.Hl  and  bbie  markings  on  the  wings.  It  ahu  \v- 
comes  a  fair  t.itker. 

77ir  Maracititm  fMimd  i&  like  a  ainall  edition  of 
tho  Mexican.  It  is  about  k-n  or  eleven  inches  long 
and  aomi-timos  makes  »n  excellent  talker. 


PETS 


POULTRY 


525 


Tke  Cuban  parrot  in  ten  to  twelve  inches  looff, 
with  prwr  body  and  whit&  for«h«ad.  scarlet  throat 
and  iicarlet  and  blu^  win^rs.  It  it)  atrually  imported 
when  abuut  thrve  mootba  old  and  i»  tum'e  and  very 
teachable. 

Paroqu^f.  —The  namt;  paroquet  is  applied  to  the 
smnller  Ifinds  of  pjirrntti.  The  Australian  paroquet 
ifl  a  beautiful  and  eccentric  bird.  It  easily  becomesi 
dome8ticat6<i  to  c&gm  life,  and  can  be  taught  many 
amQiiinK  tricks. 

Tlie  Dirtirf  fnirrot  in  a  little  folli>w  fcmnd  often 
in  our  town  bird  Htores^  althou};h  nut  common 
enough  to  be  (;enerally  known.  It  ii^  a  littlo  br|^>r 
than  the  i>aroqaet8  or  love  bird-i,  and  of  a  uniform 
((Teen  on  the  body,  with  a  bit  of  oranp*  or  red 
about  the  bill  or  throat  anil  wings.  It  a  said  to  do 
aome  talking  occaaionatly. 

LUerature. 

Dog*.  —  J.  V.  Mott,  Boston  Terrier;  R.  B. 
Playeman.  House  Dy^s,  Care  and  Trvatment ; 
Ku^ene  Gla.'w,  Cocker  Sjianiel;  H.  Daziel.  Dim^afles 
of  Doffs ;  Ashmont,  Png  Management  and  Treat- 
ment ;  Al.  G.  niH-rhardt,  Evyrything  About  Dogs  ; 
A^hroont,  Kt>nn(>l  lJLseaKi!!t ;  AxhnionL,  Kt^nnttl 
Secrets ;  J.  W.  Hill.  Manat^i-mt-nt  and  [)irteasp«  of 
Dog«:  S.  T.  Hammond.  Practical  Duk  Traininu; 
W.  C.  Percy,  Priiiciijlus  of  Dog  Traiainj; ;  E.  H. 
Haberlin,  Amateur  Trainer  :  .Stonuht-nge  and  Arma- 
tage.  The  Hog  ;  W.  A.  Sargent.  Collit-s  IWful  and 
How  to  Make  Ri ;  J.  Watson,  The  Dog  Book  ;  H.  C. 
Tnfati  American  Foxhound;  \V.  Slillfl,  The  Xhig  in 
Health  and  Dtwjwe;  B,  Watcru,  Training  Hunting 
Dork  ;  B.  Walt-rw,  MiHiam  K^nrnd  ManagBmfnt. 

Uttfihiif  ami  rarlf.».  —  AmbroM',  Bi>1f{ian  Hare 
Itahliits  and  All  Ationt  Thi-ni ;  Mo»»  and  Ambrose. 
The  Initt-h  Rabbit ;  Knlghtbridgo,  TIil-  L<>p  Rnbbit; 
I,.  .Shaw,  The  English  Rabbit ;  KichanUon,  The 
Rabbit;  K.  W.  Knight.  The  llwk  of  the  Rabbit; 
K.  Ruth,  Belgian  Hartf  Tuiture ;  E.  Ruth,  The  Bel- 
gian Hare;  CnnniculuH,  The  Prietiral  Rabliit 
Keeper;  P.  O'Brien,  The  Belgian  H:ire ;  Raysim, 
Rabbita  for  Prizes  and  I'rofit ;  T.  B.  Mason,  SomL-- 
thing  About  the  .Sih-cr  Kahbita ;  C  A.  House,  The 
Cavy;  John  Robins.  The  Cavy;  C  U  Merick,  All 
About  Ca*-ieH ;  Rllard  and  Johrnon.  Flemish  and 
Angora  RiibbiCs,  in  prt>pnraltr)n. 

Miet.  Ueake  and  William,  F.incy  Mice;  "An 
Old  Fancier,"  Fancy  Mitv. 

Fiiftifnt  and  rnrff-biritii.  Browne  and  Walker, 
American  Bird  Fancier ;  C.  A.  Koui«i>.  British 
Canary ;  G.  H.  Holden,  Canaries  and  Cage  Birds ; 
G.  H.  Hol-ien,  Book  on  Birds  ;  C.  N.  Page.  Canary 
Breeding  ;  R.  T*.  Wallace,  Canary  Book  ;  J.  I>.  Brad- 
man,  British  HinU  ;  C.  N.Page,  Feathered  Pets; 
W.  F.  Greeni',  (»ur  FealherKl  Pets;  Fulton  and 
Wright.  Uook  of  Pigeons ;  Feather's  Practi<!al 
Pigeon  Itook ;  Pigeon  Standarvl ;  Pigeon  Qae^i^'^s ; 
P.  M.  Gilbert,  Pigeon  Keeping;  Twombly,  Si)uab 
Culture ;  L  Hoeer.  Homing  Pigeon,  Breeding  and 
Training;  J.  A.  Summer,  hiseases  of  Pigeons;  R. 
Woods,  Dragoon  Pigri«n ;  C.  A.  Hoiiw,  Fnntail 
Pigeon  ;  C.  H.  Jones,  Homing  Pigeon  of  the  Twen- 
tieth ("entury  ;  K.  C.  Rire,  ftjual)  Book :  W.  F.Lun- 
dey,  Owl  Pigmo  ;  W.  F.  Landey.  Turbit  Pigeon  ; 


F.  U.  Gilbert,  Ptg^eons  ;  U  Wright.  Practical  Pigeon 
Eaeper;  J.  C.  I^tng,  Practical  Pigeou  Book  ;  W.  E. 
Rice,  Practical  .Stjuab  Book  ;  A.  V.  Meerch,  Pigeiiiui; 
J.  E.  Webber.  Working  Homers  ;  Vale,  How  to  Food 
Pigeons  ;  R.  Woods,  Diseases  of  Pigeons  ;  It.  Woods, 
Successful  Pigeon  Culture ;  Blaxton  and  Others, 
Book  of  the  Canary  ;  B«ckiitein.  Cage  Birds. 

POULTRY.   Figs.  624-604. 

One  of  the  features  of  lliu-  new  contemporaneous 
agricull'ire  is  the  attention  that  is  };iveD  to  tbu 
poultry  live-stock.  In  former  time,  the  fowls  were 
an  unaccounted  incident  of  the  farm.  They  lived 
on  the  refuse  and  on  such  food  as  thev  might  find 
in  a  fret)  range,  and  all  they  pnxiuced  In  the  way 
of  meat,  eg^  and  fe.ithertt  was  counted  as  clear 
gain.  Bocausu  they  thrived  anywhere,  cost  practi- 
cally nothing  to  keep,  multiplier!  rapidly,  and  the 
individual  birds  were  not  valuable  enough  to  occa- 
sion much  loss  if  one  or  sever.il  died,  giving  at  the 
same  time  a  stt-ady  and  marketable  product,  fowls 
became  associated  with  practically  every  farm. 
Fowls  are  kept  on  more  farms  and  separate  home- 
steiidK  than  any  other  domestic  animal  except  cats. 
.?UBt  Iwcause  fftwk  will  taJte  care  of  themselves, 
they  have  been  neglected  ;  and  not  until  recent 
census  and  ruvitnue  figures  w^tu  available  did  we 
know  the  imnien.-4e  economic  returns  that  poultr>' 
live-stock  gives  to  the  people. 

With  the  gradual  refining  of  agriculture  and  the 
application  of  business  methtxis  to  it,  we  have 
hegnn  to  realize  that  it  in  poBsibte  greatly  t<i 
e.\lend  the  usefulneSK  of  all  kinds  of  fowls.  Tlie 
binJs  are  coming  to  occupy  a  distinct  departnient 
of  a  good  farm  enterprise,  as  are  sheep  or  orchards 
or  pigs,  and  the  old  phrase  "barnyard  fowls"  is 
dropping  from  use.  Thi-re  are  two  type.-*  of  poultry 
hushnndry,  — that  which  considers  the  binjs  as  a 
part  of  a  general  farm  business  ;  and  that  which 
makns  a  8iH*cialty  of  fowU,  with  all  other  pnKlucts 
Mubordinala  to  them.  In  the  bitter  class  are  estab- 
lirthnient^  making  a  busintits  of  producing  eggs 
and  meat,  and  other  establishments  making  a 
specialty  of  breeding. 

We  have  n<>w  learned  that  any  real  satisfaction 
in  the  rearing  of  pniiltry  mnst  come  as  a  result  of 
rt»  careful  stmly  and  attention  as  that  given  to 
any  other  kind  of  live-stock.  The  qneMtinn.1  of 
brec-ding,  fet-ding,  disea.-ws,  and  general  maiiage- 
mLMit  are  complex  and  are  much  in  need  of  scien- 
tific investigation.  Hen'tofore.  the  special  interest 
in  poultry,  so  far  as  writers  and  investigators  are 
concerned,  has  l»een  descriptive,— the  characteris- 
ing of  hreiHiK  and  the  disciisRion  of  formal  and 
fancy  points.  The  result  has  lnyn  that  the  suli- 
jeirts  of  breeds  and  exhibiting  have  lieen  much 
over-em phastzed  as  compared  with  questions  of 
lierformancd  and  utility,  as  they  have  bwn  in  all 
other  groups  of  animals.  The  entering  of  the  col- 
lege-s  and  experiment  stations  into  the  diacosBioa  of 
pnultry  questions  is  changing  all  this.  A  new  and 
vital  type  of  poultry  literature  ia  arising.  Tliia  lit- 
erature is  yet  largely  fugitive,  however,  although 
some  of  it  is  contained  in  experiment  station  pub- 


t 


526 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


licationa.  We  are  betwixt  the  old  and  thp  new, — 
the  new  bwinK  the  writinn  ftnmil«!d  on  rationii! 
scientific:  procedore. 

The  reputation  of  the  ponltry  bnsinoM,  as  a 
«eparate  enterprise,  has  no  donbt  salTered  from  the 
expliiitatinn  of  it  liy  many  perinon!!!  who  have  gone 
into  it  Lhinking  it  an  eany  anil  rapi<[  niai]  to  for- 
tuno  ami  a  iiiL-iinH  of  nx'-inipiriK  broken  htwUh. 
Many  of  thusft  peraoiw  have  failed,  aa  lh«y  should 
have  had  every  reaaon  to  oxpeot.  To  ga  inUi  puul- 
try-RTowinff  as  a  businunw  is  a  serloua  under Lakinjf) 
aa  it  in  to  gr»  into  market-gard'-'ninE  or  dairying. 
The  person  ninat  team  the  busines*.'*.  There  are 
plenty  of  persons  who  succeed  well  in  the  poultry 
buxineHs,  and  thin  daas  will  increnite  steadily. 

Ah  a  rwuKh  statement,  it  may  he  said  that  it 
casta  one  dollar  a  year  per  fowl  to  kee])  u  Hock^ 
of  poultry.   This  cost  may  be  rmiuced  on  a  farm* 
where  the  birds  have  fret'  ranjyo  and  the  feed  i» 
prmiiiced  f>n  the  place;  it  maybe  increased  when 
the  binia  an?  confine<l  and  ail  the  feefl  is  pnrchoscd. 

What  Lhe  proceedw  an*  to  be  will  depend  on  very 
many  cunditiuna,  and  for  what  purptwe  the  animals 
are  kept.  The  »uccwdinK  articles  will  thryw  some 
light  on  this  question.  A  person  should  expect  a 
minirmira  net  profit  from  fowls  roared  foregga  and 
meat,  of  one  dollar  a  year ;  and  this  profit  may 
sometime.'*  b(.i  doubled.    [See  Vol.  I,  pp.  183-187.] 

The  great  effort,  so  far  an  the  modification  of  the 
bird  is  concerned,  is  tn  increase  the  egg-laying 
capacity  of  the  fowl.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  hen  originally  la.id  eggw  for  thtj  purfiiwe  of  per- 
petuating her  kind,  as  the  cciw  gave  milk  merely 
to  sustain  her  calf  for  a  time.  Instead  of  prwluc- 
ing  one  or  two  brnoda  of  eggs,  good  hens  will  now 
lay  a.1  many  &s  200  eggs  a  year,  and  the  record 
for  individual  binls  exce&ls  this,  This  result  is 
brought  about  by  lung-cimtinued  attentioa  to  breed- 
ing, by  rational  feeding,  by  good  care,  and  by  the 
fltimulufl  of  comfortable  and  he-althful  quartern. 
The  egg-Iayingability  is  abo conditioned  on  the  age 
of  the  bird.  Pullets  usually  lay  best.  I'oultrymen 
therefore  like  to  keep  only  young  fowls,  dispo.'iing 
of  them  ftT  meat  about  the  end  of  the  fir.Ht  year. 
By  controlling  the  period  of  hatching,  much  may 
be  done  to  induce  egg-laying  in  the  cold  months, 
when  tho  fowl  would  not  naturally  tny.  The  pullets 
should  be  fully  mature  and  in  laying  habit  before 
cold  weather  sets  in.  Thereafter  the  problem  is 
one  of  feci,  exercise  and  housing.  Probably  half 
the  fowls  in  the  country  are  not  laying  in  the 
winter  months,  and  for  this  reason  eggs  are  high- 
priced  in  this  period.  It  ia  easier  said  than  done, 
to  be  sure,  to  pnxiute  freely  of  winter  eggs ;  but 
the  reiiult  is  obtainable,  as  we  shall  find  when  we 
loam  how  to  prepare  for  the  crop  of  eggs  as  we 
prepare  for  a  crop  of  potatoes  or  beans. 

lilustrations  of  egg-laying  under  practical  condi- 
tions have  been  given  ue  as  follows :  Ne}i>  Jtrncy.^ 
274  pullet*,  about  two-thirds  of  them  White  Wyan- 
dotte and  the  remainder  Barred  PJjtnoiith  Rock, 
laid  815  eggs  in  October.  1,2'I7  in  November,  2.02'1 
in  December,  2,9r>G  in  January.  3..t26  in  February. 
4.9.1.i  in  March,  or  a  total  for  the  six  months  of 
15^301.  MaaaekuieUt.— 112  pallet«r45  yearlings, 


all  Whit*!  Wyandotte,  laid  1,390  eggs  in  Novem- 
ber, 1.7S7  in  iX^cember.  2,587  in  January,  2,940 
in  FL'bruary,  4,0.SS  in  March,  a  total  In  five  months 
of  I2.Gyi>.  Mainr.— The  wife  of  a  dairyman  Iceeps 
alrout  four  hundred  and  fifty  head  of  Barred  Ply- 
mouth Rocks,  and  her  accounts  for  the  past  five  or 
six  years  show  an  average  of  better  than  two  dol- 
Uirw  a  year  net  profit  |ii*r  f<)wl  fr[>m  the  eggs  sold 
to  market  and  the  fowls  sold  aliv«  before  the  time 
of  thi-  molt,  Tht>  average  egg-product  is  l«n  to 
twelve  df>zen  eggs  per  bird,  ami  the  average  price* 
have  rangL'd.  for  the  SL'riua  of  years,  somewhat 
over  twenty-lire  cunU  per  dozen,  which  gives  a 
return  of  over  two  dollars  and  fifty  centa  for  each 
bird  per  year.  The  hena  sold  aU%'e  to  market  arei^ 
age  a  return  of  abcint  a  dollar  apiece. 

As  there  are  beef  types  and  milch  typea  of  cat- 
tle, so  Uier«  are  meat  types  and  egg-iaying  lyi>e« 
of  fowls :  and  there  are  many  fancy  kinds,  as  the 
game  cocks,  frizzles,  and  abnormal  forms.  No 
domestic  animals  of  the  live-t^lock  kind  possess  so 
many  curious  and  interesting  form-fl.  particularly  if 
we  include  in  the  poultry  cl.'uia  all  the  phea.-*ants, 
guineu-fuwls.  peafowls  and  swans.  In  the  fann- 
poultry  of  the  past,  no  particuUr  distinction  was 
made  between  meat  fowls  and  egg-laying  fowls,  u 
there  was  no  distinction  between  beef  cattle  and 
milch  cattle;  therefore,  there  was  no  special  selec- 
tion or  breeding  along  the  divergent  lines  by  the 
general  farmer.  There  is  a  general-purpose  or 
dual'piirpose  fowl  as  there  is  a  dual-purpose  cow, 
and  this  type  of  fowl,  much  improved,  will  probably 
hold  preeminence  under  general  farm  conditions. 

t'onsidertMi  in  its  economic  results,  the  greatest 
utility  of  poultry  husbandry  no  doubt  is  its  part 
in  general  farming,  inasmuch  as  it  is  adapted  to 
practically  every  kind  of  farm  scheme.  Ami  it  w 
in  this  field  also  that  the  greatei^l  study  and  effort 
need  to  be  exjjended.  The  poultry  specialist  is  an 
enthusiast  and  ho  koeps  in  touch  with  everj'  new 
thing  pertaining  to  tho  business  ;  bat  the  general 
farmer  has  other  and  perhaps  larger  interests,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  no  part  of  his  busine« 
will  probably  yield  a  greater  return  for  extra  care 
and  attention  than  the  poultry  |>art. 

Poultry-raising  must  come  to  be  a  regular  part 
of  the  plans  for  agricultural  education.  This  will 
pUce  the  subject  in  its  proper  relation  with  other 
farm  business.  The  colleges  of  agriculture  are  now 
bogianing  to  realize  this  fact  and  to  act  on  it.  In 
the  secondary  schools,  fowls  probably  afford  the 
must  attractive  and  adaptable  means  of  teaching 
many  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Uve- 
utock  tnduatrieii.  Edncation  has  now  reached  the 
point  at  which  it  is  ready  and  wilting  to  utilize  the 
common  affairs  as  means  of  training  men  and 
women  ;  and  there  are  departments  in  the  colleges 
dcvottid  wholly  to  ponltry.  and  professorships  in 
the  subject  are  beginning  to  be  created. 

When  we  gather  the  poultry  statistics  from  all 
the -farms  and  honie.«eads  of  the  country,  we  find 
that  the  figures  assnme  enormoaa  proportions. 
The  latest  available  statistics  are  those  of  the 
Twelfth  Census,  IIHX),  some  of  the  aommary  items 
of  which  are  as  follows : 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


S2T 


FODLTKV  AND 


NnmlHtr  of 

bum 

Nvmb*r«f 

Tiinn* 
r«|Mrt)nK 

Kambtr  of  fowU  tbrao  moittlia  old  mi4  ornr. 

Jatw  1.  tow 

tfulneA-fowlii) 

Turkera 

liecaa 

Iiiwk* 

North  Atlantic  Division  .   . 
Smith  Alluntic.  Divifion   .   . 
North  Central  Diviaion    .  . 
Suutb  Cvntrul  Divifiios .  .   . 

B,7«9.e57 

677.506 

9*;2.226 

2.  ISO, 567 

1.6&8.166 

242.908 

r,096,2rj2 

605,732 

850.074 
2.014,138 
1,441.315 

3S4.021 

233,51(8.08.1 

274*52.114 

22.293,912 

123.469.068 

50,29»,63I 

9,551,296 

6,589,367 
529.932 

8io.e7n 

3,072.456 

1,876.382 

304,950 

5,676,863 

144.527 

908.908 

1,899.026 

2,589,164 

135,163 

4,»r/,36S 

4o3^80 

4.'W,918 

2,416,327 

I,2ft7/)48 
199.977 

VnlDf)  of  M 
panUry.  Jum  1.  IKWI 


UniL«d  SliUfA  .... 

North  Atl&ntlo  Dttislon 
SoQth  Atlantic  Dtriaton 
Nartfi  Central  Oivinion 
Sooth  Central  Uivtaion 
Wwteni  Diviaioji    .  .   , 


$85,794,996 

13.706,762 

8,545,899 
43.416.629 
15.672,938 

i.414,86£ 


Mare  recent  ponltry  ItBures.  from  the-  Department 
of  AgricuUunj  YeBrbncik.  may  be  cited.  a$  follows  : 


KXPORTS. 

For  tha  ytu  «ai«i  Jono  30,  1902. 

Eggs.  doceiM  ....      2,717,990 

Etcg  yolks 

Keatht-rH 

Poultrj-  and  e«tib 

?<ir  lh«  jutr  «Bii«<i  JuTii!  30,  1906. 

QoAntlly 
Eagt.AoKM  .....     4,d52/)63 

Biaj  yolka 

(•'ealhsrH 

Pualtry  oiiO  t;iiinu 


r«hie 

$528,679 

14.700 

239.7Mi 

856301 


$1,038,649 
54.851 

263.377 
1,397,004 


WBOLniU  Price  dp  avekagk  Best  PttEsri  Gcca 
Per  DiiKKS, 


N«w  York  . 
8L  Looifl    . 


New  York 
SLhmk 


Lnw  Rich 

19ict«.      27   eta. 
la\  eta        18}  cU. 


■tunv, 
Iaiw 

IS   CU. 
8ict& 


Illch 
Htcts. 
10  eta 


Uw  lllcb 

17i  cts.  34  ctfl. 

14    eta.  22r.i». 

Ja.an.  IDM 

Xmw  Hlih 

174  eta  23  ct«. 

16   cts.  17ft  eta. 


The  Rommary  Hgares  of  the  number  of  fowls  in 
Oinuila  in  1901  are  v  fnllnws  : 

Britinh    Columbiii.   .^6:^*73;   Manitoba,    1.167,- 
876;    New    Brunswick.    714,131;    Nova   Scotia, 
798.146;    Ontario,    I0,4tt4.Ei5] ;    Prince    E<i*»ard 
iHlaml,   581.790;  Quebec,   ;l.28X.(>43;    the  Tc.." 
turicw,  I>49,143. 

Number  of  poultrv  killed  or  sold  tl901).  7.06:V 
S97.  all  ('jinaHn;  namber  of  eggs  (1901).  84.132,- 
802  doiwnA.  hII  Canailn ;  value  of  poultry  (1901). 
$5.72»,8»0.  all  Canada. 

If  the  reader  is  int«rosU!d  in  ^tatistic-s  of  edu- 
cation in  poDltry  hoabandry  in   Canada  and  the 


Vn!ii«  vt  pQnlIrr 
ntawl  la  U» 


{136,891,877 

20.624.439 

16.553,805 
69,828,121 
24.770.049 

6,063,738 


l>o»ra«  of  «n« 
[>rui]ue»il  iu  IBM 


V«]u«i  lit  alts* 

pmlunMl  In  ;aw 


1,293,819,186 

191.764,000 
106,3.194»9C 
716,66.1,710 
222.096.860 
67,787,867 


144,286,158 

28,612,489' 
11.687.293 

74,208,117 

20,46&.926 

9,266.716 


United  States,  he  should  consult  pages  55  to  88  of 
the  Procwjdinps  nf  the  32d  Annual  Convention  of 
the  American  Poultry  Ansociation,  1907. 

Literature. 

Followinir  are  some  of  the  nSvnnm  hmikit  on 
pualtry  subjucta.  Much  helpftil  information  will 
also  be  found  in  experiment  station  poblicaUoiu^ 
and  tho8e  of  the  national  Department  of  Agrieal- 
ture.  American  Standard  of  Perfection,  published 
by  the  American  Poultry  Aswociatioti;  Wright.  Book 
of  Poultry,  Caasel  &  Co..  London  ;  J^lnu^n.  Diseases 
of  Poultry,  Geo.  E.  Howard  &  Co..  Washington. 
I).  C;  Stoddard,  Now  Egg  B'ann,  Orange  Judd 
Company,  New  York;  Lewis,  People '^  lYactical 
Poultry  Book.  Excelsior  Publishing  liousie,  New 
York  ;  Norys.  Pocket  Money  Poultry.  Geo.  E.  How- 
ard &  Co..  Washington.  l>.  C;  Tegetmeier.  Poultry 
Book,  Routledge  &  Sons,  London ;  Felch.  Poultry 
Cnlture,  IJonohue,  Henneberry  4  Co.,  Chicago: 
Wright.  Practical  Poultry  KeeiJtr.  Orange  Judd 
Coiiip.iny,  New  York ;  Wataon,  Farm  Poultry,  The 
Macmillan  Company,  New  York;  Robinson,  Poultry 
Craft,  Farm  Poultry  Publishing  Company,  Poi'ton  ; 
CollingwotKl, The  Busineaa  Hen,  Rural  New-Yorker; 
Biggie  Poultrv  Book,  The  Farm  Journal  Company, 
Philadelphia ;  Weir.  The  Poultry  Book,  with  colored 
piates,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &.  Co..  New  York : 
Perfected  Fowls  of  America,  Howard  I'ultliuhing 
Company,  Washington ;  Barrows,  Bgg8  ;  Robinson, 
First  Lesaons  in  Poultry  Keeping :  E.  C.  Powell, 
Making  Ponltry  Pay ;  McGrow,  Perfected  Poultry 
of  .America;  Davenport,  Principles  of  Breeding; 
Poultry  Hou.i©a  and  Fixtures.  Reliable  Poultry 
Journal ;  Reliable  Poultry  Remedies.  Iteliable  Potil- 
try  Jnuntst ;  Itobinson,  Itroilerti  and  ItnoAters ; 
Docks  and  Geese,  Reliable  Poultry  .Tournal ;  Ilewea, 
Hamburg  Book;  The  Leghorns,  Reliable  Ponltry 
Journal ;  Report  of  Second  National  Poultry  Con- 
ference, Reading,  England. 


POUl^TRY 


POULIHY 


IxDBx  TO  PouLT«r  Akticubb  atocky  body,  a  triple  or  p«a-comb,  stoot.  vellow- 

Origi.  or  ih«  Dom«.tic  Ko*-t 'sS  "'''""t^  '*e«.  *  niottl«l  plumsge  and  sn  unwilling- 

Bluing  of  Poultry 529  "^^  fly  far    n  the  air     bnch  charact^ra  are 

PiBdinB  Poultry bXi  found,  for  example,  in  the  Brahma  fowl.   Th^^yarBi 

Peedinjt  Waler-fowl  .!'.'.!!!!!!!!!  r>;w  also  found  in  the  Aaeel.  probably  the  oldi^st  fowl  in 

PalWnin^  I'uuiltrf a;i8  domestication.    The  Aseel  han  been  bred  in  India 

Cspnna  and  {'ii|Hniiiini; 540  fyp  ovtjr  S.OtK)  veare.  and  ita  wild  ancestors  svem 

Incubation  and  Urr>oUing 5^2  to  have  becomo  extinct.    Starting  with  the  jungle- 

Pr*j.arin«  «nil  Miirkt-Un^  Poultry  PnxlufU.  .   .    .  .  &U  f^^j  ^nd  the  Aseel.  We  can  write  an  intelligible 

Jndginfi  ioQltry  ■  ■    •  ■    - o4i  jjistorv  of  the  domeatic  fowl,  but  we  could  hardly 

Pt.ult,y.h<«»e  tWtnjctivT, 556  ^0  it  if  we  started  with  the  janglcfowl  aloM. 

^^dji  -nJ  Typ«  of  Chi.-k*n« 5h^  /»rosfr««*  ^  d^meMicaiwri. 

Geeu 572  The  history  of   the  domes ticstlon  of   tlie  fowl 

GroBM,  DaiDwtleatloD  of  tlie  KtilF«d 576  reaches,  as  suggested  above,  to  a  remote  anttqnity. 

Onfnaa-fowl 578  The  ln:.titute8  of  Menu,  1000  B.  C,  alludes  to  the 

PhtwuiU  and  Heated  Powk o79  ^port  «f  cock-fighting  (probabtv  with  the  Aaeel). 

^S«w»  and  SquaU  .         ■   •   •  -   '  •  •   ■  :   ■  •  ff2  Prom  southeastern   India  the  donit-slicated   fowl 
Qnul,  DomMticatiOD  of  the  Bobwnitc  or  Amencaa    oSi  i         .      _i         i  »i.      _i  l-        r-t- 

oL,^  tor  Hpruad  eaHtward  unu  nurthwaru,  ru.'iching  (hina, 

Tarkpy'   '.'.'.'.'.'.'.''.'.'.''..'.'.'.'  !  586  according  to  tradition,  about  1400  B.  C'.,aud  subee-i 

qnuntly  gaining  Japan.  The  movemifnt  toward  the 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Fowl,   daltus  spp.  GcUincc.  Wetit  took  place  later.  It  is  figured  on  Babylonian 

Fig.  ^yAi.  cylinders  of  about  GOO  B.  C,  and   Aristophanea 

„     ™     ,      _   _  ,  (about  400  B.  C.)  refers  to  the  fowl  an  the.  Pernian 

By  aarla  B.  Davenport.  ,,i^,j_    _^^  j^  j^  „^^j  mentioned  in  the  Old  TesUm^nt, 

The  (lomeetic  fowl  belongs  to  the  group  of  Bcratch-  the  iyyv\  probably  did  not  reach  Syria  until  three 

ing  binlR  that  includen  alsit  the  tarkey,  guineu-fnwi,  ur  four  centuri«^t<  befon<  the  beginning  uf  our  era. 

pheaannt,  jiartridgK.  gronsH,   TIih  anwHtoni  of  the  Its  intrmUietion  into  Euroiw  from  Persia  was  prob- 

ditmeHtie  fowl,  like  choice  of  otherdomcHLiuanimaU,  ably  (ifftruted  at  tlif  time  of  the  conquest  of  that 

were  wild  8[)ceiL-t^,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  there  eountry  by  Alexander  (1130-3^  B.  C).    Once  in 

was  only  one   ance»tral  aj>L'eiL'a  or  that  all    the  Europe,  the  spread  was  rapid  over  that  continent, 

anct-ntru!  speeii-s,  if  more  than  one,  still  persist,  Caesar  found    fowl    in  Britain,  whither  they  had 

Without  going  into  the  historj- of  idi'^as  concerning  prnhably  been  carried  by  the  PhfHnicians,  at  the 

the  anci-wtry  of  fowl,  it  may  be  said  that  probably  time  of  his  conquest  of  that  country  altout  fw  B.('. 

two  Ri«?r:iefl  were  involved— one  a  wild  furm  still  It  is  probablti  that,  at  a  later  date,  fowl  were  intro- 

cnmmrin  in  the  jnnglp  of  Inilia,  miuthfrn  f'hina  and  du«ei]    into  Eurojiu    from    Central  Asia   tbruufjh 

the  Kaat  Indies,  and  known  a.i  Ciiillua  fe^rntffinnte,  Siberia  to  Rwwia.  From  Europe,  fowl  were  carried 

or  as  ffU/^ij' /"lyU'Jiv!  (Fig.  fi9T>;  the  other,  probably  in   the  early  period    of  colonization  to  the   .New 

an  extinct  progt'(iiti>r  of  the  /Vaeel  or  Malay  fowl  World  and  parts  of  the  Old  World,  where,  op  to 

[Fig.  024).    The  that  time,  they  had  liettn  unknowa. 
GiUliig  frrruffin-  The  charai-ter  of  the  fowl  tirst  bred  in  China 

'  'fc  ,';^,\      eux  is  a  slender-  and  wiatern  India  iliflored  from  that  of  the  western 

hodied  binl,hav-  birds,  for  i\w  LM-sturn  fowl  wernof  Ihu  stocky  Awel 

'  ing  ill  plumage  ty|iH.    Foot  feathering,  tho  uniform  buff-colored; 

t'olored  like!  thai  plumage  and    the  reduction  to  bantam  size  were 

of    the     Black-  early  aehioved  by  the  Chinese.   The  Buff  Cochins. 

LWi^^LJ^^^ik      breasted     Red  the  source  of  all  uniformly  buff  fowls  the  worl4 

i^SK^^Hk  ''^iame  fowl,  and  over,  were  cultivated  in  Hoanghn  1,500  years  ago. 

having  a  single  The  western  fowl  were  more  of  the  jungle-fowl 

comh,     slender,  type ;  slender,  active,  ckan-nbanked  birds.   These 

willow  .  colored  came  to  inhabit  lliu  whole  Mediterranean  coast  from 

V  A3M/^&S^^^       shanki*  and  cap-  Egypt,  thniugb  Syria,  Asia  Minor, (Irecce,  Italy  and 

^  7.  ^^^BUbO^^^       able  of  consider-  France,  to  Spain  and  the  islands  lying  olT  shore. 

*^fi^\$^^^^^|Bgr^       able  flight.  It  is  Thencvi    arose    our   Mediterranean    fowl  —  active 

j4         completely    fer-  birds,  largely  non-sitting ;  snch  are  the  l-cghoni, 

A«rt  towL*'  tile  with  domejs-  Minorca,  Spanish,  Andalusian,  Hamburg,  Ancona, 

^"  ticated    fowl.  Polish,  Homlan,  and    many  other   variettea.    The 

The  other  extant  wild  species  of  Gallus  are  mnch  colors  l)ecamH  varied  through  the  preservation  of 

less  like  any  of  our  domestic  rjices  and  are  usually  various  sports  that  eropiwd  out :  a  melanic  sport, 

sterile  with  them.   The  reason  for  concluding  that  as  seen   in   the   black   Minorcas  and  Spanish;  a 

■  second  siwcies  ha<l   lieen  involved  in  the  con-  "gray"-white8port,as  seen  in  the  white  Leghorn  ; 

atniction  of  our  domestic  races   is  the  existence  and  mettled  or  blue  forms,  derived  by  crossing  the 

among  them  of  a  set  of  characters,  other  than  black  and  white,  as  seen  in  the  Haraluirg.  Ancona, 

the  usnal   color    sports,  that   cannot   be  derived  ami  Polish.  Certain  teratobigical  conditions  were 

from  the  junglfr-fowL  Some  of  these  are  a  broad,  preservwl :  a  ftflh  toe,  known  even  to  the  Ronana, 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


629 


UQii  preserved  till  twiay  aa  the  trademark  of  the 
DorkinK  and  Houdan  racea ;  a  cerebral  hernia, 
known  for  over  four  hundred  yc-ara,  and  becomft  a 
tradetn^,rk  of  the  Pnlish  and  Uou^aii ;  and  a  rudi- 
mentary comb.  pnjbaWy  as»(»ciated  oriBinally  with 
the  ce-rebral  hernia  but  now  capable  of  being  in- 
heritet!  independently  of  tt. 

The  fowls  first  imported  to  America  were  Gamea 
(larf^ely  in  the  South),  Lt-Khornit  din-ct  fnun  Italy. 
and  certain  Kngliiih  derivativeg  of  the  Mediter- 
raoeaD  breeds,  eoch  aa  the  Porkin^^  and  Scutch 
Gray*,  with  their  barred  markin}:^  from  which  the 
barred  Plymouth  R«^ki*  of  today  have  probat>Iy 
been  derived,  in  part.  On  thiastock  weretngrafU-d. 
by  imiior  tat  ions,  the  utocky  eaatern  types — the 
Brahman,  from  the  Itrahmapootra  river  and  the 
Cochins  from  ShanRhai,  China.  The  latter  two 
were  used  to  k'vl-  tho  bri-adth  and  weight  of  uur 
Plymouth  Rock/«,  Wyandottcta  and  othi^rs ;  the  [j«a- 
comb  of  the  Drahma  has  \n^r\  uscii  to  reduce  the 
f^reut  single  cumb  of  the  Metliierraneun  breeds  to 
form  the  neat  comb  of  the  "  liockH."  and  the  solid 
burf  color  haa  been  lueil  in  the  Khixte  Ifiland  Red); 
OS  Well  as  the  baff  rarietieii  ot  the  Plymouth  Rocbt 
and  W'yandotles,  Tht"  effect  of  cru^inn  the  Medi- 
terranean and  A.'^iatic  ty]ies  has  been  to  piv«  a 
general-purpose  fnwl  of  Rroal  utility  to  tho  farmer, 
who  needs  a  hen  that  is  a  fair  layer,  a  Rood  mother, 
and  a  nieat-priKhiwr.  The  .American  experiment  of 
makinR  a  (tenoral -purpose  fowl  proved  so  nufceap- 
ful  that  it  was  repeated  in  Rni^liind  .ind  n>j;uited 
in  tbeOrpinjttons,  made  up  of  various  comliinatiorw 
of  Mediterranean,  Ea-sttTn  and  American  tyj)i^«. 
Thu-s  the  g^neral-puriHise  fowls  of  btith  Ent;land 
and  America  owe  their  origin  to  comUinationa  of 
the  derivatives  of  the  jungle-fowl  and  the  A»eel 
typen.  Itot,  for  egc-pnxiui^tion,  the  Mediterranean 
type  hun  never  been  surpaM^ed,  anil  as  a  table  bini 
the  Aite«l  derivative!*,  includinn  the  Indian  Oamea, 
('ochinA  and  Rrahmi:^,  have  no  rivals. 

lAterature. 
Pot  ref^renceA,  nee  page  527. 

Breeding  of  Poultry.    FigB.  525-530. 

Hy  Charlrf  It.  Datxap&rt. 

Perhaps  one  of  tlie  best  testa  of  the  domtwtication 
of  an  anim.'(l  in  the  control  by  man  of  its  repro- 
duction. ISroadly,  this  control  includes  the  feeding 
and  hou^iiiK  am)  all  the  apparatus  for  restricting 
the  free  interci>ur»u  of  thn  N>xeft.  Iieaving  these 
technical  details  for  description  elnewhore,  this 
article  will  consider  only  the  ]»rinciple»  to  )m  fol- 
lowe«l  in  selecting  fowls  for  the  bn^editLg-iien  in 
order  to  achieve  a  certain  ideal ;  and  simiu  ai^count 
of  the  naiwlt*  attained  by  breeders  who  have  fol- 
lowed these  principles,  often  m(>re  or  Iors  oncon- 
aciooaly.  may  be  atfded. 

Tfte  uieai  art'i  m'-thodt  of  attoinmy  U. 

The  UrBt  requisite  in  breeding  iti  a  clear-cat  idea). 
Let  the  breeder  formulate  clearly  in  his  mind  what 
he  wantA  to  get,  for  the  end  will  determine  the 
detaila  of  the  procedure.   The  ideal  may  bo  simple, 

C34 


such  aa  increased  egg-yield,  or  more  rapid  growth, 
or  great«r  vigor  of  stock,  or  a  reduced  site  of 
comb :  or  it  may  be  complex,  ag,  for  example, 
increased  yield  of  eggs  of  a  brown  color,  or  large 
size  combined  with  heavy  egg-yield,  or  a  large 
white  bird  with  a  small  comb  and  laying  many 
brown  ejcgs  of  a  large  size.  In  case  of  such  com- 
plex ideals,  it  ii  a  good  rule  to  work  for  one  or 
two  things  at  a  time.  In  any  cue,  the  ideal  should 
be  resolved,  as  in  the  foregoing  examplcB,  into  the 
maximum  number  of  well-detined  character iKticK 
that  are  to  be  combined  in  the  ideal  bird,  and  then 
the  proper  means  taken  to  get  the  combination. 

InlrrttJini;  and  line-brtetling,  —  In  beginning  to 
work  for  the  ideal,  it  U  highly  desirable  to  start 
several  families  at  once,  beraoite,  if  only  one  i>air 
be  mated,  tho  progeny  must  be  mated  with  each 
other,  or  with  the  parents ;  L  e.,  close  inbreeding 
mui^t  be  practiced,  and  thia  is  very  likely  to  be 
disastrous.  It  is  the  general  experience  of  broeflera 
that  Very  close  inbreeiling  tends  to  pr«>duce  chicks 
that  are  weak  and  fall  an  eOj^y  prey  to  di.'^^ilse,  or 
which,  if  thoy  survive,  are  infertile.  By  starling 
two  or  moix!  unrelated  pairs,  It  will  he  puiwible  in 
later  generations  to  iotroduco  new  blood  without 
retarding,  as  much  as  would  otherwirte  be  the  case, 
the  progrew!  toward  the  Ideal.  In  eumo  cases  it  is 
impracticable  to  start  several  families.  In  finch 
casM,  it  is  conHidered  better  tii  mate  the  olf- 
spring  of  a  pair  with  father  and  with  mother  n*- 
8[)ectively.  than  to  male  brother  and  sister.  The 
"grandchildren"  of  the  original  father  may  now  be 
mated  to  tho«e  of  tho  original  mother,  and  also 
back  on  their  pare nt-gr.ind parents.  By  carefully 
mating  in  each  generation  the  most  distantly 
related  individuals,  matings  of  full  brother  and 
sister  are  avoided.  This  method  of  hreeiling  is 
called  linu- breeding.  It  la  illustrated  in  tliea<,xom- 
panying  chart  prepared  by  I.  K.  Felch.   (Fig.  525.) 


Flf.  Its.    Pelck'i  chart  te  UnA-kreedliw. 


530 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


In  the  chart,  a  dotted  line  represents  female  blood 
(tgK).  a™^  a  fill  ]'n«  IT*-'*  W»<«i  (sperm);  tht  circle 
at  the  titiion  nf  two  imch  Mrn^a  indicaWti  the  prnj;. 
eny  of  the  irnitm  of  the  hks  and  the  upt'nn.  In  tfie 
third  filial  Keneration,  wiicise  Moud  w  derived  eijually 
from  tbe  two  pareflts.  No.  ID  constrtutt's  a  utrain 
distinct  from  No,  8,  which  has  thirti-on-aixt^-t-ntliti 
blood  of  the  original  hen.  and  from  No.  llii,  which 
has  the  same  pro[>ortion  (>f  the  original  ock.  From 
these  three  strains,  liv  pntper  miinipitlation  iiddi- 
tiuital  strains  may  becijme  ct^tabliuhed. 

The  methodii  empluyed  for  attaining  an  ideal  are 
of  two  genera!  sorts,  di'pcnding  on  the  end  sought. 
If  it  Is  denired  in«rcly  to  improve  a  quality  already 
present,  the  method  of  selection  is  employed.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  de^^ired  to  add  a  new  char- 
acteristic to  .1  given  lirced  or  to  combine  the  char- 
acteristicfi  of  one  or  more  breeds,  then  hybridization 
is  necessary. 

Selection  inroWes  the  careful  inspection  of  the 
individuals  of  any  generation,  and  the  proserviition 
for  breeding  of  only  the  beat.  Let  it  be  required 
to  improve  the  egg-yield  of  a  given  strain  :  study 
the  egg  records  of  the  yearling  hens,  and  preserve 
for  breeding  the  progeny  of  the  best,  lit  it  be 
required  to  increase  the  rate  of  growth  :  keep  and 
study  growth  rect-rds,  and  save  the  fastest  growers 
for  breeders.  Even  those  who  do  not  keep  records 
make  adelectiun,  aa  the  breeding seai^oa  approaches, 
of  the  most  vigorous  cocks  and  the  shapelit^t  hens. 
and  this  rough  selection  helps  to  maintain  the 
strain  at  a  high  standard  of  general  excellence.  A 
more  rigorous  selection  and  selection  for  particular 
points  often  involves  measurements,  weighing,  and 
the  like,  and  pedigree  breeding,  of  the  methodji  of 
which  something  will  be  said  in  a  later  paragraph. 

ifyfrrufirtt/fon  involves  the  crossing  of  two  strains, 
Tarieties,  or  races  in  order  to  combine  the  favor- 
abta  qualities  of  the  two.  Eventually,  the  qualities 
of  three  or  more  races  may  be  combined.  Let  ua 
suppose  a  breeder  find.<<  that,  in  hi:;  excellent  strain 
of  Minorcaa,  the  large  combs  are  likely  to  get  frost- 
bitten, so  that  the  reproductive  ]ir(HTesses  are  inter- 
rupted ;  and  he  ha^  the  id*ia  of  replacing  the  large 
single  comb  with  the  Bmatl  pea-comb.  Ha  mu«t 
first  cross  his  Minorca*  with  a  Dark  Brahma  or 
Indian  Game,  or  seme  other  race  that  baa  a  pea- 
comb.  He  will  lird  that,  even  in  the  first  genera- 
tion, all  of  the  "hybrids."  as  they  are  called,  have 
the  pea-comb.  But  hts  goal  is  not  reached  in  the 
first  generation,  because  thf*  hybrids  have  certain 
character isticfi  of  form,  feathering,  and  the  like, 
that  he  does  not  want,  and  hvcausv  in  the  necxjnd 
generation  a  single  cwmb  will  crop  out  again.  The 
second  generation  of  hybrids  (got  by  breeding 
nkimbers  of  the  first  generation)  is  tt.'chnically 
known  an  the  second  filial  gL^niTation.  or  F..  It 
will  yield  a  grwit  variety  of  combinations  of  form. 
fe.ithRring,  fecundity,  and  so  nn,  combined  with  a 
pea-comli.  Tbe  Iini-der  «eli«ls  for  breeding  the 
combinatiim  that  c-oniea  nearest  to  his  ide^als.  Hut 
it  will  still  be  several  gonerutions  lK?fore  his  ideJil 
is  fully  realized.  In  this  connection,  a  knowledge 
of  MeDdel's  law  will  be  helpful. 

iltnitCi  law  states  that,  when,  in  two  races  that 


are  being  orosaed.  there  is  a  pair  of  coniraeted 

characters,  as  single  comb  and  pea-comb,  only  tma 
of  tho.  pair  will  appear  in  the  progeny  ;  it  will 
daminate  over  the  oppyttite ;  and  as  the  other  haa 
reeetleH]  from  view,  it  was  named  by  Mendel  the 
rtwmir  character.  Dominanoe  of  a  character  id 
the  Iwidy  dne^  not  imply  that  the  recessive  char- 
actor  is  absent,  but  only  that  in  tbe  development 
of  the  body  the  dominant  character  is  bound  to 
iLppetir.  The  dominant  charat^ter  is  usually  a  stag* 
in  afJvance  of  the  recessive,  so  that  one  may  say 
an  organ  will  develop  to  the  higliest  stage  that  is 
potential  within  it.  So  a  pigmented  condition  dom- 
inates over  alisetice  of  pigment,  extra  toe  over  tbo 
normal  numiier,  feathers  on  the  feet  over  their 
absence,  and  the  lat<:'ra!  ridges  of  tbe  pea-comb 
over  their  absence  in  the  single  cnmb. 

But  while  in  the  body  uf  the  lirst  generation  tb«  I 
dominant  character  is  uniformly  visible,  the  germ 
cells  (eggs  and  sperm)  in  their  ro]>oalod  division 
become  of  two  kinds,  those  possessing  the  rccciwiv© 
character  only  and  those  possesaing  the  dominant 
character  only ;  and  these  are  equally  numerous. 
Consequently,  in  tbe  haphaxard  union  of  any  egir 
and  any  sperm,  these  four  combinations  are  equally 
likely  to  occur,  forming  the  second  generation 
(Fj);  Two  germ  cells  with  the  recessive  character 
{the  union  may  be  expressed  as  KK):  two  with  the 
dominant  character  (DD);  and  a  dominant  egc 
with  a  recessive  sperm  (TIR),  and  a  rfMrejwi^'e  egg 
with  a  dominant  sperm* (RI>>.  The  individuals  that 
develop  from  the  first  kind  of  union,  having  none  < 
of  the  dominant  character,  are  of  the  recessive 
type  only  and  form  germ  cells  of  this  type  only. 
They  are  technically  called  homozygma.  Conse- 
qently,  two  individuals  of  the  recessive  typo  bred 
together  will  have  progeny  nf  that  type  only  and 
may  be  ancestors  of  a  race  pure  in  respect  lo  the 
given  character.  The  individuals  that  develop  from 
the  second  kind  of  union  (DD).  having  none  of  the 
recefwive  character,  will  not  only  be  of  the  domi- 
nant type  but  may  found  a  race  pure  in  respect  to 
the  dominant 
character.  The 
other  sorts  of  in- 
dividuals (DR 
and  RD)  are  hy- 
brids like  their 
parents,  and  are 
called  techni- 
cally Arfcwrv- 
gote*.  Bred  to- 
gether, hetero- 
zygotes  will  pro- 
duce   homozv- 


^1 


'^X 


gous  recessives 

and    dominants 

and    heterozy-    Ff«.  su.  RoM-cMutwd wbit« fewL  Th* 

I'ntus      again.  itmndpiiUJ  Ifji  of  a  ni««-coubed 

Tk  —i       .:ii      1,1  Blxpk  Mini>r«M  Mi(lK*lngl«-o<iwb*4 

mere    wm     i>e         whii-t-Niiio^   v^ri^  ssr. 
two  of  this  type 

Vj  every  one  of  the  pure  dominants.  Thus,  hetero- 
Eygotes  are  essentially  impure.  While  the  first 
hybrid  generation  is  characterized  by  uniformity, 
the  second  generation  is  cbaracterixed  by  great 


POULTRY 


POIXTRY 


531 


Ftc  S27.     Sinjilu-aunbed  bluk 
fowl.  Tlip  irrniKl'-hUJ  (^■J^(lf 

■  ikI    a   ■inKl>^<?oii'>w1   While 
Lvshom.   S<w  Fig.  MO 


I  VMUV 


variety.  In  Fljis.  52fi  and  r)27  .ire  shnwii  twocrnnd- 
chililirn  (Pj)  "f  a  riJMt^-c^ombi-ii  llhu-k  Minorca  and 
a  ainiiliMiomtiBd  WhiU;  l*cti<'rn.  Anioii;i  wtht^rs,  a 
rose-combfrf  white-  and  a  »ingle-coini)c«J  black  fowl 
appeared,  thuit  rc-vorR- 
inK  the  relation  of 
comb  and  color. 

Since  the  h4»U>nizy- 
guU^d  cuntain  the  ijoin- 
inanc  L-haracUT,  UHk 
alone  will  appear  in 
the  hofly  as  in  F,.and 
it  will  often  be  impos- 
sible tttdistin^i^h  ho* 
tWft'n  a  htimnzy^nniit 
doni  inaiit  and  u  heu-ro- 
rygote.  Yet,  t*  Ret  a 
pare  race  one  mtutt 
separate  them.  Con- 
«!c|U4jntly,  thf  dominantg  of  }\  must  be  tested. 
To  teat  a  dominant,  mate  it  with  a  rucesstve.  If 
the  domiuant  in  ptire  (Hlti,  all  otTtiprinf;  will  be  of 
the  dominant  type  ;  if  impure  (1>R).  the  offsprinR 
will  be  equally  of  the  combination  DR  and  RR.and 

hencehalf  of  them  rill 
be  of  the  rwreiwive 
type.  Hybrids,  which, 
on  testinj,',  throw  only 
dominants,  may  be 
used  to  found  a  pure 
dominant  race.  Thus, 
one  character  at  a 
time  for  several  at  a 
Cime  if  great  nnmbeni 
be  available),  a  race 
pore  in  resjwct  to  the 
desired  characters, 
whether  dominant  or 
recewive,  may  he 
built  up.  And  thepro^'- 
eny  of  members  of 
thU  race,  bred  in^  u,  will  ordinarily  show  no  re- 
version to  the  eliminated  characterx.  The  new  race 
jfl  established  bat  it  is  not  yet  perfected. 

In  the  procew  of  hybriditation,  the  various 
charactem  often  become  Fomewhat  d.imaKe<l.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  improve  them  :  and  this  \n 
done  by  the  prooees  of  selection.  Thooe  imliviiluala 
in  which  one  or  more  of  the  charactera  approach 
moat  nearly  to  the  ideal  are  preserved  for  bree»linK. 
Thu»,  in  a  few  ^nf^ratiom  the  ideal  may  be  folly 
uhieved. 

It  may  be  of 
aiiaistance  to 
give  here  a  table 
of  some  of  the 
characters  of 
poultry,  nhow- 
iTtg  which  ire 
dominant  and 
which  receesive. 
It  flometimeii 
happens  that 
certain  ad- 
vanced   condi- 


FU-  S2>.    A  Oune-colored  Ptls- 
slc4  (owl.  Sv«  Ptit  ^M. 


tiouB  are  incompletely  dominant  over  the  lesH  ad- 
vanced or  rudimentary  characters.  Characters  usu- 
ally Bhowinf;  incomplete  dominance  ar&  marked 
by  at. 


OwfMlan 

DnmliiMit  conillilan 

Comb 

Lateral  ele&ii^Qtlt 

No  liiteral  cle- 

(in  pea  and  rose) 

nM-nt« 

Oer«brtl  cloaare . 

Perfect,  plain  xkull 

Imperfect,  hernia 
M  in  Houilun  or 

Polish 

Cn.-8l    .... 

Preaent 

Abttcnt 

h\'ikther,  funn .   . 

Ty|iic3l,  |)tain 

Eoihryonic.  silky 

K«atber,  form .  . 

Ffialrd 

Pbin 

Muff 

('resent 

Abaeot 

Slttn  color   .  .    . 

PiKin«nh<d,  bUck 

Unplcmented 
Red 

Irui  color.   .    .    . 

Heavil>  pif^mi^nte'd, 

hlHck 

■"lumaK^  color     . 

I'isioenCed 

AlbJnic.  white  of 
«ilkie«,  etc. 

I'lntDi^e  cojfjf     . 

(jnky-whit«  of  While 
Leghorn 

Ptji^nnLed 

Shuflina  .... 

Pr««ent 

AbtWBt 

IVncrling.   .   .    . 

Preaent 

Absent 

Kxtra  toe*  .   .    . 

tPrwient 

Al-sont 

KcHiting   .... 

tPrewnl 

Absent 

Era  piffmeftt  .  . 

PreBent.  brown 

Absent,  white 

JtroodinesB  .  .   . 

Sitting 

San-sUlini; 

V/- 


An  ilbiolc  SUkl«  fowl. 
St*  Fig.  iso. 


ComhrruiiionK  qf  eharaeten. 

Ordinarily,  the  hybrid  shows  no  new  character 
but  only  a  new  combination  of  the  parental  char- 
acters. Occaajooally,  however,  an  apparent  exce[>- 
tion  makeji  its  appearance.  Thus,  when  a  white 
and  a  black  bird  are  mated,  it  sometimes  happens 
Ihjt  the  hybridtThnve  a  blue  plumage.  Thin  blue  is 
really  a  fine  moHaic  of  black  and  white  and  is  best 
known  in  the 
race  of  poultry 
called  Andalu- 
aian.  When  two 
blue  birds  are 
mated,  however. 
theythrowblack 
and  also  white 
chicksas  wellas 
blue  ones.  The 
blacks  and  the 
whites  are  humo- 
syeous  and  the 
hUii.«  heterozygoQn  hg&m.  Similarly,  under  cer- 
tain circumjitanceit  the  crosfline  of  a  lit;ht  and  a 
dark  bird  may  produce  otTsprinc  with  a  barred  p!um- 
ajje ;  and  two  auch  barred  birds  will  throw  li^hl 
hirda  and  dark  birds  af^ain  as  well  as  barred  birdv. 
Again,  if  a  single-combed  fowl  is  crodsed  with  one 
ha^'injf  two  horns,  as  the  Polish,  the  hybrid  has  a 
Y-«haped  comb ;  bat  in  Fi.  the  ainj^le  and  the 
paired  combs  reappear.  In  all  these  cases  we  have 
a  heteroiyjjous  form  due  to  the  mosaic-like  onion 
of  the  two  contrasted  characters.  The  monaic  is 
not  a  permanent  character  but  only  the  badge  of 
impurity.  Whether  a  heteroiygoa.«  form  can  ever 
be  fixed  is  a  moot  question.  The  barred  condition 


Kb 


S30.  Tin  oraoddauKbtct.  by  Id- 
biMdiDB.  at  the  PriETled  If  is.  MSi 
«nd  ibe  sllMe  I  cii-  &:>»l  fowti.  simw 
tun  liiiK  c-hnracti-ro  mar  bv  couibiii«il 
In  the  ■•'■■iukI  lifbridcmrratlun. 


682 


POULTRY 


POULTKY 


has  ap|iar«nlly  twfn  ftx«d  in  the  Plymouth  Rock 
ititd  a  motUwj  condition  in  tho  BpanKlL>d  ractw,  ani! 
it  is  t'von  allii:(;o(l  by  curtiLin  fanciurs  that  thii-y  hnvt* 
Hxed  the  Andalustan  blue.  The  history  of  lixatiun, 
however,  in  any  ca«e,  ia  still  iibwnre. 

In  orrier  tn  shiiw  hnw  chjiriUTlcrR  may  be  com- 
Iiiriwl  in  th«  8uc4inil  hybrid  ReTuiration,  Pip?.  52i^ 
BIM)  urH  iiitrijduct'd.  Fip;.  filiO  allows  tlie  urantl- 
dau>;htcr  (by  inltreedinji)  of  thf  [-"rizzlu  and  ttio 
SilkiL'.  [Fibs.  528,  529,  are  ariaptod  from  Publica- 
tion No.  52,  Ciirnegie  InBtiLution  of  Waehin^ton.j 

Reciprocal  crosses. 

The  crossing  of  distinct  varietiea  introdncea  cer- 
tain i!p««ial  i)UK:!tions  in  adilitinn  ti>  th»  general 
one  (jf  thu  bt'Imvior  of  alU+niativt;  uhnractors.  The 
eomnfioneat  is  that  of  tlio  byhaviur  of  reciiirtucal 
croaaes.  When  two  raeea  arc  cronst-d,  an?  thu  otf- 
aprtng  the  same  whichoA-er  race  i»  «.*eil  a'*  the  mal't 
parent  ?  In  gHner»l,  it  may  lie  Haiil  the  prmliict  of 
a  given  cross  i»  the  Kame  aa  that  of  ttH  recipri>cnl. 
This  is  true,  however,  only  within  liniiUs.  If  one 
racr;  is  a  bantam  and  the  oth«r  larjfe,  tho  nize  of 
tht  t;;.'K  and  contieqiiontly  of  the  chick  will  bo 
dt^tvrmint'd  by  the  mothtT,  so  that  if  the  mother  is 
thiL>  bantam  the  chicks  will  be  bantam.^,  but  if  Rhe 
ia  of  full  size  so  will  thoy  be.  There  are  ncoiwion- 
ally  other  differences  in  reciprocal  crfwses.  The 
present  writer  hiw  fnund  thiif  the  "bnuttnK"  of 
the  progeny  fa  likely  to  be  hi'avit-r  wh+^n  it  is  the 
mother  that  tn  booted  than  vrhu-n  it  \»  tho  futher. 
Other  «!ight  differences  of  this  sort  no  doubt  occur 
at  timcA. 

Double  matintt. 

Quite  different  is  the  operation  of  double  mating. 
Several  races  of  poultry  tthow  sexiral  dimorphi-tm, 
and  breeders  have  si^ught  to  exagg«rat«'  the  iJilFer- 
ence  between  the  »ixc».  If  it  ii^  det^ired  in  the 
dark  Brahma  to  perfect  tho  penciling  of  the  female 
bnt  to  group  the  colors  of  the  male  into  masse*, 
then  onewlects,  to  improve  tho  hens,  the  best  pen- 
ciled hens  to  mat*  with  a  cork  .showing  as  much 
lacing  as  possible;  und  to  improve  the  cocks,  the 
darkest  hens  to  go  with  acock  that  is  devoid  of 
lacing  and  oth<T  small  feather  i»ittems.  Thus, 
the  si^xual  dimorpfaixm  in  color  piitttTn  may  be 
increased. 

Conlrd  ijf'  »es. 

Still  another  problem  is  that  of  the  control  of 
MX  in  the  olfspring.  Since  one  cock  will  lattice  for 
many  hens,  an  excess  of  female  offstpring,  especi- 
ally on  eg^-farms.  is  desired.  Diwpito  the  fact 
that  directions  for  securing  a  predominance  of 
either  sex  are  frequt-ntly  published  in  poultry 
books,  there  is  every  reason  for  thinking  that  a 
great  doviation  from  the  average  proportion  of  HO 
per  cent  of  each  sex  is  found  only  a?  a  rare  acci- 
dent. It  wems  probable  that  sex  is  determined  at 
the  moment  of  fertiliwition  of  the  egg  and  by  a 
particular  combination  of  particnlar  kinds  of  germ 
celln.  Sex  control  in  birds  a*  in  mammals,  iM>enis 
at  present  beyond  our  human  power,  notwithstand- 
ing certain  opinioits  to  the  contrary. 


Breedia^  KUfierstiiumx. 

Two  alleged  pheriotnena  uf  breeding  must  be 
relegated  to  the  limlMi  of  suiwrwtltion.  One  Lt  that 
of  the  influence  of  a  former  sire  on  the  character 
nf  subsequent  chick.s.  Even  after  a  cock  has  be«n 
removed  frum  a  jwn  he  may  l>e  the  father  of  off- 
spring in  that  jten  liernuse  the  s[ierm  of  the  male 
JH  relainei]  in  an  m:tive  crnndition  by  the  hens  for 
ten  dayH  or  mure.  But  if,  after  the  ugga  have  com- 
pletely ceajied  to  be  fertile,  a  new  cock  ia  added,! 
different  from  th«  first,  no  influence  of  the  first 
crass  will  be  detected.  Stories  to  the  contrary 
doublless  depend  on  unsuspected  imparity  of  the 
second  cock.  So,  too,  there  i.s  no  ground  for 
believing  in  the  "  influence  of  the  imagination  "  in 
mfxlifying  thw  character  of  the  off.ipring.  One 
hears  such  storie*)  an  ihvse  :  A  flock  of  Bmwn  lA?g- 
horns  in  a  pen  adjacent  to  White  ]ndian  Ganiw 
began  to  produce  whiti'  progeny;  or  a  breeder  o£_ 
White  IVichin.^  kept  them  next  to  a  pen  of  Blacli  ' 
Miniircas  and  the  former  produced  chicks  that 
were  black  BjihiKhed.  In  Imth  cases  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  a  ctick  from  the  adjacent  pen  climbud 
over  the  fence  and  fertiliKwl  the  eggs*. 

licvtrnon. 

One  of  the  most  striking  instances  of  nn  appar- j 
ently  new  character  api>earing  in  hybridization  i»j 
seen  in  the  oxamples  de.Hcribed  by  Darwin  as  ca 
of   reversion.    Darwin   taught    that    hybrid izatioal 
perse  leads  to  a  reversion  on  the  part  of  the  off- 
Hpring  to  the  ancestral  characters  of  the  jungle- 
fowl.    An  utialvrtis  of  the  facts  in  poultry  does  not 
support  l)arwin's  views  of  reversion.  Black  birds 
and  buff  birds  may  be  crossed  with  White  Leghnrng 
without  the   appearance   of  the  jungle   type 
coloration.    When,  however,  a  White  Sillde  (whose  ■ 
plumage  i.-*  truly  albinic)  is  uro«<j^ed  with  a  Hack  bird, 
a-s  Minorca  or  Spanish,  the  black  sons  hare  red 
on  tho  back,  hackle,  saddle  and  wing  bars,  as  in 
the  jungle-fowl.  Whence  has  the  red  come?  Dar- 
win ascribed  it  to  reversion.   But  if  a  White  Silkie 
Iw  cr'vB.'H'd  with  a  White  I*ghum,  the  males  are 
wholly  white  except  for  refl  hackle,  saddle,  back 
and  wing  bar.    tHher  experiments  show  that  the 
red  comes  from  the  Silkia  but  is  not  visible  in  it, 
duo  to  the  absence  of  pigment.    When  pigment  is 
added  {even  the  hidden  pigment  of  the  '\Vbit«  Le^ 
born   plumage),  the  red  appears.    It   is  not   the" 
jnnple-fowl    coloration,  but  solely  the  red    that 
resntts  from  the  hybridization.  Tlie  remainder  of 
the  hybrid  plumage  may  be  white  or  black  or  baSrl 
The  alleged  reversion  O'f  hybrid  fowls  is  then  merelj 
the  ittaining,  tus  it  were,  throngfa  a  croas  with 
pigmented   bird,  of  an  otherwise  invisible  col 
pattern  in  albinic  fowl. 

I.ikrtttttre. 

Darwin,  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  PlanlA. 
Under  Domestication;  Bateson.  Mendel's  Princtplt 
of  Herefiity;  ('.  ('.  llurst.  Experiments  with  Poultry,' 
Keport  to  the  Evolution  t'ommittr*e.  Royal  Society, 
II,  London  (I'J05);  Davenpiirt.  Inheritance  in  Poul- 
try, i'amegie   Institution  of  Washington  (1900). 
[See  alw  page  52T.J 


POULTRY 


POITl.TRY 


688 


Feeding  Poultry. 

lly  Jrimpc  E.  Rite. 

Domojttic  poultry  arc  omnivoroas.  All  clafwea  of 
tKntiltry.  incliiHing  the  d«meHtic  f<fwlfl,  turkeys, 
(lucks,  geese  .■imi  Kuinpiis,  «at  freely  luiil  natiirnlly 
of  th*3  grains,  meat  funil«  anJ  K'''^fi  furaKt'.  Tht-y 
differ,  htift-evL*r.  in  haljita  oroating  as  ri'^Kards  thi'ir 
preferurceH  for  certain  clm^uu^H  of  foods.  For 
exam|jlB,  fowls  may  be  clas.sed  primarily  as  n^ain- 
oaU-n.  turkt'ys  and  gnineas  as  insect-huiiters,  ducks 
and  Eoese  aa  grazers  ami  fiHher«. 

What  eonaUtUes  a  good  ration. 

The  digeiiiNe  nttirienit.—F'mt  of  all,  a  eood 
ration  most  contain  a  Botltcient  quantity  of  dit;i.-s- 
tilde  nutrients  to  mt-etthe  necdti  of  theanimni.  This 
means  that  the  ration  mnst  be  varied  in  quantity 
andccymponitinn.  accordinfj  tci  thpaixe,  ajte,  cfindition 
and  environment  of  thi-  unimal.  The  amuunt  iif  FikkI 
which  a  fl<ick  of  fawl«  rL-quirea  mnwt  be  dftermined 
by  knowing  the  kinds  and  composition  of  thi^  focida 
available,  and  the  kind,  fiiiH>,  tige  and  productivity 
of  the  bird  to  be  fed,  With  theae  data,  rations  may 
be  compoBnded  which  will  3m  likely  tn  meet  the 
requirements.  With  our  present  knowledge  of  the 
digealibilily  of  feeds  and  tli«  fumlinK  standanls  for 
p^mltry,  it  ia  unsafa  to  dupend  solely  on  calculaUid 
rations. 

Thu  animal's  appetite  is  a  safer  guide  as  to  the 
amount  of  food  which  it  needs  than  in  the  moat 
carefully  calculate  ration  weij^hwl  out  and  fed 
according  tn  iwcepted  standanU.  The  fiu-t  that  the 
fooil  reqiiirementaof  animiils  vary  from  diiy  to  day 
makes  it  impoKsible  to  calenlate  accurately  in 
advance  junt  how  much  of  each  nutrient  should  he 
fed.  Feeding  standurda,  revertheless,  are  exceed- 
ingly helpful  in  forming  a  judgment  of  the  aniranl'a 
probable  needs,  to  prevent  the  |H«wible  aerinaa  mlH- 
iake  of  feeding  r.-uiEcally  wnmg  rations,  wliirJi 
could  not  supply  the  needs  of  the  iiyatem  because 
Iheycontiiined  tiio  much  or  ttio  little  bulk,  or  fiber. 
or  a«h,  or  protein,  or  carbo-hydrate  material,  in 
proportion  to  the  other  ingrtidients. 

A  perfect  ration  should  satiafy  the  following 
requirements  of  the  animal:  Repair  brnkenMlown 
tisKue  ;  maku  new  growth  ;  prinlure  hi>at ;  furniah 
energy  ;  atore  up  surplus  fat  to  he  us*;d  for  heat  or 
energy  in  cuiw  of  need  ;  meet  the  needs  of  rupro- 
d  action. 

Thf  ration  thovJd  he  prnpfrit/  haiatutd. — There 
ahouM  be  exactly  enough,  and  no  more,  of  the  pro- 
ti'inand  carbohydrate  nutrienta  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  bird.  A  ration  mwat  have  the  protein,  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat  in  pr[i|>er  pntportion  without  an 
excewt  of  any  one.  If  the  protein  ia  lacking,  the 
animal  cannot  make  the  white  of  the  egg.  nor  grow 
new  muRCular  tiMue,  and  in  the  end  wiH  starve 
even  with  an  abundance  of  carbohydrate.  If  there 
should  be  a  deficiency  of  carbohydrate  and  a  sur- 
plua  of  prot**in.  the  animal  would  be  obliged  to 
bum  up  protein  for  fuel,  or  use  it  for  the  formation 
of  fat.  which  would  be  too  ex[wniiiTe,  and  might 
also  be  injuriooa  by  overtaxing  the  kidney*  in 
carrying  off  the  wa»te  nitrogen.    According  to  oar 


present  knowledge  of  lialanced  rations  for  fowls, 
the  fond  nutrients  should  tie  fed  in  about  the  pro- 
portion of  one  pound  of  protein  to  •!.(>  pounds  of 
earbobydrat4.«  for  ogg-prwlnction ;  one  jxtund  of 
prutuin  to  xuven  or  eight  pounds  of  eartuhydraies 
fur  fatt4*Ding;  and  one  pound  of  protein  to  four 
pounda  of  carbohydrates  for  raising  young  chickenii. 

Thr  ration  tknuht  rrtriMxt  f]f  fooii  irhieh  tAp  fovl 
lilcrf. — Fowls  hrtve  a  dwided  preference  for  certain 
foods  which  [-.annot  be  at"count*"d  for  by  their  com- 
[>{>Hition.  Rye  and  wheat  are  almost  identical  in 
composition,  yi-t  fowls  will  eat  whwit  in  preferenca: 
to  rye.  The  following  grains  are  preferred  by 
fowls  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  named :  Wheat, 
com,  oats,  peas,  barley,  buckwheat  and  rye.  The 
food  should  be  palatable.  The  piilataliilityof  a  food 
may  l>e  said  to  be  Che  [[Ujility  which  determinefl  a 
fowl's  preference  for  it.  Flavor  and  texture  deter- 
mine the  palatabil'ity.  The  medicinal  iitialities  and 
composition  aFso  are  deberniining  factorn.  The  way 
a  food  taatea  ha^  much  influence  on  the  way  it  Is 
digested.  Digestion  begins  in  the  mouth.  Foods 
that  are  not  palatable  do  not  stimulate  the  proper 
ftinrretions  for  digestion.  The  mouth  and  stomach 
must  lieetlucatiid  as  to  what  is  l)t«t  for  the  system. 
The  :^tomaeh  tells  lliu  palatini  what  it  dties  not  like. 

Hatiit  plays  an  important  part  in  determining  a 
fowl's  preference  for  certain  foods.  It  will  refuse 
to  ent  graisiH  at  first,  liecauae  they  are  new  to  it, 
that  it  later  le:iimB  to  like  beat:  e.  g,,  wheat  will  be 
refiiMHl  at  lirst  by  fowls  that  have  be«n  accustomed 
to  eating  other  grains. 

The  ration  rhtmld  pruvidt  a  rf^trl  tvirifly.  -  A  good 
variety  of  food  heljis  to  increase  the  palutalnlity  of 
a  ration.  Fowls  become  tired  of  eating  the  aanie 
kind  of  food  continuously.  It  is  butler  to  feed 
several  kinds  nf  foods,  all  of  which  an  animal  likea, 
than  it  iatn  feed  anyone  f(K>d,  no  matter  how  good 
it  may  \k\  Fowls  thus  have  a  lietter  chance  to 
balance  their  own  nitionn,  ajid  get  foods  that  are 
best  suited  to  thL-ir  needs.  A  good  variety  prevents 
a  fowl  from  eating  exclnsively  of  one  grain  which 
it  may  prefer,  but  which  might  cause  over-fatness. 
it  appears  to  he  immaterial  whether  a  variety  of 
grain  is  fed  at  eJich  feeding,  or  whether  the  same 
grains  are  fed  i^»pamt«ly  anri  alternately  during 
the  day  or  on  different  days. 

Thf  ration  ghauid  kiiiv  nu^^cintt  hulk  to  enahle  Ike 
digfMht  wrrpdomr  to  aH  on  it  ijtncMji.-  When  ft 
large  amount  of  certain  concentrated  groand  grain 
is  fiM),  the  ration  may  be  an  concentrate*)  that  it 
becomes  compm'ted  in  the  crop,  Kecauae  of  the 
concenlratwl  nature  of  a  finely  ground  ration, 
which  makes  it  poiMible  for  the  food  to  pajw  quickly 
through  the  intestinal  Iruct,  the  fowl  U  more 
easily  over-fed.  Thus,  a  certain  omount  of  bulk  in 
a  ration  i)<  necessary.  This  is  provide!  by  feeding 
wheat  bran,  clover,  alfalfa  meal,  or  the  like,  to 
overcome  the  too  concentrated  nature  of  stich 
foods  as  uil-mejil,  wheat  middlings,  com  meal,  and 
the  like.  The  whole  orcracked  grains  also  give  bulk 
tt»  a  ration. 

The  miion  thtmld  not  eottloin  too  lar^e  ttn  amount 
of  indisftihie  fiber. — When  adding  bulk  ton  ration, 
it  should  be  dnno  by  adding  foodit  that  are  readily 


634 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


digMtiblu.  Foods  that  arc  balky  are  likely  to  con- 
tain ii  large  proportion  of  woody  fik-r  ii^-lluWi!!, 
vbicb  the  aaimat  ia  compelled  to  re^uco  to  fiiiunufis, 
ftod  patw  through  the  body  undige^tLx].  This  ro- 
quirw  a  large  and  utinucewuiry  expenditure  of 
energy,  and  makM  ini)Kjiwili]u  tbe  rii|iid  metabolic 
changuK  that  are  necotttuiry  with  the  laying  or 
growing  fowl. 

Part  'if  the  ratwa  tkuaJd  lie  i\f  i^iole  fjrain  and 
part  of  ground  fial. — FuwIb  an?  eiHetitially  grain- 
eaters.  Thfy  pref^T  whdio  or  cracked  grain  to  the 
ground  grjvins.  The  nuist  rational  system  of  feed- 
ing fowls  rwjuires  that  Iwth  whide  grain  or  cracked 
grain  and  gmund  feed  should  lie  »iipplied.  The 
whrde   grain  innuruB  the  activity  c»f  the  IkhIv  in 

f grinding  th«  ^I'aintt  and  inakeu  (tvi-r-feiidiiig  lens 
Ikfly.  U  iilao  has  tho  advantage  of  inducing  fowlH 
to  take  exeruihto  in  hunting  for  iY\v  grain,  which 
should  alwayf)  be  Hcattered  in  a  di^ep  litter  of 
■traw.  Ordinarily,  if  left  to  their  own  choice, 
with  free  at^neHft  to  both  whole  grain  and  gronnd 
fet'd,  fiiwln  will  vontiuine  onts-thini  In  one-half 
gniund  fi>t^d,  de}>undtug  largely  an  the  nature  uf 
thtf  raixluru. 

All  of  the  common  grains,  with  the  exception  of 
p&aa,  have  a  wide  nutritive  ratio.  The  ground 
feed  mixture,  therefore,  shonld  lie  made  narrow. 
In  nrder  tn  do  this,  a  little  nil-meal  or  alfalfa  meal 
may  lie  useil  t«  advantage.  Generally,  however. 
the  meat  fotHl  will  liiiv»  tu  be  depended  on  to  nar- 
row the  nition,   (See  jMige  1H7.] 

It  rteimis  neet-sftary  to  fwd  at  least  one-lhinl 
ground  grain  in  onler  to  sujiply  tha  fowls  with 
readily  availahk-  nourishment,  e^p^eciatly  when 
Vavy  are  in  ht'avy  laying.  Fowls  do  not  seem  capa- 
ble of  Krinding  thL>  «'hf)le  er  cnicke^l  grain  rapidly 
enough  t'>  .latiafy  thi-ir  neiilH,  except  during  the 
seiL'ion  when  Ihey  are  leiist  productive.  Whtsnt  iw 
thy  mortt  det'irahle  of  grain  foods.  Corn,  hciwevvr. 
because  it  is  uaualiy  cheaper,  nhuuld  be  used 
largely  throughout  the  UniU-d  Stall's*.  Henry  imts 
■re  next  t<i  he  preferred ;  lisht  nnta  jire  tii  lie 
tvolded.  I'ejw,  .ilthmigh  one  of  the  IkwI  foods  for 
poultry,  cimniit  \te  used  estenairely  becauae  of 
scarcity  and  high  price. 

Fur  ground  feeds,  the  wheat  by-prodactn— bran 
and  middlings, — and  corn  meal  and  ground  oats 
are  the  most  desirable,  (iluten  meal  or  gluti-n  feed 
Ih  being  fed  successfully  in  a  limileii  (junntity  in 
connection  with  other  ground  feed.'s.  .As  a  rule, 
fowls  do  not  eat  uiUmeal  n^^  readily  aa  the  other 
gnuinil  fw«lM,  but  liwauM-  nf  its  richneaa,  it  m 
di^iralde  to  include  not  to  exceed  T)  to  Hi  per  cent 
of  it  in  the  ground  feed  ration.  Cottonseed  meal 
hiut  not  proved  satisfactory. 

Mfnl  in  s<\me  form  fhiwM  f>e  a  part  of  cvrrit 
Tati/m,  wkrtlUT  for  rauini)  Ihr  !m""J.  itr prr  jexiHun 
the  mfrture  xtork  for  pnxiuefinn  wr  fnilrnitifi.  -A 
pound  of  protein  in  the  form  of  meat  uppeara  to 
be  more  valuable  than  a  pound  of  protein  in  any 
other  class  of  foodi>.  Metat  shoold  form  at  least  10 
t«  lf>  per  cent  of  the  tL»tal-foi«d  consaroed  each 
day,  depending  on  the  kind  of  meat  and  other  food 
and  thfir  composition.  Beef  scraps,  because  of 
high  protein  content  and  good  keeping  qualities, 


muflt  lie  mainly  depended  on.  Skimmed  mitk  at  15 
to  20  cents  per  1(X)  puuntls  is  probably  the  iDOst ' 
desirable  of  all  meat  foods,  to  be  fud  either  in  tlw ' 
liquid  or  as  pot  cheese.  Sour  milk  is  more  desira- 
ble than  sweet,  but  it  is  not  well  to  alternate  sour 
tnilk  and  sweet  milk.  4ireen  cat  bone  is  very  dusir- 
able  fur  %'uriety,  and  one-half  ounce  may  be  fed 
each  day  jier  fowl  in  iiddilion  tu  other  meat  foods. 
Mitk  albumen  has  not  been  sutftciontly  tested  to 
warrant  a  recomniendatiou. 

(Irr^n  finid  should  Jarm  mnne  pari  of  the  dailjf 
ration.— 'The  chief  value  in  feeding  gnwn  food  is 
the  fact  that  the  succulence  and  medicinal  qaali- 
ties  a«.4ist  in  the  digestion  of  other  fixKU  and  lead 
to  promote  health  if  judiciously  fed.  The  moet 
desirable  green  fixxl  is  clciver  [Hiutunige.  Cut 
cUiver,  fed  eitherdry  or  steamed,  furnishes  excvllent 
green  foixl  fur  winter  uhl\  but  lacks  in  succulence. 
The  mangel  beet,  when  fed  in  limited  quantity,  is 
perhaps  the  W*st  winter  green  food.  Cabbage,  if 
fed  in  a  reasonalile  quantity,  does  not  appear  to 
injure  the  Unvar  of  the  pnxjuct  and  is  much  rel- 
ij^hed  tiy  all  kinds  of  jiuultry. 

(irit  form*  on  indisjKnsaUe  part  of  a  pnultrjt 
ra/ioM,  — Experiments  at  t'ornell  University  have 
proved  that  grit  has  a  double  function,  namely  to 
grind  or  crush  foixi  in  the  ginutrd  and  to  furnish 
limi?.  MoRt  nf  the  grits  on  the  market  contain  littlu 
or  no  lime.  Cracked  oy-^ter  shells  or  mortar  are 
the  chief  sources  uf  lime.  They  also  meet  the  need 
fur  grinding  material. 

Thefuaiit  shauld  nut  injure  the  Jlotw  or  the  et^lor 
oftlir  pri»f.uci, — It  has  Ix-en  di-moDBtrated  by  sev- 
eral experiments  and  is  well  recognised  in  practice 
that  certain  foods  influence  the  color  of  the  yolk 
of  the  egg,  the  fat  of  the  IiiKiy,  the  skin  and  the 
feathers.  Yellow  ctirn  and  clover  impart  a  deep 
yellow  color  pigment.  Wheat,  oats,  and  especially 
buckwheat,  produce  a  very  light  colon:-d  pigment, 
Kxperiments  at  Cornell  llniversity  show  that 
onions  and  fish,  except  when  fed  in  exces-A,  do  not 
impiirt  a  marked  flavor  U>  the  t'ggs-  Cabbage  fed 
in  exceiw,  in  Iwn  carefully  conducted  trials,  did  not 
prtxluce  undesirable  flavor  that  could  be  detected 
even  in  the  raw  egg. 

The  e>it;t  of  the  ratinn  g.ho»}4  be  ronsidemrf.— The 
fact  thnt  the  principal  poultry  foods  vary  in  cohI 
from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  supply  and 
demand,  maketi  it  ilnisirahte  that  rations  be  varied 
somewhat  to  suit  the  market  conditions.  It  is  sel- 
dom nocesaary  to  feed  largely  of  the  most  expen- 
sive foods.  Generally,  tho  by-product  feeds  arc 
expensive  to  purchase  per  pound  of  foitd  nntrient 
than  the  whole  grains.  This  is  piirticutarlv  true 
in  the  case  of  wheat,  buckwheat  and  com.  Wheat 
bran,  wheat  middlings,  buckwheat  middlings  and 
giutt'ii  Hiual,  by-prcHlucts  respectively  of  the  grains 
mentioned,  should  be  used  largely. 

SpirUil  tyjKx  of  poult  rj/-fe(dinff. 

PowU  appear  tn  need  more  available  protein  audi 
fat  during  the  moUtng  period  than  at  other  limoa. 
This  seems  to  be  due  to  the  need  of  supplying 
nitrogen  for  the  growth  of  feathers  and   fat,  to 
lie  readily  converted    into  heat.    The    practice  of 


POULTRY 

"forcing  the  molt"  has  not  met  with  universal 
ajjpnival.  It  is  n^jiortwl  to  havu  provwl  s.a tisf actor >■ 
in  in<iu(?jnf{  fuwU  to  molt  earlier  in  the  fall,  and  to 
lay  mort-  ff^^  during  oarly  winter  than  they  other- 
wise wnuld.  Thret;  experiments  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity with  one-,  two-  and  three-year-old  Leghorns. 
in<licated  that  itdiii  not  pay  lo  "force  the  molt." 
It  JA  |>OEvibte  that  forcing  the  molt  may  produce 
different  reaulta  with  other  brMcds  uf  fowls.  In  the 
light  of  our  |)r[»(*nt  kt)iDwleii);E<,  the  l>e«t  general 
practice  appears  to  be  to  furni.«h  the  most  favor- 
able conditiunx  for  production  at  all  seai^omi  of  the 
year,  and  nevLir  to  check  prwluction  with  the  ex|)ec- 
tatiun  of  again  Atarting  it  at  a  Ktatod  time.  It  is 
easier  to  stop  huna  laying  than  it  k  to  start 
them. 

Feeding  aeeording  lo  age. 

The  system  of  feeding  niuet  be  ada[>ted  to  the 
age  of  the  fowl.  Young  fowls  naturally  utilize 
their  food  in  the  i>rridiiction  of  new  growth  and 
energy.  Mature  fowls,  having  cwmjileted  their 
gmwth,  utihiia  their  food  in  prtHluctiun.  Old  fowls, 
having  complutetl  their  d>?velopmvnt  and  their  years 
of  greaCefit  proilu<.'tinn,  have  a  tendency  to  use  their 
forKi  in  the  production  of  fat. 

Ffoiing  foirts  during  diferenl  muon*  of  the  year. 

Theoretically,  more  heat-formmg  fmids  should 
be  fed  during  the  wiiittT  seasiin  than  at  other 
timtw  ;  that  is  to  aay,  wider  rations  ar*^  requinwl 
during;  the  cold  weather,  and  narmwer  rutions 
during  the  warm  weather,  (ienerally  this  is  accom- 
plished by  incriiasing  or  decreasing  the  amount  of 
corn  fed  during  ditFerunt  seasonfl  of  the  yejir,  com 
having  a  wid^r  nntritive  ratio,  and  therefore,  pre- 
aumahly,  l)«-ing  a  hetU-r  producer  of  heat  and  energy, 
than  most  of  the  olhi-r  fcuis, 

Fmfing  riUing  Acn«. 

A  brotxly  hen  nceda  less  food  than  at  any  other 
time  of  her  life.  As  a  rule,  she  is  mntare.  nnn-pro- 
ductive,  non-active  and  simply  re<)uirvs  a  main- 
tenance ration.  This  should  lie  largetv  of  whole 
grain  with  a  limited  amount  of  vegetaiile  foiwl,  if 
any,  and  only  a  small  amount  uf  meat.  The  object 
b  to  prevent  thedevelnjimenl  of  the  ovariea  by  too 
large  n  supply  of  readily  digested  nourishment. 

lirtaking  uf>  broady  hear. 

The  br(K<dy  hen  should  he  fed  with  a  view  to 
inducing  ej^t^-pnid action  in  the  shortMit  possible 
time.  It  nhonld  Im  fed,  therefore,  the  must  attrac- 
tive and  beet  egg-producing  rations. 

The  feeding  of  llu  hrrrding   tlaek. 

In  feeding  the  breeding  stock,  the  object  should 
be  to  prevent  over-feeiling,  especially  during  the 
non-productive  seasons— fall  and  early  winter.  Asa 
result,  a  large  egg-yield  cannot  be  secured.  The 
rations  should  not  be  too  narrow,  and  thus  produce 
a  phlegmatic  condition,  nor  too  fattening,  and 
cause  sluggishness  and  fatty  dpRenerntion.  either 
of  whieh  would  romH  by  over-fewling  of  rich  rations. 
A  limited  amount  of  meat,  whole  grains  fed  in  a 


POULTRY 

litter  to  induce  exercise  in  the  open  air,  and  a 
limited  amount  of  green  fcKMl  with  an  abundance 
of  bone  and  oyster  shell,  should  be  fed. 

Fmling  the  diffrrtnt  hrtedt. 

The  heavier  and  Che  more  sluggish  the  breed,  the 
greater  is  the  tendency  to  become  fat.  and.  there- 
fore, the  greater  is  the  need  of  proper  methods  of 
fueding.  which  will  compel  exercise  and  prevent 
over-eating.  The  lighter  and  more  active  breeds 
apparently  can  be  fed  a  wider  ration  with  less 
diinger  of  over-fatness  than  can  the  heavier  and 
more  phlegmatic  breeds.  The  fine  art  of  feeding 
consists  in  furnishing  th(>  right  kind  of  foods  in 
«uch  a  manner  that  the  fowls  can  be  kept  in  the 
be»t  physical  condition.  This  means  that  the  fowls 
must  have  some  surplus  fat  in  the  body.  A  poor 
hen  cannot  lay.  A  very  fat  hen  may  become  so 
sluggish  that  death  will  rwfult  from  fatty  degener- 
ation. The  fowl  thatift  in  the  b^t  laying  condition 
always  ha.<i  a  large  am<junt  of  surplus  fat  in  the 
body.  How  to  furnish  the  available  nourishment  to 
meet  the  needs  of  ogg-pnMluction,  and  at  the  same 
time  pruvent  the  fowls  from  becoming  too  fat,  is 
the  problem  in  feeding.  In  a  word,  It  consists  in 
feeding  a  well-balanced  ration  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  appetite  shall  be  kept  good,  which  means 
that  once  a  day  fowls  should  come  eajjerly  for  the 
foal,  preferabli'  in  the  morning,  and  once  a  day 
have  all  the  fiKxl  that  they  can  possibly  consume, 
preferably  at  night. 

Feeding  turlcry«. 

Turkeys  are  grain- and  insect-eaters.  They  are 
the  best  of  foragers.  When  verj*  young,  they  aru 
the  most  delicatt>  of  poultry.  After  they  "tlir<jw 
the  n-d."  i.  e.,  show  their  comb,  which  they  do 
when  they  get  thi«tr  first  full  plumage,  they  aru 
among  the  most  hardy  of  poultry.  The  young, 
therefore,  need  great  care  when  they  are  reared 
artificially  and  in  large  numbers. 

The  feed  for  the  first  few  da^'s  should  be  largnly 
of  bread  and  milk,  made  crumbly  and  mixetl  with 
"pot  cheese"  in  the  proportion  of  three  of  the 
former  to  one  uf  the  tatter.  To  this  should  bo 
added  a  little  chop;>ed  onion.  This  nii.Yture  should  bo 
fed  two  or  three  times  a  day,  as  much  as  they  will 
eat,  Once  or  twice  a  day  they  should  be  given 
finely  cracked  corn,  wheat  and  oatmeal,  mixed  In 
almut  eigual  parts.  The  ]irii)H)rtion  of  bread  and 
milk  should  Iw  decreasml  after  the  second  week,  at 
the  same  lime  finely  crackwt  grains  and  |K»t  cheese 
being  fed  moru  largely.  Fine  grit  and  charcoal 
should  always  Ik-  available.  Water  shonld  l»e  pro- 
vided in  areci'ptacle  where  the  young  turkeys  can- 
not t^ecnme  wet.  (ir.^dually,  us  the  turkeys  grow, 
cnamely  cracke<3  or  whole  grain  may  be  n»et).  and 
a  g<Hxl  grade  of  Igeef  scrap  gradually  substitutes! 
for  the  "  jH)t  cheeew."  The  latter,  however,  is  to 
be  preferred. 

A  board  encloflnrc,  one  foot  high  and  twelve  or 
fourteen  feet  square-,  placed  around  the  coop  on 
closely  cropped,  clean  grass  wid,  makes  a  desirable 
pla(?e  Ui  start  young  turkeys.  Until  they  have 
thrown  their  wing  and  tail  feathers,  so  as  to  fly 


536 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


over  the  board,  they  canoot  be  tniRted  to  roam  far 
from  the  coop.  They  should  not  be  allowed  at  any 
time  tr>  run  in  th«?  wet  grass,  as  they  are  easily 
chilled.  More  youtiE  tnrke.vs  are  lost  through 
exposure  than  thr'>ugh  improi>er  feeding. 

When  tiirkeys  itre  permitted  to  roam  the  fields, 
which  they  do  in  must  cases,  ihoy  will  gi;t  a  large 
part  of  their  livio;,;.  In  i>rd>i*r  to  make  certain  that 
they  are  well  ft^.  and  also  to  induce  them  to  return, 
they  should  always  be  fi-d  grain  at  nicht.  This 
usually  will  be  corn,  although  wheat,  oats  or  peas 
may  be  added  to  advantage. 

Turkeys,  young  or  old.  phoald  never  be  permitted 
to  run  with  the  young  or  old  of  the  domestic  fowl. 
Th«y  are  not  so  lively,  rugged  or  intelligent  as 
chickenji,  and  therefore  anlTer  when  compelled  to 
compete  with  tht?ra  for  food. 

Whon  fattening  turkeys  for  market,  it  ia  bettwr 
to  permit  tht-m  to  continue  on  free  range.  They 
worry  in  confinement  and  will  not  eat  well.  They 
should  Iw  f«l  all  the  whole  com  they  will  eat  at 
night.  In  the  morning  they  nhoald  be  given  com 
meal,  middlings  and  meat  scrap,  mixed  with  »our 
skimmed  milk.  This  mixture  should  k^  about  in 
the  proportion  of  GO  uounda  of  corn  mual,  30 
Ijounoa  of  wheat  middlings,  iO  pounds  of  hwi 
scraps,  and  enough  ftour  ttkimmed  milk  to  make  a 
thick  dough.  Turkey.i  may  he  finisJhkjd  during  the 
last  WK^k  by  placing  tht-ni  in  dark  cimpujind  cram- 
ming them  by  hnnd  with  pellet!)  cr>n.siAting  of  two 
parts  of  corn  meal,  two  parts  of  ground  oats 
(Hhuckn  out),  one  part  of  wheat  iniddlintjis,  and  one 
part  of  meat  scrapa,  mixed  with  sour  skimmyd 
milk. 

The  breeding  stock  should  bo  permitted  to  roost 
in  the  open  air,  hut  be  protected  from  the  storms 
and  windd.  Thi«  expOHun-  rwiuirert  fattening  foodrt 
to  enable  the  turkeys  to  keap  warni.  UTiol*!  corn 
alone  ia  too  fatti>ning.  Oatti  and  pLiu.s  nhoulil  alKi* 
be  fed.  During  the  breeding  sea-son,  oni^  fw^ling  a 
day  of  ground  feed,  which  contains  a  lil>L'ral 
amount  of  mc-nt,  »hoald  be  giv^en.  A  good  mixLuru 
for  this  puriioNc  is  equal  parts,  by  weight,  of  com 
men!,  wheAt  bran,  wheat  middlings,  grnund  oatii  and 
meat  scraps,  mixwl  with  mmr  or  Hwe^'t  skimmod 
milk.  Oyitttir  &hells  and  wat«r  should  hv  available 
at.  all  times. 

LUfratitre. 
For  references,  see  page  527. 

Fudlos:  Water-fowl. 

By  (ko.  H.  i'ollard. 

The  munt  common  water-fowl  rained  in  domesti- 
cation, and  the  one«  receiving  alU^ivliim  hi!rv,  uru 
dnclu  and  gi>f»H;.  Wliiiu  Ihi^e  an.'  commonly  con- 
sidered to  be  water-fnwl,  hecauHu  they  delight  to 
be  in  the  water,  the  acceseiibility  of  a  body  of 
water  for  swimming  purpos&s  is  no  longer  held  to 
be  neceiwary  tr  raising  them. 

Fteding  duckt. 

Under  natural  conditinns.  duckH  fe«d  nn  water- 
grasses  and  roots,  and  on  the  l<iwer  animal  life 


which  inhabits  low  lands  and  wet  places.  Under 
the  influence  of  domestication,  their  habit«  have 
changed  somewhat,  although  their  instincts  are 
much  iheBame  as  in  the  wild  Btat«.  The  beat  feeder 
is  the  man  who  considers  these  facts  and  works  as 
much  a.'t  pnswihie  along  natural  Hne-s. 

The  feeding  of  breeding  birds  necewarily  differs 
somewhat  from  the  feeding  of  market  stock.  In 
either  case,  the  ration  ahoold  be  made  up  of  such 
of  the  arce.'wible  grains  and  supplifi*  as  will  furn- 
ish a  palatable  mixture  at  a  minimum  or  fair  cost. 
Dutks  are  voracious  ftfeders,  and,  in  order  to  j»ave 
a  profit,  wa.'^te  l.'Oth  in  cost  and  in  8)>ending  oiu^t 
be  carefully  lookeil  after.  When  brc-eding  birds 
have  a  water-run,  coanser  and  richer  fofjd  may  be 
fed  more  safely  than  whwn  they  do  not,  an  the 
extra  exerciite  the  ducks  take  will  utilize  the 
materials  more  fully.  When  both  free  range  and 
water-waya  are  to  be  had,  either  whole  corn, 
whc-at,  oats  or  barley,  or  a  mixture  of  any  or  all. 
may  be  fed,  and  the  ducks  will  "balance  the 
ration"  for  themselves  and  do  well.  If  there  in  a 
profitable  market  for  the  egg^  either  for  table  or 
for  incubation,  it  ie  well  to  provide  a  inipply  of 
giiixl  bi-ef  scrap  and  feed  it  in  a  box  or  hopper. 
allowing  the  duckts  to  hidp  thutn^elvus.  A  constant 
supply  should  Ije  kept  before  thom,  or  it  may  be 
given  in  such  quantities  as  will  produce  the  resBlts 
wanted  most  economically. 

When  kt-pt  in  confinement,  and  the  eartienl  and 
greatest  po»isible  number  of  t-ggs  are  wanted,  soft 
Tikh!  xhoulil  l>e  fed  night  and  morning,  and  a  light 
feed  of  hard  grains  given  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 
A  good  mixture  is  three  part*  of  com  meal,  iwa 
parts  of  wheat  bran,  one  part  of  red-dog  or  low- 
grade  feeding  flour,  one  part  of  cut  alfalfa,  cut 
clover,  or  vegetables,  such  as  cabbages,  turnip*  or 
beets  cooked  or  suilably  chopped,  and  one  part  of 
best  l>eef  scrap,  iir  an  equal  ouantity  of  dried  and 
pn-pared  tish.  Wlw-n  fre«h  fwti  can  be  procured,  it 
may  be  fed  raw  or  cookvd,  if  made  fine  enough. 
The  mixture  is  maisti'neid  to  a  crumbly  consistency 
with  cold  water.  Night  and  morning,  as  much  of 
thirt  or  some  similar  mixture  as  the  ducks  will 
clean  up  within  tifteen  or  twenty  minutes  shuuM 
be  supplied.  If  preferred,  this  mixluru  may  be  fed 
dry,  in  which  ciise  it  should  be  kept  before  the 
ducks  all  the  time  in  boxes  or  hoppers.  Obviously, 
if  fish  is  used  it  must  lie  drii'd  and  prepared.  This 
method  saves  much  of  the  labor,  and  the  labor 
cost  is  one  of  the  heavio^ftt  items  in  the  production 
of  ducks. 

Drinking-water  should  be  within  reach  at  all 
tim(>K.  Owing  to  the  habit  of  washing  down  their 
fiHul,  ilucks  should  never  be  fed  without  a  plenti- 
ful supply  of  water  easily  available. 

When  there  is  green  range,  no  clover  or  vege- 
tables need  bo  added  to  the  ration.  Sometimes  it 
pays  to  feed  more  meat  and  meal  in  the  laying  sea- 
son and  U'tss  in  the  dry  months.  Oluten,  hominy 
choiiH,  (»r  any  nf  the  various  food-stuffs,  may  be 
su)M<tilut«(l  in  the  alHtire  ration,  and  a  cloM  watch 
of  effcscta  will  detemiiue  which  is  the  most  profit* 
able  under  the  speeial  conditions  of  the  feeder. 
The  main  point  to  keep  in  mind  is  that  fall  feeding 


POULTRY 


of  aatisfyinjj  foorfa  ia  Rcnerally  the  most  profitable, 
and  in  ttiid  r«^i>ect  thtf  freest  ttpendt^r  m  the  be^t 
saver. 

Younsf  ditekt  intended  fwr  market  muet  bo  pushed 
from  hatching  to  killing  time.  All  tht-  profit  to  be 
mudo  depends  on  quick  j^ruwth.  The  te^iding  factor 
in  this  growth  in  &  piMotr  supply  of  animal  food  in 
some  palatable  form,  lligh-grade  bei*f  scrap  is  the 
main  dependence  of  most  grower*.  Properly  pre- 
pared fi.sh  will  answer  as  well.  Some  growera  objeict 
to  fish,  on  the  ground  that  it  ftavorn  the  carca^  of 
the  dockiing.  tlnlfw  it  in  an  oily,  rancid  prepara- 
ation.  It  will  st^ldom  caiiiw  such  trouble. 

/>iieit/ui^j(  should  not  (m?  fed  until  they  are  thirty- 
nil  to  forty-eight  hours  old.  The  fimt  feed  may  be 
a  mixture  of  two-third«  wheat  bran  and  one-third 
corn  meal,  moistened  with  water  or  milk,  and  with 
a  raw  egg  Ktirred  in  with  each  nuart  of  the  grain. 
It  is  moititened  only  enough  to  make  a  slightly 
damp,  crumMy  mcLts.  A  little  nand  or  prepared  grit 
in  added,  and  this  feed  is  k«pt  before  the  duoklings 
for  forty-eight  hours.  Tht>  attendant  ]im«t  be  care- 
ful to  renew  it  before  soaring,  and  feed  only  sweet 
fnod.  Clean  wat^r  mnat  bo  provided  in  mich  kind 
of  fountain  or  vessel  as  will  let  the  ducklings  get 
their  billfl  and  heail^  but  not  their  bodies  into  the 
watt-r.  Water  should  be  kept  before  thftm  night 
and  day,  until  killing  time.  To  prevent  their  play- 
ing in  it,  some  growers  water  only  at  fi>eiling  time 
after  the  ducklings  are  a  few  days  old.  They  should 
not  be  allowed  wat«r-run3,  if  the  quickest  growth 
ifl  wanted. 

riy  thf  time  thft  ducklings  are  one  week  old.  they 
should  b«  getting  bo  much  as .'»  pi»r  cent  of  beef 
siTfaps,  and  three  part«  of  wheat  bran,  and  two 
]iart8  of  corn  meal.  The  proportions  should  be 
changed  gradually,  until  at  »\.x  weekfl  old  the  meal 
and  bran  are  i-qual,  and  the  beef  ocrap  amounti; 
to  1.5  per  cent  of  the  whole.  After  the  firnt  few 
davR,  the  feed  should  be  given  four  times  a  day 
until  six  wt^eks  old,  and  then  three  times  until 
the  ducks  are  marketed.  On  this  simple  ration, 
ducks  can  be  carried  to  a  good  market  condition  at 
ten  weeks  old.  If  there  is  too  great  looseneiw  of 
the  bowels,  the  proportion  of  iwrap  should  be 
reduced  for  a  time.  Many  persons  fe«<I  a  greater 
proportion  of  meal  the  last  two  or  three  weeks. 
Green  food  is  greatly  relished  by  the  ducklings, 
but  too  much  must  not  be  fed,  or  the  skin  will 
become  yellow :  the  beet  markets  prefer  white- 
ikinned  ducks  and  gecAO.  Y^lieat  bran  helps  greatly 
in  thia  respect,  aa  well  as  in  growing  the  frame. 
It  is  well  to  provide  a  constnnt  itupply  of  crunbed 
oyster  shell,  and  grave]  or  grit. 

The  rations  given  for  both  old  and  young  birds, 
while  general,  are  sufficient,  although  they  may  bo 
varied  greatly  to  suit  conditions  and  the  cost  of 
different  grains.  Dry-feeding,  or  the  feeding  of  a 
mixture  of  ground  grains  in  a  dry  state,  is  yet  in 
an  experimental  stage.  The  snweiw  of  this  system, 
which  is  coming  into  genera!  use  with  other  poultry, 
wooid  revolationixe  the  business  of  growing  market 
ducks.  The  grain  mixtnrn  is  left  before  them  aI 
•II  timet,  and  the  hoppers  or  boxes  are  filled  only 
as  fait  as  emptied  by  the  ducklings,  which  may 


he  once  or  twice  a  week  if  the'  holders  are  suffi- 
ciently large.  There  is  yet  some  question  whether 
the  ducklings  c,^n  be  grown  as  big  in  t*n  or  twelve 
weeks,  at  which  age  the  pin-feathera  start  and 
they  should  be  dres^.  If  p«rmitt«d  to  run  three 
or  four  weeks  longer,  they  will  gain  one  to  two 
pounds  is  weight  and  will  again  be  in  condition 
for  marketing.  On  the  later  hatches,  at  least,  it 
aeema  as  if  the  great  saving  in  lalior  and  the  gain 
in  weight  would  more  than  pay  for  the  extra  four 
weeks  of  keep. 

Ornamtntist  dtu^t  and  pri  stoeX'  may  be  fed  any- 
thing thtiy  will  eat.  save  a  too  full  ration  of  fat- 
tening foods.  When  only  a  few  are  kept,  the  hard 
grains  will  answer  for  the  old  stock  most  of  the 
time,  and  the  young  may  have  any  simple  mixture 
of  soft  food.  (Ireen  food  may  bo  given  aa  freely 
as  convenient.  As  quick  growth  is  not  a  necessity, 
there  is  no  need  of  the  great  forcing  which  mast 
W  given  market  birds. 

Fefxling  geett. 

When  given  the  opportunity,  geeee  graw  almoflt 
as  freely  as  cattle.  ITii.^  fact  ieails  many  persons 
to  suppose  that  a  grafw  range  ia  all  that  in  neces- 
sary for  growing  market  geese.  This  is  a  mistake. 
Breeding  geese  will  do  well  on  a  grass  range,  espe- 
cially if  a  low  meadow  or  marsh  with  considerable 
Witter.  In  winter  they  should  have  a  moderate 
grain  feed  and  a  liberal  allowance  of  roots,  cab- 
bage, or  other  succulent  foo^l,  but  not  too  much  of 
a  fattening  nature.  The  closer  the  confinement 
the  more  rare  is  necessary  in  this  respect.  Oeeae 
fatten  readily,  and  the  breeding  stock  should  not 
be  tiermitted  to  put  on  too  much  weight 

At  about  laying  time,  the  attendant  should  begin 
to  increajie  the  feed  and  give  twice  a  day  a  liberal 
ration,  containing  considerable  animal  food  in  some 
form.  The  ordinary  duck  foods  will  answer,  .\fter 
the  grass  has  a  good  start. one  full  feed  of  grain  a 
day  will  do  if  the  geese  have  sufficient  range. 

(leese  wash  down  their  food  much  the  same  as 
ducks,  and  water  should  alwa)'8  be  accessible  at 
feeding  time. 

Goslings  do  best  when  they  have  a  limited  range 
on  fresh,  tender  grass.  This  ihey  eat  freely,  and 
they  may  be  grown  on  it  after  a  fashion  ;  but 
they  will  never  make  the  size,  and  will  fatten  k-ss 
rapidly  than  when  fed  a  proper  grain  ration.  On 
grass  range,  and  given  a  foo«i  similar  to  that  for 
young  ducklings,  and  fed  as  often,  they  will  grow 
rapidly  and  make  w^jight  faster  than  any  other 
imultry.  When  grass-fed  gw.'<e  are  fattened  for 
the  market,  they  may  be  fed  corn  meal  with  10  per 
cent  of  Iwef  scrap  added.  This  may  be  scalded  or 
Wet  with  cold  water.  Whole  com  may  be  fed  once 
a  day.  It  nsually  takes  about  four  weeks  to  fatten 
th*'m  properly.  Gravel  or  grit  in  some  form  should 
alwaya  be  within  reach. 

Ornavunlal  and  fancy  gernt  may  Ii*  fed  the 
same  as  ornamental  docits,  and  for  the  same 
reasons. 

LiltTolurt. 
For  referenceB,  see  page  527. 


538 


rauLTRV 


POULTRY 


I 


'^r^Tif 


?U.  S3I. 
Fowl  wJtli  weil-devel- 

OpM  MNUt. 


Ffttteoiaii:  Poultry.  Fig.  531-.i;W. 

By  W.  R.  C.rahaiiu 

Much  of  thu  pLiultn'  offered  fwrsale  nn  our  mar- 
kets is  thin  in  Utah  and  punrly  dressed,  -a  leati- 
niony  to  t3i&  lack  of  skill  or 
can*  on  the  part  of  tht  grower. 
The  majority  of  thcchick«nfi 
now  8(ilci  represent  a  waste. 
Nut  only  nn?  they  inferior  in 
qujility  nnd  r[uiintity  of  HeMh, 
but  tht'y  ore  very  uoHalisfac- 
tory  to  the  buyvr.  it  iti  the 
purpose  of  this  discuRttJon  to 
deal  almo8t  entirely  with  the 
fatteninji,  or  i.>erhai>3  one 
sliduld  aay  the  "  HesiK'nitiff," 
of  chivkenfl,  and  to  singgest 
how  it  may  bu  at'compIiBhed. 
What  applies  to  chickens  will 
apply  lar|fi-ly 
to  fowls  also. 
As  with  other 
cla-sHes  of  live-ntficrk,  much  de- 
penda  on  the  conttitjon  of  the 
aubjuct  that  ia  to  he  fed,  whether 
it  is  old  or  youriK.  larj^e  or 
small,  bred  from  meat-producing 
breixlB  iind  of  a  tttrain  in  which 
this  habit  (h  well  e»L:LbliRhei),  or 
from  u  strain  that  biut  nu  partic- 
ular ability  to  put  on  fleah  with 
economy. 

The  type  for  menl'produdion. 

The  writer  has  paid  oonsiderahip  attention  to 
the  question  of  ty|ie  for  meat-priHluction,  and  heg^ 
to  suhrniL  the  following  disiitissiun  tnkon  from  Hul- 
letin  Nu.  lol,  pubiiahed  by  the  Ontario  Depart- 
ment of  Agricrultnre,  Toronto: 

"When  lookin;tc  o^'^r  dresstMi  poultry  in  some  of 
the  exporters'  shops,  I  have  often  thought  how  easy 
it  would  \te  to  improve  the  spiK-arance  of  much  of 
the  ordinary  poultry,  and  some  nf  th;it  which  is 
specially  fattened,  if  the  birds  were  lire<l  to  a 
proper  typo.  I  have  at>t'nt  much  tinit;  in  examining 
different  types  of  birds,  alivo  and  dresaed,  and  in 
observing  the  feeding  capacity  of  certam  type» ; 
but  it  would  take  year^  to  arrive  at  definite  con* 
clusionsf  on  these  pnints.  I  am  of  the  opinion,  how- 
ever, that  ona  of  thu  most  important  things  to  be 
Konght  is  constitution.  This  may  have  no  arttial 
market  value,  but  it  certainly  ha^  much  to  do  with 
the  bird's  ability  to  grow  and  put  on  flesh.  What 
we  want  is  a  good  feeder  and  an  e«v>noraical  pro- 
ducer. Generally,  a  bird  with  a  short,  stout,  welt- 
curved  beak,  a  broad  head  (not  too  JongK  and  a 
bright,  clear  eye.  hiw  a  gwid  const) tnt ion.  I  have 
noticed  that  when  a  bird  ha?  a  Soug,  narrow  Iwak, 
a  thin,  long  comb  and  head,  and  an  eye  some- 
what sunken  in  the  head,  it  i»  usually  lacking  in 
constitution.  Such  a  bird  is  likely  to  have  a 
narrow,  long  body  and  long  legs,  on  which  it  sel- 
dom stands  straight.  There  are  some  exceptions 
to  this  rule  ;  yet,  generally  speaking,  if  a  bird  baa 


Fig.  532. 
Fowl  with  rtry 
poor    biciut 
dwelopment. 


a  good  head  the  chances  are  favorable  for  a  good 
body :  and  if  it  has  a  poor  head  the  chances 
are  against  it.  I  have  fretjuently  noticed  in  the 
ros*!-comb  hreed.%  such  as  \Vy.iiidott«s,  that  a  good- 
aliapL'd  one  in  seldom  found  with  a  long,  narrow 
comb. 

"  The  neck  should  be  moderately  short  and  nlout, 
indicating  vigor.  The  breast  is  the  most  impor- 
tant point  in  a  market  chicken.  It  should  be  broad 
and  nifKleratelydeep;  and  if  broad,  it  will  present  a 
fine  appeanince  and  appear  woll-fleahed.  Jt  is  quite 
potisible  that  a  broad,  deep  breast  will  carry  more 
meat  than  u  mmierately  deep  breast  of  the  same 
width;  yot  tht-re  is  no  doubt  that  the  latter  will 
present  much  the  belter  apiwarance.  and  sell  more 
qiiickly  and  at  a  higher  price  in  the  markeL  The 
breast-bone  should  he  well  covered  with  fleah  to 
the  Very  tip. 

"When  considering  the  length  of  the  breast,  we 
must  try  to  have  it  come  well  forward  (Fig.  5:il), 
and  not  be  cut  off  at  an  angle,  as  in  Fig.  532.  The 
body,  in  general,  should  present  the  apjtearance  of 
an  oblong  when  the  head,  nock  and  tail  are  removed. 
We  frequently  see  birds  that  are  very  flat  in  front, 
and  cut  up  behind,  as  in  Pig.  533.  Chickens  of  this 
clasa  have  a  very  short  breast :  and  if  the  breast 
happens  to  be  deep,  M  it  is  in  thb*  bird,  the  chicken 
will  have  a  very  poor  appearance  when  dressed,  as 
it  will  show  a  marked  lack  of  width  and  length  of 
breiLHt.with  exceJ*sive  depth.  Notice  that  the  head 
is  narrow  and  long,  the  body  is  narrow,  the  eye  i» 
bright  but  slightly  sunken, 
the  tegs  are  long  and  not 
straight  under  the  body.  la 
Fig.  5.'i2,  observe  the  very  flat 
breast,  the  length  of  back,  the 
long  neck  and  head,  the  nar- 
row comb,  the  sunken  eye, 
and  the  length  of  legs.  The 
breast  comes  fairly  welt  back, 
but  not  Well  forward.  In  Pi|t. 
n31.  the  bill  is  short  and  stout, 
but  not  BO  well  curved  as  it 
should  be.  Note  the  breadth 
of  head,  the  prominence  and 
brightness  of  the  eye,  the 
iihurt,  stout  neck,  the  great 
wiilth  of  the  breaxt.  the  ful- 
nesit  cauKod  largely  by  th« 
breast- 
bone ex* 
lending  well  forwanl.  the 
abort,  stout  legs  (straight 
under  the  body),  and  the  width 
between  the  legs.  There  is  an 
expression  about  this,  chicken 
that  indicates  be^ilth  and  the 
essence  of  vigor. 

'The  buck  should  be  broad, 
to  give  lung  and  heart  capac- 
ity ;  and  the  width  should 
extend  well  back  to  the  tail- 
head.  We  do  not  want  the  p,^  jj^ 
wedge-shaped  back,  as  seen  in  4  „g4  aujtot  trp* 
some    fowls  that  have  great  tt  tawt. 


'.^•/■^- 


PiK.  S3i. 
Fowl   Out  li   tut  In 
tioni  tod  cut  up  b«- 
hlad. 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


539 


wirlth  at  the  shouLdens  and  taper  rapidly  towsnt 
the  tailKca^l. 

"it  is  much  eaaior  to  get  jcood-nhapLil  markmt 
pulluta  than  Rtxxl  cockurels.  The  oiarki-t  dt'iiKiiids 
B  fivf-pound  bird  when  dressed,  and  farmorR  have 
gone  into  raising  big  chickens.  To  that  end  they 
are  uOting  for  large,  overgrnwn  ctickerelis  o( 
excnwive  depth,  fcir  breeders ;  thu  result  im  that  wu 
getdrusswl  chickens  wt-inhing  four  to  fivu  pounds 
each,  that  havu  immwiaH,  hiKh  breaat-liuniu*  and 
very  lonj^  legs.  These  are  nut  attractive  to  the 
faayor8,and  they  ^11  atlf.<^  per  [miind  than  plumper 
birdu.  For  example-,  if  given  two  birds  of  the  same 
width  nf  brwiflt.,  one  in  tme  and  ontvhalf  inches 
diMiper  in  the  bn?ast  than  tbw  otht-r.  The  result 
will  lie  that  unu  bin)  will  look  plump  aaA  sell 
rapidly,  whilu  the  othL-rwill  lack  in  plumpa-ss  and 
be  alow  in  selling.  Tliifl  lack  of  plumpnest)  can  im 
brod  out  by  using  such  males  as  that  sh'own  in  Pig. 
531.  We  like  to  hare  birdie  a»  well  built  fut  we  ciin 
get  them,  and  Pig.  5:U  in  ae  n^^ur  the  ideal  market 
chicken  a«  w«  hav*;  in  the  bretd  which  he  repm- 
senta.  The  hun  »tvn  ia  Fig.  ^Ai  m  a  g'j'Hl  market 
type.  Xotti  the  width  ami  fulnuHs  o{  tin-u^t.  As 
a  breeder,  she  is  a  tittle  tine  in  bono,  and  rather  too 
amall.  She  has.  however,  that  blocky  appearance 
which  is  di^ifirable.  Fig.  5^15  reprwwnte  a  croM- 
brty)  chirk  (nirt*,  Buff  Orpington  ;  dam,  Houdan}. 
Note  tilt-  length  ami  fuliittw  of  the  breaat ;  also 
good  beak  and  eye.  Fig.  Ti^fi  ia  a  picture  of  a  ten- 
weeks-old  son  of  the  male  shown  in  Fig.  G31.  You 
will  observe  the  fMime  general  characteriBtica  as 
seen  in  the  father — fair  beJik,  good  eye,  excellent 
breast,  huCh  ait  to  length  and  width,  without  exces- 
aive  depth.  The  thigh  i»  also  mi.'(litini  in  length. 
Pig.  5S7  repreju-ntfi  the  lung,  narrow  sort.  Note 
the  long  beak,  the  narruw  head,  the  sunken  eye.  the 
long  neck,  and  b)ng.  crrioked 
legs.  When  dreiwd,  his  ap- 
Marance  will  not  Im  pleading. 
Pig.  B.'Vt  «how*  a  good  he!u3 
throughout,  very  full  and 
widn  breaat,  and  legs  that 
stand  Well  under  the  body  and 
well  apart.  This  bird  ieofthe 
type  we  like  to  feed  ill  the 
fattening  cratn." 

The  ((uestion  of  aizft  and 
age  havL-  to  be  decided  largely 
by  one's  market.    It  i^i   very 

little  nse 

to  try  to 

Hatutfya 

buyer 

with  a  four -pound  chicken 

whun   a  six -pound    one    is 

wantevi.    It  is  the  writer's  ex- 

fRrience  that  healthy,  thrifty 
irda  of  such  brt*d»i  as  Ply- 
mouth  Rock  a,  Wyandotte*, 
Orpinglonii,  make   most   bco- 
Q  D  m  i  {■  B 1    gains    when   they 
fig.  sas.  Weigh   three  to  four    pounds 

^Jwwiu'Mmud    '^**^''-   "•"  •"''•    *"   *K*   ^^  ^y 
bdMMoCcftMt.        thrw  to  three  and  on&-half 


ToaoB    too    of    fowl 
•bown  is  tig.  131. 

Niil*      nuvBililatir* 

of  cbnra«1«n. 


Pin.  S38. 

A  CW4  trK  0'  (owl 

(oi  (atUntDK. 


tnunth.'^.  Hyx|H«ial  feeding  for  thnw  to  four  weeks, 
the  h'lTih  will  easily  drut^s  four  ^)  live  pounds  each. 
Large  birds,  weighing  six  to  seven  pounds,  co«t 
more  to  produce  a  pound  of  gain.  One  need  not, 
under  any  consideration,  ex- 
pect rapid  gains  or  fine-ap- 
pearing drcjtfed  jioultry  from 
diseantM]  or  piluntuil  stock. 

The  fatten ing-pf It. 

The  fattening-pcn  should 
be  dry  and,  if  pofwible,  well 
ventilated  and  free  from 
draftn.  The  binis  that  are 
coopeil  niUi4t  nut  lie  pliurt-d  in 
dirijct  drafts  or  many  will 
take  cold.  An  open  uIukI,  with 
three  sides  tight,  iiiukeR  a 
gooil  place  for  early  fall  or 
summer  fattening,  but  for 
late  fall  mure  protection  in 
required  to 
aecure  the 
bi-'gt  gains. 

Crate-feied' 
ing  IT.  Inom  pea-fftding. — For  a 
number  of  years  the  writer  has 
conducted  experiments  with 
chickens  in  rratea  and  in  loope 
pens.  He  has  tried  six  different 
feeders,  with  varying  result*. 
With  some  feeders,  equally  good 
results  were  sepured  with  hin]« 
in  crates  as  in  IrHutu  peni*.  In  the 
ca«e  of  two  fwders  in  particular, 
the  birds  could  not  be  fed  to 
advantage  in  loose  peni4  us  com- 
pared with  crates.  With  on* 
feefler.  on  the  other  hand,  slightly 
better  returns  were  secured  in 
some  cJiHBs  with  birda  in  ptins. 
The  majority  of  buyers  of  chick- 
ens &«em  to  think  that  the  crato-fe4  birds  are 
much  superior  to  tho!*e  fed  in  loow  pens.  The 
writer  prefers  to  feed  birds  in  crates,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  takes  le.'wnKim.  They  are  fed  with  b*s 
oxpemlituro  of  Libor,  and  a  more  even  profit  is 
rutnrneii.  However,  there  are  many  pwraona  who 
can  get  giHjd  results  from  ftw>ding  birds  in  box- 
stalls  and  like  apartments. 

Coantrudkin  if  faJffaing  enUet,  —  A  fattening 
crate  a  usually  ma^le  aix  feet  ^ix  inches  long, 
eighteen  to  twenty  inches  high,  and  sixteen  innbeti 
wide.  It  is  divided  into  three  compartments,  each 
holding  four  to  five  bints,  aciiording  to  the  size  of 
the  chickens.  It  is  ma^le  of  slaC«,  except  the  ends 
and  partitions  between  the  compartments,  which 
arc  solid  wood.  The  slaUi  on  the  top.  bottom  and 
back  run  lengthwise  of  the  ctK>p,  while  tho^e  nn 
the  front  run  up  and  down.  They  are  usually  one 
and  one-half  inches  wide  and  five-eighths  inch  thick. 
Thofli>  in  front  are  placed  two  inches  apart  to  allow 
the  chickens  to  put  their  heads  through  for  feed- 
ing. The  slats  on  the  bottom  are  placed  aliout  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  apart,  an  aa  to  penait  the  drop- 


% 


Fit.  S37. 

A  lan£.  saiiow 

type  of  fowl. 


640 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


PU.  S39.    A  linele  cmU  or  oocn  tor 
lattoDlDc  tawli. 


pings  to  piuw  through  to  the  proond.  Care  shonld 
be  taken  not  to  have  the  frtit  bottom  »lat  at  tho 
back  fit  clotKly  as^atiist  the  back.  An  opening  at 
this  point  prevents  the  droppings  collecting  and 
(lfcump{>3ing,  Tht:  skt^  on  thu  top  and  bock  are 
usually  two  inches  apart.  There  is  a  small  V-tihaped 
trrkufih  arranged  in  front  of  the  oop  for  feeding 
and  watering  the  chii-kens.  The  trough  is  two  to 
three  inchee  deep  and  U  generally  made  of  tfare&- 

fourtb-tnch  lum- 
ber. 

Very  fair 
coops  may  be 
madti  from  oM 
packing-  hoxe?, 
by  taking  off  the 
front  and  bot- 
tom, and  substi- 
tuting til:tl!i  in 
their  placet". 
(F^ig.5rt9.)  When 
fattening  chickens  inaidp  of  a  building,  it  is  well 
t«  darken  the  building  and  koep  the  birda  as  quiet 
&&  possible. 

Feeding. 

It  ia  somewhat  difficult  to  n^rite  clearly  on  thin 
subject,  as  the  writer'Hexiwrience  hm  been  largely 
in  the  praiuction  of  whito-fleshf-d  chickens  for 
humv  itiid  export  markL't:*.  The  yi^llow-«kinned 
Plymouth  Rocka  and  Wyandottt-a  can  bu  made  fairly 
white  if  fed  on  such  foods  as  milk,  oatA  and  buck- 
wheat. Some  years  ago.  the  writer  took  birds  that 
were  full  brothers  and  fed  some  on  such  foods  as 
the  above^  while  others  were  fed  yellow  com, 
boiled  pumpkins  or  red  carrots.  Whi>n  the  two 
lots  weru  killed,  oim  lot  was  nearly  white  in  color 
of  skin  while  the  other  was  yellow.  The  object  in 
feeding  if!  not  only  to  mnko  flesh  and  fat,  but  also 
to  soften  the  muRclus.  The  softer  the  niD.soleB,  the 
more  tender ;  and  a  tender,  juicy  chicken  that 
CArries  plenty  nf  flesh  plwises  the  consumer. 

Sour  milk  haa  given  better  returns  tluin  sweet 
milk.  Tb«  simr  milk  appi^ur^  to  aid  <iiguRlion  and 
tht<  birds  kL-t.*p  in  bettt>r  health  whfn  it  is  ft'd. 
Whc-n  milk  cannot  be  had,  whey  is  useful,  if  some 
animal  mual  or  boef  scraji  is  fed  with  it ;  not  more 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  ration  should  be  beef  scrap. 
If  nothing  but  water  is  avfiilable,  the  meat  meal 
may  be  irtereiuiBfl  lo  15  [wr  cent. 

The  bast  grain  ration  is  composed  of  two  parta 
of  rery  finely  ground  oats,  two  parts  of  finely 
ground  buckwheat,  and  ona  part  of  ground  corn. 
This  mixture  is  by  weight,  not  by  mea.ture.  To  the 
ground  grain,  sufficient  sour  milk  i«  aildeil  to  make 
tho  mass  about  the  conHistency  of  gruel,  or  so  that 
it  will  drip  from  a  spoon  like  pancake  batter,  tf 
the  milk  is  thick,  it  will  take  nearly  two  pounds  of 
milk  to  ono  of  grain.  A  little  salt  is  addeil  two  or 
three  times  a  week.  The  writer  feeds  not  more 
than  one  ounce  to  ono  hundred  birds.  Should  the 
binls  show  signs  of  feather-pulling,  the  salt  shoiitd 
be  slightly  increased.  Other  grain  mixtureit  give 
good  results.  The  food  must  be  palatable  and  the 
grain  finely  ground. 


If  there  is  any  socret  in  fattening  chickens  it  Is 
in  the  method  of  feeding.  When  the  birda  are  first 
put  in  the  crates  or  shut  in  the  pea  to  bo  fattened, 
iheyshtiuld  not  be  fed  anything  for  the  first  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  until  such  time  as  their  appetite 
becomes  keen.  During  the  first  week  they  should 
not  be  fed  much  more  than  on<>-half  of  what  they 
would  ordinarily  eat.  The  writer  usually  begins  by 
feeding  one  dozen  chickens  not  more  than  eight  to 
twetvd  ounces  of  grain  mixed  with  about  twice  aa 
much  milk.  After  the  first  week  the  ration  ta  grad- 
ually increased  until  the  appetite  ia  fully  .'satisfied. 
Should  the  feeder  fully  satisfy  the  appetite  of  the 
chickens  during  the  first  thre«  or  four  days,  or  even 
the  first  week  they  are  in  the  crate,  in  all  profta- 
bility  the  birds  will  do  very  poorly.  A  feeder  with 
good  judgmunt  at  no  time  will  over-feed  hie  birdit. 
He  shi'-uid  feed  all  they  will  eat  after  the  first  week, 
but  should  stop  .ihort  of  the  full  capacity.  If  tho 
feeder  can  accomplish  this,  he  will  be  able  to  get 
on  an  ordinary  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  or  what 
might  he  called  a  general-purpose  chicken,  one  and 
one-half  to  one  and  three-fourths  pounds  in  three 
weeks'  feeding.  Cockerels  should  be  fed  two  weeks 
or  more  before  they  are  killed  and  sold.  The  writ- 
er's experience  tends  to  show  that  if  chickeiui  can 
be  purchased  at  eight  centn  per  pound,  live  weight. 
and  sold  plucked,  but  not  driwn,  for  twelve  wnUi 
per  pound,  a  return  of  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar  per 
hour  can  bu  secured  for  the  time  it  takus  to  fiwd 
the  birds,  allowing  four  to  five  cunts  each  for  pluck- 
ing, one  dollar  and  thirty  cents  per  hundred  weight 
for  grain,  and  twenty  cents  per  hundred  weight 
for  skimmed  milk. 

I.Urrul  tiTv. 
For  references,  see  page  527. 

Capons  and  Caponlzlng,   Figs.  &40,  541. 

Hy  T.  Greiner. 

A  capon  is  a  casirateil  male  fewl.  The  act  of 
cagioniziiig  consixts  in  the  removal  of  the  teaticlee 
of  a  cockerel,  in  order  that  he  may  grow  larger, 
iK-come  more  gi^ntle,  and  fatten  more  readily  than 
he  otherwise  would.  The  ca.'*trated  cockerel,  or 
capon,  grows  somewhat  plumper  and  fatter,  even 
if  not  much  heavier,  than  the  unaltered  male,  and 
retains  much  of  the  tendemt^ss  and  JTiJciness  of 
flesh  and  thu  higher  meat  value  of  the  spring 
chicken.  Surplus  cockerels  of  the  larger  yellow- 
skinned  breeds,  as  the  Brahma,  Cochin.  Wyandotte, 
Plymouth  Rt>ck,  Indian  Game,  Rhoilu  Island  Red, 
and  the  like,  may  be,  and  are  now  to  some  extent, 
turned  into  capons  and  jiold  in  our  leading  markets 
at  prices  ranging  from  sixteen  cents  to  over  thirty 
centu  per  pound.  Tha  Langshan,  although  white- 
skinnttd,  also  makes  a  good,  large  capon.  The 
dressed  capon  of  the  Brahma,  Langshan,  and  other 
large  breeds  often  exceeds  ten  pounds  in  wei^t. 

Thr  rqaipmenl. 

The  lirKt  thing  necessary  is  a  good  set  of  instm- 
ments.  There  are  a  number  of  different  stylwi  on 
the  market  One  of  the  best  and  handiest  for  the 


POULTRY 


potn.TRr 


511 


-TT^KS 


o 


Pig,  540.  AespoalilllKIM.  lErcinnliiK 
>t  tils  tnp:  liK.Htf'.  n\iT*tiiirT,  itl[>* 
pen,  pTobe,  bImI  iMok.  csnula. 


bi!;:incer  (Fig.  &40)  consists  of  a  tance,  spreader, 
steel  hook,  probe,  a  pair  of  nippers  or  tweeiereand 
a  cannla.  For  the  removal  of  the  U-nlicIe,  a  piece 
of  tii3«  pliable  wire  it  better  than  a  honm  hair  (from 

the  horit!';^  tail). 
Little  bits  of 
sponjre  are  used 
to  mop  up  any 
blnotl  that  may 
^ntKer  around 
the  incision,  or 
in  thw  interior  of 
tho  bird  whik 
under  the  oper- 
ation. There  is 
little  cause  for 
nervousn&Hfl  or 
excitement  on 
the  part  of  the 
ojKratnr,  for  the 
operation  does 
ni>t  appear  to 
cauAe  DiQcb  suf- 
fering or  incon- 
venience to  the 
bird.  If  a  blood- 
veSMl  ifl  accidentally  ruptured,  as  may  happen  in  a 
snail  percentage  of  the  ca^es.the  bird  wilt  quickly 
die  under  the  operator's  hands,  and  may  l>e  used 
for  the  table. 

Vte  oppraiian. 

The  operation  in  simple,  and  may  \m  learned  from 
printed  intttruvtion.^  without  ni-tuat  practical  dem- 
onstration. If  the  Wijiniier  ha:t  a  chance  to  see  it 
perfurm(.-d,  all  tbu  tmCter.  The  testicles  are  removed 
through  an  incision,  about  an  inch  in  length,  made 
between  the  last  two  rlW  (those  next  to  the  hip. 
Fig.  .>IU.  The  expert  <>iierator  usually  takes  both 
teittielM  from  one  opening,  on  the  l^fl  m\v.  Btit  to 
nndertake  this  task  usually  means  failure  for  the 
befonner,  who  will  find  it  far  less  dilficult,  and  leiw 
inconvenient  and  dangerous  for  the  bird,  to  cut 
both  sides,  taking  one  testicle 
from  each  ^ide. 

To  prejiare  the  cockerel  for 
the  operation,  let  him  go  with- 
out food  for  thirty  to  thirty-*!ix 
hours.  This  is  nocesiuiry  so  that 
the  bowels  will  be  empty,  al- 
lowing the  leaticles  to  be  fle*^n 
and  removed  more  eiutily.  The 
beginner  must  be  able  to  xee 
what  he  is  doing,  and  he  Ihi-n.*- 
fore  needs  goixl  light.— nubdued  sunlight.  The  hours 
nine  to  eleven  in  the  forenoon  and  two  to  live  in 
the  afternoon,  during  July,  .August  and  early  Sep- 
tembtT,  are  the  be^^t.  The  ex|>ert  can  caponixe  on 
dark  days,  and  at  any  hour  of  the  day.  He  knows 
the  exact  li>cation  of  th^  orgnmt  and  can  find  them 
without  Wing  abl«  to  si:*  them  plainly.  The  begin- 
ner niuj*t  see  them  for  safe  oiJi-ration.  l>uring  the 
noon  hours  on  a  clear  day,  the  sun's  rays  being 
intercepted  by  the  operator's  head,  so  de-ep  a  shadow 
ia  cast  that  nothing  inside  the  fowl  can  be  seen  to 


Fig,  Mt. 
DUfiam  Of  Tibc. 

WhvTO  t«  «ul. 


advantage.  With  the  sun  nearer  the  horizon,  say 
half  way  between  there  and  the  xenitb,  the  table 
or  barrel  on  which  the  bird  !»  fa.<it<.'ni.<d  may  be 
tilted  enough  to  catch  the  direct  sun  raj-s  through 
the  incision  so  that  the  beginner  can  plainly  see 
the  interior  organs- 

A  rather  lean  bird,  weighing  two  pounds  or  less, 
h  a  better  subject  for  the  o|«eration  than  a  lleshy 
one  of  much  heavier  weight.  Fasten  the  bird  on 
its  left  side,  in  any  convenient  way,  on  a  plain, 
light  operating  table,  or  on  the  head  of  a  barrel. 
.\  good,  simple  method  is  to  loop  a  cord  around  the 
wings,  near  the  body,  and  have  a  weight  fastened 
to  the  free  end,  suspended  from  the  side  of  the 
table  or  barrel.  Another  cord  is  looped  around  the 
legs  just  above  the  feet,  with  a  weight  hanging 
down  on  the  other  side  of  the  table  or  barrel.  This 
will  hold  the  victim  firmly  in  proper  position.  I'luck 
the  few  small  feathers  that  ari>  found  over  the  last 
ribs  close  to  the  hip,  pull  the  skin  toward  the  hip 
with  the  left  hand,  while  the  right  hand,  holding 
the  lance,  makes  the  incision  with  a  quick  but 
careful  dip.  There  is  seldom  much  bleeding.  Any 
blood  may  be  mopped  up  with  a  sponge  moifitened 
with  warm  water  or  a  very  weak  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid.  With  healthy  birds  there  is  no  danger 
from  Hood  poisoning,  insert  the  spreader  to  keep 
the  cut  surfaces  apart.  With  the  line  steel  hook, 
carefully  tear  the  thin  membrane  (i*ritoneuml 
that  covers  the  intestines  and  bring  the  interior 
organs  to  full  view,  if  the  te»;ticle  is  not  already 
in  plain  sight,  introduce  the  small  ring  of  the 
probe  and  push  the  boweU  aside  until  the  object 
sooght  aftvr  is  found.  Next  slip  the  fine  wire  loop 
of  the  canula  around  the  testicle,  and  by  twisting 
and  pulling  the  wires,  detach  that  organ  and  pull 
it  up  through  the  inewion.  The  cord  or  membrane 
to  which  it  is  attached  may  have  to  Iw  severed, 
say  an  eighth  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the 
testicle,  with  the  lance.  Ilemove  the  spreader  and 
lot  the  skin  slip  back  ovc-r  the  wound.  Then  turn 
the  bird  over  on  the  right  side,  and  go  through 
the  same  proceeding  as  l)efore  on  the  other  side. 
Loosen  the  capon  and  mark  him  in  any  way 
desired,  if  by  nothing  more  than  by  cutting  off  the 
end  of  one  of  his  toes,  i^tive  him  his  frec^lom  and 
plenty  to  eat.  lie  will  have  a  ravonoos  appetite 
and  grow  rapidly,  ami  fiiwlly  get  vi-ry  fat.  The 
wound  heals  over  perfectly  in  less  than  ten  days, 
so  that  only  a  light  scar  is  left. 

For  a  Week  orflo  after  the  operation,  capons  are 
usually  given  soft  food  only,  and  h.id  better  be 
kept  in  a  yard  by  themselves.  If  wind-puff  (a 
gathering  of  air  under  the  outer  skin)  oecura.  it  is 
eJLsily  relieved  by  pricking  the  skin  with  a  sharp- 
pointt^  sterilized  pt.<n-knife.  Capons  may  be  kept 
until  the  winter  or  spring  following,  and  then  klDet) 
for  use  or  sale.  At  times  they  have  been  used  for 
brooding  newly  hatched  chicks. 

Literulurt. 

Dow,  Capons  and  ('apontzing,  Clarence  C.  DuPuy, 
publisher,  Syracusv,  N.  Y.;  Greiner,  CajHuis  for 
l*rofit.  Cyphers'  Incubator  Company,  Buffalo.  N.  V. 
[For  further  rvfen:Rces,  sec  page  527.] 


542 


POULTRY 


TOULTRV 


locDbation  and  Brocxllag.   Fig.  r>42-r>46. 
By  Chttrfts  A.  Cypher*. 

On  commercial  poaHry-farm».  the  artificial  incn- 
butin^  and  broodiiij;  at  chiclu  ja  an  accepted  ]>rac- 
ticc.  It  haa  tone;  since  pait^ed  the  experimental 
stage.  It  haa  contrilmtea  nt)  amall  part  to  the 
development  of  an  extwn^ivtj  commercial  ]>oultry 
industry.  A  knowledge  of  the  principles  invnlved 
in  a  necessary  part  of  a  poultrj'maTi'.''  ectnipment. 

Chiclie'ns  are  crown  artificially  becautie  it  ia 
difficult  to  p:et  enoutfh  broody  hen»  to  hatch  the 
Cffjis  in  Earfte  niimUfrs,  and  hena  do  not  ait  dnrinp 
the  cnonths  wtii^n  It  iit  desired  to  raise  the  birda. 
Smnll  chickens  are  raised  throoRh  the  winter  for 
broiling  and  fryinp.  and  large  roiistJUR  chickens  or 
capuHR  are  hatched  and  reared  throug-h  the  fall  and 
winter,  to  be  marketed  in  the  spring,  when  the  sup- 
ply of  soft  roasting  chickens  prodticedundernatoral 


'^^ 


PlC.  MI.    A  niDdoni  liLcubator.  small  slie. 

methods  durinf;  the  spriiif^  and  summer  has  hoen 
consumird.  These  winter  and  spring  birdfi  bring 
hi)^h  prices.  Large  producers  of  market  eggs  hatch 
and  re;ir  tlieir  birds  artificially  in  the  early  upring 
months  before  the  hens  begin  to  sit.  By  ko  duing, 
they  an!  able  to  get  their  lnnl»  d«velf)pwi  and  to 
lay  in  the  early  fall.  Marketegga  bring  high  prices 
in  the  fall  and  winter,  hucause  the  larger  number 
of  hens  arc  sttill  hatched  under  natural  methodii  in 
the  lat«  spring  and  early  sammer,  and  they  do  not 
begin  to  lay  until  spring,  leaving  a  peritid  in  the 
fall  and  winter  when  there  ik  a  short  supply. 

Inenbalion. 

The  essential  feature  of  incui>ation  i»  to  apply 
to  the  egg  a  constant  warmth  of  about  lOli*  Fahr. 
In  nature,  we  find  the  parent  bird  sitting  on  the 
eggs,  imparting  to  them  the  warmth  of  the  body. 
The  only  exception  we  find  to  this  in  nature  is  in 
the  Megap<idHS,  nr  Mnund-hinis,  whirh  are  native 
t<i  Lh»  Philippine  islands,  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
archipelago  and  Australasia.    A    huge  mound   of 


decaying  vegetable  matter  is  raised,  thu  eggis  are 
deposited  vertically  tn  a  circle  at  a  certain  depth, 
and  the  chick  U  developed  with  the  aid  of  the  heat 
of  fermentation. 

There  is  a  theory  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  aof- 
ficicnt  for  incubation  in  tropica!  climates  ;  and  the 
ostrich  is  said  to  leave  har  eggs  to  be  hatched  by 
the  heat  of  the  ^uii'ii  rays  alone,  when  she  breeds 
in  the  region  of  the  equator.  This  ia  a  fallacy,  how- 
ever, as  a  .iteady  continnon?  temperature  of  about 
102°  Fahr.  ia  rc->]uisite  for  successful  incubation. 
The  heat  of  the  sun,  alternating  with  the  cold  of 
night,  would  hatch  no  bird's  egg.  The  oeitrirh 
depusits  about  fifteen  eggs  in  a  hollow  of  the  fand. 
the  mnle  bird  helps  to  incubate,  and  the  young  art) 
excluded  in  thirty-five  or  forty  daya,  according  to 
the  species.  The  body  of  the  parent  bird  not  only 
protects  the  egg  from  the  chill  of  night,  but  also 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  day.  It  imparUi 
its  own  even  body  warmth  to  the  egg.  (See  Ottrieh, 
page  Rll.] 

When  a  fertile  egg  is  laid  and  becomes  cold,  tfee 
germ  remains  dormant  until  heat  is  applied,  when 
this  stimulus  rouses  tlie  sleeping  energy  to  vital 
action.  The  emhryn  is  dependent  on  an  exte-mal 
Hource  for  the  ■warmth  neceiwary  t"  its  full  develop- 
nn'^t.  In  other  word.'i,  all  vital  action  requires  a 
L't-rtain  amount  of  heat  for  its  due  f)erfonitanoe, 
iiiid  c-'in  couliiiue  only  within  a  certain  definite 
rnngo  of  U-miperalure,  witbin  the  limits  of  which 
it  is  cKcittMl  by  the  additional  application  of  the 
heat,  and  depressied  by  its  ah-Hraction,  This  is  no 
less  true  of  the  embryonic  life  within  the  incubat- 
ing egg,  than  it  is  with  the  ailult.  In  the  adult. 
heat  is  obtained  by  endowing  the  body  itself  with 
the  means  of  gem-rating  warmth,  and  this  heat 
generatt-d  within  the  body  is  subject  to  constant 
rL-gutation  through  the  i-qo^^' '^'^^R  powers  of  the 
animal  organism.  With  the  developing  embryo  in 
the  egg,  which  hiw  no  power  to  maintain  its  own 
tempemtan^  and  is  wholly  dependent  on  external 
influences  fur  its  develupment,  an  evvn  tempera- 
ture of  102"*  must  be  maintained  ^orthe  full  period 
of  incubation.  WithdonKHtic  hen  eggs,  this  ^veriod 
is  twenty-one  days  ;  with  duck  eggs,  twenty-eight 
days;  with  gee^'  eggs,  thirty-five  days.  Ctetrich 
eggs  r(H]«ire  the  longest  period  of  incubation,  vary- 
ing from  thirty-five  to  forty  days,  according  to  the 
species. 

The  nrifiin  of  Ihr  artifiria(  h^rtekins  "»f  birtTf  effga 
is  oliseiire.  We  have  aullientic  accounts  of  the 
Egyptian  methods  as  practiced  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Large  ovens,  or  mammals,  of  sun-dried  brick 
were  constructed.  These  were  made  large  enough 
for  the  nttendnnt  to  ent<*r  and  work  around  and 
handlf  the  eggs.  They  were  beateil  with  amudge 
fireH.  and  the  pn)()er  temperature  determined  by 
the  sense  of  touch. 

The  (lun^^se  were  among  the  first  to  practice  the 
art.  The  eggs  were  packer]  bi-twoun  layerw  of  por- 
ons  paper,  and  were  placed  for  the  first  few  days 
in  a  closed  clwet  or  bin.  where  they  were  heated 
with  a  charcoal  fire.  After  a  certain  degree  of 
devebi'pmeiit  of  the  chick  was  efltabliahetl,  the  ani- 
nia)  heat  generated  within  the  egg  was  utiltzed  to 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


648 


pig.  543.    tMatOu  indwi  biooder. 


efTert  tncubntinn.  Thtft  cliMt!  packing  mnAe  it  npc- 
easary  to  exjjofie  tha  BRfi"  t«  the  air  for  a  shorl 
liBriml  each  liay,  in  ordiT  to  Btipply  Buflii:ii'iit  oxy- 
gen to  camplcto  tho  doVLOopmt'nt  uf  thi'  embryo. 
A  day  or  two  before  excluaion,  the  eags  were 
unpacked  and  kid  on  chelvpn  between  layers  of 
porous  paper  cntil  they  lw(iiin  to  hatch,  wh^^n  the 
lop  layer  wan  rvnutvi^il.  This  rcKimA  in  wliich  the 
eggs  were  pliicecJ  were  ktpl  warm  by  uttliz-inj:;  the 
heat  of  the  mn ;  and  thu  turn  pi;  future  w<tfi  rt'^u- 
lated  by  tho  ufie  of  ehutterA.  Tho  art  was  thu.s 
praetieed  only  in  w»rm  climi^tes,  and  it»  ttuct.-e.-^sfijl 
performance  required  long  experience  ;  80  that  the 
trade  waa  usually  handed  down  from  father  tn8<m. 
MitffiTn  rtrtyirr'aJ  inculMiling  ami  hnHnHn;/  l»ear 
but  littlu  resemblance  to  tho  ancient  art,  Httlh  the 
En^liah  and  French  huilt  butt-hinR  ovfiiJi  heated 
by  coal  fires  about  1770 :  but  portable  incubators 

did  not  come 
irtu  existence, 
iw  far  lis  we 
rati  tell  by  the 
patent  otTiL-o 
recunls,  until 
184G.  It  was 
not  until  about 
1880  that  port- 
able hatching 
mru'liines  came 
inlu  popular 
uae.  In  tho 
eatit  thirty  years,  portable  artificial  hatcht-ra  have 
been  tho  iiubject  matter  for  a  great  many  patents. 
Varioas  contrivances  have  been  perfected  for  dif- 
fusing the  heat  in  the  hatching  chamber  so  that  all 
the  eggB  may  reciMve  the  Kanie  ilej^ree  of  heat ;  and 
various  regulating  devices  have  been  designed  for 
controlling  the  temiterature. 

Tlie  commercial  inculintor  (Fig.  &I2)  or  hatching 
miobine  has  an  incubating  chamber  with  hejivy 
walla  to  insulate  it  from  outward  changes  in  tem- 
perature. To  dilTuKe  the  hi'nt  evenly,  some  maim- 
fauturers  aae  a  cin-ulatien  of  hot  air,  while  othera 
lue  a  radiator  plikciMl  in  the  up^ier  purl  of  the  egg- 
chamber,  in  which  warm  water  circulate*.  The  air 
or  water  is  warmed  by  a  tumuli  oil  or  gait  heater 
Attached  to  the  side  of  the  incubator.  The  teniper- 
ntnre  in  the  egg-chamber  is  cfiiitrnllf*d  by  a  ther- 
mostat, whit'h  art^  on  leveret  nnd  valvet)  to  regulate 
the  height  of  the  lamp  i)r  g;is  lhimt>,  or  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  hented  air  into  the  incubating  cliamljLT, 
Thr  yaijiin  chirk.  After  the  c^hicks  are  hatched 
they  are  left  in  the  incubator  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
Rix  hours  to  dry  and  to  keep  warm.  The  baby  chick 
is  particiilnrly  aen.'fitive  to  the  slightest  draft.  It  ia 
thinly  clad,  haa  little  power  of  resistance,  and  can- 
not keep  up  its  temperature  in  a  eoul  room.  The 
power  of  reaiatance  increaaes  with  iUt  development. 
Within  the  egg,  while  the  embryo  is  developing,  it 
is  immersed  in  a  fluid,  and  breathes  in  like  manner 
to  a  fish,  by  means  of  an  outer  circulatory  system 
ca)le<l  the  allantois.  A  short  time  liefcire  the  chick 
is  excUiiEeil  from  the  shell,  the  lungs,  which  have 
previously  Ijyen  filleiJ  with  the  fluid,  begin  to  dry 
out,  and  the  chick  hait  a  double  circulation.   That  ia, 


it  heginn  tn  brcAthe  by  inhaling  the  air  contained 
in  the  i-gg  at  this  time  inLn  the  lungs,  while  the 
eireulatioH  in  the  alUntois  i;^  gnulually  dn'Teasing. 
As  the  chick  breaks  the  shell  tiie  circvulation  in  the 
allantoic  ceases,  and  then  it  depends  entirely  for 


:5:^ 


^nL 


n<.  344.    Inteilvr  rlrw  of  doublo  indcw  bnxidvr.  ratdr  fm 
bOTBi  eovei, 

thf)  aeration  of  the  blood  on  the  lungs.  The  change 
from  the  aquatic  Btate  to  the  aerial  Ktute  is  rapid, 
and  when  the  chick  is  first  excludn-d  from  the  shell 
the  vitality  is  low.  It  re»|uire8  a  few  days  befora 
the  cin'tilalion  hiis  be<iomf+  strong  enough  to  give 
the  chick  any  rnwisting  fonre. 

Biwxiing. 

To  help  the  chick  maintain  ita  t«mperalure  when 
it  is  artificially  reared,  not  only  is  it  necessary  that 
it  should  have  a  place  in  which  it  can  be  kept  warm 
by  <ifiy,  bnt  It  must  hnve  a  place  to  sleep  where 
the  temperature  is  within  u  few  degrees  of  the 
normal  blood  temperature.  For  this  purjKise,  an 
artificial  mother  ia  provided,  commonly  callwl  a 
brooder.  O^igs.  543,  544.)  This  i«  usually  divided 
into  three  compartments  ;  A  sleeping  eomportnietit 
or  hover ;  a  nursery  in  which  the  hover  is  placed 
and  where  the  chicks  are  fed  and  confined  for  the 
first  week  ;  and  a  temperate  exercising  room.  For 
the  first  week  the  hover  lemjierature  is  itept  at  95^* 
to  100°,  and  the  nursery  temperature  at  80"  to  86°. 
This  high  temperature  enahlt's  tho  newly  hatched 
chick  to  keep  up  ita  normiil  temperature  until  ita 


Pit-  5*s.    Intetlof  et  breodiiw  bouM,  abowiDi  !olcbt-viw) 
bol-watcT  •ystem. 

vital  forces  are  eufficU-ntly  developed  to  enable  it 
to  withstand  acoldur  temperature.  After  the  chick 
ia  six  or  seven  days  old.  it  is  given  a  little  more 
freedom,  a  little  more  exerci.sing  room,  a  little 
colder  air  to  breathe.  In  this  manner  it  is  grad- 
ually hardened  until  it  can  maintain  its  own  tem- 
fierature  in  the  outer  atmosphere.  For  atime  after 
the  chick  U  lirst  let  out  of  tho  brooder,  the  temper- 
ature of  the  nursery  and  hover  is  kept  up,  so  that 
ahoald  the  chick  feel  chilly  it  may  run  to  the  hover 
for  warmth.   Becauw  of  the  liability  of  the  chick 


644 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


to  Iwcome  chilled  if  it  ntray^  too  far  from  the 
brooder,  it  is  iMinfitu'd  l«  a  apacw  near  the  broiKler 
for  a  wc-uk  or  two.  ami,  in  tlm  early  apriiiK,  when 
the  weather  is  still  chitly  and  damp,  for  a  longer 
period. 

For  brooding  during  the  coid  winter  munths, 
lar^e  hmiflM  are  cunstnictpd.  heated  with  hot- 
wuLtT  [lipea.  (Fig.  MIi.)  This  hv'ating  My»t<<ni  is 
controlled  hyan  electric  reRitlaturHo  that  the  tem- 


WA. 


HV? 


jiii^ 


^ 


Fie.  S4G.    A  Bfty-looE  nuiMty  brondet.  C4[>icitr  2. 500  cblcks. 

Eerature  varies  but  a  (uw  d^gr^icH.    A  larj;:©  colony 
rood'.-r  that  has  been  in  operation  is  indicated  In 
Fijt.  546. 

.  When  uroffinE  broilers  in  tho  winter,  the  chicks 
are  confinei)  to  a  bfimling  houHe  until  they  weigh 
one  ty  two  pounds  li^-fore  killinji,  accmiinj;  to  the 
aeasoD  and  market  demands.  In  growini;  winter 
roasting  chickens,  the  cickerylB  are  caponizcii  at 
abont  two  pounds  in  weight,  after  which  they  are 
remov&d  to  colder  houses  and  grown  to  large  siw. 
In  growing  laying  birds  for  egg-production,  the 
birdH  arc  UDually  hatched  in  the  Jate  winter  and 
early  spring  monthx.  When  about  twelve  weeks 
old  they  are  pla<?t'd  out  on  grass  nins  in  small  col- 
ony housea  flCftttcTod  over  the  fields-  Here  the  birds 
get  plenty  of  inaect  life  and  green  foijd.  and  with 
the  treah  air  and  ex^erciao  develop  strong,  vigorous 
conatitntion-s  that  will  withstand  the  strain  nf 
heavy  egg-production, 

Literaturt. 

The  literature  on  this  subject  is  meager.  For 
references,  aee  page  5^7. 

Preparing  and  Marketing  Poultry  Proiucta,  and 
the  Care  of  Eggs.    FigH.  &47-r5Si. 

By  1).  J.  UmUrt 

Poultry  designed  for  market,  if  well  fed  and 
oar«d  for  from  the  »hell,  will  take  un  I1e»h  rap- 
Idly  when  cooped  and  given  extra  feed  for  two 
VMks  pKTiouB  to  killing.  An  abundance  of  fat  ia 
Bot  80  deairabld  aa  a  plump.  welUrounded  carcaaa 


nt  fine-grained,  aaft,  tender  meat  of  aupisrior  laUe 

i]iiatiLy. 

Chickens   of    thd  lutmo  age  ahonld   bo  coojied 
together,  four  or  six  in  each  pen.    Coops  Hhnuld 
be  slatted  two  inches  apart  to  allow  plenty  nf  air. 
The  bottom  statR  may  b<>  ime-half  inch  apart.    The 
coopH  shniild  twt  up  oir  the  ground  in  a  dry,  sbel-j 
tere<l    plac^.    The   finxl  should    be  LH)ual    parta  of 
wheat  bran,  corn  meal  and  ground  oat«.  cooked  or' 
scalded,  or  corn  bread,  wheat  bread  and  milk.    All 
that  will  be  eaten  three  times  a  day  should  lie  fed. 
in  troughs  placed  directly  in  fmnt  of  the  slatted' 
pens.   Clean,  cool  water  Hhoald  be  kept  conHtantlyj 
before  the  fnwU.    No  oniotiH  or  nieal  fiKid  tthnulal 
be   given   during   this  sjjecial    preparation.     Uni- 
formity of  size  \a  secured  by  scdecting  IhoAu  of 
the  same  breed  and  age. 

Young  chickens,  weighing  one  to  one  and  ooe- 
half  pounds  each,  are  termed  sq nab- broilers,  and 
bring  U-nt  pricc.i  in  January.  As  the  »eiuu>n  ad- 
vancei4,  the  pricei^  decline,  and  then  the  demand 
ia  fortw(>-lii  lwu-and-on4.^httIf  [louinl  chickens;] 
theae  are  called  cluli-hou.se  or  Philadelphia  broilcn. 
Later  and  larger  market  chickens,  weighing  three 
to  three  and  one-half  [inunds  each,  are  jwild  as 
fryers  at  a  still  lower  price.  Rnaatew,  ranging 
fnim  four  pounds  each  U])warda,  are  in  constant 
demand,  (.'apona  at  the  age  of  eight  or  ten  munths 
usually  are  ready  for  market,  and  weigh  eight  to 
twelve  pounds  each,  aceoniing  to  tho  breed.  Fowls] 
aro  hens  one  year  old  and  over.  Old  males  are 
cinased  as  atags  or  roosters  ;  they  are  invariably 
hard  in  ttesh  and  bring  the  lowetrt  prices  of  any 
market  poultry. 

Ynung  dnckK  shnuld  lie  sent  to  market  when  ten 
or  twelve  weeks  <jld.  They  are  rapid  growers,  andl 
by  that  age  will  be  nearly  matured  and  in  prima 
condition,  if  well  fed  and  not  allowed  water  for 
swimming.  Green  gee«e  (goslings  ten  or  twelve 
weeks  of  age)  are  marketable  at  higheBt  prices.  A 
large  goose  will  al.to  sell  well  in  Novemlier  and 
Hecemlwr.  Gee-fie  are  good  foragi^rs,  subKistin|r| 
mainly  on  grjLss  and  green  food,  but  will  ne«a 
Hliccial  grain  nitiuns  for  a  month  before  marketing. 
Turkeys  command  twat  prices  at  Thanksgiving 
time.  A  feed  of  whole  corn  at  evening  when  tbejr 
come  home  to  roust  will  fatten  them  rapidly. 
Turkt-ys  worry  in  continement  and  should  not  be 
cooped  longer  than  \s  necessary. 

Mtthod*  <if  preparation. 

Coop  twenty-four  houn*  previous  to  killing; 
give  plenty  of  water  tti  drink,  bat  no  food.  This 
will  cause'the  crop  to  he  empty.  Nearly  all  mar-i 
ket  poultry  ia  now  sold  with  the  head  on  and<' 
undrawn,  although  some  states  have  laws  that  it 
must  be  drawn  before  being  offered  for  aate.  The 
fast  will  cause  it  to  look  and  keep  b«tt«r  In  tha 
shambles. 

There  are  several  methods  of  killing  and  pick- 
ing. The  mo:4t  popular  is  to  hung  the  bird  by  the 
feet  by  a  stout  cord  suspended  from  a  hook  orer- , 
head.  (Fig.  W7.)  It  ia  well  to  have  a  large  voodea, ' 
button  on  the  end  of  the  cord  so  that  with  one 
twist  around  the  shanks  of  the  fowl  it  can  be  fa^t* 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


546 


FiE.  i47. 
Fowl  HspCDled  for  plckiat>. 


ened  qnickly.  After  liwkinR  tha  wings,  by  pulling 
one  over  the  otht^r,  over  the  back,  stun  by  a  blow 
on  the  top  of  thu  head  with  a  billu^  of  hard  wood ; 
then  immediately  draw  a  sharp  knife  ucroas  the 
roof  of  the  maath,  deep  enough  tn  pierce  the  brain. 
(Jrasp  the  wingH  as  soon  ns  poasihle,  anil,  when  the 

bIcMx]  be};in»ti)  Bow 
freely,  bL>pti  i)ick- 
ing,  slartin};  with 
thei  breast,  which  is 
the  Tnnst  importjint 
part  uf  mn  rknt 
pnultry  and  Rhuutd 
not  be  torn.  I)<inol 
atLempt  to  pull  out 
many  fculhors  at 
once ;  a  few  each 
time  in  rapid  suc- 
ceasion  will  clean 
the  bi  rit  wh  i1 » 
warm.  Ono  of  tiio 
barrels  underneath 
18  fur  o  [f  a  I  and 
coarBo  feathers,  and 
the  other  for  the 
anft  feathem.  As 
HirH>n  aH  the  bini 
ceaaes  to  atruKgle.  both  hands  can  tie  used  in  piek- 
inti.  A  dull  knife  for  removing  pin-feathera  tthuuld 
be  kept  handy.  All  kinds  of  poultry,  except  ca- 
ponii,  are  picked  clean,  except  the  wing  tii>e  and 
neck  for  about  two  inches  from  the  head.  With 
capons,  the  feathers  are  left  on  the  head,  wings, 
tail,  and  on  about  two  inchpH  of  the  lowar  jmrt  of 
the  thighi*  just  above  the  ahanks. 

When  the  head  is  to  be  removed  before  market- 
ing, the  bird  need  not  be  atunned,  but  may  be 
qoickly  kilted  by  insertinK  a  aharp  knifo  near  the 
throat  jnst  back  of  the  ear^,  turning  the  sharp 
edge  over  against  and  breaking  or  dividing  the 
first  joint  of  the  neck.  Thia  wmses  profuse  bleed- 
ing. The  bird  immediately  Iohoh  cunsciouanesa  and 
looHens  its  feath> 
era.  Thia  \8  (wr- 
haps  the  moat  hu- 
mane method. 

If  the  operator 
prefers  Uy  sit  while 
picking,  A  Lnrge  box 
is  provided  with  ila 
upper  KiiiifH  on  a 
level  with  hisknoea. 
First  stun  th«  bird 
by  a  sharp  blow 
again:*!  a  poet  or  a 
very  hjird  surface. 
Then  hold  the  bird 
under  the  left  arm 
with  its  head  in  the 
left  hand  and  the 
knife  in  the  right. 
Open  the  mouth  and  cut  deep  across  the  roof,  going 
well  up  into  the  brain.  As  aoon  a«  profnsc  bleeding 
is  started,  graap  the  bin]  by  the  BUnks  in  the  left 
band,  lay  the  breast  tip  acroM  the  luees,  the  head 

C36 


JM.    PMiOOD  for  pIcUAic  *  fowl 
In  a  kittini  ipMtiu*. 


Iieing  held  between  the  knee  and  the  box  {Tig. 
&4H),  and  jiluek  as  rajiidly  as  posBiblo  with  tho 
right  hand.  While  this  method  allows  a  sitting 
pofiture.  the  picker  has  only  one  hand  free  to  work 
with,  as  be  holds  the  bird  with  the  other. 

The  cleanp^it  and  [nerhaps  the  least  dillicult  way 
Ut  kill  a  chicken  or  fowl  in  aa  folbvwa :  Orasp  tha 
bird  by  Ihf  i^lijinks  wiLli  the  left  hand  and  llm  head 
with  the  right  hand,  with  the  thumb  and  the  fore- 
finger just  back  of  thL>  hc-ad.  the  iiecond  finger 
being  bent  aronnd  so  that  its  point  comes  directly 
under  the  bird's  lower  mandible.  Straighten  your- 
self up  so  as  to  give  a  steady  vigorous  pull  with 
[K)th  hands  until  the  ni*c;k  is  iii)!lcx;al<M).  The  bird 
will  be  easy  to  pick  and  all  blood  will  culluct  in 
the  broken  part  of  the  neck. 

In  some  instances,  whcin  poultry  is  sold  to  a 
home  trade,  it  is  scalded  before  picking.  The 
kettle  or  boiler  in  which  the  scalding  is  to  be 
Hone  should  be  large  enough  to  contain  thn  entire 
body  at  once.  The  water  should  Iw  at  or  near  the 
boiling  point.  The  head  and  shanks  should  not 
touch  tile  hot  water  nnlL-ss  they  are  to  be  re- 
moved before  marketinK.  for  they 
would  then  present  an  unsightly 
appearance,  .^fter  the  bird  has 
finished  strnggling,  take  it  by  the 
feet  in  one  hand,  the  head  in 
the  other,  and  submerge  it  in  the 
hot  water,  drawing  it  backward 
throngh  the  water  two  or  three 
times ;  then  remove  and  place  on 
a  table  and  pick  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
eibie.  lieing  careful  not  to  bruise 
the  skin.  As  soon  as  the  bird  is 
[)ick(?d  clean  it  may  be  plumpetl  by 
submerging  again  for  five  or  six 
seconds  in  the  hot  water,  and  then 
put  in  iced  or  cold  water  and  left 
there  until  thoroughly  ctw\. 

Dry  picking  is  preferable,  because  the  stock 
thus  dresaed  will  keep  better,  look  nicer  and  bring 
he»i  pricett.  The  methods  of  killing  apply  to  all 
kinds  of  poultry,  although  the  bliKKlless  method 
would  be  8  diflicnlt  task  with  geese  or  turkeys 
and  should  not  be  attempted  with  them. 

In  cold  weather,  after  picking  and  washing  feet 
and  heads,  the  binls  can  lie  bung  in  a  clean  cool 
place  ami  kept  from  freexing  until  shipped.  In 
wurm  weather  they  should  first  be  soaked  In  iced 
or  very  cold  running  spring-water  to  remove 
all  animal  heat.  This  plumps  them  somewhat,  also, 
and  they  can  be  quickly  washc-d  ami  dried  a  few 
hours  before  shipping.  If  put  in  V-ehapod  troughs 
and  weighted,  they  are  given  a  plumper  and  more 
compact  appearance  than  when  they  are  hung  by 
the  shanks. 

Shippinjf  and  marketing. 

Each  bird  should  be  wrapped  in  waxed  paper, 
and  in  vcrv  warm  weather  packed  with  ice.  The 
boxes  for  shipping  may  be  of  various  siies.os  long 
08  they  are  large  enough  to  contain  a  doien  or  more 
birds,  and  not  too  large  to  be  easily  bandied.  Pack 
in  two  rows,  with  the  heads  towards  the  middle  of 


Tit.  w. 
A  ptttck«d  capos. 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Fl£.  S». 
Kvmoitth  Reek 


the  box.  Two  or  thr^  layers  cao  ha  put  in  a  box. 
provided  ice  is  packfid  between  each  two  iayan  in 
hot  weather.  Put  ice  on  top  of  the  birds,  and  coTor 
the  hnxt'fi  with  burlap.  The  b^Rt  soft  roaaters  are 
often  fihipped  in  Kin^iu  layor  caiws. 

Tho  quickeat  way  to  diHfWffic-  of  this 
product  is  to  ship  to  some  reliable 
conimi^ion  houi^e.  If  tho  stock  \? 
choice,  nut  torn,  clesui  picked  and 
carefully  gr;ide<l,  the  commisntnn- 
hotiiie  will  allow  fall  wholc^iittlA  market 
valuK,  JKan  Kxpreiw  charijw!  and  c«Tn- 
niiHsion.  Tho  cases  wht-n  shippi-d 
i^hould  bo  plainly  mArkt.-(j  for  whom, 
frwm  whom,  thu*  nuinlx'^r  of  birds,  the 
weight  and  the  kind.  The  same  (tyo- 
temof  packing  and  marketinfj  should 
be  iiHwJ  when  shipping  to  dealers  or 
rutailers.  In  addition,  thi^  clatw  of 
Iradw  nhuuld  first  Im  visited,  written 
or  totuphonud  to,  and  a  bar^ruin  niadc 
as  to  the  ntinibur  and  sixo  wanted,  and  the  pricet* 
to  be  paid  for  them.  I'robably  the  most  profitaLile 
trade  is  to  aell  to  the  coimumerfl  tht-mHe-lvHs.  when 
the  distance  ia  not  too  great,  althuugh  Ntmetinit)^ 
the  HxpreSiSeH  will  deliver  for  leaii  than  can  ib«) 
producer. 

Ftatherg,  when  dry  picked  and  sorted  so  as  to 
keep  the  .'<ti)f  from  thi3  »oft,  and  tho  white  from  the 
colored,  have  a  market  value  worth  considering. 
All  colors  of  soft  chicken  feather*  bring  -lA  to  10 
centA  per  pound,  and  pure  white  bring  20  centn 
per  pound.  Ouck  feathers  bring  83  to  4^  cents  per 
pound,  goosy  feathers  42  to  (10  cents  per  pound, 
goo8(i  quillfl  ITi  cents  per  pound.  l>ong,  bright- 
colored  chicken  feathers  are  sold  for  millinery  pur- 
poaeaat  abcHitJI  per  pound,  Theetifftorkey  feath- 
ers are  in  erani  demand  for  feather  duttter^  and  the 
like,  reatberii  are  cured  in  i^ackK  of  thiu  material 
exposed  to  the  «un  and  air  for  several  days.  They 
can  be  sold  and  shipped  in  these  original  sacks. 

Care  tf  egga. 

Eggs  for  market  will  keep  better  from  flpoillirg 
if  not  fertiliwd.  Those  from  mated  pens  should  be 
kept  fn>m  warmth  and  h»«it  over  60  de(;re»!K.  Thu 
laying  ne«ta  sh^mid  be  well  supplied  with  dry  saw- 
dust or  some  cli-an  absorbent.  The  egga  that  k- 
comu  soiled  should  bL'  wipc-d  with  adamp  cloth  and 
never  submerged  in  water  if  they  are  to  be  kept 
more  than  one  week.  Tho  natural  color  of  the  shell 
in  not  indicative  of  the  quality  of  the  contents, 
although  the  preferencea  of  the  market  nhould  be 
catered  to,  If  one  wishes  to  soriire  best  prices. 
Brown-fihuUeii  eggs  are  usually  briber  than  white- 
ahollcd  ones,  bijeauKO  all  the  larger  breeds  except 
one  lay  brown  eggs,  or  those  from  a  delicate  pink 
to  a  light  chocolate.  The  color  of  the  yolk  is  con- 
trolled by  feeding  green  foods  rich  in  ash  and  pro- 
tein. Rggs  are  [iciroiis  and  susceptible  to  tnint  from 
bad  o<lora.  Care  mu^t  he  taken  tu  ke@p  them  in 
clean,  cool  pbices.  Marking  the  shells  in  any  way 
is  not  deflirablc.  (Wttins  holding  one  doxen  eggs 
can  bo  parchaWKt  from  paper  dealers.  These  have 
B|iecia]ly  printed  covers,  "One  Drwen  Freeh  Eggs," 


etc.,  and  can  be  uMstl  several  timee  if  doAired. 
Cases  holding  fifteen  or  thirty  dozen  each,  for 
shipping  to  the  trade,  are  popular  auw«.  (Fig.  hoi.) 
Deliveries  and  itbipments  should  be  inide  eacD  week; 
if  a  private  trade,  on  the  same  day  of  each  week. 
There  are  wire  fillers  for  the*  cartons  that  display 
the  eggs  very  attractively,  but  require  more  tinia 
in  placing  the  eggi  and  removing  them  from  tha 
trays.  With  the  straw-board  fillers,  each  egg  ia  in 
a  rie]>arate  compartment,  and  there  i.<  little  danger 
of  breakage.  If  one  lM>conies  cracked,  the  leakage 
is  usually  confiatMl  to  the  one  conipartuienL 

The  prices  fluctuate  during  the  dilferent  Maaona* 
highest  prices  being  reached  just  previous  to 
Thanksgiving  time,  and  continuing  until  the  lutt«;r 
part  of  January.  The  price  then  gnulually  declines 
until  the  latter  part  of  March  or  lirst  [art  of  April, 
wht^n  lowest  ebb  iei  reached.  T)y  June  1  the  market 
recovers,  and  the  price  gradually  tncreaeea  until 
November.  Thh  weather  at  time«  may  affect  prices. 
It  is  during  these  low-price  periods  that  the  surplus 
is  bought  up  for  cold  storage  or  for  the  different 
methods  of  preservation.  Those  intended  for  cold 
storage  must  heatwolutely  fresh,  frv^e  from  dirt  and 
packed  in  standard  size  thirty-dozen  cases  and  the 
fillers  must  !w  free  from  mold,  dirt  or  odors  of  any 
kind,  Cold-storage  plant?!  begin  operations  as  siKin 
as  the  lowest  price^s  are  reached,  about  April  1.  and 
continue  until  the  latter  part  of  May.  Oaring  warm 
weather  the  quality  of  eggs  deteriorates  and  they 
do  not  keep  no  well  as  when  cooler.  The  market 
for  thi;^  cold-iitorage  guodft  opemi  in  the  fall  and 
continues  until  rhrtstmaa. 

Eggs  should  be  gathered  every  day,  and  all 
broody  hens  rcmoviv]  from  the  house.  If  a  nest  is 
found  in  an  unusual  place,  the  eggs  should  be  tested 
with  a  lighter  before  selling. 

PrtMrviiig  njfff. — There  are  several  methods  of 
preserving  eggtt  during  the  i>erio>rl  of  low  ]HioeB  and 
keeping  them  wholesome  nntil  they  will  bring 
higher  prices,  but  none  by  which  they  can  be  kept 
any  length  of  time  and  sold  as  fresh-laid  onoL 
The  shells  may  be  covered 
with  meltwi  paraffin  or  vafle- 
line  to  previint  tv-iporation, 
and  they  will  not  spoil  so 
long  aa  they  are  kept  c<x>I 
and  turned  every  few  days. 
Packing  in  common  aalt  and 
turning  occasionally  is  an- 
other method.  The  contenta 
remain  sweet  and  whole- 
some, but  the  albumen  will 
not  beat  up  as  it  will  in 
fresh-laid  onev.  The  ahetl  will  low  it«  fre^ncea 
and  the  eggs  will  not  remain  good  long  after  being 
taken  out  of  the  pnwervativefl,  and  they  ahoold  be 
deKignalud  as  jtreflervei]  eggii  when  offered  for  Kale. 

The  best  method  nf  preservation  is  as  followa: 
One  part  of  water-glass  (sodium  silicatel  mixed 
with  nine  parta  of  boiled  spring  water.  Pat  tba 
^S&  in  3  stoneware  crock  when  gathered  from  the 
nests,  if  cool  and  clean,  until  the  crock  i«  nearly 
full :  then  pour  in  the  water-glAAt  solution  nntlt 
there  ia  at  leaat  two  inchea  of  liquid  over  the  top 


j;7   DOZ 
FKESHEGGS 


Pl«.  551. 
Cues  fa  CKZ  iJUmtnc. 


PsTtrldKB  Cochin  hen 


Rbode  blaad  Red  he& 


WDite  Vyasdotu  oook 


WlUto  Rock  nee 


DJlTk  Biahma  nrn 


Uxkt  Biabnu  cock 


PUts  XUC.    PnanlBeiit  breeds  ol  lowla 


POULTRY 


547 


l^yw  of  tgsa.   Kwp  in  a  cool  place.   If  carefaUy 
d<me,  this  method  »  reliable. 

Another  succeasful  methiTKl  is  lo  slake  two  pounclit 
of  good  lump  lime,  and  while  hot  add  one  pimnd  ti( 
common  salt.  After  cooling,  n^ld  ten  iiuartii  of 
boiled  ^ring  watvr  and  xtir  tliuruu^hly  ttuVL-rul 
tinta  the  first  d&y.  Then  let  it  suttle,  usiriK  only 
the  clear  li<^uic),  which  may  bi'  poured  over  the 
eggs  after  they  have  het.-n  placL*d  in  a  stoneware 
crock  :  or  the  linnid  can  first  he  put  in  the  cn»ck 
and  the  ecipi  put  in  that,  day  liy  il:iy,  when 
gathered.  The  eggs  mast  always  be  two  inches 
beluw  sarface.  More  of  the  wilution  can  be  put  in 
when  necewtary.  Stc>reware  veswelx  are  the  most 
desirable  ones  for  keeping  those  mixtures  in. 

Eggs  are  sometimes  removed  from  the  shellK, 
canoed  and  kept  in  cold  storage  or  frozen,  and  Aold 
to  large  consnmers.  The  most  wholejinnie  metha<l 
is  evaporation.  The  pgg  ia  thf  n  rwiiicwl  Ui  [luwder 
that  will  keep  any  lyngth  of  linK\  in  any  climate, 
and  can  be  carried  to  piaci.''*  wliL>re  poultry -keep- 
ing is  out  of  thL-  ((uestion,  and  where  nil  eatables 
carrii-d  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  weight. 

The  market  prices!  of  all  kinds  of  poultry  prod- 
ucts are  affected  by  the  supply  and  the  demand. 
During  the  fall  and  winter,  the  Kurplus  fowls  and 
summer  chickens  are  diiiposid  uf  and  there  is  an 
abundance  of  table  j>oultry  otFerod  for  sale.  The 
lowftit  prices  of  the  year  then  prevajl  until  the 
bulk  of  the  supply  is  gone.  By  April,  the  chickens 
batched  in  the  previou-s  s]>ring  and  i^iimmer  Iwcome 
hard  and  tough  in  tli'^^h  luid  have  to  lit;  wjld  a» 
fowJH.  while  thcKK  hatcheil  during  the  previous 
fall,  of  either  jtex,  if  kept  neparale  during  the 
wint«r,  will  be  soft  and  tender  and  bring  roaster 
prices,  which  are  the  highent  in  the  spring. 

The  nia,rket  for  fowis  \s  uniform  the  year  rounti, 
except  for  a  rise  of  perhaps  two  centa  per  pound 
during  the  spring  when  all  hens  are  laying  and 
but  few  are  being  marketed.  The  annual  molting 
period,  July  to  November  inclusive,  affects  the 
supply  of  eggs,  as  does  the  winter  weather  in  any 
cold  climate,  and  prices  rule  accordingly.  When 
fresh  killed  poultry  and  fre-ih  eggs  are  sK^arce  and 
prices  high,  cold  storage  pnxtucts  and  preserved 
eggui  are  in  demand  ,  hut  never  does  the  held-over 
product  sell  at  prices  equal  to  that  of  recently 
killed  poultry  and  fre.-<h  eggs. 

The  regular  market  reports  of  prices  are  usually 
reliable  when  applied  to  the  average  cjuality  of 
poultry  prfMltict-s  y^jt  a  superior  4[uality  of  eitlier 
dreaned  poultry  or  egga  will  nell  in  advance  of  any 
current  published  quotations  and  a  good  market 
is  never  overstocked  with  this  class  of  goods. 
The  retail  price  is  usually  5  cents  i>er  pound  above 
the  wholesale  price  for  poultry,  and  r>  cents  per 
dozen  for  eggs.  Consntners  who  dwiire  the  best 
will  pay  B  premium  of  10  cents  jier  dozen  on  eggs 
and  10  cents  per  pound  for  poultry  that  they 
know  16  brought  to  them  direct  from  the  farm. 
This  particular  tra<3e  oft^n  comes  from  clubs, 
hotels,  hospitals  and  high-clas.i  resorta. 

Literature. 
For  references,  see  page  527. 


Judging  Poultry.    Figa.  552-554. 
By   T.  K  Orr. 

Prior  to  the  year  1873,  there  wa«  but  little  uni- 
formity or  system  in  the  methods  of  judging  fowls 
at  shows.  Indued,  until  nearly  as  late  a  date  as  the 
one  mentioned,  there  were  few  poultry  shows  to  be 
judged.  These  were  nearly  all  held  in  the  autuniD 
in  connection  with  some  agricultural  fair,  and  were 
largely  tn  .^ew  York  and  New  iingland. 

In  February,  1S73,  and  again  in  December,  1873, 
a  few  of  the  leading  fanciers  met  in  Buffalo,  New 
York,  and  in  these  two  meetings  organized  the 
.\merican  Poultry  Association.  The  main  purpose 
of  this  organization  was  to  disseminate  a  more 
accurate  knowledge  of  pure-bred  fowls,  and  m  to 
describe  their  charoctcri8tic-a  of  form  and  feather 
that  a  better  system  of  breeding  and  judging  them 
might  result.  Two  meetings  were  held  in  IH74  and 
in  1S76.  By  this  time  the  real  scope  of  the  work 
had  become  manifest,  and  specific  work  was  being 
accomplished.  From  the  first  it  wasrealiaed  that  a 
definite  de-scription  of  both  sexes  of  each  variety, 
section  by  ."Section,  both  in  shape  and  color,  was 
an  nluiolute  e-ssenlial,  and  these  descriptions  were 
speedily  formulated  and  tabulated,  and  then  printed 
in  a  book  called  The  ^Standard. 

tVom  that  time  to  the  present  the  work  of  the 
American  Poultry  .Association  has  not  greatly 
varied.  The  publication  of  Standards  and  the  edu- 
cation of  breeders  and  juflgi'S  to  uniformity,  has 
been  its  chief  work.  Of  course,  in  thone  early  days 
there  were  not  nearly  so  many  varieties  to  describe 
or  judge,  so  the  work  wa,s  much  less  comprehensive 
than  at  pre.tent,  C-ocbins  and  Hrahmas,  (iames  and 
Hiimhnrgs,  I/eghoms  and  I'i>liHh  were  the  leading 
claHa«9i  seen  at  shows.  Some  Workings  and  Spanish 
fowla  Were  seen.  Barred  Plymouth  Rocka  were 
beginning  to  be  heani  from.  Wyandottes,  I^ng- 
shans  and  many  ]iiU.-r  additions  to  the  Standard 
family  were  then  unknown.  Soon  a  multiplicity 
of  varieties  were  knocking  for  admission  to  the 
Standard,  and  still  it  continues,  although  in  the 
intervening  years  %  hundred  types  have  secured 
admission. 

The  Standard,  with  its  detailed  descriptions,  wu 
no  Sfioner  out  than  the  Association  deemed  it  its 
duty  tn  ]>ut  restrictions  on  th<jse  who  should  inter- 
pret the  Htamlnrd  by  judging  fowls  at  public  exhi- 
iiitii>n».  Some  members  of  the  Association  excelled 
as  fanciers  of  some  brweds,  and  some  of  others  ;  so 
a  committee  was  appoinli-d  to  examine  candidates 
and  license  judges.  There  arc  those  still  living 
who  h»3d  licenses  as  Specialty  Judges  and  as  Gen- 
eral Jndge.t.  .And  now  again,  the  practice  of  licens- 
ing judges,  abandonefl  thirty  yeara  ago,  was 
renewed  in  1907. 

Mfiho^a  of  jy^ffirtff. 

There  are  Iwn  distinct  and  well-known  methods 
of  arriving  at  a  decision  in  placing  awards*.  One 
is  by  compariflf»n ;  the  other  is  by  the  use  of  the 
score-c^rii.  Kai^h  methiHl  dejieniis  im  an  accurate 
knowledge  and  a  correct  interpretation  of  the 
Standard.   Each  has  its  advantages  and  ita  advo- 


648 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


cates.  Some  p«raon«  are  hittorly  opptwcH  to  nne 
method,  i^oniG  to  the  othor.  Tliia  anould  noi  he. 
They  really  stand  on  tHo  samo  foundation.  Ono 
method,  the  compiiriflon,  depends  on  an  accurato 
knowledpft  of  the  other,  the  score-card,  for  its  o!e- 
muntary  iirincipLat>.  Hiflh  methmlR,  when  accorately 
and  int«UiKuntiy  aipplied,  shuuld  reach  exactly  the 
same  results  wh«n  jmlginp  any  claaa,  or  combina- 
tion of  classes,  at  a  ^iven  t^how. 

Coiaparisoa  judging.. — This   is  undoubtedly  the 

older  method.    It  has  been  eniployed  in  Bngknd 

.  from  tho  inception  of  their  now 

3.        ^  faraoUB   exhiliitions.     It   pre- 

vailod  in  America  exclusively 

until    the  Sb»ndiinl    and    the 

senre-card   methi)tl   were  pn>- 

m u  1  (;a te d    tiy    tho   Anieriunn 

Poultry  Aaaocintion,    It  in  the 

method  followed  today  in  all 

sommer  and    fall   ehows,   for 

nntil    fowls  have  recovered 


e 


7  6 


/» 


16 


U' 


'i3 


-26 


-25 

26 


rif.SSZ.  Stnleteaofeoctt.  UCnnlnm:  3,  ofmnm  Int«rarblUl«i 
S,  bMkt  4>  iDJi^ilililvi  i>,  i^crTii'nt  v«rtA>>TMai  B,  KCkpnta:  7. 
UunenHi  8,  ratl.iuK:  9.  uUiu:  lU,  inaUrkniiil  bo-ar;  11. 
IhuDib"  bonc^i  12,  "mlildtn"  HnBrri  13,  "ihlrJ  "  dns^r 
(rii<tIniAiilary}i  14,  fiircuU,  tork  boo.*  or  "  vrUh-bonc  ": 
IS.  i-iirATold  Wiic:  16.  *temu[o:  IT.  onat  wr  lte«l  ot  ■tvr- 
Diiin;  IK,  rllinr  lU.tMilTla:  20, cAiidkl  Tfrlpbmi  21.  r«mnri 
32.  pMelln;  £1,  ilMn.'  24.  Hbnln;  2A,  moUliinii*;  SB.  iiiar; 
27,  hinii   Uw  wilh   iwif  JnlnU;    38,  iunur  to*  wilh   llire* 

JninUi  'Si,  mlitflU  ton  trlih  four  Joliili:  30,  a\iter  to«  wlUi 
ivajolaU.  (After  ElliDtietcer.] 

from  their  annual  molt,  and  until  chicks  have  be- 
came mature  in  form,  size  and  feather,  the  t«core- 
c&rd,  accurately  applied,  would  ahow  Ruch  low 
scores  that  exhihitore  could  not  be  induced  to  come 
forward  with  their  hird*. 

Formerly  all  entries  were  made  in  pairri,  a  cock 
and  a  hen,  or  a  cwkeret  nnd  a  pullet  conHtituting  a 
pair.  This  method  ntill  prevails  in  some  fall  shows 
or  in  out-of-the-way  places.   It  cannot  bo  dlacon- 


tinijed  ton  nonn.  A  poor,  or  even  a  disqcatiliet! 
HjiectmL'n  may  chance  to  be  mateil  with  the  choicest 
bird  of  the  op))utiite  Hex  in  the  class,  but  the  hand- 
icap is  so  heavy  that  the  "  best  bird  "  wins  nothiniif. 
Single  entries,  single  and  uniform  cooping,  and  the 
entries  so  classified  that  all  cocks  of  the  same 
variety  shall  he  adjacent  to  each  other,  likewise  the 
henn.  cockerels  and  pullets. — this  is  the  only  method 
that  permits  a  judge  to  do  hiii  bent  work  by  this 
method.  The  biniij  l>eing  all  in  their  places,  each 
coop  bearing  a  distinct  coup  number,  then,  and  not 
until  then,  is  tht-  judge  ready  to  take  his  first  look 
at  the  competitors. 

Suppose  the  judge  finds  twenty  cock  birds  in  the 
first  ciaiw.  It  will  take  him  hnt  aminate  or  two  to 
poHA  up  :ind  dnwn  iH'fnre  them  and  m»rk  on  his 
memurun<ium  ten  birds  that  he  thinks  ure  "ncit  in 
it."  But  he  muat  not  pass  them  wholly  by  with 
this  hurried  glnnco.  The  exhibitors  have  all  paid 
tho  same  entry  fee.  Each  one  is  entitled  to  atten- 
tion, The  judge  may  find,  indeed  often  does  find, 
that  one  of  those  cwks  that  he  condemned  so 
quickly,  on  cbiser  esaminatiiin,  is  found  to  be  pos- 
sessed uf  iguality  not  seen  at  fii'st,  that  puts  hini  in 
the  "upper  ten,"  rather  than  in  the  list  of  "shat- 
outa,"  It  is  the  safe  thing  for  tho  judge  to  handio 
every  bird.  A  group  of  exhibitors  at  the  end  of 
the  aisle  or  up  in  the  gallery,  e-ach  anxious  about 
his  entry,  mny  devebtp  among  themaelven  some 
jealousy  if  their  birds  are  not  even  handled.  On 
the  ttther  hand,  if  they  see  the  judge  going  over 
and  around  and  through  each  bird  thoroughiy,  they 
will  at  least  give  him  credit  for  trying  to  earn  bis 
money. 

We  cannot  too  strongly  condiemn  the  practice  of 
marking  the  coops  with  the  judge's  private  hiero- 
glyphics. It  is  Iwtter  for  the  judge  to  keep  a  pri- 
vate judging  card  on  which  he  enters  the  coop 
number  of  eiLch  bird  in  tho  class ;  then,  in  his  pre- 
liminary judging,  he  can  mark  off  some  for  shape, 
some  for  color,  and  some  for  condition.  He  can  then 
make  his  marks  for  shajie,  r^ilor  and  the  like,  on  the 
good  birds  that  remain.  As  he  finally  narrows  the 
class  down  to  a  few  binl.t.  he  will  mark  opposite 
each  bird's  number  the  strong  or  weaA  points  of 
each  deetion,  until  he  has  finally  placed  the  win- 
ners in  their  correct  order.  He  will  then  transfer 
the  awards  to  the  secretary's  book,  but  will  keep 
the  card  for  his  own  reference  and  satisfaction. 
This  method  is  a  great  protecli^n  lo  the  judge. 

After  having,  with  care,  eliminated  om^-half  the 
birds  in  the  class,  the  judge's  hardest  work  is  just 
begun.  Every  bird  of  the  remaining  ten  may  be 
worthy  of  a  prize,  but,  at  moat,  only  five  of  them 
can  receive  recognition,  unless  it  be  at  some  large 
exposition,  m  tho  one  at  St.  l/*uia.  where  seven 
awards  were  made.  The  judge's  task  continues  to 
be  a  work  of  elimination.  By  E<iing  over  and  over 
the  best  ten  birds,  the  jodge  begins  to  come  to  a 
conclusion  as  to  which  ia  the  best  bird  in  the  claaa 
and  which  is  poorest  of  the  ten.  and  he  makes 
memoranda  on  his  card,  looking  to  that  result ; 
then  he  decides  which  is  second-beet,  and  which  is 
the  ne.Yt  one  to  go  down  and  out;  aud  so  he  cua- 
tiDDea  until  the  five  best  are  so  marked  in  their , 


POCLTBY 


POULTRY 


549 


Fig.  &S).     fodsiiti  CcnrU.    Kinm- 


proper  ordor,  atid  tine  poorest  half  of  tha  beet  ten 
nave  been  checked  off. 

.lust  at  thifl  jjoint  tomes  in  the  chief  advantage 
of  cumiKiriwin  judging  over  the  swiire-c.ani  mi^lhiK). 
With  a  lafKe  ami  «truiig  claas  before  hJm,  the 
judgu  can  generally  a«I«t:t  for  his  fivv  priKi>-win- 
neni  fowls  more  aniforin  oe  tu  type  than  i»  gen> 
eralty  poeaible  by  tht  score-card.  The  reason  for  this 

is  hard  to  exEdain 
tft  the  aniH.t  e  n  r, 
but  every  f-xjK'ri- 
enced  gcure-i'ard 
judge  knuw.t  that 
when  the  awards 
are  placed  by  thf 
footing  up  of  the 
Bcorea,  he  has  found 
that  the  live  binls 
scoring  highest, 
and  thu8  standing 
clones  t  together 
in  the  awards,  an-. 
Bometimtu!  vpry  diwimilar  in  style  and  ty]ie, 
and  he  will  aometimeH  wiwh  thut  he  c<  ulil  n'- 
arrangB  thu  winnors  a  little.  jUMt  for  Ihu 
Baku  of  uniformity.  Here  is  the  only  excep- 
tion the  wriU.'r  will  admit  to  the  general  rule 
laid  down  in  the  beginning,  that  the  rcHults 
will  be  the  Bome  no  matter  which  metbud  is 
f nl  IowihI. 

Howt^ver  carefnlly  th«  jndge  has  maile  hiB  [plac- 
ing of  the  fivu  k-st  bird«  in  tlm  ulajw,  he  will  du 
well  to  spend  a  little  more  time  and  labor  befon.' 
he  liangB  up  tho  awards.  Let  him  rvmeniber  that 
his  awardn  will  surely  iw  criticised  on  the  Rcnre- 
card  basin. ;  that  there  are  many  experts  well 
posted  as  tci  Standard  cuts  who  will  not  hi^siCate 
to  grmle  the  judge  prutty  hiw  if  he  makt's  serious 
miatakeH.  If  his  first-priw  bird  iw  a  [lerfect  unxk'! 
in  color,  but  not  typical  of  hi»  bretid,  has  a  bail 
comb,  a  bad  eye  and  a  badly  carriLtd  bn>n.-4t  or  tail. 
he  may  deserve  cuts  aggregating  six  points  on 
thefle  four  sections  alone  ;  so  the  jwdge  must  be 
careful  to  eHtimatfj  the  real  value  of  each  si>ec'i- 
men  with  aluttdutd  justice.  Again,  a  judge  must 
not  allow  himsulf  to  be  dazzUnl  or  overawed  by 
tho  great  beauty  of  some  one  section.  This  is  the 
place  above  all  others  where  the  score-card  method 
has  the  afivantage  of  comparbton  ;  it  compels  deliln 
erate,  careful  work,  of  which  a  written  record  is 
made  and  pri'wrvi.Ml, 

fyorr-airrt  jadtiinfi.  By  some  i>enuiiiH  this  methiNl 
is  Lhougbl  more  closely  to  interpret  and  apply  the 
Standarnl  than  dws  conipari-ion  judging.  It  should 
not  be  so.  The  comparison  judge  should  Ixi  juf«t  as 
familiar  with  Standard  d<.-scription»,  and  shonld 
apply  them  just  as  exactly  as  does  the  score^^ard 
judge.  The  only  difference  is  in  the  methoti,  not  in 
the  rwult.  In  th^  one  case  the  jndge  makes  a 
record  in  writing  of  the  tiefects  of  each  sectiim  as 
he  consider)!  it  ;  in  the  ntht-r,  he  holds  th^Be  cuts 
and  defects  in  mind,  adding  to  them  as  be  gocn 
along,  until  the  aggregate  thereof  is  reached,  and 
this  constitntes  the  value  of  that  bird.  He  may 
not  make  these  cuts  in  actaal  figures  for  each  sec- 


tion, cArrying  the  number  in  mind  until  he  hax 
their  sum,  which,  subtracted  from  one  hundred, 
givw  the  final  score  of  the  bird  ;  but  hu  does  what 
is  just  OS  hard  when  he  carries  these  approximato 
cuts  clear  througK  ajid  as  he  passes  each  section 
institutes  a  comparison  between  th&  bird  in  hand 
and  t)ie  one  that  stands  next  to  htm  in  position  or 
quality. 

There  are  those  who  maintain  that  comparison  is 
easier  either  for  the  amateur  or  for  the  profe«- 
fitonal  judge  than  is  score-card  judging.  With  thii 
conclusion  wu  cannot  agree,  especially  if  the 
cla.sse«  be  large  and  cbwe.  Why  is  the  score-card 
less  laborious?  It  is  easier  because  the  judge 
handles  each  bird  but  once,  and  calls  ulT  his  opinion 
of  e-fw-h  section  to  llie  clerk,  who  makes  a  record  of 
it.  Hu  is  then  done  with  that  bird.  It  is  "out  of 
sight,  out  uf  mind,"  so  far  as  he  is  concerned,  and 
he  proceeds  to  pass  on  another  bird  on  the  one- 
thing- al-a-time  method  ;  wherejis,  by  the  compari- 
son niethi>d.  he  may  come  hack  to  the  same  bird  a 
doisen  times  to  compare  one  section  with  that  of 
rme  com[n!tiMr,  and  another  section  with  that  of 
another  com|iBtiUir,  before  he  can  finally  place  the 
betit  birds  in  their  proper  order. 

The  essential  qu&bhcattons  of  ascore<ard  judge 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows  :  (1)  He  must  possesa 
an  artist's  eye,  that  at  a  single  glance  he  may  tako 
in  the  bird  as  an  individual,  measure  his  defects  in 
type  and  con  forma  Li  on,  dwiuct  a  proiwr  valuation 
for  the  extent  that  he  falls  short  of  the  typical 
bird  of  his  breed  in  style,  carriage  and  confirma- 
tion, and  place  the  sum  of  these  defects  in  the 
column  of  symmetry.  (2)  He  must  have  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  corrs-ct  shajw  of  head,  comb,  neck, 
wiiKB,  back,  tail,  and  the  other  part.s  of  the  typical 
biriiof  this  breed,  also  of  the  various  ruts  that  the 
Standard  pnwcrrilie^s  for  th*«u  di-fects.  so  that  he 
can  instantly  [dace  a  corr^'ct  valuation  on  them. 
(:i)  Hli  must  have  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
shades  and  colors,  not  nc'certsarily  that  he  may  give 
a  name  to  the  various  shades  of  color,  but  have  an 
accural*'  kmmlwtge  of  thti  color  demanded  by  the 
Standanl  for  each  flection  of  each  variety,  so  that, 
withiMit  bringing  birds  together  for  comparison,  he 
mjiy  give  to  each  section  a  just  cut  for  its  defect* 
in  color.  Ml  He 
must  possess  an 
intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  corn- 
bin  a  t  i  o  n  s  of 
color  that  make 
up  the  strong 
]ioint«  of  parti- 
eolori-d  speci- 
mens. Kor  ex- 
ample.in  Karred 
Plymouth  Itwkfl. 
Silver  Wyan- 
dott<>s.  Silver 
Simngled  Ham- 
burgs.  tililver  .Sebrights,  Silver  Polish  and  Light 
Brnhmas,  it  is  not  so  much  to  know  that  these  birdfl 
are  a  combination  of  black  and  whit«,  na  to  know 
JD8t  how  black  and  whit«  come  t'jgether  in  vari- 


-^lllli 


^i^" 


tlic   friwl   rniin   lhi>  raf. 


eso 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


ODs  nectic^tu,  even  in  the  siama  foathere.  These 
combinution^,  for  example  in  the  tail  coverts  uf 
the  l>i:;ht  Brihina^,  and  in  the  flights  anrl  wing 
coverts  of  the  Silver  Wyandottes,  are  most  intri- 
cate- and  dolioate ;  und.  in.  the  case  of  the  Silver 
Polish,  the  comhination  proi»r  in  chicks  is  re- 
voraed  in  the  adult,  a  point  for  which,  strange  to 
aay.  oTir  Stnndani  does  not  provide. 

Some  shows  and  some  judtres  insiiit  en  havinp 
the  birds  clamed  by  attendants  to  a  Cfiitral  ijoiiit 
at  which  the  judge  and  his  clerk  are  svatt-d,  with 
an  open  exhibition  coop  before  the  judge,  into 
which  the  birds  are  placed,  one  at  a  time.  This 
method  is  slow,  Laborious,  productive  of  many  mi-s- 
takes.  and,  wowt  of  all,  is  utterly  nnfjiir  to  the 
birds.  To  go  to  the  coop  of  a  nervnos  hi-n,  grab 
her  by  the  legs  and  carry  her.  head  down,  to  th« 
judge,  as  most  attendants  are  sure  to  do,  and  throw 
Aer  into  the  judge's  coop,  and  she  will  lit.'  so  tlutt- 
tered  and  frightened  th;it  she  may  nut  aHe^ume  a 
natnral  position  for  ten  minutes.  Before  that  time 
ha.4  elansed.  the  judge  has  Ix'en  compelled  to  pass  on 
her  ana  several  otherft,  and  the  cuts  he  hns  mruie 
on  her  symmetry,  shapv  of  breast  luid  Khupo  of  ttiil 
are  probably  very  unjnst.  It  m  far  better  that  the 
judge  pass  quietly  from  coop  to  coop  and  si&e  the 
birds  up  as  to  symmetry  and  HbapL>,  with  as  little 
diHturhance  as  possible.  While  ht-  is  doing  this,  he 
can,  In  his  own  skilful  way,  lift  each  liird  from  its 
ciiop  and  c.'ill  off  the  cuts  to  the  clerk,  thus  com- 
pleting eaidi  bird  as  hv  goes  alnng. 

Much  ran  \n>  diput*  l»y  the  show  management  W) 
facilitate  the  work  of  tlw  judge.  One  of  the  b^st 
methods  is  to  tack  to  each  coup  the  xcuru-card  fur 
that  bird,  giving  in  duplicato  thu  entry-numbur, 
varitity,  sex,  ijand-number  and  weight.  As  the 
judge  reachfs  the  coop,  he  tears  off  the  card  at 
the  perfunited  line,  leaving  the  duplicate  heading 
still  attaiThed  to  the  coop.  When  thi*  scorf-cards 
have  been  fooLf^l  and  Kllud  out,  a  clt-rk  can  puss  to 
each  coop,  fdling  in,  on  the  attached  head-piecu, 
the  owner's  name,  the  score  and  the  award.  The 
exhibitors  arc  entitled  to  this  much  publicity,  and 
visitors  who  pny  their  aiimission  fees  are  entitlwJ 
to  this  much  infnrmation.  Some  shows  fulEnw  the 
practice  of  tacking  to  each  cKip  the  complete 
score-card.  This  is  well,  pnivided  a  copy  of  the 
Cftrd  has  been  recorded  on  the  books  of  the 
association. 

Some  judges  refuse  to  have  a  clerk,  and  not  only 
ill!  out.  but  foot  and  sign  their  cards  while  stand- 
ing in  front  of  the  coops.  This  makes  "safe" 
work  for  the  judge,  as  it  enalilcs  him  to  see  the 
complete  score  of  each  bird,  also  to  locate  the  win- 
nera  of  each  class  before  he  leaves  it,  correcting 
what  appear  to  have  lieen  emirs  in  scuiring.  But 
the  real  judge  never  does  tbls.  He  calls  otT  the 
cutfl  for  each  section  in  their  proper  order,  which 
the  clerk  records,  and  then  both  pass  on  instantly 
to  the  next  specimen.  The  best  judges  do  not  even 
foot  the  scores  or  touch  the  score-cards  until  they 
are  through  with  their  work,  and  then  go  to  the 
office  to  "sign  up." 

Unless  the  cards  are  copied  in  the  rec<mU,  thoy 
should  not  be  given  to  exhibitors  until  the  close  of 


the  show.   Much  troabte  results  from  jlfirfogr  oat ' 

the  cards  too  soon. 

The  one  thing  that  has  caused  more  trouble,  the 
past  two  yt^ars.  than  all  things  else  combined,  is  thu 
Standard  directions  for  awarding  sweepstake  and 
special  prizes.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writ«r,  this  ia ' 
unfortunate  legislation.  In  the  fir.Ht  place,  there 
ahonld  never  be  a  sweepstake  prize  offered  that 
brings  different  brwds  or  varif^ties  into  com|M>ti- 
tion.  All  xpecials  should  n;ime  some  one  variety 
on  which  thuy  are  to  be  placed.  While  show  com- 
mittees continue  to  offer  sweepstakes  that  involve 
different  breeds  or  varieties,  the  actual  scorefi  of 
the  judge  should  govern.  This  would  soon  maka 
this  class  of  priTes  so  nnpopubr  with  the  fanciers 
of  weight-clause  varieties,  that  the  practice  of 
offering  such  specials  would  he  killed.  The  other 
objectionable  feutare  in  the  paragraph  of  the 
Standard  above  referrL-d  to  is  that  of  handicapping 
solid-colored  specimens  in  favor  of  tbos>-  that  are 
part i-coio red.  Under  the  old  Standard,  this  handi- 
cap was  one  and  one-half  points.  It  has  since  b**n 
reduced  to  only  one  point.  The  ide-a  prevails  in 
some  circles  thiit  it  is  eiisier  to  breed  a  solid-colored 
variety  than  one  that  is  [«irti-coh)r*d.  As  a  brewler 
for  many  yL-are  of  seven  varieties  of  one  bre«d, 
four  of  theue  being  parti-colored  and  three  of  them 
being  solid-colored,  the  writer  can  demonstrate 
that  it  is  much  easier  to  breed  ten  binls  of  the 
parti -colored  varieties  that  will  score,  honestly, 
ninety-two  points  e,ich,  than  to  get  five  binl.<f  of 
the  solid-colored  varieties  that  will  reach  &  lika 
score.  The  judge  who  has  had  long  expurience, 
who  has  good  sight,  and  who  will  unhesitatingly 
enforce  the  prescribed  Standard  cuts  for  creami- 
ress  and  hrasainess  in  white  birds,  knows  that 
there  is  no  bird  so  rare,  even  in  our  largest  shows, 
aa  one  that  is  pure  white  thrmighout.  A  buff  bin), 
pure  in  color,  free  from  any  other  shade,  is  scarcely 
less  rarti.  A  truly  blaek  bird  is  a  trifle  easier  to 
find  among  the  young  females,  but  is  still  raxcr 
than  parti-colored  birds  of  e<]ually  high  scores. 

Deiailx  </  ga*ring.  —  The  X)/inntflry  should  be 
caught  before  the  bird  is  touched.  It  means,  not 
the  cutting  for  ill-shape  of  the  varitms  sections, 
but  a  barmoniuiis  union  of  those  various  8ba[>e  sec- 
tions MO  as  to  make,  as  a  whole,  a  bini  typical  of 
his  own  brued,  and  uith  a  style  and  finish  about 
him  that  is  peculiar  to  the  breed  in  hand. 

The  uriifhi  should  have  been  taken,  and  recorded 
on  the  card  In^fore  the  judge  touehes  it.  He  then 
makes  his  weight  cutA  in  ncconlnnce  with  Stand- 
ard rules,  nut  forgetting  that  in  American  varieties 
over-weight  Is  to  be  punished  as  well  as  uniler^ 
weight.  In  non-weight  varieties,  judges  should  be 
more  careful  than  they  are  to  cut  for  under  size. 
Failuru  to  do  this  in  past  years  has  done  macli 
harm  to  Leghorns  and  Hamburgs, 

Under  ft»jii/r/iVm  m  the  place  where  thecarelesa' 
exhibitor  eihould  be  punishe<l,  so  that  the  painstak- 
ing man,  who  h-is  kept  his  fowls  in  perfect  health, 
who  has  not  hIIowmI  their  combs  and  wattles  to 
Ivecome  frost-bitten,  who  has  manicared  their  shanks 
and  toes,  and  has  carefully  washed  and  pltnnod  bis 
birds,  wilt  get  bis  due  reward, 


POn.TRY 


POULTHY 


551 


hk  examining  the  Ittad,  the  j\uig&  ohnuld  give 
oloae  attention  to  the  leti^^th  ttmt  carrature  of  Kkiill 
anii  beuk.  An  American  S|ievimi;n  with  ft  loni;  ami 
level  la|>-piece,  as  in  a  Gam«,  i&  very  unileairable. 
The  judt^e  ehuuld  aUo  [tunlHh  suveruEv  a  whitv  or 
pearl  rye  when  the  Standard  calls  for  rud  or  bay," 
and  flee  that  the  ^hapv  uF  the  eye  is  typical  of  the 
breed.  The  ojniA  stands  for  so  much  in  both  Medi- 
terranean and  American  vHrietint  that  a  moKt  rure- 
ful  Rtudy  of  Standard  illuKtratiiKiM  iii»l  ciiUs  ik 
recommanded.  The  judKeshould  nothtwitate  to  dis- 
qualify a  comb  that  is  iiiimi»takal>ly  lop-sidttl. 
IVaitlet  and  rar-iotiet  vary  ia  vatuB  bo  miiL-h  with 
t\\n  brtiL^tl  that  they  require  special  attention.  The 
Judge  shnald  notice  the  difference  in  this  section 
between  Plymouth  Rix'tkB  and  Wyandottefi  and 
Orpingteins.  In  onier  that  the  lar^,  shapely  ear- 
lotie  "f  the  M*Hjilprran«an,  with  its  eaami-l-whiUi 
surface,  frwa  from  folds,  wrinkles  or  red  spots, 
raay  have  it»  just  value,  owurrinK  in  ite  perfection 
80  seldom,  cuts  for  the  many  common  defects  of 
ear-lobes  should  he  made  freely. 

Most  judge-B  fail  to  atwign  full  i^tandard  valae  to 
the  nent.  It  ranges  from  aix  pnlntfl  in  flume  of  the 
Rantama  to  ten  pointa  in  the  nrnamental  varieties 
and  in  Aaiatii^.  In  the  Aiiiatirii,  we  Ihiak  thin  in 
ralhtT  high,  but  in  the  American  breeds,  thfL^e  fur 
shape  and  six  for  color  i&  about  right ;  and  the 
judge  shonld  enforce  it,  especially  on  Barred  Ply- 
mouth Kwks  and  Si)%'er  Wyandottes.  Correct  npck 
color  indicatea  much  in  the  hreeding  power  of  a 
male  binl  of  these  two  varJetiea. 

By  the  new  Standarrj,  the  judge  passes  from 
neck  to  wiiif;*.  This  ia  the  naLyral  order.  He  should 
not  be  in  a  hurry  to  pit  away  from  the  wings. 
Only  four  points  are  assigned  to  shape  of  wings, 
and  on  these  four  points  must  be  made  the  cuts  for 
annaturally  shajjed  wings,  a!ao  for  broken  or  niiRs- 
ing  fenthera.  We  find  the  limit  of  four  iwints 
scarcely  emmgh  in  aome  ca.4es,  and  often  cut  the 
fall  limit.  The  judge  should  attidy  very  carefnlly 
tHe  color  ctitw  for  wings  of  parti-colore«l  hinls,  such 
H  Light  Brahmas,  Silver  Wyandott«e  and  Burred 
Pljrmouth  itocks. 

The  baek  is  the  great  nhnpe  indicator  of  thi> 
American  hreedw,  even  muru  than  breast  or  body. 
The  writer  thinkH  that  tliiH  st^ction  should  iw  rated 

i'ust  as  high  in  i\.<)i.iltos  and  Med it^^r nine an.<4,  and 
e  pnKlict8  that  the  next  Standard  revision  will 
witness  changes  in  this  direction.  It  is  true  that 
the  back  does  not  carry  so  much  meat  as  the  breast 
and  body,  but  it  is  the  point  or  place  that  sustains 
Ibew  wctions,  ami  with  an  ill-ithaped  back  no 
breast  or  body  can  )m>  gmwl  enough  to  work  re<iemp- 
ttnn.  The  Judge  should  cut  bad-tihaped  backs  to  the 
limit,  if  necessary. 

The  taU  ia  one  of  tb«  lieauty  points  that  reqaires 
careful  attention.  The  jodge  mn^^t  note  carefully 
•II  the  ranges  of  tail  carriage,  almortt  over  his 
heul  in  the  case  of  the  Japanese  Bantam  Cock. 
very  high  in  the  Langflhan,  and  away  down  in  the 
Minorca  and  the  Game.  He  must  atudy  and  famil- 
iarise himiieir  with  all  the  intermediate  stations, 
and  cut  accordingly. 

The  «hap«  of  the  breati  of  a  specimen  variea 


more  with  hia  fatnose  than  dooa  any  other  section. 
The  judge  must  take  this  into  consideration,  but 
«hould  not  fail  to  punish  a  "turkey  breast"  when 
a  "Iow-««t  keel"  ia  called  for.  And  here  let  the 
writer  explain  that  fatness  and  fleshness  mean  the 
same.  The  cockerel  that  toilay  weighs  only  four 
pounds,  his  keel  as  sharp  a^  a  knife-LIude,  hia 
shanks  seemingly  "coming  ont  of  the  same  hole," 
hmi  ju»t  as  many  fiberts  of  muscle  or  flesh  a»  he 
will  have  three  months  later  when  he  tips  the  beam 
at  eight  |H>iindH,  with  his  deep,  round  breast,  every 
mujiclu  interlarded  with  de]ic»te  tis^ue^i  of  luscioos 
fat,  which  is  not  greasy,  but  which  makes  each 
fiber  round  and  smooth  ;  and  his  shankn  wit)  then 
stand  so  far  apart  that  he  fairly  wuddles  aa  he 
walks.  The  judge  must  learn  to  take  all  these 
thing.s  into  considrration,  and  mu.st  base  his  cuts 
on  breast  liinti  bixly  on  the  typlc^al  bird  of  his  breed 
in  perfect  conditifm. 

The  section,  btidy  and  Jivff,  as  outlined  in  the 
scale  of  points,  has  to  do  chiefly  with  the  lower 
and  rear  parts  of  the  bod}',  tho  back  and  l^reast 
having  had  previous  consideration.  Care  niu«t  be 
exercised  in  judging  femalefl  to  notice  whether 
they  are  producing  eggs  or  not.  At  such  times, 
the  egg-producing  organs  twing  very  active,  the 
abdoDiinal  section  covered  by  the  fluff  is  likely  to 
be  abnormally  du-voloped.  One  should  hesitato  to 
cut  a  hen  heavily  on  shape  when  the  evident  cause 
is  the  fact  that  she  is  in  daily  pc^rformance  of  the 
very  functions  that  nature  intended  her  for. 

The  last  it^m  on  the  score-card  is^^jr  and  toex. 
Here,  shape  and  color  have  etjual  value.  A  very 
common  fault  with  American  and  Kngli.>4h  varietiefl 
is  that  the  thighs  and  shanks  are  too  long.  Some 
years  ago,  special  rcwarda  were  offered  by  large 
weaU'rn  packing  houses  for  one  variety  that  pro- 
duced a  large  percentage  of  specimens  with  the 
"  legs"  (tirat  joints  aWve  the  shanks)  so  short  that 
when  the  fowl  wa.s  dreosed  the  legs  wonld  not 
extend  beyond  the  rump.  With  the  lieghomc,  a 
common  fault  Is  that  the  legs  and  shuntis  are  too 
short,  inpking  the  bird  low  and  «iuatty.  instead  of. 
rangy  and  up-standing.  In  Tochinft.  these  organs 
should  be  short ;  in  liangshnnrt,  they  should  be  lonf;. 

The  scale  of  points  says  nothing  about  un^rr* 
coi'tr.  but  aa  it  is  mentioned  in  almost  every  section 
containing  feathers,  tne  writer  wishein  to  call  the 
special  attention  of  the  young  judge  to  it.  By 
the  KngliBh  Standard  and  the  auperficial  Engtirt 
method  of  applying  it.  nnder-color  counts  for  bnt 
littk".  With  our  .-Vnicrican  Standard,  calling  for  a 
thorough  and  searching  investigation  of  every  sec- 
tion, it  becomes  a  moat  important  factor.  The  judge 
should  give  it  close  attention  and  remember  that 
if  "alato"  or  "buff"  is  called  for,  for  example, 
white  nnder-color  ia  a  disqualification  and  must  be 
punished  severely. 

Liirntture. 

The  reader  should  consnlt  The  American  Standard 
of  Perfection,  publi.«ihed  by  The  American  Tonltry 
Association,  for  full  information  forjudging  fowU. 
and  for  score-cards  for  the  several  families.  [For 
further  refereoce«.  see  page  527.J 


662 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Common  Ailments  of  Poultry. 

By  Prina-  T.  Wood*. 

Nearly  all  poultry  dUeases  are  preventable, 
Very  few  caaeg  of  serious  illnttss  nndergo  a  auffi- 
cientty  rapid  and  complete  recovery  to  make  pro- 
longed treatment  worth  while.  It  tii  not  good 
Judgment  to  spend  several  dolIarH*  worth  of  time 
aod  money  in  treating  and  doling  a  sick  bird  worth 
lesa  than  one  dollar  at  market  pric«s.  The  practical, 
luefal  life  of  the  average  fowl  seldom  exc*?e<ifl  four 
years.  When  kept  oxclosivcly  for  market  purposos, 
eggs  and  meat,  the  poultryman  cannot  afford  to 
keep  hens  beyond  their  third  year  as  egg-producerB, 
and  not  many  beyond  their  second  year.  The  first 
two  years  of  egg-protluctiop  yield  the  best  profits. 
Thia  short  period  of  useful  life  dw.t  not  allow  much 
time  for  doctoring  sick  fowls.  Except  in  mild  coiKs 
v!  sicknus.-^,  the  wimusI,  naf<!Kt  and  inuttt  iH!:i>nuniical 
treattnvnt  is  to  kill  the  ait'k  bird  and  burn  the  car- 
cass. By  BO  doing,  one  gft.'!  rid  of  a  possible  source 
of  contagion,  and  mtniniizi3jt  the  danger  of  spread- 
ing  the  trouble  to  the  remainder  of  the  flock. 

Prevrniion. 

The  five  easentiaU  in  preventing  poultry  diseaseii 
are: 

(1)  Brood  only  from  sound,  vigtirous,  healthy, 
weil-matun'd  atock.  A  poultryman  should  nevur 
ase  in  a  brcseding  pen  a  dcft>rni(!<l  »j>ucinieii  or  one 
that  has  apparently  been  cured  of  serioufl  illness. 
It  id  difficult  tfi  know  when  a  fowl  in  really  cnred. 
Many  ih'up[Kisndty  cured  individuals  huve  the  diseiute 
in  chninic!  form.  The  tendency  to  beciinn?  iliseaMod 
can  he  transmitted  to  tliu  Einijcwny.  I^ikt-witie.  the 
tendency  to  resist  diweasu  may  bo  inheritt-d.  BrL-eil- 
ing  only  from  perfi-ctly  healthy  bird.s,  fully  grown 
and  in  their  prime,  insures,  chieks  that  wilt  be 
able  to  resist  diwase.  One  cannot  produce  strong, 
healthy  chickens  from  debilitated  or  unsound  breed- 
ing stuck.  Stiirling  with  htialthy  breierling  st^wk, 
one  muHt  keeji  it  sound  and  vigoroufl  by  cnmmim- 
aensecareand  inaiiagunient.  Tht?  eggs  from  biiaUhy 
stock,  propLTly  incubated.should  give  the  masiinum 
vitality  in  the  chicks.  Such  chicks,  proporly  carud 
for,  should  posyeas  tha  greatest  disease- resisting 
power.  One  can  brood  health  in  poultry  and  fix  the 
tendency  to  health,  generation  after  generation, 
more  easily  than  he  can  hreinl  fancy  {Hiinta  in  sixe, 
shape  and  plumage. 

(2)  Sensibl*?  fresh-air  housing  tse.4Hential  to  keep 
fowls  hoalthy.  Freah-air  ([uarters  or  o|ion-front 
colony  houses  are  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  most 
aatisfnctory.  The  cnrtatn-front,  or  building  in 
which  a  part  of  the  south  window.s  are  rephict-d  by 
coanie  iinblcachtHl  muHlin  Rcreens,  in  the  next  beat 
type  of  building.  The  tightly  ch^wd  hou-se,  iitileiw 
run  with  «ne  or  mnri'  windows  o[wn  night  and  day, 
and  the  fouls  ]>rote<-te<l  frum  drafts,  in  the  leaHt 
deelrabte  type.  An  abundance  of  frush  air  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  fowls  both  night  and  day, 
summer  and  winU'r.  It  must  bt>  .supplied  so  that 
there  are  no  drafts  about  the  roosting  fowls. 
Artilicially  heated  houses  are  alway.s  un-safe.  Close 
or  tight  houae-o,  nnlesH  thoroughly  aired  daily,  will 


show   frost  and  dampoi'sa  on  tbo  walls  in  cold 

weather.  Dampness  invites  colds  and  other  ail- 
ments. Houses  must  not  W  over-crowded.  Crowd- 
ing on  the  roosts  at  night  ii<  inimical  to  health. 
The  poultry-yards  should  be  of  good  size  and  ^etl 
drained.  With  poultry- houses  of  ordinary  height, 
the  minimnm  amount  of  hoTise  aur  space  sboold 
not  bo  lusa  than  twonty-IIvc  cubic  foet  per  fowL 
For  yard  room,  breeding  stock  and  layers  should 
have  a  range  of  at  least  sixty-fiii-c  square  feet  of 
land  for  each  bird. 

{3}  Wholesome  food  in  variety  and  pure  water 
are  essential  to  keep  fowls  healthy.  Elaborate  ra- 
tions are  not  neceasarj-.  FowEs  fed  exclusively  on 
dry  grain  are  lestt  liable  to  disease  than  iii<m  fed 
heaviiyon  moist  mashes.  Theaverage  fowl  re^^aires 
three  to  five  ounces  of  dry  grain  daily  (according 
to  size  ami  appetite),  in  addition  to  meat  food, 
green  foiMl,  grit,  oyatwr  ghell.  charcoal,  granulated 
bone  and  pure  water.  The  staple  feeding  grains 
are  com,  wheat,  oats  and  barley.  Only  sound,  clean 
grain  should  he  use<l,  and  it  should  be  free  from 
dust,  mosliness  and  mold.  The  drinking-water 
should  l)e  cle-in,  pure  and  fresh.  Fowls  should 
never  drink  from  a  stream  into  which  barnyard 
seepage  and  other  filth  emptier  Unclean  food  and 
impure  watwr  are  prolific  sources  of  poultry  disease. 

(4)  Prompt  isolation  and  disjKtsal  of  sick  birds 
nre  important  in  preventing  die<ea.'^t.  Sick  speci- 
mens should  l)e  removed  from  the  remainder  of  the 
flock  as  soon  as  possible,  to  prevent  spread  of  the 
troubk". 

4i)>  Reasonable  cleantiness  in  poultry  quarters  is 
necpKsary  in  prt^venting  disease.  The  houses  must 
be  cleunud  regularly.  The  runs  ehould  be  plowed 
up  and  Mealed  down  with  (juick-gr owing  grain  or 
grass  twice  a  year.  Small,  hard  or  sandy  mos 
should  he  swe|^t  frequently  and  the  manure  removed 
in  dry  weather  or  Itefore  heavy  rains.  Litter 
material,  when  used  in  the  houses,  should  be  clean, 
liright  and  free  from  any  mold  or  mnntiness.  Food 
ami  water  rec^'ptacles  tthoiild  be  kept  clean.  Xcet-^; 
ing  nialurial  should  be  changed  frequently.  Floors 
of  poultry-houses  should  be  cleaned  or,  in  case  of 
earth  floors,  renewed  when  badly  foulwl. 

One  general  mte  that  should  be  followed  id 
every  case  of  sicknens  in,  meek  and  find  the  cause 
of  the  disease  ami  remove  it  Iwfore  treatment  ta 
attempted. 

Lice. 

By  far  the  most  common  ailments  of  poultry  are 
the  parasitic  diseases.  There  are  many  varieties  of 
lice  and   mites  afTecting  fowls.    The    presfnce  of 
body  lire  may  be  readily  detected  by  examination. 
IjOok  under  the  wings  and  on  the  skin  about  tbe 
feather  roots,  on  t)ie  abdomen,  back,  neck  and  head. 
All    fowls  are  lousy  unless  treated.    Pure,  fresh,' 
unndult«rated   Persian  insect  powder  is  the  beet' 
remedy  for  bwjy  lice.    It  should   be  thoroughly 
dusteil  into  the  plumage  and  worked  well  down  to 
the  skin  all  over  the  body.   Repeat  the  dostiog  in 
ten  days.  This,  if  properly  done,  shonld  give  sev^ 
eral  monthti  of  freedom  from  the  pest.  Ljoe  braed'' 
on  the  fowl  in  the  plumage. 


i. 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


668 


Jfita. 

Red,  black  or  gray  mltee  are  poaltry  IxxUbagK. 
They  breed  it  the  cracks  and  cruviiuid  atnint  the 
house  or  under  accuiriQlated  drappings.  Kl<gp  thu 
rCKMiting  quarters  clean,  UAe  freely  a  mixtarc  of 
kerosene,  one  quart,  acid  creuLin,  one  fluid  ounce, 
or  a  cood  liquid  lice -killer,  for  paintinf;  nMHtfi 
and  dropping  •  boards.  Do  thia  in  the?  rooming 
when  neaaed,  ao  that  rooeta  will  be  dry  at  night. 

Sealff-Ug. 

Thia  ia  a  [MU-aBitic  disease  caused  by  a  aeab-miUi. 
It  is  cbaracteriEod  hy  rmigh  p^ayish  or  whitixh 
scales  and  cnuta,  accumulating  on  the  stLanka  and 
feet.  It  may  apryjid  gradually  to  oth«r  fowU.  For 
treatmunt,  apply  an  ointnmnt  made  by  mixing  one 
taaepoonful  of  cruoHn  in  one  cupful  of  mcUod  lard. 
Stir  tlio  mixture  until  coot,  whun  it  la  ruady  to 
apply.  Apply  daily  until  tho  scales  and  cruxta 
come  away  and  leave  the  shanka  cloau. 

Simple  eatiiar  or  apiUha. 

The  caoiie  of  simple  canker  is  infection  of 
acrutfhtfd  or  aliradfld  mucnua  surfaces  with  mold 
apunui,  otWr  funj^i  nr  germa.  It  cimmimly  apgwant 
after  birdu  havL'  Vmvn  fiKJittnt;,  particularly  wlmre 
dusty,  musty  or  moldy  littvr  material  is  u««d.  It 
is  indicated  by  yellowish  or  whitish  patchea  in  the 
mouth  or  thniat ;  theae  ui^ually  app^-ar  as  irreirular 
while  nr  yellowijih  iilctTs,  surrounded  by  an 
inflami^  anai  nt  mucnuH  mi-mbrane.  The  treatment 
ia  l4]  di]»t  a  Httlu  puwdKn-d  linrac.ic  acid  on  tbe 
canker  apot«  ur  sores,  or  apply  pure  Kreolin  with  a 
cotton  swab  (a  bit  of  absorlKTit  cotton  twisted 
around  the  point  of  a  Kharp  stick).  A  sotutioo  of 
fiftwn  griiins  of  boracic  acid  in  one  ounce  of  water 
may  !«•  uaed  freely  a«  a  wash. 

Di^tKtria. 

11)18  ia  a  Qot  uncommon  iliseiLse  of  poultry,  some- 
times confusul  with  canker.  The  cauae  ia  thought 
to  be  a  specific  Kurni.  and  the  diseaac  is  very  con- 
tagious, kn  apparently  hi.-atthy  fowl  bocomos  iiud- 
dpnly  ill,  loBea  appetite,  the  feathers  hang  loosely, 
the  bird  apjH^arH  dumpish,  lega  hot,  comb  hot  and 
deep  n«l,  but  laler  may  liecome  pale.  These  symp- 
toms aru  aeeornpiiniwl  by  difficult  hrcalhinji,  ctmjih 
with  sharp  "pip"  sound,  rudness  and  intliuniiiatiun 
of  throat.  Small  pearl-gray  or  yHlowisIi-eolore<l 
palcheA  appfar  on  the  back  pari  of  the  throat, 
about  the  cleft  palate.  These  iriLTea.'k'  rapidly  in 
size  and  mn  together.  False  membrane  may  grow 
8«)  rapidly  as  to  cauw  the  death  of  the  fowl  fn)m 
sufFocatiun.  An  ati«'mpt  to  remove  the  mt'mbrnne 
rt-aulta  in  bk-wling.  The  breath  ia  fetid.  Great 
weakness  com«8  on  from  constitutional  poiaonlng. 
Paralysis  may  appear  at  any  stagu,  and  the  fowl 
Ifisea  the  use  of  legs  or  wings.  Paralysis  of  the 
heart  may  cause  death.  One  attack  of  this  disease 
pn>disiKK«>s  to  nnother. 

Remove  the  sick  fowl  promptly  from  the  flock, 
to  prevent  further  spruad  of  the  discji-ie.  It  is  sel- 
dom advisable  to  waste  tinit;  doctoring,  and  it  is 
lietter  to  kill  the  bird  and  burn  the  carcaaa.  For 
internal    treatment,  give  fnnr   times  daily  a  one 


one-hundredth  of  a  grain  tablet  of  biniodid  of  mer- 
cury. Cleanse  mouth  and  throat  frequently  with 
full  strength  [*roxid  of  hydr(>gi>n,  or  with  a  solu- 
tion of  onu  toaspoonful  of  creolin  in  four  fluid 
ounces  Qialf  a  glass)  of  water.   [See  Aspfr^iUoaia.] 

AspfTffiiJiais. 

Thi»  di.tea;i:e  ia  eometimes  confused  with  simple 
canker  and  diphtheria,  when  "checay"  accumula- 
tions form  in  the  mouth,  thniat  and  eyes.  It  is 
caused  by  jiarasitic  fungi,  which  are  commonly 
found  in  the  dust  and  miild  uf  liHhy  litter  ur  dirty, 
damagud  grain.  It  usually  attacks  only  suscepti- 
ble members  of  a  flock.  It  sometinu's  appeara  in 
epidemic  form  and  re.iutts  in  the  speedy  totw  of 
many  fowls.  The  fungi  are  inhaled  with  dust  and 
may  make  their  first  attack  on  the  lungs  or  inter- 
nal organs,  so  that  the  prittfem'^  of  the  itiseaae  ia 
not  HusptaHed  until  well  established.  Sick  pigeona 
may  spreail  diseane. 

Thid  diseast)  ia  frequently  mistaken  for  tuliercu- 
losis,  as  the  nodules  or  deposits  in  the  lungs  or 
othur  organs  resemble  tubercles,  rsually  the  first 
vi6il)Ie  symptom  is  a  small  white  nodule  or 
"cheese"  patch  in  the  mouth  at  the  side  of  the 
tongue  or  lieneath  it,  or  white  patchei;  on  the  back 
wall  of  the  throat,  the  cleft  palate,  or  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  windpipe.  Frequently  the  fowl  breathea 
with  difficulty  and  expels  the  air  from  the  lungs 
with  a  ioud  wheeling  or  peculiar  whistling  sound. 
Heath  may  follow  from  sutTncation.  The  course  of 
the  disease  is  u^^uiilly  prolonged,  althoiigh  when  It 
ajipenrs  in  epidemic  form  it  is  oftnn  rapidly  fatal. 
MiJuth,  thruut,  lungs  and  sometimes  other  internal 
organH  are  rapidly  filled  with  "cheeBy"  deposita  or 
small  nodules. 

For  treatment,  first  remove  the  cause.  Supply 
only  clean  grain,  free  from  dust  and  mustlness. 
Remove  all  litter  from  the  j)ens  and  supply  only 
clean  white  sand  for  tbe  birds  tu  scratch  in.  Take 
sick  specimens  from  the  flock  and  kill  all  of  thotte 
that  are  seriously  affected.  Mild  cases  may  be 
placed  in  open  sheds  on  some  part  of  the  farm 
remote  from  other  poultry  qnarters.  Spray  the 
poultry  buildings  with  a  3  percent  formaldehyde 
solution  in  water.  It  will  he  l»eneficial  if  the  fowls 
inhale  the  va}Hir  from  this  spray  mixture.  Dipping 
the  heads  in  tliecreolin  aululiun  lit  often  helpful. 
For  tbiri  puriHtwj,  u»e  one  teasfKxtnful  of  pure  creo- 
lin  in  one  pint  of  water.  Mix  fn-sh  when  used  and 
do  not  dip  the  ht'ads  of  more  than  six  fowls  in  the 
same  solution.  When  the  disease  is  apparently  con- 
fined to  the  mouth  and  throat,  mix  thoroughly  one 
grain  of  finely  powderwi  permnngnnate  of  potas- 
sium with  one  ounce  of  finely  powdered  angar  of 
milk.  Hlow  this  into  the  mouth,  throat  and  nos- 
trils, directly  onto  the  "cheesy"  patches  or  ulcers, 
three  or  four  times  daily  at  fir.'*!,  then  le.'w  fre- 
quently as  the  ca,se  improves.  This  remedy  will  be 
found  n."!M?rul  in  all  c&iten  of  ao-called  canker,  regard- 
less of  the  precise  diagnoaio. 

lioup. 

Thia  is  a  general  term  applied  to  a  great  variety 
of  poultry  diMaaea,  and  to  diphtheria  when  accom- 


Bn-l 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


panied  by  a  swollen  head  or  a  cluicharK«  from  the 
eyes  and  nostriU.  The  name  "roup"  is  applieil  to 
all  di*oasea  accompanied  by  a  diwliarge  from  the 
nostrils  and  <?ye3,  including  commoii  coltls  and  con- 
tagions catarrh. 

Common  coli/t  are  caused  hy  expwure  to  cold, 
dampniMS.  cold  windfi,  drafts,  dust,  cruwdinj;  in  the 
houses,  insutficient  supply  of  fresh  air.  houses 
closed  too  tightly  at  night,  or  nudden  weather 
changea.  The  eymptoma  are  sneeEing,  watery  eyes, 
bubbles  in  tho  comers  of  theeyes,  glairy  djscharjfe 
or  bubbles  from  na-itrils,  and  swollen  face.  The 
treatment  is  to  remove  the  caiisw  when  iweaiblo. 
Provide  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  the  sleeping  quar- 
ters. Usually  the  use  of  condition  powders  in  the 
food  or  tonic  in  the  drinking-wattr  is  all  tht'  mt-dic- 
jna!  treatment  necessary  to  bre.ik  up  a  simple 
cold.  Seasoning  mashes  with  ginger  and  rtnl  pej>- 
per,  and  feeding  raw  onionB,  often  prove  benefi- 
cial. If  taken  at  the  start  the  following  remedy 
will  usuaUy  cure  ;  Mix  twenty  to  thirty  drops  of 
spirits  of  camphor  with  a  teaspoonful  of  granulated 
sugar.  Disstolve  the  whole  in  a  pint  of  drinking- 
water  and  allow  the  birds  no  other  drink. 

Contagious  eaiArrk  or  true  roup  in  thought  to  be 
caused  by  a  ap^'citic  germ.  It  is  usually  mildly  con- 
tagious. In  epidemic  form  it  ii?  very  contagious 
and  spreads  rapidly. 

The  most  characteristic  ayroptflm  of  roup  in  the 
peculiar,  penetrating,  fetid  odor.  Fre(|aently  the 
preaence  of  the  disease  may  not  h«  suspected  until 
this  peculiar  odor  attracts  attention.  Handling  the 
fowl  and  squeezing  the  nostril  with  the  thumb 
shows  the  presence  of  a  glairy  water-white,  gray- 
ish or  yellowish  discharge  having  the  roup  smell. 
The  discharge  at  Brat  Ia  usually  frothy  and  watery  : 
later,  it  becomes  grayiith,  then  thick  and  yellow. 
It  may  accumulate  in  considerable  quantities 
beneath  the  eyelids.  It  dries  on  tho  beak,  also  on 
the  feathers  of  the  body,  particularly  about  the 
wings,  where  the  fowl  has  wiped  off  discharges. 
The  legs  are  hot.  the  c-imb  and  the  wattles  nsnally 
hot  and  deep  dark  red.  The  diiiease  may  iipread 
through  the  atck  birds' contaminating  the  food  and 
the  drinking-water.  It  usually  develops  in  two  to 
seven  days  after  infection.  Many  cases  are  mild, 
but  in  all  the  roup  smell  is  present.  It  frtsjuently 
appears  in  chronic  form,  running  a  course  of  weeks, 
months,  or  years,  the  specimen  lieing  always  a 
pourceof  infection  for  other  birds.  Neglected  com- 
mon colds  prepare  the  way  for  roup,  .\fter  the 
fowls  are  apparently  cured,  the  roup  smell  will 
cling  to  the  plumage,  and  even  to  tho  poaltry-honse 
&fter  disinfection. 

Do  not  waste  time  and  money  on  a  seriously  sick 
Bpecimen ;  kill  and  burn  it.  Kemove  all  su.'apected 
cases  to  an  oper-front  shed,  remote  from  other 
poultry  buildings.  Use  the  creolin  dip  recommended 
in  aapergilloais.  Thoniughlydisinft^ct  poultry  quar- 
ters aaaoon  as  sick  or  suspected  birds  are  removed. 
Uake  the  fowl  inhale  creolin  vapor  by  spraying 
over  it  (in  a  aprayer  throwing  a  line  mittl)  a  solu- 
tion of  one  t«aspoonfQl  nf  creolin  in  a  pint  of 
water.  Clejinsing  the  fowl'a  he.%d.  eyes,  noj'trils. 
mouth  and  throat  with  creolin  dijtin'ectant,  followed 


by  keeping  the  bird  in  strictly  open-front  fn^wh- 
air  quiirtt^rs,  will  do  mure  to  cure  this  disease  than 
dosing.  When  accompanied  by  ulceration  uf  the 
mucuut)  m«'tnbrune  in  the  mouth  or  throat,  uau  p«r- 
mangnnaU^'  of  [K>tassiiim  and  milk-sugar  powder,  aa 
recommended  in  the  treatment  of  aspergillueis. 
Feed  Btimulating  and  easily  digested  food. 

I}:arrhea. 

Diarrhea,  which  is  oft**n  a  symptom  of  many 
disen.ses,  irt  a  trouble  commonly  noticed  by  this 
puultry-keejier.  it  is  unually  the  rcaoltof  iodiKW- 
tion.  eating  spoilwl  f<ii>d,  or  too  much  meat  Tood. 
It  is  indicatod  by  looseness  of  the  Imwels  with  yel- 
lowish, greenish,  dark  or  watery  discharges.  The 
treatment  Ih  to  find  and  remove  the  cause,  pat  the 
afTected  bird  on  a  diet  of  dry  grain,  withhold  meal 
fnod,  and  feed  charcoal  freely.  Sealilwi  milk,  tbick- 
oned  with  well-bniM  flnur  and  8ea.sont'<l  with  gin- 
gLT,  may  be  givvn  freely,  and  is  usually  all  the 
treatment  ncces.tary  in  simple  diarrhea. 

Contagioiu  diarrhea. 

Under  this  general  head,  we  include  all  contagions 
or  infections  diseases  resulting  In  tnflammiittun  of 
the  mucous  surface  of  the  intestine*.  These  di.*- 
eaiH's  are  usually  thu  result  of  infection  with  one  of 
several  varieties  of  bacteria  or  germs  which  mul- 
tiply rapidly,  resulting  in  irritation  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intcstin&s,  with 
invasion  of  the  livor,  kidneys  and  other  internal 
organs.  The  infection  usually  takes  pbice  through 
contam  inated  food  or  drinking-water.  It  commooly 
occurs  when  fowls  are  kept  in  dirty,  filthy  runs 
and  obiigi^d  to  drink  wat<.-r  polluted  with  their  own 
droppings,  or  with  the  excrement  of  pigeons  and 
water-fowl,  or  with  seepage  from  the  barnyard. 

Thtj  symptoms  n.'*ually  develop  rapidly.  The  bird 
is  thirsty,  has  little  appetite,  is  dumpish  and  not 
dispoBed  to  move  about.  The  discharge  from  the 
bowelfl  ifl  loose  and  watery,  and  may  be  a  dark  or 
bluish  green,  sometimes  streaked  with  lilmxi.  The 
affected  bird  stands  with  the  neck  drawn  back  on 
the  body,  the  tail  dn>0[>ed  and  the  feathers  held 
loose.  The  comb  and  th&  wattles  are  dark  re*l  or 
purplish  and  the  legs  hot,  Tho  disease  may  run  a 
course  of  five  days  to  live  weeks.  In  prolonged 
cases,  there  is  usually  great  loss  of  flesh.  Some 
ca.«fs  recover  spontaneously,  but  in  others  death 
occurs,  usually  from  exhaujition. 

For  treatment.  Rrtit  of  all  remove  the  canw. 
Isolate  the  sick  birds;  use  disinfectants  freely: 
disinfect  and  remove  the  excrement ;  supply  only 
wholesome,  easily  digested,  stimulating  food  and 
pure  water  in  clean  receptacles.  Calomel  given  in 
(me  oni^-hundredth  of  a  grain  doses  three  timM  a 
day  frequently  proves  beneficial.  For  obstinat© 
cases  or  casi^s  in  which  the  excrement  is  blouj- 
streaked,  dissolve  twelve  tablets  of  mercury  bi- 
chlorid,  one  one-thousandth  of  a  grain  drug  strength 
each,  in  one  quart  of  drinking-water  and  allow  the 
birds  no  other  drink ;  or  for  individual  treatment, 
give  one  one-thousandth  of  a  grain  tablet  of  mer- 
cury bichlorid  three  times  daily.  Give  renoedy  lei 
often  as  soon  as  caM  shows  improvement. 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


555 


Foirl  eJuJrra. 

Fowl  cholt-ra  is  catiwd  liy  ii  spf^cifn^  gt^rm.  It  is 
very  C()nla;;ioiis  and  miiy  be  tninsmittwi  by  con- 
tact, injiculation  ur  through  the  fwxl  ami  drinkinn- 
wattT.  It  usually  makes  its  appoaratjct;  in  thrue 
(lays  to  threw  wet-ks  after  infection.  The  earlietit 
synptom  is  a  yellowish  diHroliiratinn  or  that  [nart 
of  the  dropjMn^  normally  whit*,  which  Rradi]* 
ally  Ixjcornes  u  ilwper  yelltiw,  fn?qut'ntly  turning 
greenish  or  deep  bluish  green.  Tht?  f«wl  is  inclineil 
to  separate  itself  from  the  Hock,  bccomai  unsteady 
on  its  lep*.  and  walks  with  a  t'taK^iTini;  icait;  thv 
feathers  are  rumpM  and  stand  ont  from  the  hwly; 
tho  winfcs  droop,  tho  h^'.irl  is  ftrawr  down  with  an 
apparent  shortening  of  the  neck,  tail  drouped  or 
hdrisiontal ;  the  comb  and  the  wattle-s  Itwotne  pale, 
and  the  legs  hut ;  the  appetite  vaniHhi>s  and  the 
bird  refuses  to  eat :  the  crop  remains  hard  and  full 
of  food,  due  to  partial  paralysis.  t>wath  may  occur 
at  any  time  ard  i»  uituaily  ushcn-d  in  by  crmvul- 
sions  and  sharp  cries. 

Treatinent  is  aclAom  satisfactory.  Sick  hirds  and 
all  sospwted  ca^c-s  during  a  chntera  epidemic  -■'houid 
be  promptly  removed  from  the  (lock.  Dwinfectiint.^ 
should  tte  used  freely  about  iwultry-hotiPes  and 
yanU,  and  every  precaution  taken  to  avoid  further 
spread.  The  remedy  most  likely  to  prnve  effective 
ia  morcary  bichlorid  in  tablets  of  one  one-thou- 
aandth  of  a  grain  drug  strentith  each,  aa  recom- 
mended under  contagious  diarrhea. 

lAmbernfek. 

This  is  another  common  name  applied  to  all  ail- 
ments in  which  th©  common  symptom  of  paralysis 
or  loss  of  the  use  of  the  neck  musclea  occurs,  ao 
that  the  head  and  neck  hang  limp,  or  the  head 
hangs  with  the  neck  archcMl  from  the  body,  or  the 
neck  is  twistt-d  back  on  the  body.  It  is  due  to 
nerve  disturbance,  usually  dependent  on  intestinal 
irritation.  The  most  frequent  causes  are  poisoning 
from  eating  putrid  meat,  paint  skins,  commercial 
fertiliEem,  spray  mixtures  and  the  like,  or  irrita- 
tion caused  by  the  presence  of  intestinal  parasites. 
In  cases  of  stispected  ]K>isoning.  remove  the  l>ird 
to  a  small,  clean,  dry  coop  in  warm.  we]|*atred 
quarters.  Make  It  swallow  quantities  of  flaxseed 
gmel,  white  of  egg  and  warm  milk  seasoneti  lightly 
with  ginger.  Examine  the  premises  carefully  to 
remove  the  cause  if  possible. 

Worm*. 

Fowls  commonly  have  intestinal  worms.  These 
are  spread  rapidly  through  the  flock  by  the  food 
and  the  water  becoming  contaminated  with  the 
droppinga  of  affected  birds.  Worms  may  be  noticed 
In  the  droppingn.  In  other  cases,  one  may  get  lim- 
berneck  or  wry-neck  symptoms  that  cannot  be 
attributed  to  poisoning.  The  be)it  treatment  is  to 
give  the  bird,  after  h  has  Wn  faiittng  twelve 
noui'a.  at  one  doae,  a  mixture  uf  two  t«aspoonfuU 
of  oil  of  turpentine  and  one  tablesiKMmful  of  sweet 
or  olive  oiL  Thw  shonld  he  introduced  directly  into 
the  crop  through  a  robber  tube  pji-tsed  down  the 
throat.  The  dose  may  I*  repeated  in  twelve  to 
tweaty-four  honrs  if  neceraary.  Disinfect  all  drop- 


pings with  a  strong  rreiitin  solution,  not  letts  than 
live  fluid  uunt'es  uf  creolin  to  a  gallon  of  water. 

(Japcu. 

(japes  is  a  dinK^asv  of  small  chickens  caused  liy  a 
parasitic  worm  common  in  some*  sections  of  the 
country.  The  worms  attach  themselves  to  the 
mucous  lining  of  the  windpipe.  Fowls  are  some- 
timp.«  affi'cttMl  and  may  spreati  the  cimtiigion.  Pre- 
c|U(>ntly  clean  ami  disinfect  coops  and  runs  occupied 
by  yuung  chicks.  I'repare  the  ground  for  the  cwcu- 
puncy  c<r  the  chicks  iiy  a  thorough  top-dressing 
with  slaked  lime  worked  well  into  the  soil,  Flant 
to  some  (juick-growing  green  stuff.  Confine  the 
chicks  until  well  grtiwn.  Remove  frequently  to 
new  runs  prepareil  in  the  same  way.  r)i.«infwt  old 
ground  with  a  strong  creolin  solution,  or  a  3  per 
cent  sulfuric  acid  solution,  as  soon  as  the  chicks 
leave  it.  CJapi>-wonn8  may  be  removed  from  the 
winiipipfc  of  the  chicks  by  means  of  a  loop  of  horse 
hair  or  a  wire  gape-worm  extractor.  The  extractor 
should  be  dipped  in  a  weak  s<iliition  of  creolin. 
Shake  off  all  excew  of  the  solution  iR-fore  intro- 
ducing th*'  extractor  into  the  windpipe.  The 
chick's  neck  should  be  titrelched  and  the  nmuth 
held  "[ten,  the  extractor  intr'Kluced  into  the  wind- 
pipe through  the  month,  and  removed  with  a  twist- 
ing motion.  Thii*  will  usually  bring  out  the  greater 
part  of  the  worms  and  the  remainder  will  be  killed 
by  contact  with  the  solution  a<ihering  to  the 
extractor.  The  extractor  with  the  worms  attache<l 
should  be  dipped  immediately  into  a  strong 
disinfectant. 

Pip. 

Pip  is  a  common  ailment,  and  the  name  is  applied 
by  poultrymea  to  inflammation  of  the  mouth  usu- 
ally characterised  by  drying  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, resulting  in  a  hard,  horny  scale  forming  on 
the  end  of  the  tongue.  FVequently  this  occnrw  as  a 
symptom  of  some  other  trouble,  as  a  heavy  cold  or 
bVoQchitiii.  In  such  cases  the  diseai^  and  not  the 
•tymptom  should  be  treated.  L»o  not  attempt  to 
remove  tho  "pip"  or  homy  scale  by  fonv,  but  wait 
until  it  comee  away  easily.  Glycerine  and  water 
equal  parta  may  be  applied  freely,  and  this  is  usu- 
ally all  the  treatment  needed  ;  or  the  attendant 
may  wash  ont  the  month  frequently  with  a  solution 
of  fifteen  grains  of  boracic  acid  in  one  ounce  of 
water.  Either  remedy  may  be  used  freely  without 
danger. 

Broitrhitia. 

Bronchitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  larger  air-passages.  It  is  usually 
the  result  of  exposure  to  bleak,  wintry  winda,  cold. 
wet  storms,  sleeping  in  drafts  in  crowded  quarters, 
too  close  confinement  in  tight  houses  with  an 
insufficient  supply  of  fresh  air,  or  inhaling  irritat- 
ing du«t.  The  moat  noticeable  symptoms  are  rat- 
tling in  the  throat  and  difficult  noisy  breathing. 
Place  the  fowl  in  comfortable  fresh-air  quartefB, 
where  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  drafts.  Peed  nour- 
ishing, stimulating  food,  In  the  drinking-water, 
Qse  twelve  tablets  of  arsenite  of  antimony,  one  ono' 


666 


POULTRY 


POl'LTRY 


thousandth  of  a  grain  dm^  strenf^th  each,  to  each 
pint  uf  water,  and  allow  the  bird  no  other  drink. 

Lileratun'-. 

Wood,  The  Pouitryman'R  Formalary;  same.  Facts 
About  White  Diarrhea;  same,  Ireecls  AiEecting 
Poultry  ;  Salmun.  I>iw;a««j  of  Poultry.  (Jeorjj^  B. 
Howard  &.  Co.,  Wa^thinRton,  I>.  C.  (f'oc  also,  refer- 
ences on  page  627.] 

Poultry-HoiLae  CooBtructian.    Pi^s.  5^5-570. 

By  Jartifx  K.  Hire. 

The  modern  poultry-house  i-s  a  compromipe  be- 
tween twocxtrerneH  in  poultry-house  construction  : 
between  the  open-shed  shelter  on  the  one  hand, 
which  was  too  open,  and  the  larffe,  double- boarded, 
tight  hcmse.  which  wa^i  too  close.  In  the  former, 
fowlB  suffered  from  the  cold ;  id  the  latter,  they 


>e-vS 


1 

,4 


PIC  as.   A  ben-hause  compleu. 

Buffered  from  lack  of  fresh  air.  Of  the  two.  the 
first  was  to  be  preferred.  The  modern  poultry- 
houne  ia  the  composite  of  the  auccessee  of  c&Qturiea 
and  the  rettult  of  the  dimination  of  man;  miHtakes. 
It  haa  been  gradually  worked  out  throu;rh  the  ex- 
pensivti.  practical  experieac<?s  of  poultrymen.  ratht-r 
than  by  the  discoveriea  of  scientific  truths  regarding 
poultry  architecture.  Poultrymen  built  houiiefl  of 
various  types  and  (gradually  di«covered  which  gave 
them  the  best  rusults.  The  sciyntiat  now  endeavors 
to  formulate  theories  to  explain  theae  resultf. 

The  successful  poultry-honae  moBt  be,  firrt  of 
all,  chet-rful,  healthful,  comfortable,  convenient, 
inexpensive  and  durahK  In  order  to  meet  these 
requirements,  it  muBt  be  built  to  meet  the  condi- 
tions of  the  climate.  Manife-ntiy.  a  poultry-hou»e 
that  is  btsst  adapted  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  lone,  cold  winters  of  (.hi-  North  would  not  he 
best  suited  to  mnet  ihv  requiremi'nl*  of  the  long. 
hot  season  of  the  SuuLh.  The  priuciijlu'S  of  con- 
struction, however,  are  of  Reneral  application  and 
may  be  modified  to  suit  conditions. 

Thf  six  (ff  the  Jlock  m  its  rrlitila-a,  to  eoJixtrttelion. 

The  modem  tendency  in  poultry-plant  manage- 
ment is  towsnl  larypr  nockx  and  therefore  Luward 
larRer  hotisca.  This  w  in  conformity  with  the 
effort  to  save  labor.  Tlw  preat  handicap  to  exten- 
sive poultry-keupirif;  in  tht-  paiit  liai>  been  the  limi' 
tstion  of  man's  ability  to  handle  large  oumbens  of 


fowls  profitably.  One  of  the  efforts  to  overc^nne 
this  handicap  is  to  increase  the  number  of  fowls 
kept  in  a  pen.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  principle 
of  (reneral  application  that  dividing  the  flock  maK 
tipliea  the  laW,  and  conversely,  multiplying  the 
flock  divides  the  labor.  It  is  also  true  that  increas- 
ing' the  number  of  fowls  in  a  tiixk  multiplieti  the 
danger  and  increaws  the  responsibi lilies.  Further- 
more, it  seems  to  have  been  proved  that  the  smaller 
the  flock,  the  larger  the  production  per  fowl,  other 
things  being  equal.  Just  what  size  of  flock  will  he 
likely  to  yield  the  maximum  production  with  the 
minimum  labor  and  risk,  is  not  yet  proved.  Twenty 
years  ago.  flock.*!  of  fifteen  to  twenty-five  fowls  in 
a  pen  were  common ;  today  they  are  rare.  Now 
l^ocks  of  thirty  to  fifty  ore  common,  and  on  a  few 
of  the  large  and  apparently  successful  poultry- 
farms,  fowls  are  bemg  kept  in  flock-s  of  sixty  to 
one  htindr»l,  and  in  rare  instances,  two  hundred  lo 
three  hundred  or  more  In  a  single  pen. 

Afufiunt  af  «|tarf  jier  JhicL 

The  unit  for  estimating  the  capacity  of 
poultry-houseB  is  the  wjuare  feet  of  floor  space 
allowed  per  hen.  In  thie  respect,  atao,  the 
effort  to  save  lalwjr  has  modified  the  practice. 
Formerly  it  wai^  thought  necessary  to  allow 
each  fowl  eight  to  ten  square  feet  of  floor 
space;  now,  four  to  five  square  feet  per  hen 
La  generally  thought  to  be  sufficient.  A  few 
poultrymen  allow  as  little  at)  two  and  one-half 
to  three  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl. 
The  apace  that  mujit  be  allowed  for  the  maxi- 
mum capacity  of  a  pen.  with  the  mioimum 
of  labor  and  risk,  will  depend  on  several 
important  considerations : 

(1)  The  locality  and  the  season  of  the  year.  If 
the  fowls  are  to  be  allowed  to  run  out  on  the 
ranpe  a  large  part  of  the  year,  the  danger  from 
cungf'Stinn  in  thfl  honsee  will  be  far  less  than  in  a. 
locality  where  thu  season  of  cU>8o  confinement  in 
thu  houites  is  longer.  Manifestly,  during  the  sum- 
mer abofion,  when  hens  are  largely  out-of-doors, 
more  fowls  can  l>c  kept  in  a  pen  than  during  the 
winter  season  when  they  are  confined. 

(2)  The  larger  brt^ed^  require  more  floor  space 
than  do  the  smaller  breeds,  but  not  bo  mnch  per 
pound  live  weight,  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
lighter  breeds  are  more  active  and  impatient  under 
restraint.    For  the  more  active  breeds,  a  good 


working  rule  is  to  allow  about  one  square  foot  of 
floor  space  per  poand  live  weight,  i.  e.,  about  foor 
square  feet  per  fowl.  With  the  heavier  breeds,  a 
little   less  floor  space  per  poand  live  weight  is 


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667 


Deeded  ;  in  other  words,  six-pound  fowls  shonld  be 
allowed  a1>out  live  square  feet  each. 

(3)  Fowls  kept  in  large  fLocV&  require  lesa  fluor 
Apace  per  ben  than  do  tbojte  kept  in  »inall  dr>ck«. 


Vtjf'-fSOtf^ 


-TJ'- 


i 


•'/S&*'-^0*f./f. 


t 


<4^fS0^^. 


vwns 


/ZUSpt'^ihf/t.      D 


lS'/S0''4S0*fA  E 


around: 


Tls.  S57-    Sbowiai  tvlatioD  ol  ttu^e  ot  Iuiuk  to  tCMtmi  ot 

<!oiutiuctl<Mi.    SijQKre  licnuM  tronaiolM  lumbAT  and  tsbor 
of  rmiitnjcllin. 

Tbis  is  due  to  the  fact  that  iia  larf^e  flocks  oach  ben 
has  greater  freedom  of  action,  i.  c,  hu  more  space 
for  exercise. 

Location  of  the  potdtrjt-hmute. 

The  location  nf  a  pctuitry-hfiuKa  haii  much  to  do 
with  itH  valiiH.  The  following  factors  must  he  con- 
aiilenHi : 

(1)  It  should  face  the  south  if  poaaible,  in  order 
to  Ret  the  larj^eftt  benefit  from  the  sun. 

(2)  It  should  be  protected  from  the  preTailing 
winds  hy  beinc  placed  in  tbe  lee  of  a  hill,  uf  treen, 
or  of  buildinK«. 

(3)  It  Khf>uM  fitand  on  well-drained  soil  in  order 
to  Insure  drynisu,  warmth,  clvaolinuHH  and  healtb- 
folness. 

(4)  It  Khould  be  pl&cod  on  productive  soil  in 
order  to  insore  good  sod  pasturage  and  healthful 
growth  of  trees  for  shade. 

(5)  It  nhould  he  on  land  high  enough  to  insure 
good  air-drainnge.  (Fig. 
&&6.)  Cold  air  Hetties  In  low 
pockets.  Such  locations  are 
frequently  colder  than  the 
higher  and  more  exposed 
vituationa. 

Shape  «y  thr  kovK. 

The  nearer  aiiuane  a  j^en  is, 
the  less  wilE  be  thu  cost  for 
material  and  labor  of  con- 
struction as  compared  with 
A  pen  that  w  longer  and  nar- 
rower and  contains  the  same 
numlwr  of  square  feet  of 
tloor  spac«.  (Fig.  oTiT).  It 
is  162  feet  around  a  hoiute 
6x75  feet,  and  only  &4.8 
feel  arounc)  a  house  21.2  x 
21.2  feet, —  a  difference  of 
77.2  foet.  F,acli  hnaae  con- 
tainji  the  mimt-  number  of 
sajaarc  feet  of  floor  space, 
and    tberofore  eaeh   waohl 


accommodate  the  same  number  of  fowls.  Puns  lit, 
18  or  20  feet  square  are  the  more  desirable  widtlw, 
depending  i^omewhat  on  the  kind  of  roof  that  it 
ia  desired  ti>  build. 

Ftmndaiion. 

Heavy,  t*xp«nsive  foundations  are  nnnec^tsary 
for  hen-houaes.  \  widl-made  concrete  wall,  four  to 
six  inches  on  top  and  eight  to  tun  inches  on  the 
bottom,  straight  edge  on  the  outside,  the  top  nix 
inches  above  ground  and  the  bottom  eighteen 
inchefl  below  ground,  is  all  that  is  required.  Such 
a  foumhition  i^hnuld  kt-ep  out  surface  water,  is 
practically  rat']>roiif,  and  if  th»  land  is  naturally 
or  artificially  wid]  drained,  should  not  be  atTected 
by  freezinti.  Whyn  sand  and  gravtd  coat  nut  to 
exceed  $1.25  per  cubic  yard,  cement  tib  cents  per 
bushel,  and  labor  $1.50  for  ten  honrii,  the  wall  should 
be  built  for  17  cents  a  sfinare  foot.  In  Fig.  5.j8,  at 
A  is  shown  a  combination  of  stone  and  gnnil  founda- 
tion ciimbined  with  cement  Umir.  Both  foundatirtn 
and  floor  are  built  comjdete  before  the  framework 
of  the  house  is  begun.  Thu  stone  under  tbe  foun- 
dation and  door  providw  drainage  and  lessens  the 
danger  from  heaving.  At  K  i9  shown  a  stone 
foundation  and  cement  floor.  The  loo»e  stone  wall 
is  cheaper  but  not  so  tight  or  serviceable.  Note 
the  method  of  cementing  sgainKt  the  fiill  in  order 
to  pruvunl  the  entrance  uf  air  between  Uie  bIII  and 
foundation.  At  C  is  indicated  a  Iwveled  outride 
edge  of  the  foundation,  which  is  less  desirable  than 
the  foundation  shown  at  .A.  whore  the  outside  edge 
is  vertical  and  tbe  siding  overlaps  the  sill  and 
cement  fl<wir.  At  D  is  illustrated  a  type  of  stone 
wall  laid  in  mortar  and  ''{minted  up,"  in  order  to 
insure  n^^atnoHs  and  tigbtneiis.  This  ordinarily  is 
too  t^xponsivu  because  of  the  high  price  of  labor. 

Heighl  of  Die  po\t!iry-hou»e, 

Poul try-bo U8«t  must  be  built  much  higher  than 
wonld  Iw  necpiwary  for  the  hens,  in  order  that  they 


-^MMC 


DlflRMt  ItrlM  of  fDU«tttaM. 


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fOR  6*  /ffiVS  Wl!GHm. 

peftHSN-fcun. 


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j/£  ci^rz  >wi  jflfiCf  few 

64.ti£/VS  rtC;&W/K6  +i.fl5. 

-2CU.FT.   PEfi  POUNO  UVC 

WOC-HT 


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:::_:::i: 

1  1  1  1  1  1  mHHH 

i"  "in: 

1  9' 

1 

—  —  —  —  _^ 



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p  —  -^ — 

T--1 

1 

1  -       _  __ 



;::::  —  :: 

_I .   ~-7 

!--_.±^ 

1                                            ^ 

i±±lLL^ 

»ii-L'J-L. 

wei^T  for  a  *paufKt  A*rt. 


lie  559.  AmDUBt  d(  xii  simc*  la  bouscE  of  Taritiui  beiKhta. 
and  thB  M|iJ4re  feet  of  Boar  ipAce  allowed  fu  oacb  pound 
of  live  wricbt. 

may  be  convenient  for  the  attendant  to  work 
inflide.  The  mltf  of  ont>  f.nbic  foot  of  air  apace  to 
on&  ponnd  of  live  weifiht,  which  ia  nsod  in  bcilding 
Btableg,  would  make  the  hen-house  only  one  foot 
htgh.  This  is  assuming  that  we  are  to  allow  one 
square  foot  of  floor  space  to  each  ponnd  of  tii'e 
weight.  Such  a  condition  ts  illustrated  in  Fig.  rjr>9, 
which  shows  the  allotment  of  the  floor  space  in  a 
pen  16  feet  square  to  64  hens,  weiphinK  4  pounds 
each.  Numbers  1,  2.  3  and  -1  show  the  height  of 
the  pen,  not  includins  the  roof  space,  when  1,  2,  4 
and  8  cubic  feet  of  air  apace,  respectively,  are 
allowed  per  hen.  The  roof  space  alone  provides  4 
cubic  feet  of  air  space  for  each  iwHnd  live  weight 
tor  01  hena  weighing  4  pounds  «ach.  It  will  be 
Bd&a  that  with  the  above  a!lowanc(«,  a  poultry- 
houHe  with  a  oni^-half  iiitch  }j;uble  roof  an<3  6  feet 
high  at  the  eaves,  would  allow  10  cubic  feet  of  air 
apace  for  each  ponind  of  live  weight,  which  ia  about 
tea  limes  a£  much  as  would  be  allowed  per  poiind 
of  live  weight  in  building  a  stable  :  hence,  the  rule 
which  requires  that  a  poultry-house  should  be  built 
as  low  as  poenible  without  inconvenience  to  the 
person  working  inside. 

Kind9  Iff  mUa,   (Fig.  560.) 

The  walls  should    be  so  conatruct«-d  that    they 
will  prevent  drafts,  retain  the  beat,  and  prevent 


condensation   nf  moiature.   Several   posaible 
types  are  as  follows  : 

(.\)  Single,  unmatched  boarding.  This  is 
too  open,  loo  cold,  and  ton  driifty. 

(B)  Samf-  as  {X),  with  cracks  covered  with 
batten.  It  ia  tiot  light  enough.  Battens  aro 
expensive. 

(C)  .yatchiii  (tongued  and  grrwved)  hoards. 
This  is  sulHcienlly  tight  and  warm  for  moBl 
aectiona  of  the  country.  It  is  the  least  ex- 
pensive construction  considering  its  effective- 

(0)  8ame  as  (C),  with  heavy  building- 
paper  either  on  the  inside  or  outside.  Tighter 
and  warmer  than  {€}  and  di'^iirable  on  expowd 
locations.  Outside  papering  is  preferable  to 
inside. 

(Bt  ^atne  as  (D),  with  insidft  lining  of 
matched  boards  with  dead-air  space.  It  is  too 
expensive  and  unnecessary.  The  dead -air 
space  becomes  a  cold-air  rhamlwr.  which  is 
likely  to  caiin©  moisture  to  condense  on  the 
inner  wall  if  the  house  is  tight. 

<V)  Same  as 
(E>.e.\ceptthat 
the  dead -air 
space  id  stuffed 
with  insulating 
material,  which 

makes  it  le^ss  afected 

by    Weather    condi- 
tions, but   it  is  tflio 

expensive. 

(G)  Same   as   (P). 

except  that  the  ceil- 

\ng     is     unmatched 

and  g>ermit6  the  fre>e 

entrance  of  air.    It 

prevents  the  forma- 
tion of  a  cold  jacket. 

txMrause  it    warms 

during  the  day.  and 

the  wall  and  straw 

iierve  the  purpose  of 

preventing  the  warm 

air  of  thtf  room  com- 
ing in  contact  with 

the   cold    outside 

boarding  and  having 

its  heat  taken  away. 

tt  iacheaiwr  than(F), 

and  more  to  W  de- 

airifd,  hut  will  form 

a  harboring  place 

for  mitt*  if  roosting 

arrangements  are 

placed    against   it 

during  the   summer 

season.   (Ill   This   is 

double -hoarded   and 

double-papered,  with 

dvad-air   space  ;    o  r 

the    same    material 

may  be  built  solidly     f^^_  ^^    8,^^,  typ„  ^  ^ 

together.    Itoth  are  um4  Ui  poiiitiT-kouNs. 


A 

6 

C 

D 

E 

r 

i 

si 

o 

•rt! 

H 

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Fl<.  Ml.    Thoktiape  irf  Uac  nnl  tnflucncca  Ulo  eoit.    Th»coiii 

|sU«-roo(   \sv*,  AQil   tlir    l>tt«i:  laLeii  lu**  tliau  lliB  tiled 
root. 

too  expensivi^,  and  therefore  aro  undeairablc   The 
Bolit)  cojuilruction  ji«  ti^^ht,  but  cold. 

Nnmliere  1,  2  and  3  in  Fig.  ftf-d.  shovf  the  com- 
panitivptampE'ratiirai  uut)ti<l«  and  vnvMSx:  a  house  at 
different  times  of  the  day,  and  the  elfuct  that  each 
type  of  wait  will  have  fni  the  warmth  and  dryness 

of  tho  house  un- 
.-^r  '  dor  varying  con- 
ditions. When  a 
house  is  tight 
and  intmlaled. 
and  the  air  \& 
not  altowud  to 
change  frttdy,  it 
will  bo  wanner 
during  the  cold 
nightf)  intiidf 
than  it  is  uut«ide 
thtt  houjw.  When 
tht>Aiinshint.>,  tho 
fullowing  day, 
warnif*  the  air 
outside,  fr«ciuently  it  is  colder  inside  than  it  Is 
outride  the  nonne.  When  warm  air  entcTis  it  pickn 
up  the  moiHtaru.  The  motxtunj-laden  air  coroe£  in 
contact  with  the  cold  walht,  which  cundf^nwt 
the  moifttare,  and  tho  honse  is  said  to  awt>at. 
If  the  walls  arc  Rofficiently  cold,  the  moisture 
freezes  and  the  walls  are  covered  with  frost. 
In  ordE!r  to  secure  reasonable  warmth  and 
dryaeas  in  a  hen-houxe,  the  walls  should  be 
tight  ofl  all  sideM,  including  ru^f  and  flfKtr, 
except  tho  south,  which  may  he  compara- 
tively loose.  ThiB  provide*  a  quiet  mt«r- 
change  of  atr  without  draft. 

B«^  ^  the  pnvllrtf'houff. 

The  style  of  rnof  Inflnencea  to  a  large 
extent  the  cost  and  efficiency  of  a  poultry- 
houHe.  Fig.  561  ahnws  the  thr«p  most  r»m- 
mon  types  of  roofs,— the  shod,  the  gabU  and 


Tti.  Stl.    The  ibcd  n»f  nquiin  Uic 
most  lanilm. 


the  comhination  shod  and  gahle.  If  the  pitch  of  all 
of  the^e  roofs  ii  alike,  there  is  no  did'ervnce  in  the 
amount  of  material  required  to  build  them.  There 
ii!  conside-rahle  ditference.  however,  in  tho  amount 
of  material  re<|uired  to  build  the  houi^e  when  these 
three  kinds  of  roof  are  compjired.  The  difference  is 
due  to  the  amount  of  material  reiiuireiJ  to  build  the 
aides  in  each  type.  It  will  be  readily  sefn  in  Fig. 
f)61  that  tha  house  with  the  combination  roof  ru- 
(juires  less  lumber  than  the  gable-roof  house,  and 
that  the  latt(;r  requires  le.'W  than  the  shed  roof.  The 
gable  is  one  and  one-half  feet  higher  in  the  rear, 
and  the  shed  n^of  three  feet  higher  in  front— a 
difference  of  one  and  one-half  feet  in  favor  of  the 
gable  roof.  The  steej'tT  the  pitch  nf  the  roof,  the 
greater  U  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  gablu  roof, 
and  against  tho  shed-roof  type.  (Fig.  rifi2.)  If  all 
three  types  are  built  with  the  same  pitch,  and  the 
same  amount  of  material  in  the  roof  and  sides,  and 
the  front  in  all  three  typej<  is  hiiilt  high  enough  to 
permit  the  top  of  the  window  to  be  iilaced  five  feet 
nigh,  the  three  tyitva  of  huwes  will  appear  as  in 
Fig.  r»6S.  In  the  shed-roof  house,  the  ceiling  is  too 
low  to  bo  practicable,  but  the  windows  can  be 
placed  highest.  In  tho  gable'roof  type  the  windows 


.--" 


% 


T 


■« 


^ 


■/s- 


pic.  U3.    Bacb  Dl  Uww  Uiice  hmM*  reqolcM  the  ume  tmmat 
of  nuterlKl,  ud  the  pitch  of  the  Toof  Is  tke  tame. 

must  be  placed  too  low.  The  comhination  roof 
furnishfA  the  best  combination  of  head  room  and 
height  of  window,  with  the  luast  amount  of  build- 
ing materials,  same  floor  space,  and  least  cubic 
feet  of  air  space. 

In  Fig.  Titk  are  shown  six  styles  of  roof.  The 
monitor  (1)  and  half  munitor  (1)  are  types  adapt- 
able to  houses  twenty  fe»>t  wide  or  wider.  They 
provide  for  light  in  the  back  part  of  tbe  house  and 
save  expeDAu  for  material,  p^-rmit  a  8t«ep6r  pitch, 


n 


Fig.  SM      RmI  typM.     1.  montloT:    t,  tbed    rooft  3.   c>hli>    rnof:   *. 
0D*-haU  (DODitori  5.  mublDAtlan  tWrd  kriI  r»M*^  S,  lilp  ronf. 


660 


POULTRY 


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PtS'  !*&■     UettlOllB  of  Timi|[lng  wlll<l0W». 


avDJil  ths  weakness  of  long  spans  and  reduce  the 
air  spaeea  as  comparod  to  liie  very  wide  ahed-roof 
house.  For  houses  np  to  eiKhteen  feet  wide,  the 
ahfd  roof  ta  to  bo  preferred  because  of  IIh  siimple 
construction.  It  throws  nil  rain  water  to  the  rear, 
has  the  highest  vertical  front  to  permit  biuh  win- 
dows ajid  to  furnish  shelter  to  the  yard  in  front.  It 
is  easy  to  keep  cool  in  siiTnmer  becatise  it  allowa 
the  hot  air  an  easy  escape  through  the  high  front. 
The  paper  roof  laiits  longer  if  it  slopes  to  the  north. 
The  gable-roof  type  ia  generally  considered  to  be 
more  attractive,  but  provides  too  much  sir  space 
and  is  too  expensive  if  the  sides  are  built  high 
enough  to  permit  the 
windows  to  be  placed  so 
as  to  light  the  entire 
hoUiiie. 

In  Fig.  5fi5  are  shown 
eight  types  of  windows 
and  methoilj^  of  hiinging 
them.  Nn.  1  ifi  hinged  on 
the  sidt-,  which  may  jjen- 
orally  h«  conKidurwi  the 
most  desirabtf,  all  things 
coni^iderecl.  It  can  be  quickly  swung  againiit  tho 
wall,  out  of  the  way,  and  can  be  opened  little  or 
much  to  providi3  ventilation  without  permitting  the 
wind  ti)  blow  directly  into  the  house.  No.  2  is  a 
douhlu-fiash  window  which  slides  up  and  down.  It  is 


difficult  to  remove  in  the 
summer  season  and  c<st8 
more  to  buy  iind  install 
than  a  single  sash  of  the 
same  siso.  \o.  <S  slidea 
to  one  side.  It  is  difficult 
to  mora  becAuse  of 
weight,  e«pecially  in  cold, 
stormy  weather,  when  ice 
may  freeat;  it  fast.  No.  4 
Kwjii)^  out  from  the  top 
and  makes  it  Qecessarjr 
to  have  the  wire  on  Um 
inside;  it  is  difficult  to 
move,  likeiy  to  be  brokea 
liy  the  wind. and  makes  the 
|iena  \Ata  hot  in  sumner 
by  reflection  of  the  sun's 
rays.  No.  ii  \»  hinged  at 
the  top  and  swings  in- 
ward. It  must  be  raised 
out  of  the    way  when 

opened,  and^  because  of  weight,  is  likely  to  fall  and 

break.    No.  6  is  in  the  way  when  opened  and  in 

that  pusition  permttH  the  fowla  to  roost  on  it ;  it 

cannot  be  easily  removed.    Na 

7  makes  it  impossible  tu  have 

wire  on   cither  the  outside  or 

the  inside,  and   is  not  strong 

and   dnrable.    No.    8 


SkK   fpOM 

April  Jlrf 

to 
,  Sefl4lA 


has  tliH  name  ohjec- 
iiona  as  No.  7. 


V 


</. 


.■*- 


/s- 


M  s» 


A 


V 


Sun  st 
0«e.iJA 


Fie.  IM.    Tbe  anelee  at  whlcb  the  ann't  ta.ys  edtei  tka 
bOIIM  thT1KlE&  wUULowi  Rt  dlfftntit  tkdctiU. 


-Sss. 


Plf.  S67.   Tnm  ot  «oon  u4  metlioda  of  tuinilDjc  tbea. 


CAae.»  windows  should 
lie  placed  hit^h  U|i  and 
down  rather  than  wide 
hortzontatly,  in  order  to 
throw  the  mmlight  far 
back.  Fig.  5t»f>  shows  the 
angle.'4  at  which  the  san- 
light  entt-rs  a  poultry- 
hotiHe  lit  ditfen^nt  times  of 
the  year,  when  the  tops  of  the  windowa  are  placed 
four  feet,  six  foet  and  seven  feet,  respectively.  It 
will  be  seen  that  in  order  to  have  the  direct  sun- 
shine  reach  the  hack  of  a  house  fifteen  feet  wide, 
in  December  when  the  nun  is  the  loweet  and  sun- 
shine is  moHt  to  be  de- 
Hireii,  it  ia  Mocossary  to 
have  the  top  of  the  win- 
dow seven  feet  high.  By 
having  a  long,  narrow 
ribbon  of  light  enter  the 
houses  through  s  long,  high 
window,  placed  vertically, 
the  sun,  piw<ing  from  ejut 
to  west,  sweeps  the  entire 
floor  space,  drying  the 
Qoor,   killing    disease. 


^ 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Ml 


warraitifi  the  room  ard  giving  good  cheer.  There 
ahnulcj  ike  aluiiit  one  itfinan*  font  of  gbLts  surface 
provided  tnr  each  twi-nty  mjuare  feet  of  tIriors[)!icc, 
and  about  the  »aute  umount  i)f  cloth  winiluw  aroa. 
If  only  cloth  or  only  aimn  wimlowrs  are  to  be  usi'^d, 
there  ahouW  t«5  about  one  square  foot  of  window 
opening  to  each  ten  square  fe<.'t  of  floor  apace. 
Windowa  in  the  roof  are  undeeirable  because 
more  easily  brtiken,  and  arc  likely  to  leak. 
W'indnwa  pliutt^l  on  the  eaHt  and  west 
ends  of  a  house  are  desirable,  provided 
they  do  act  [wrmit  drafts  through 
the  honse. 


^.^  If* 

l(klMi  W4iq  aata 


-fS- 


Pig.  5tA.    Ctou-uctUa  of  hflue.    Not*  mil  MCatnethm,  vpatilntliic 
<]«vW,  And  cablv  itiatt«il  wlih  •!»«. 


Doors. 

Id  Fi^.  JJ67  are 
shown  »\x  types  of 
doors  and  methods  of 
hanging  them.  No.  1 
RhowH  a  duor  that  ia 
hung  to  itwing  in  to- 
ward the  middle  of 
the  room.  It  is  objec- 
tionable because  it 
frightens  the  hens  and 
i»  less  conrenient  as 
it  must  be  opened  so 
wide.  Na  2  opens 
against  the  side  wall  away  from  the  middle  of  the 
room,  and  doe*  away  with  the  objections  to  No.  1. 
Both  of  these  doora  have  threahholds  raised  six 
incfaei!  above  the  floor,  which  prevent  the  titter 
from  interfering  with  the  action  of  the  door  and, 
when  the  door  is  open,  prevent  the  fowls  scratch- 
ing out  the  litter.  No.  'i  i«  a  "Dutch"  door,  i.  e.,  it 
is  in  two  parts.  The  upper  door  may  be  opened 
daring  winter  weather,  thua  serving  the  purpose 
of  an  open  window,  and  the  lower  part  may  remain 
shut  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  on  the 
fowls.  No.  4  does  not  have  the  raised  thresh- 
hold.  No.  ")  is  a  double  door,  swinging  both  ways 
on  dcable-acting  hinge.i.  This  is  a  desirable  form 
for  large  houses,  where  a  trolley  and  tnick  are 
used,  hut  ia  unhandy  for  general  use.  No.  6  is  a 
single  door  swinging  from  the  side  with  heavy, 
doublE«- acting  hinges,  and  is  greatly  to  be  desired 
because  it  permits  rapid  passage  through  the  houiae 
without  the  necessity  of  stopping  to  latch  and 
unlatch  doorn.  Doors 
should  b0  not  less 
than  two  feet,  six 
inches  wide  and  aix 
feet,  six  inches  high, 
in  order  to  permit  a 
person  topass  through 
easily  with  a  basket  in 
each  hand  and  toavoid 
bomping  the  head. 

Floort.   (Fig.  or*.) 

The  floor  of  the 
poultry -hoDsit  should 
be  HO  built  as  to  in- 
sure dryneM,  warmth, 
rat-proofneas,  ease  of 

C96 


[]jn»|p 


NU'Ulor 


Wir*ia. 


*  'f 


cleaning  and  durability,  with  reasonable  coat.  A 
properly  conatnicted  cement  floor  accomplishes  all 
the  rcxjuiruments  better  tlmn  either  a  board  or  a 
soil  floor.  A  board  flour  lacks  durability  if  it  is 
near  the  ground  and  if  the  outside  air  ia  excluded 
from  beneath.  If  the  outside  air  i»  not  thus 
exc-ludeil,  the  floor  is  cold,  and  if  it  is  made  of 
unmatched  boards,  it  is  also  drafty  and  permits 
much  grain  and  litter  to  fall  throQgh,  which 
Is  lioth  wa.^tef^l  and  unsanitary.  (Fig. 
.  11.)  The  board  and  earth  floors 
harbor  rats,  and  the  latter  ii^  diffi- 
cult to  dean  and  likely  to  be 
damp.  lOach  of  thctie  floors 
will  be  cold  unless  it 
is  well  carpeted  with 
a  litter  of  straw. 

A  properly  con- 
structed cement  floor 
must  be  well  under- 
drained,  with  three  to 
six  inches  of  tine  t;tone 
or  coarse  gravel,  on 
which  two  or  three 
inches  of  ffront  is  laid. 
over  which  should  be 
placed  about  one  inch 
of  cement.  The  grout 
should  be  mixed  one  part  portland  cement  to  three 
parts  clean,  sharp  sand  and  Hvo  parts  coarse  gravel 
or  fine  Btone.  (Fig.  558.  ABC.)  The  one-inch  coat 
shoutd  consist  of  one  part  portland  cement  to  three 
parts  clean,  sharp  i^and,  well  mixed  dry  and  then 
thoroughly  mixed  with  water  and  applied  before 
the  grout  is  hard,  so  that  they  will  set  together. 
Cement  floors,  if  possible,  should  be  made  in  Rum- 
mer or  early  fall,  so  that  they  will  hare  time  to 
harden  and  dry  before  the  houses  are  occupied. 

Veatilatwn. 

However  desirable  the  elaborate  modern  sys- 
tems of  ventilation  may  be  for  larger  buildings, 
they  are  not  to  be  recommended  for  hen-housos. 
The  chief  reason  whv  they  have  proved  unsatis- 
factory in  poultry- buildings  is  because  of  the  com- 
paratively small  amount  of  heal  generatwd  by  the 
fowls'  bodies  in  proportion  to  Ihe  large  amount  of 
air  space.    This  makes  a  draft  in  the  ventilator 

ItMS  certain  because 
of  a  lack  of  difference 
in  temperature  be- 
tween the  outitide  and 
the  inside  air.  Fig. 
fiGS  shows  a  common, 
andofiirable  type  of 
ventilator  shaft.  This 
form  is  better,  how- 
over,  than  the  venti- 
lator shaft  that  opens 
ne-ar  thi*  roof,  t>ecause 
it  Lakes  the  iiir  from 
near  the  floor  and  dots 
not  allow  thu  warm 
air  to  etwape  so  rap- 
idly, nor  is  it  so  likely 


Plf.  5M.    iDUniH-  of  lieii-houM  In  prDCou  ol  e«n«tnictl4ii. 
Flnl*b«il  itructuTv  ftbowu  In  Flu.  U). 


Mi 


POtn,TRY 


POULTRY 


to  permit  counter  currents  to  f&rm,  by  which  the 
cold  air  poors  down  on  the  fowls. 

The  simplest,  most  effectire,  least  expensive  arxJ 
most  easily  operated  system  of  necoring  a  ijiiiwt 
chanf^e  of  air  in  a  poaltry-hoase  is  by  div^dh  of  ii 
looac-meah  cloth  window.  When  propt-rly  intitalled, 
this  provides  for  a  moderate  change  of  air  with- 
out draft.  The  amount  and  kind  of  cloth  that 
should  be  used  will  depend  on  the  location  and  tlie 
nature  of  the  houRe.  The  ti>rhter  the  house,  thti 
lar^r  the  window  area  and  the  looser  the  mesh  of 
the  cloth  may  ha;  and  conversely,  the  more  looflely 
the  bouse  ia  constructed,  the  smaller  the  cloth 
opening  and  the  doavr  the  me-^h  of  the  cloth  must 


^uscfrrded  htm  Rafters 


rj 


^p.- 


frrJ}: 


f^rt. 


fjJn 


&e^. 


/it6t&- 


p!a!(orn 
Door  (a  Ne^rs 


jCurCa/n 


\.^ 


Fiji-  S?0.    Neatf  >od  rooatiBiK  >i ruxg^menU 

be.  A  small  opening  on  the  bock,  tho  endB,  ur  in 
the  roof  or  floor  of  a  houAp,  will  cause  drafts  of 
air  to  pai*  thrtrngb  the  cloth,  which  otk^rwise 
would  permit  only  a  slow  dilTQHion.  Tn  a  very 
tightly  constructed  himsf>,  rhetwe-cinlb  will  prove 
more  satisfiu'tory  than  heavy  mufilirii.  A  [luultry- 
house  having  a  tloth  window  may  becLime  damp 
if  there  is  not  satficiunt  ehank'*'  of  air,  which  fre- 
qoently  ia  the  case  whc^n  too  heavy  muslin  or  too 
small  area  of  cloth  is  a»ed  in  a  tight-walled  hoii»e. 
Oiled  cloth  should  never  be  nsed.  It  abuts  nut  both 
air  and  nnnlight  and  <tefpnt^  the  whole  ptirpuHi!  of 
the  cloth  window.  The  clinlh  windows  shmild  hinge 
from  the  t4>p  and  be  su  bung  that  they  may  be 
rained,  lowere^l  and  removed  easily. 

.\  pOMttry-hyuffC  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  possi- 
ble in  the  (*ummer  by  htinging  the  cU»th  window 
frames  from  the  top  on  the  rvutside  nf  the  windows. 
They  thus  serve  as  an  awning  and  make  the  house 
much  cooler  during  the  hot  sciison.  An  o[K!ning  in 
the  front,  near  the  peak  of  the  shed* roof  bnusu 
(Pig.  555),  covered  by  a  wooden  door  hinged  by 
the  top  to  swing  outward,  prevents  the  hot  air 
from  pocketing  in  the  highest  parts  of  the  ronf 
and  makes  the  house  much  cooler.  A  single  open- 
ing in  the  rear  of  the  house,  under  the  eavea,  if 


placed  so  as  to  prevent  draft  on  the  fowls,  is 
desirable  feature,  keeping  the  house  cool  durins 
summer.  The  method  of  double  boarding  befaina 
and  above  thn  [wrchw  (Pig.  5B9)  makes  it  possi- 
ble to  have  a  free  pa^umge  of  ntr  through  the 
house  by  means  of  the  back  window  without 
drafts  on  the  fowls. 

Interior  arrangemeni*. 

The  interior  arrangement  should  be  portable, 
simple,  convenient,  and  Hh»uld  not  occupy  floor 
space.  Fig.  ■'»70  Hbow«  four  methods  of  placing  the 
roosting  and  nesting  arrangements.  In  ".■\,"  the 
perfehes  and  ne-nts  hang  from  the  rafters  away  from 
the  side  wall,  making  it 
easy  to  fight  the  mites. 
The  droppings  piatform 
must  be  made  rigid  or  it 
will  \i(i  difficult  to  clean. 
Type  "B"  provides  for  a 
rigid  droppings  platfona 
and  removable  perdwa.! 
Type  "C"  is  not  to  b«  reo-j 
nmmended  because  it  lacks  I 
rigiility.  The  nests  should 
Iju  close  up  under  the  plat* 
form  in-stead  of  on  the  level 
of  the  floor,  which  requires 
tho  person  gathering  the 
eggs  to  bend  over.  Type 
"D"  is  perhaps  the  most 
desirable  of  the  f*iur  de- 
vices nhown.  The  nests  are 
placed  directly  under  th*? 
droppings  platform,  where 
they  are  least  in  the  way, 
most  acce«flible,  lejwt  ex- 
[H^nsive  to  conatnict,  and 
Heclusive,  |>ermitting  the 
fowls  to  hide  their  nesla.  The  purclies  are  built 
together  in  H  rack,  are  not  hinged,  and  are  removed 
togethiT.  The  droppings  platform  rests  on  cleats,. 
ami,  tike  the  neating  compartment,  is  removable, 
NestJ^  Bhimld  lie  at  least  ten  to  twelve  inrhett  fNiaara^ 
and  Hi.\  to  eight  inches  di^ep.  One  nesl  should  be 
allowed  tu  Iivl-  fowbs.  -About  six  iucbei*  of  perch 
room  is  reijuirod  for  small  fowls  and  eight  inches 
for  larger  bree^ls.  Every  pen  should  be  provided 
with  a  fiust  bath  and  broody  coop,  water  pan.  grit- 
and  feed-hiipjwrsand  a  grain-supply  ran.  The  fecd- 
aiid  grit-hopfiers  should  be  rat  prtiiif,  fon-e-fi.'edinp 
and  non-wawting.  The  broody  coop  is  bwtt  pnivided 
by  partitioning  off  a  part  of  the  perch  platform 
and  providing  a  false  floor  to  keep  the  fowls  dry 
and  clean.  The  dust  bath  should  be  placed  close  to 
the  ghuw  window,  where  it  will  tie  warmest  and 
dryest.  It  should  be  covered  to  prevent  the  dnsi 
entering  the  roftm.  A  pit  sunk  in  Ibe  cemi-nt  floor, 
near  a  low  window  (Fig.  .Vi-S),  makes  a  desirable 
dust  wallow.  Water  pnmt  should  hold  more  than 
enough  to  last  thct  flock  twenty-four  hours,  should 
\w  easily  cleaned,  filled  and  emptied.  They  shasld 
have  Hiiring  sides  to  make  the  removal  nf  ice  easy, 
and  should  he  mmie  of  material  that  will  not  rasti' 
or  break  easily. 


'/vest& 


rr.iiTiiiir:  ri(    hrePiJ'  of  fowls 


T*ii.  Ml.  Hnrr  <'-i.liiii;  ^••^^  hkIiI  -^ilvrT-llw"]  WyiiuJull*.  Sof<^!iil  T\'V.  Ml.  llarr-il  ['b  iiii-iilli  Ru-k  )>>ti  m.J  nrl 
ri«lit  ceiilrr.  Wliile  i'l.riiiinilh  k'"k.  iiiJi"-r  itiiil  liiivpr  tikIiI.  HHi'rr  S|miii>tril  Hniiitnirir  i-iK.'k»nil  hen  Thlnl  nivt  }rn,  Illi 
MtiHin-A  li*ti!  pfiiWr,  IflFvk  MliiorcA  niwlt;  rtcht  S^lH■lp^■(lmh  Whlt.»  l^elioni  liro  iloltuia  row  left,  SUicr  Wfal 
rack'.  Millar,  tiil«>r  fi>ui!)W  Wyud<itl«  iMiii  rliiltl.  Singlo-Miiub  White  Lekburn  omk, 


POULTRY 


ses 


Breeds  and  Types  of  Chickens.    Figs.  571-681. 

By    r.  K.  Orr. 

The  acknowledged  authority  on  poultry  matters 
is  the  American  I'oultry  Aasocialion.  This  w  a 
body  of  fanciers,  orpanixed  in  lS73,  now  having  a 
membership  of  nearly  nine  hundred  peruons.  It 
pQblishes  once  in  live  years  a  b'xik,  "The  .Standard 
of  Perfection,"  which  describes  and  illustrates 
Tirietiea  considered  worthy  of  recognition.  This 
book  prescribes  rules  for  th«  raanafiement  of  shows 
and  for  the  judging  of  fowlfi  by  both  the  score-card 
and  the  comparison  methods.  The  one  hundred 
and  four  varieties  now  recognized  in  thv  Standard 
may  properly  be  classified  under  the  two  general 
headings,  "  practical "  fowls  and  "  fancy"  fowls,  as 
foUows : 

I.   PRACTICAL  FOWLS 

American  (amily  ...  six  breeds  .  .  nevenbeeo  varietim 

AsiMtic  family      .    .    .  thrve  bnwds  .  viglit  vikrivlit-e 

Usdlterranitui  funily  .  ftre  hreeilfl  .  .  fourteen  varictiea 

Bnglijlifiniilr  ....  three  brMds  .  g^vcti  variotie« 

Pnach  family  ....  three  hrecvda  .  three  varifltteg 

Dutch  fuoily    ....  one  breed  .  .  »ix  viiri4-ti<>« 

Indian  faxnlfy    .  .  .  .one  breed  .  .  tw»  v&rietieH 

II.   PANOY   POWUS 

Poiifih  family    ....  one  beeed  .   .  eig^ht  varivttes 
Gaoif  fncnilv     ....  onr  breed   .    .  d^ht  vnirietiwi 
Game  bantam  family  .  one  breed  .   .  ei|[ht  varieliefl 
OrieaUl  Gamo  family  .  twn  breeds     .  two  varleliee 
Oriestal     bHD  tan 

family one  bnwd    .    .  i»i(>  variety 

OmaiDeD  tal     b  s  n  I  a  in 

family sevt-n  breeds  .  aeventacn  vBrielias 

Hi»c«llAneoiw    ....  thtee  breeds  .  tbree  rarietiuji 


I.  Practical  Fowls 

It  is  not  easier  to  approximate  perfection  of  show 
pointa  in  the  first  group  than  in  tb«>  second,  but 
wch  variety  in  the  fimt  gmnp  retainit  its  popularity 
because  of  some  practical  point,  -for  example,  the 
production  of  eggs  mr  flissh.  the  furnipr  i,inder  pecu- 
liar circnntstances  »r  the  lattt^r  of  a  particular 
qnality,  so  as  to  make  the  breed  (ir  vnriety  profit- 
able  to  the  man  who  pnyH  little  or  no  att^^ntion  to 
the  fancy  points  of  form  or  feather.  It  has  been 
said,  and  we  think  truthfully,  that  no  variety  can 
beci>me  nnivenwlly  papular  that  is  not  possessed  of 
some  characteri.?tic  that  commends  it  to  the  atten* 
tion  of  the  practical,  mnney-making  .American 
farmer. 

7%t  Ameriena  famUy. 

tiiminiquf. —Of  the  «venteen  American  varie- 
ties, the  lionlniques  are  certainly  the  varlivst  of 
origin.  Snme  persons  maintain  that  they  originated 
in  the  We^t  Indies.  We  do  not  know.  Their  form 
does  not  indicate  this.  The  writer  recalls  having 
8«en  them  in  Virginia,  on  the  farm  of  hii*  grand- 
mnther,  very  close  to  their  prettent  form  and  feather. 
in  the  fifties. 

In  form  they  are  very  compact  and  deep-bodied. 
In  weight  the  cocks  average  eight  pooDds,Rnd  the 


V, 


>'./. 


••l-^-; 


S#' 


Pis.  STI.   White  Flrnraittli  Rook  CBCk. 


hens  nix  pounds.  In  habit  they  are  very  active. 
They  arts  rather  slow  of  growth,  hot  when  mature 
the  huHs  are  persistMit  layers  and  excvllenl  moth- 
ers. In  color,  each  feather  should  he  crotused  with 
alternate  light  and  dark  bars  of  the  same  color  as 
the  weil-known  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  Fine  spec- 
imens of  this 
variety  are  now 
rare.  Their 
clustj.nwcuomba, 
clean  y  w  1 1  o  w 
shanks,  and  good 
commercial 
qUiUitien  should 
make  them  pop- 
ular once  more. 
Jam.— This 
breed,  with  its 
two  varieties. 
Black  and  Mot- 
tled, is  f>ec4md 
of  t  lie  .Ameri- 
cans in  antiq- 
uity. The  Java 
had  its  origin 
in  eastern  Now 
York.  In  the 
early  sixties,  it 
had  rejiched  such  uniformity  of  both  color  and 
shape,  partiuutarly  the  Black  variety,  at^  to  attract 
the  attentiuu  of  the  pitblit.  It  often  grows  larger 
than  the  Plymouth  Itock.  Its  leading  characteris- 
tics are  a  long,  rectangular  body  and  a  deep  yellow 
skin.  No  American  variety  breeds  more  true  to 
form  and  color  than  does  the  Black  Java. 

The  color  or  the  Mnttleil  Java  is  black  and 
white,  Hvenly  broken  in  alternate  splotches  through- 
nut  the  entire  plumage.  Both  varieties  have 
single  combs  and   clean  shanks. 

I'ii/moutk  Kock. 
— This  breed  is  di- 
vided into  three 
varieties,  the 
Barred,  White 
(Pig.  RTUandliuff 
(Fig.  ^u•Ji^.  The 
Burn?*!  variety 
originated  in  the 
■sixties,  in  Now 
Kngland.  Fowls  by 
the  name  of  Plym- 
outh Kock  h ad 
been  produced  fif- 
teen years  smmer, 
but  they  bore  oo 
relntinn  in  blood 
or  type  to  the  prw- 
ent  Barred  Plym- 
outh Rock.  Like 
all  other  Ameri- 
can varietieii.  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  is  of  mixed  origin.  Two 
things  are  certain,  both  Dominique  and  Black  Java 
blood  were  a  part  of  the  combination.  There  were 
other  bloais  used  by  the  early  experimenters,  par- 


Fia.  sn.    B«l  PlymouUi  Rock 

vullet. 


664 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


ticularly  that  of  Brahma  and  Cochin.  However 
uncertain  iin  anc^titry.  the  rfsnlt  has  boon  t<)  givi; 
us  in  the  Barred  I'lymoutli  Kock,  tlio  best-known 
and  moat  widely  (liA-wrninat^d  Ameri<'iui  fnw!.  In 
shape,  the  PljTDoulh  U&ck  ig  a  nicrt?  ax-erago  lietween 
itfl  two  ancestors,  tho  DomiiiiijiiH  anil  the  Java.  TW 
back  and  body  ara  rather  Ions,  I»n.ia8t  broad  and 
deep.  The  size  of  nit  three  variuties  is  ihu  nami*, 
the  cockfl  weighing  nine  and  one-half  pounds  and 
the  heas  seven  and  one-half  pounds.. 

The  wondt-rful  popularity  that  fell  to  the  lot  of 
the  Harred  riymonth  Rock  in  Ihu  early  sc-vcntiL's 


T-^^ 


W 


PJl,  579.    Buff  Wyaaiottt  rule  and  female. 


and  the  fabulous  price*  securc-d  for  goiw]  show  apec- 
IniL^ns,  made  the  American  public  want  mure  of 
them,  and  it  was  not  Inng  until  ftTiile  Plymouth 
Rock»i,  true  sports  fnim  the  Barnxl  variety, 
became  known,  and  9i>ee(iily  became  popular.  The 
Bulf  variety  cume  later,  but  toHecure  the  bulT  color 
considerablB  fun-icn  blocwl  was  introduced.  All  Plym- 
outh Rocks  have  sinf^k^  combs  and  yellow  shanks. 

As  indicated  by  the  names,  the  plumage  of  the 
White  variety  is  pnro  white  thnjuphoiit,  and  that 
of  the  Buff  pure  bulT  throiiifhoiit.  Hlnck  feathers, 
or  even  black  .'(pi'cks  in  thw  plumule  of  the  White 
variety,  are  serioua  defect.-*,  and  in  thy  Buff  variety 
black  or  white  in  any  part  of  the  plumage  i« 
equally  objectionable.  The  skill  of  the  brei-der  of 
the  Barred  variety  is  meiuured  by  his  ability  to 
secQre  a  plumane,  each  feather  of  which  is  barred 
to  the  akin  with  alternate  narrow  cr«.-win(rs»  of  n 
light  and  a  dark  color.  No  variety  is  more  dillicult 
to  bring  to  jvrfection  than  this  variety  ;  but.  when 
it  is  ftttiiined,  high  prices  are  the  breeder's  reward. 

W!tir"!ofUii.—TVifi  in  the  earliest  of  the  Ameri- 
can breeds  whotie  hiiitory  we  can  trace  with  any 
degree  of  oocaracv.  The  Silver  variety  is  the  orig- 
inal variety  of  this  bre^.  The  wonderful  popu- 
larity of  the  Plymouth  Rock  En  tho  seventies  stimu- 
latfrd  fanciers  to  prodace  something  different  that 
would  surpa-ts  it  and  yield  them  large  prnfit.  They 
aonght  a  fowl  of  plumper  form  and  quicker  matu- 
rity than  the  Plymouth  Itock.  and  if  poiuiible  of 
greater  egg-producing  capacity.    Downs  of  fan- 


ciers were  at  work  along  thwe  lioee,  and  Beveral 
straimt  very  similar  in  shape  and  color,  and  known 
by  a  half-dozen  different  names,  such  as  Uam- 
bright,  Hambltitunian,  Stibright  Cochin  and  Ameri- 
can Sebright,  were  known  by  1880.  Mr.  Whit- 
taker,,  of  Michigan,  sctma  to  have  hod  the  mii*t 
definite  purpose,  and  to  have  worked  along  the 
moi^t  specific  lines,  and  it  was  his  description  and 
the  illuHtr.itinn  made  for  him  by  B.  N.  Pierce  in 
1S7-1,  and  published  by  Whittaker  that  same  year. 
that  won  Uilmt  udmi-tFinn  to  the  Standard  In  1883. 
.\n  error  in  the  description  of  the  wing-bars  of 
cocks,  publishoj  in  the  Standard  of  18^. 
and  which  was  not  convcted  until  tho  isme 
of  1SS8,  made  much  confusion,  and  evi- 
dences of  thiit  widely  disseminated  error  are 
still  found. 

In  size,  all  Wyandottes  are  the  aanie,^ 
eii^ht  and  one-half  pounds  for  cocks,  and  six 
and  one-half  p^iunds  for  hens.  In  shape,  all 
.thonld  be  the  same ;  a  bin]  of  curves,  back 
dhnrt  and  briKid,  body  deep  and  ntnnd,  breast 
brond  and  deep,  with  a  low-set  keel,  shanks 
short,  strong  and  carried  well  apart. 

The  Silvers  were  the  original  Wyandottee. 
Thti  Whites  and  Hlark.-<  are  the  only  true 
aporta  from  thew.  The  Ruffs  (Fig.  5731.  Gol- 
dens,  Partridge,  Silver  Penciled  and  Colom- 
bians each  containi.-d  in  thetr  origin  some 
outride  blood  to  produce  their  several  colorst 
unless  it  l)e  one  strain  of  the  Columbiana, 
which  was  produced  by  a  single,  alm<i»t  acci- 
dental, cross  of  two  other  varieties  of  stUDd- 
ard  Wyandottes. 
Tho  yilvera,  tho  original  Wyandottes.  have  never 
been  Burpaased  in  "eggs  early  and  often."  HuB- 
drtils  of  cases  are  on  record  of  pullets  laying  at^ 
five  months.  Before  the  writer  is  the  daily  recor'* 
of  a  hen  that  in  the  first  three  years  of  her 
pro<Iuctton  yielded  203,  202  and  '201  eggs  per  ye 
respectively.  She  is  now  hard  at  work  on 
fonrth  year  and  ia  doing  well ;  and  this  hen 
done  all  her  work  in  tho  cold  climate  of  Minnesota.! 
Tliis  variety,  having  three  times  won  the 
international  egg-pn>dncing  contest  conducted 
Australia,  stands  without  rlvai.i  in  profitable  egg- 
production.  Hut  of  all  the  eight  Standard  vari^ 
ties,  tho  original  Stivers  are  hardest  to  breed 
.'^tanda^d  requirements  of  color.  The  back  i 
shoulders  of  the  male  ahould  be  white,  the  aaddl 
and  hackle  white,  each  feather  with  a  black  atril 
in  the  center.  The  tail  should  be  black.  The  br 
and  thighs  of  the  male,  thew  same  sections  of 
femalt;.  and  also  her  back  and  Fhoulders.  should  be 
covered  with  white  feathers,  each  hnnng  a  narrow 
Mack  margin.  This  is  difficult  of  attainment,  bat 
in  beautiful  almost  beyond  de^ription. 

The  Golden  Wyandottes  are  colored  exactly  like 
the  Silver,  except  that  golden  hay  is  substituted, 
for  white.  The  plumage  of  the  \Vhite.  Black 
itnff  varieties  ia  indicated  by  their  names. 
Partridge  Wyandottes  have  the  color-markings  of 
the  Partridge  r<ichin.s :  the  Silver  Penciled  Wyan- 
d'ltteii  have  the  color-m.irking8  of  the  Dark 
Urahmas ;   the  Columbian   Wyandottes  have  the , 


POULinY 


rOL'LTRY 


B65 


color -nark  in  g8  of  the  {j^ht  Hr»hm:w.  The  Whit*' 
Wyanil(itt«e  have  far  uatHtrippeil  ull  of  the  othvr 
TsrietieB  of  this  lin*wl  in  juipulurity.  In  fact,  tht- 
entrii>8  at  thu  ^HJitetit  fall  and  winter  showiK,  tbu 
jHiKt  four  yours,  rcve^il  them  to  bo  more  popular 
than  any  other  stanilarrf  variety.  This  is  pnsaihiy 
accounted  for  hy  a  poptihir  pri'jiiclic«  in  circiwi  of 
commercial  poultry  against  dark  feathers,  a  praju- 
dice  that  i^  mnn  fHn[-iful  lh:in  tkr\. 

All  Wyiindottes  have  chHu^-fittinR  rose  combs, 
and  all  have  an  abundant,  fluffy  but  clost'-flttinK 

r]u^lai^<-^  I"  thu  original  ijilvtTR,  Hamburg  and 
tnrk  Itrahma  blood  were  the  chief  elements.  In 
the  Hnff  and  PartridKe  varietit'H.  some  fochin 
blood  was  introduced.  Th»  nilmi>wiun  nf  the>^e  eight 
varieties  to  the  StandanI  i^uvlts  tK^nty-thnw 
years,  fn)m  the  Silvers  in  ISS."!  to  the  ('olumbiana 
in  1S06. 

KhMle  hhtn'i  /VfW.— Puring  the  twenty  years 
prior  to  ]!MXJ,  «omc  thrifty  fanciers  and  offg-pro- 
ducers  in  the  soutliprn  part  of  New  Pingland 
labored  diligently  to  produce  a  fowt  of  giHid  size, 
of  marketiible  esrpllpnce,  of  larjpe  ejrK-priwIucintt 
aliilily,  and  of  a  reddish  buff  color,  Tht-y  Hucceeded 
in  all  thew  particulars,  but  they  quarrvlud  amongst 
themswlvea  on  some  minor  color  requirements,  and 
especially  m  to  whether  their  f8%*oritea  shnnid  have 
single  combs,  rose  combs  or  pea-combs.  It  was  not 
oncommnn  to  find  two  or  evi-n  three  kinds  of  cumlttt 
in  the  yard  of  the  same  brmvler. 

Firidinif  that  the  Rhode  iBiaiid  Bii^ds  c^uld  never 
gain  adinii««kin  to  the  i>tuniEard  with  the«e  divunii- 
tien,  the  fanciers  set  aboat  a  more  specific  method 
of  breeding,  with  tbe  result  that  tbo  tiingle-comh 
Rhode  bland  Reds  were  admitted  to  the  i>tandard 
in  1904,  and  thu  Ri»s(M:omh  variety  in  IWWI.  In 
1902,  tb^  fanciers  of  tbo  Pejw^omb  variety,  under 
the  leadership  of  Mrs.  Melcalf,  of  Ohio,  Beparaled 
from  the  otherti.  and  having  changed  both  the  color 
and  Hhape  somewhat  by  the  intrrHluction  of  Bom» 
Cornish  Indian  bJood,  secured  the  aijmisnion  of 
their  favorites  under  the  name  of  Ruckeyes  in  1905. 

The  tail  color  of  both  Khwle  Island  Reds  and 
Ruckayes  calU  for  black.  The  former  v.-iricly  diw- 
plays  a  red  surface  of  btHiy-[>lumage.  with  n  red  or 
salmon  nnder-color,  fret*  from  slate.  The  Buckeye 
SQrfac«  color  is  a  dark.  rich,  parnyt.  and  the  under^ 
color  allows  a  bar  of  slate-color  next  to  the  surface. 

Tbe  standard  size  of  Rhode  Island  R^kI  cixrks  is 
eight  and  ono>half  pounds,  and  of  hens,  six  and  one> 
half  ponrdjj.  The  Huckeyc  c*H'ks  should  l«e  one- 
balf  pound  heavier,  and  tbe  hens  one-half  pound 
lighter.  The  body  of  both  bret-ds  is  long ;  nf  the 
Rhotle  Island  Reds  it  is  level ;  of  the  UnckeycA  it  is 
carried  at  a  slight  elevation  in  front. 

Tta  Aiiatif  family. 

Brahma.  -  This  breed  has  bat  two  Turletiefi, 
the  Light  and  the  Dark.  While  tha  two  varietivs 
are  of  the  same  shape,  the  slw  is  different.  Dark 
Brahma  cocks   must   attain    a   weight   of   eleven 

Kundi*.  and  hens  eight  and  one-half  pounds.  In  the 
ght  Urahmas,  each  sex  most  go  one  pound  heavier. 
Like  all  other  Asiatic  breeds.  Brahma'*  are  distin- 
guished by  heavy  leg  and  toe  feathering.  They  are 


also  endowed  with  thick,  cliwe  plumule,  which 
enabk>»  thuni  to  enduru  with  comfort  avoid  climate. 
This  niukea  them  good  winter  egg-producers,  pro- 
\idu)  they  have  dry  (|uarters  and  are  not  exposed 
to  wind.  Their  great  siie  ard  good  quality  of  flesh 
make  them  a  favorite  in  some  markets,  especially 
when;  capons  are  in  demand.  .\\\  Asiatics  are  slow 
of  matiirily,  either  for  the  table  or  for  egg-pro- 
ductiun.  Whili^  the  ancestors  of  all  the  Asiatic 
varieties  came  originally  from  Asia,  their  present 
pitrfection  is  due  more  to  American  and  Knglish 
fanciers  than  to  what  they  were  when  first  im- 
ported. 

The  general  color  of  the  Light  Rrahma  is  white, 
with  a  black  tail  and  blm-k  center  stripes  in  Imtb 
hackle  and  saddle  fwithers.  Tlie  wing-color  of  both 
Hexes  is  a  combination  of  black  and  white  too 
intricate  to  describe  here.  The  ap[iearonce  of  the 
Light  Brahma  is  most  8tat4:'Iy  and  commanding, 
and  its  great  size  and  handsome  coloring  always 
win  admiration. 

The  color  of  the  Dark  Rrahma,  except  of  the 
neck  and  tail,  is  entirely  different.  The  wings  of 
the  cock  are  crossed  by  a  heavy  black  bar,  and 
the  entire  breast  and  body,  also  the  leg  and  toe 
feathering,  are  black.  The  back,  wings,  breast  and 
body  of  the  female  have  for  each  feather  a  basis 
of  gray  on  which  are  distinct,  dark  concentric 
lines  of  jK>nii'^iling,  which  in  its  {lerfection  miikes 
a  Very  handsome  bird. 

ihehin :  BvS",  Partridge,  Whih;  Wcrit.— The  shape 
of  alK'-Ochins  is  the  game,  and  their  peculiarity  is  an 
appearance  of  ma-ssivenessand  fluHiness.  The  beary 
but  short  feathering  of  the  Cochin,  piled  high  on 
the  back,  and  extending  wide  at  the  sides,  makes 
it  appear  Lnrgerthan  the  Rrahma,  but  it  is  not,  the 
weight  being  the  same  us  that  of  the  Dark  Brahma; 
the  cock  weighs  eleven  p4)uniis  and  the  hen  eight 
and  one-half  pounds.  The  excessive  thigh  and 
sbank  feathering  of  Cochins  adds  to  their  appear- 
ance of  massiveneea. 

The  names  of  the  Buff,  ^ite  and  Black  Coch- 
ins indicate  their  coloring.  The  Partridge  vari- 
ety is  very  different.  This  cock  has  a  neck  and 
back  of  bright  red.  shading  to  orange-brown  color, 
each  feather  having  a  center  8tri|ie  of  black.  His 
shoulders  are  red.  and  across  the  wing  is  a  broad. 
black  bar.  Uis  breast,  body  and  thighs  are  black, 
also  his  tail.  The  ben  has  the  same  neck  and  tail 
color  as  the  cock,  but  all  her  remaining  surface 
color  should  be  mahogany- re<i,  each  feather  dia- 
tinctly  iwncilt^l  with  concentric  circles  of  a  rich 
dark  brown.  The  combs  of  all  Cochins  are  single. 
low,  close  on  the  head  and  evenly  serrated  with 
five  distinct  points. 

Lanufkan:  Ulark  (Fip.  B74),  JF»tfe.— There  are 
two  varieties  of  this  hree']  and  their  nameji  indicate 
their  color.  The  Langshan  is  more  up-standing  than 
theCochin.  and  instalelinew  isa  rival  of  th«  Light 
Itrahma.  The  Lanpihan  differs  from  other  Asiatics 
in  that  he  has  longer  shanka,  is  more  scantily 
feathered,  and  that  he  corriM  both  head  and  tail 
high,  these  members  coming  np  close  toward  a 
meeting  point,  thus  giving  him  the  appearance  of 
having  a  short  back.    This,  however,  is  seeming 


566 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


..#''^ 


PlE-  174.    Black  LuuEsluu 
cock. 


rather  than  real.  The  1>»]i(^han  difTers  from  all 
othvr  AsiaUcs,  and  indw^d  friim  all  American  vari- 
eties, in  that  ita  akin  is  not  yellow,  but  iit  a  pinkiHh 

white.  ThiO  tuittania 
of  ita  ftwt,  instt«.'a(i 
of  being  yellow  as 
in  the  Cochin,  must 
be  a  pinkish  white. 
This  peculiarity  of 
the  H  k  i  n  cif  the 
Lantr^hun  marks  it 
as  of  [K!culiarly  j^ood 
table  tiualitiett.  Aa 
is  the  case  with  all 
white-akinned  fuwla, 
the  skin  is  thin,  the 
fle-sh-fibera  fine,  ami 
the  flesh  flavor  very 
superior.  This  char- 
acteristic of  Fiiipe- 
rior  table  quality 
j4ii^-  marks  the  Dorking, 

'2S:Mfm        -**  *''*  Orpington    and 

rfS^OH^**^^  all   three    of    the 

French  varieties.  It 
\»  in  this  particular, 
more  than  all  others, 
that  the  l*!!nglish 
and  French  sun>&^3  Americans  in  the  production 
of  extra  fine  table  poultry.  The  beat  American 
poultry  market)*  are  now  insistently  demanding 
white-skinm-d  fowls,  and  shrewd  American  pro- 
ducerit  will  soon  be  supplying  that  demand. 

Tlie  Mediterranmn,  family. 

Leghorn. — There  are  eight  Tarietiea  of  the  Leg- 
horn :  Single-comb  and  Hoae-comb  Brown  Leghorn 
(Fig.  57ri),  Sinj^le-comh  and  Rose-comb  White  Leg- 
horn (Pig.  576),  Sinnle-comb  and  Rose-comb  Buff 
Leghorn,  Singltwromb  Black  Leghorn  and  Single- 
comb  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn.  The  siiie  and 
shape  of  all  are  identical,  except  asi  to  shape  of 
combs  indicated  by  the  variety  names.  Leghoma 
bad  their  early 
homes  in  snuth- 
em  RufHpe.  The 
coloring  h  a  a 
been  greatly 
modified  ^y 
American  fan- 
ciers in  the  past 
forty  years. 

Early  matu- 
rity and  grwat 
activity  char- 
acterize all  the  -  .«•  .--/  u^ 
Leghorns.  (Jive  ■■.'  'J;:  'il,,  ..  W  '  ^'i 
them  dry,  warm 
quartera  and 
they  all  pro- 
dace  large  num- 
bers of  eggs.  Tlieir  large  comlm,  pendulous  on  the 
females,  aru  easily  injured  by  frosts,  so  for  winter 
exg-pruduction  warm  houseware  esSL-ntial.  Iicghorn 
eggs  are  while,  as  are  the  eggs  of  all  Mediterranean 


'il 


Fl|.  NS.    Brown  Lechttm  coek. 


varieties.  This  color  of  egg  ia  the  fsrorite  of  the 
New  Vork  City  market,  ana  the  White  Leghorn  \s 
the  favorite  of  the  egg-producers  who  cat«r  to  that 
market.  \  large  majority  of  the  cockerels  of  this 
variety  are  marketed  by  their  producers  aa  broilers 
at  two  months  of  age.  This  combination.  White 
Leghorn  eggs  and  White  Leghorn  broilers,  has 
proved  very  profitable,  aa  both  prodncta  command 
high  prices. 

The  Brown  Leghorn  is  very  pecoHar  and  verj 
hand»um,e  in  color.  The  color  of  the  cock  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  I'artridge  Cochin  cock  already 
de.acribecl  (page  5G5).  The  color  of  the  Brown  Leg- 
horn hen  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Part- 
ridge Cwbin  hen  (page  565)  as  to  neck,  wings  and 
tail :  but  her  back,  shoulders,  breast  and  tiody,  in- 
stead of  thedistinct  penciling  of  the  former,  have  for 


//: 


^.s,jti 


A<''. 


K:  > 


% 


■>-} 


l^'• 


Fix.  S7e.    Vblte  Uchoin  nuU*  utA  (wdaIv. 

the  ba.sis  of  each  feather  a  delicate  brown  on  which 
adarkershadeof  browniA  finely  and  evenly  stippM. 

Minorca:  SinijU-cotnh  Btack,  A'ojMomft  Black, 
SHiiijU-aimb  H'Ai>.— The  shape  of  the  Minorca  ia 
pit!uliar.  It  ha«  a  long  body  carried  rather  opright, 
Ul'l-p  at  the  breast  with  the  back  tfipering  sharply 
toward  the  tail,  and  this  organ  long  and  earned 
rather  low.  The  comb  ia  rather  large.  The  ear-lobe« 
are  larpe  and  pure  white.  The  last  two  particolara 
are  character t.<<tic  of  all  Mediterranean  varieties. 
The  cocks  carry  a  weight  of  eight  pounds  and  the 
hens  ittx  and  one-half  pounds  in  the  Rose-comb 
variety;  each  sex  of  the  Single-corab  variety  is  one 
pound  heavier. 

White-faad  likek  Spanirh.—Tlm  is  one  of  the 
oldest  ani  best -known  Mediterranean  varieties, 
but,  of  late  yeara.  few  good  specimens  are  seen  at 
our  showD.  The  ithujie  and  color  and  tbv  shape  uf 
the  comb  i^  the  same  as  of  the  Single-comb  Minorca, 
but  «at:h  Rex  weighs  one  poond  le(«.  The  peculi- 
arity of  this  breed  is  its  white  face,  a  very  exag- 
gerated L'Rlargement  of  the  white  ear-lolw  of  other ' 
Mediterranean  breeds. 

Blue  Andaliuian. — This  is  one  of  tbe  later  and 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


ser 


one  of  the  most  beantifal  additions  to  tht*  Medi- 
terniijojin  family.  In  shape,  it  is  similar  to  other 
inemWrs  vf  this  family.  In  size,  it  is  about  mid- 
way between  the  Leghorn  and  the  Minorca.  The 
cock  weighs  mx  pounds,  and  the  hen  five  pounds. 
Thu  plumage  ia  a  clear,  slaty  blue,  each  feather 
delicately  lacud  with  a  darker  shade  of  blue,  ap* 
preaching  black. 

AnMTia.  -  This  is  the  latent  addition  to  the 
American  Mediterranean  family,  although  it  has 
lone  heen  bred  in  Europe,  especially  in  England, 
where  the  color  demand:  for  shanks  i«  yellow,  while 
ount  allows  yellow,  shaded  or  mottled  with  black. 
In  size,  the  .\ncona  is  about  the  same  as  thv  Lefc- 
horn.  In  colnr  of  piDm.ice  it  \a  the  same  as  the 
Mottled  Java,  already  described  (page  563). 

71u  Engliih  family. 

Dttrking.— On  the  Dorking,  more  than  <m  any 
other  breed,  the  English  people  have  established 
their  enviable  reputation  for  producing  the  choicest 
of  poultry.  The  skin  of  this  breed  is  white,  which 
indicates  the  excellenceof  it5  flesh  quality  for  table 
Dse.  [See  commenta  on  this  subject  under  Lang- 
than.  page  5C5.]  The  forking  has  a  shape  pecu- 
liarly its  own.  Thu  body  is  long  and  deep,  carried 
at  a  slight  elevation  in  the  males  and  rather  level 
in  the  females.  It  carries  an  abundance  of  flesh  in 
the  moat  desirable  sectionti.  The  Colored  Dorkings 
are  the  largeiit.  The  cocks  weigh  nine  pounds  and 
the  hens  seven  pounds.  The  White  Derkings  are 
the  smallest,  the  ci'cks  weighing  seven  and  one-half 
pounds  and  the  hen»  six  pounds.  In  size,  the  Silver- 
gray  variety,  the  most  beautiful  in  plumage,  h 
between  the  two  sixes  just  given.  There  is  no  bird 
in  our  American  Standard  more  beautifully  colored 
than  the  Silver-gray  Dorking  hen.  Her  back,  wings 
and  breast  have  gray  as  a  base,  each  feather  deli- 
cately stippled  with  a  darker  shade.   All  Dorkings 

have  an  extra  or 
fifth  toe. 

Redcap.  — la 
i\z&,  this  bird  is 
about  the  same 
as  the  White 
Dorking.  In 
color,  the  male 
hurt  various  mix- 
tures of  red  and 
black,  the  fe- 
male of  brown 
and  black.  An 
enonnous  rose 
comb  acjoros  the 
bead  of  both 
aex«8. 

OTpington: 
Bnir(Fiii.  o77), 
niofk,  WhiU.~ 
Those  are   the 

thia  breed  to  be 
accorded  admission  to  the  American  Standard, 
although  othiT  varieties  are  sure  to  seek  admission 
won,  notably  the  roee<omb  varieties  with  the  same 


colors  as  the  above  three,  these  all  having  single 
combs. 

The  late  William  Cook,  who  did  more  to  pro- 
mote the  Or^iington  in  England.  Africa  and  America 
than  any  other  individual,  said  that  the  chief  ori- 
gia  of  the  Orpington  was  in  Doritlng  azid  Cochin 


Pic  STB.    BontUn  fowl. 

blood.  The  color  of  the  skin  indicates  Dorking 
relationship,  and  the  tendency  to  feathered  shanks, 
especially  on  the  Butf  Orpington,  indicates  some 
Cochin  blood.  From  their  pt'culiar  shape,  some- 
what different  from  that  of  the  Butf  Orpington, 
we  should  imagine  that  the  Black  Orpington  and 
White  Orpington  dipped  into  both  Langshan  and 
Cochin  blood.  Be  their  origin  what  it  may.  the 
Orpingtons  have  taken  a  strong  hold  on  the  affec- 
tions of  American  fanciers,  anil  we  predict  a  large 
increase  in  their  number  in  the  near  future,  to 
enable  the  producer  to  supply  the  demand  for 
white-skinned  fcwla,  referred  to  under  Langshan 
(page  &SGl, 

The  Orpington  has  in  reality  a  long  body, 
although  itHi  abund.int  plumage,  particularly  of 
the  biack  malef,  gives  it  the  appearance  of  having 
a  short  back  and  a  short  bwly.  In  sixe,  it  is  larger 
than  the  I'lymonth  Rock,  the  cock  weighing  ten 
ponnils  and  tlm  hen  eight  pounds.  To  carry  this 
enormous  weight,  it  should  stand  on  short,  heavy 
shanks.  The  Orpingtons  are  good  producen  of 
large,  brown  eggs. 

The  Frrneh  family. 

Hotuian.— The  Uondans  (Fig.  578)  are  the  best 
known  in  America  of  the  French  br<H->d8.  In  color, 
they  are  the  same  as  the  Mottlt-d  Java  and  Ancona. 
The  cocks  weigh  seven  pounds  and  the  hehs  six 
pounds,  hot  both  aeXL-.i  often  run  heavitir.  Houdans 
have  head  omamenta  of  both  crest  and  beard.  They 
are  good  producers  of  white  eggs  and  aEso  have  the 
white  skin  and  fine  flavor  so  dear  to  the  heart  of 
the  Fri-nch  epicurw.  The  HonUans,  like  the  Dork- 
ings, carry  the  extra  or  fifth  toe  on  each  foot. 

Crtvtcaurt  (Fig.  5701  are  bl.ick  fowls  with  both 
crest  and  beard.  In  size  they  are  half-way  between 
the  Plymouth  Rock  and  the  Wyandotte. 

La  Fleehe  fowls  are  also  black,  hut  do  not  have 
the  crust  or  beard.  The  cockii  weigh  eight  and  une- 
half  pounds  and  the  hens  seven  and  one-half  pounds. 


688 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


With  tht'ir  superb  methods  of  foetling,  the  iVcnch 
proiJucers  frequently  brinR  capons  of  this  variety 
to  a  weight  of  twelve  pniinds,  and  jionlards  to  ten 
pounilrt  each.    The  fact  that   the  tww  last-named 

Prench  breeds, 
when  |iriii[it3rly 
fattud  and 
drefised,  corn- 
mand  thi>  bigh- 
(ist  prices  in  the 
niiist  fiifltidioun 
m:irk«i  in  the 
WHirid  nhaiild 
help  tv  ditwi- 
[latf  the  AmtTi- 
L-an  pfejudicc 
against  fowlei 
with  black 
plomagp. 

The  Dutch  fam- 
ily- 

Ha  mbur  g: 
Golden     .S'/ion- 
RH.S79.    c«w«or<«k.  g!t:i!,SihfrSpaii- 

gkd,  Goidert  I'encUfd,  Siitvr  PenriM,  iVkUe  and 
Bkf*.  —  This  family  is  often  classed  erronetmHiy 
among  the  purely  fancy  breeds.  For  a  half  iren- 
tury  or  more  it  has  maintained  a  right  lo  the  name, 
"Diitiih  Kvfirlasting  Layer*,"  and  DutL^h  egj^a  form 
a  Uirg*;  part  of  the  CKj^a  consumed  in  the  great  city 
of  London.  The  HawitmrK  i*  about  the  same  size  as 
the  Leghorn,  and  like  them  it  laya  a  large  white 
egg.  Ite  coloring  U  too  intricate  for  a  description 
here,  but  this  is  a  breed  well  worth  more  attention 
than  it  receives  in  this  country. 

Hie  Indian  family. 

Indian:  Coritifk  and  White. — The  two  varieties 
of  this  family,  oft4,'n  called  Games,  erroneously, 
evidently  trace  to  Indian  origin,  the  Cornish  variety 
atill  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  reiJ  A-seel. 
They  camo  to  Kngland,  and  vitrious  chjasps  on  the 
original  imporlations  with  the  Black-bre listed  Red 
Game  and  with  the  Black  Sumatru.  have  produced 
the  present  CornJah  Indian.  The  White  Indian  is 
not  so  easily  traced.  Many  persons  think  it  ts 
simply  a  8j.wrt  from  the  Cornish.  tt»  similarity  in 
Bhape  makes  this  the  simplest  solntion.  The  Indian 
is  a  bird  of  strung  proportions,  and  so  fine  is  his 
texture  that  his  weight  deceives  the  uninitiated. 
The  cockK  weigh  nine  pounds  and  the  hens  six  and 
one^alf  pounds.  The  beaks  and  ahanks  are  yellow. 
The  back  and  wings  of  the  cock  are  a  beautiful 
mixture  of  black  and  red.  The  tail  and  breast  are 
black.  The  hen's  bock,  wings,  breast  ;ind  body  are 
a  rich  bay,  penciled  with  black.  The  Indian  makers 
a  fine  market  bird  :ind  is  particularly  good  for 
crossing  on  Brahma.t  and  C-ochins  for  certain 
market*. 

H.  FAsrv  Powus 

We  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  those  breeds 
and  varieties  that  arc  seldom  if  ever  bn^l  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  for  table  use  or  for  egg-production, 


but  ore  bred  aa  the  fads  and  pets  of  fanciers  who 
admire  their  peculiarities  of  form  or  feather,  and 
have  little  regard  for  the  question  of  profit  or  Ioi»a 
in  their  poultry  tranKactionK  »»  long  as  their  own 
jirtistic  or  esthetic  Laiiteia  are  gratified.  Not  twing 
of  fitririly  farm  value  they  have  little  pUce  in  a 
work  of  this  nature. 

The  Polish  fnmilij. 

Polish:  Whiix-^retied  S^odt.  Bearded  Golden, 
Bearded  Silver,  Iffardeti  While,  Ituff-laeed,  iVon- 
beardrd  Gnlden,  Nim-heardrd  Silvn;  Non.'iiiarded 
H'A:Yj".— These  eight  varieties  constitute  the  beau- 
tiful I'oliflh  family,  probably  the  joy  and  pride  of 
more  strictly  fancy  fanciers  than  any  other  family. 
The  Polish  are  easily  controHed  and  conBni-d,  by 
reason  of  their  immense  cre-sts,  but  require  good 
care  and  hnusing,  of.  they  cannot  endure  expoHore 
in  Rni>w  or  rain.  Four  of  thxtso  varietieK,  aa  their 
namiM  indieato,  have,  In  ailditiun  to  Iheir  creeta, 
ample  beardM.  The  color-markings  of  the  Polish 
variL'^ties  are  too  elaborate  to  allow  detailed  de- 
scriptions hero.  With  good  care.  Polish  hens  pro- 
duce a  good  supply  of  choice  white  eggs. 

The  Game  and  Game  ^intern  familiet. 

Game:  Blaek-breaxUd  lied,  Broum  Red,  GtHden 
Duekirimj,  Silver  Duckwing  (Fig.  580),  Birchm, 
Red  PyU,  WhUe,  K/ocA'.— Thiise  eight  varieties  of 
standard  Games  have  each  its  counterpart  in  ban- 
tams. The  standard  or  exhibition  Game  has  a  style 
peculiarly  its  own.  The  corresponding  bantamB 
differ  only  in  size.  The  standan]  Game  diiTers 
greatly  from  the  pit  Game.  The  latter  in  bred  for 
fighting,  the  former  for  exhibition  at  show.4,  where 
the  bird  that  »laiid»  higheiit  and  alraighUwt,  looks 
the  fiercest  and 
has  the  most 
correct  plumage 
wins  the  prise. 

Oriental  Game 
and  bantam 
famiiie*. 

Black  Suma- 
tra.—This  is  a 
medinm-  sized 
bird  with  long 
dnxiping  tail- 
pt(]mag{*of  very 
rich  greenish 
black.  It  is 
much  used  In 
making  certain 
crosses. 

SliieJc-breastrd 
Red  Malaj/. — 
This  is  a  large, 
handsome  bird. 
The  cock  is 
twenty -six  in- 
ches high  and  weighs  nine  pounds;  the  hen  i»  eight- 
e«n  inche.4  high  and  weighs  seven  pounds.  The  color 
of  the  cock  is  chieHy  a  rich  reddish  brown  :  that  of 
the  hen  ts  dark  brown  with  black  in  some  sectioni. 


ng.  $N.    Silvei  DuckwlRit  coek. 


POHLTRy 


POCLTRY 


569 


m.  581 .    Row-cofflb 
Black  bantam. 


BlacSi-hrefuIrd  lied  Mnlay  fwn/nm. — The  Mafay  is 
also  prodnci^d  in  bantam  size,  which  is  very  popular. 

Omarnxnifd  bantam  j'amUy. 

Sebright:  Goldtn,  ^iVrrr. —These are  proud  little 
birds.  The  cocka  and  hens  »r«  feathere<I  alike. 
The  plumajte  of  the  Golden  Stbrijiht  haa  a  yeKow 
base,  and  each  feather  is  diaiinctly  iacvd  with 
black.  The  pluraag*  of  the  Silver  Sebright  has  a 
white  hsae,  and  tho  sam«  black  lacing  m  the 
GoWen. 

RotC'Comb  bantam:  Black 
(Pig.  58  L  I,  m  ite.  -  Both  black 
and  white  types  are  fourd 
atnon^  the«e.  Both  sexea  oi 
both  varietiea  have  a  proud 
carriaf>:e,  a  hrf^.  white  ear- 
lobe  and  a  lone  tail. 

Booted  White  bantamg. — 
The  peculiarity  of  this  breed 
is  a  heavily  feathered  vulture 
hock,  which  gives  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  wearing  boots. 
Brahma  bantam*:  I.itikl. 
Dark: — These  are  simply  the  two  standard  vari- 
eties of  this  namo  in  miniature.  It  has  been  very 
difficult  to  fret  them  sufficiently  dwarfed  in  size, 

Cockin  baniam :  livff.  Partridge.  White,  Black. — 
Each  of  the  four  standard  Cochin  varieties"  has  its 
corre!4 ponding  bantam,  very  grotesque  littia  crea- 
tures. The  Standard  weight  for  cocks  is  thirty 
ounces  and  for  hens  twenty-aix  ounces.  WeightR 
four  ounces  higher  dis(iualify. 

Japanae  bant'imt:  Dlaek-laiied,  \^'Tiite,  Black. 
— The  leading  characteristic  of  Japare-se  bantams 
is  that  thiiv  are  Reemingly  almost  legKxw,  that  their 
U^ng  wingH  touch  the  gronnd.  and  that  thi^ir  big, 
high  tailii  come  a.<t  near  as  powtible  to  touching  the 
back  of  their  heads. 

PUitk  bantams :  Beardal  ]Hile,  B^ff  I^aeed,  Ntm- 
i?ftjri/«/.— These  foltow  the  standard  Polish  vari- 
eties already  referred  to,  except  in  size.  The  cocks 
should  weigh  about  twenty-«ix  ounces  and  the  hens 
about  twenty-two  ounces. 

Mitecilanwux  breeds. 

Si/ii**;— Thtwo  are  a  peculiar  whit©  fowl  of 
small  size,  with  bluish  red  face  and  comb.  Their 
leading  characteristic  in  that  their  fcathc-re  are 
without  quitl  or  web,  thu»  giving  them  a  pEumage 
that  Is  8oft.  downy  and  fluffy,  from  which  the 
name  la  deriviid.    (Fig.  f)29.| 

SuUaag. —Tiivsv!  are  hootett  Polish  fowls, 
vith  both  mutT  and  heard.  Their  plumage  is 
white.  The  comb  should  liu  inviHihE»  or  very 
small  V-shaped  with  two  smull  spikes.  The 
creat  ift  large,  full  and  compact,  the  feathers 
falling  backward. 

JVwito.— Thww  are  fowl«  of  any  siw  or  color, 
bat  having  the  tip  of  pjich  feather  tnrned  back  so 
as  to  give  them  a  peculiar  r\i111e<]  ap[tuarance.  <Fig. 
528.) 

Literaturt. 
For  referenoesr  aee  page  S27. 


Ducks.   .Anatidcr.   Figs.  582-685. 
By  Chark-a  ^teClam. 

The  domeBtic  dui-k  is  a  web-footed,  abort-legged 
fowl  that  is  raised  chititly  fi>r  ita  meat.  The  eggs 
cannot  compute  on  the  market  with  hen's  egg?,  and 
are  seldom  offered  for  enle  except  for  hatching 
purposes.  It  is  the  general  opinion  of  naturalists 
that  the  domestic  duck  of  today  is  a  da'^cendant  of 
th4>  wild  Mallard  {Anoa  bornkmi),  and  that  diR'erent 
types  and  colors  Have  been  produced  only  after 
many  generations  of  careful  selection  and  breed* 
ing. 

The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  recognizes 
twelve  varieties  of  domc-stic  ducks  as  follows ; 
Aylesbury.  Rouen,  Pekin.  Cayuga,  Crested  White, 
Indian  Runner,  Rtue  Swedish.  White  Muscovey, 
Coloa-d  Muscovey.  Gray  Call,  While  Call,  and  Black 
EaMt  India.  Theae  twelve  varieties  comprise  all 
colors,  types,  and  sizes  of  the  duck  family,  from 
the  little  two-and-one-half-pound  Call  to  the  twelv&> 
pound  Muscovey  or  Pekin. 

Ayltiburj/. 

The  Aylesbury  duck  is  the  leading  English  mar- 
ket variety.  It  is  native  of  the  county  of  .^ylesbary, 
Enghind.  It  ia  to  Europe  aa  a  market  duck  what 
the  Pekin  is  to  -America.  The  Aylesbury  is  slaty 
white  in  color,  of  large  size,  with  flesh-colored 
beak  and  yellow  shanks  and  feet.  It  is  a  good  layer, 
rapid  grower,  and  ranks  high  as  a  market  variety. 

Rouen,   (Fig.  582.> 

The  Rouen  duck  is  a  descendant  of  the  wild  Mal- 
lard, which  it  resembles  in  color.  By  careful  selec- 
tion and  breeding  it  has  attained  more  than  twice 
the  weight  of  the  Mallards.  Some  writers  have 
designated  it  as  a  native  of  Rouen,  a  city  in  the 
province  of  Normandy,  which  ia  noted  for  its  fine 


?rf;v»'rr>.^^'-' 


Plf  ■  SS3.    Bmeo  ducki. 

poultry,  but  this  cannot  he  verified,  aa  larger  and 
better  specimens  can  be  found  in  both  England  and 
America  than  in  Normandy.  The  Rouen  Is  the 
largest  and  most  popnlar  of  all  colored  market 
varieties.  The  standard  weight  of  mature  spoci- 
mons  is  nine  pounds  for  drakce  and  eight  pounds 
for  ducks. 


£70 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Sack  Cay^tga. 

This  is  the  largest  solid  black  duck  knon-n.  It  is 
Btrictly  an  American  production  and  firat  made  ita 
appearance  abi>ut  Kike  Cayuga,  New  York,  from 
whi'rcfl  it  dt-rived  iUi  namf.  It  ia  of  fair  size,  a 
mature  pair  weifihini,'  firu-uci  pounds.  The  body  ia 
of  Rood  length.  It  is  a  good  layer,  the  yonnu  grow 
rapidly,  and  as  a  marlceC  variety  it  raska  with  the 
Rouen  and  Aylesbury. 

Pekitt..    (Pig.  fi88.) 

The  Pekin  is  the  jfreatest  market  duck  of  modera 
tiniQS.  It  wa8  first  imported  to  America  from  China 
in  1873.  Por  two  nr  three  years  following  this 
impartatiiin,  Pekin  duck  eggs  for  hsl-ching  were 
difficult  to  Bei^ur'O  at  tnn  to  thirtiien  di>llarR  per 
dozen.  Tlie  Pekin  \»  today  the  largi'Ht  white  duck 
in  eximtence,  exhildtion  apfcimena  frequently  weigh- 
ing as  high  aa  tt-n  to  twelve  pmiiidg  each.  As  a 
market  variety,  it  outranks  all  others.  Without 
doubt,  there  are  more  Fekins  grown  for  market  in 
America  than  all  other  varieties  combine*].  The 
head  and  beak  are  long,  and  of  good  size ;  Wak 
orange-yelbiw  ia  color  ;  ba4.'k,  breast  and  bwly  lung, 
briiad  and  deep,  with  dwp  keel;  color  creamy 
white.  It  it*  a  good  layer,  feathers  early  and 
matures  rapidly. 

Cre^td   IVhiU. 

Thia  is  a  mediom-eized  white  duck,  with  large 
white  crest  or  topknot.  It  is  alNiut  two-thiriL^  the 
size  of  the  Pekin,  and  reserabiea  it  in  coior  and 
shape  of  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  crest.  It 
10  strictly  an  American  production.   It  ia  a  good 


I 


"^^^ 


Pill.  ju.    Pektn4u«)Di. 

layer,  and  the  young  grow  rapidly.  The  Credited 
White  ia  an  excellent  market  variety,  and  at  the 
same  time  is  very  ornamental,  so  that  it  u  in 
demand. 

Ulue  Swedish. 

The  Rlao  Swedmh  is  the  latest  acqaisition  to  the 
standartl  variutieM.  It  \s  an  Kngliah  pruductiun, 
and  ha*  been  bred  in  Englantl  for  aex'eral  years. 
It  is  of  i^ood  siste.  mataro  birdit  weighing  fifteen 
pounds  per  pair,  and  is  of  the  same  general  charac- 


'  fer  as  the  Pekin,  except  in  color.  The  color  ia  a 
uniformsteel-blue  throaghout,  except  on  the  bib  or 
front  of  the  breast,  which  i«  clear  white  and  heart- 
shaped,  extt*n<:ling  to  the  throat.  The  be;ik  in  drrikea 
is  j^enirih  blue  in  color,  a.nd  in  the  dock  smutty 
brown,  with  tlork  brown  blotch,  the  eyes  deep  bazel ; 
shanks  and  feet 
reddish  brown. 


//■ 


}\, 


t\ 


!i^^ 


y^i 


PlC.  SH-    tQdlAB  BHuiier  OBck. 


Indittn   Run.nrr. 
(Fig.  .5^1.) 

This  is  a  small 
variety  midway 
in    size    between 
the  Call  and  the 
Crested    White. 
It   originated    in 
England.    It  is 
termed  the  "Leg- 
horn of  the  duck 
family"    becauae 
of  its  great  lay- 
ing capacity. 
It    i»,    without 
doubt,   the    best- 
known    byer    of 
the  aquatic  fam- 
ily.  In  color  it  is 
entirely  ditferent 
from   any  other  standard  variety  of  ducks.   The 
bead  la  long  and  tiat,  light  fawn  in  color,  cap  ani, 
cheek-mark  in  ga  light  fawn ;  bill  straight,  green  ti 
color  with  black  bean  at  tip;  eyes  hazel;   Decl 
white  from  head  to  point  where  breast-markbij 
begin;  back  light  fawn  or  gray;  breast  light  fawii»^ 
evenly  divided  half-way  between  point  of  breast 
bone  and  li-gs;  body  light  fawn,  the  rear  half  white: 
shanks  and  feet  orange-yellow;  carriage  Tery  wect, 
almost  in  a  perpendicular  form.  The  young  f«aUMrj 
rapidly  and  come  to  maturity  eariier  than  the  Urfi 
varieties. 

Biack  Eiut  India. 

The  Black  East  India  duck  is  an  exact  counter- 
part of  the  Black  Caynga.  except  in  size.  It  ia^j 
rated  with  the  Call  as  the  bantam  of  the  domesli* 
cated  duck  family.  The  best  authorities  inform  u» 
that  it  is  a  "sport"  from  the  common  or  wild 
Mallard  (Anon  lmcha»).  It  hiw  the  aame  general 
characters  as  the  Mallard.  While  it  ahoald  be  solid 
black  in  colur,  many  sp«M:imens  have  white  on  the 
breast,  which  is  a  disqualification.  It  is  more  freely 
bred  in  England  than  in  America.  Really  good 
specimens  are  scarco  and  hard  to  secore  at  uiy 
price. 

Colorrd  .ifuxtrvey.   (Pig.  585.) 

The  Colored  Muscovey  is  an  entirely  distinct 
species  from  all  other  standani  varieties  of  docKa. 
It  is  a  native  of  South  Amt^rica  and  inhabits  the 
country  along  the  equator  from  Gniana  tn  Parv 
guay.  It  is  the  native  wild  dock  of  that  locality 
and  is  not  a  migratory  bird,  as  are  nearly  all  othrr 
varieties  of  wild  dQcki>.  While  it  in  somewhat  slow 
and   inclined  to  be  awkward  on  foot,  it   ia  very 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


571 


active  on  win^  and  onn  Hy  miloa  wil:}i  a  vory  little 
effort.  The  males  are  about  twice  the  sine  of  tho 
females  arui  pU£na(':ic)n.-<  in  ilispiMitinn,  wpecirtlly  at 
breeding  time.  Thu  Muiwovey  will  cnisu  with  tither 
duiriEwtic  <)ut;k8,  but  the  progeny  are  mielissa  for 
brLtiiiiiH  |iur|w«ML«. 

The  (.'ulored  Muscovoy  is  of  ^iid  sizu,  black  and 
white  in  crjior,  the  black  predominating.  Tho  must 
peculiar  charsoteriKtic  is  that  thi.^  side  of  the  head 
and  the  rvpion  iirnund  the  eye  are  without  feathers 
and  are  earunrulateil  or  iRorrugated  jind  scarlet  in 
color.  Un]ikt>  many  other  varietitftt,  this  duck  boitds 
htT  nest  and  never  scatters  her  efftfa.  She  will  sit, 
hatch  and  rt'ar  her  yoant;  with  diiiKont  cant.  It 
requires  the  >Iu*»cnvey  live  wei^ks  to  hatch,  while 
other  varieties  hatch  in  four  weekH.  It  is  the  duok 
that  never  quacks. 

fVhite  Mu^coveif. 

The  White  Muscovey  has  been  bred  from  the 
Colored  variety  by  careful  selection  of  thy  whiteat 
specimens  for  many  years,  and  now  breeds  truti  to 
color.  The  young  usually  show  some  black  at  the 
U>p  of  thi'  head  and  ffffitiently  on  the  back,  under- 
neath the  win;:s,  but  this  disappears  after  the  first 
mulL  Unlike  others,  it  mtdta  but  unco  a  year.  The 
White  is  the  same  aa  tha  Colored  variety  except  in 
oolor. 

Gray  Call. 

The  Gray  Call  dnck  is  the  bantam  of  the  dock 
family,  and  weighs  only  four  to  five  pioands  per 
pair.  The  color  is  identical  with  that  of  the  wib! 
Mallard  or  the  Rouen.  It  ii4  an  omamentiil  variety 
and  isu«od  jirincipallyaaadecoy  to  bringdown  wild 
ducks,  and  for  ornamentinK  the  waters  of  public 
and  private  parks.  While  dnniestic  in  its  habits,  it 
is  very  active  nn  the  wing  and  flies  ns  well  as  any 
wild  variety.  The  femab  prepares  her  nest  very 
carefully  in  a  Hecliidi>(l  place  and  Iny.'i  ten  to  four- 
teen  eK(fa  ;  flhe  is  a  jrotwl  mother,  rearinu  all  her 
young,  barring  accident.  The  younK  are  rapid 
growers  and  come  to  maturity  at  eight  to  ten 
weeks  old. 

WltiU  Call. 

This  has  the  fiame  general  characteristics  as  the 
Gray  (^11,  except  that  in  color  it  is  a  .>ipotleA<( 
white-.  The  White  has  never  teen  so  popular  us  the 
Gray  and  good  specimtina  are  not  plentiful. 

Wiid  duekn  of  America. 

There  are  more  than  fifty  known  species  of  wild 
ducks  scattered  over  North  America  from  the  Canal 
zone  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  Some  varieties  are  much 
more  numerous  than  others.  It  will  be  possible 
here  to  mention  only  a  few  varieties  and  to  describe 
tho  one  or  two  most  important.  Tbe  most  important 
are  the  Wood  duck,  Mallard,  rintnil.  Shoveller,  (*in- 
□■nwD  Teal.  Blue  Winjj  Teal.  Green  Wing  Teal, 
Widgef^n,  Godwall.  Mottled  duck,  Florida  Dasky 
duck,  Bbck  duck  and  others.  All  of  tbeae  arc  what 
■re  termed  nun-diving  rarietiee.  and  derive  most  of 
their  living  from  the  vegetation  foond  in  the  shal- 
low  water  of  ntreams,  pooU  and   mamhes.    Tho 


freah-water  ducks  also  relinh  any  kind  of  grain  or 
animal  food  found  it  the  water.  ,\ll  varieties  are 
practically  migratory  in  their  habtls,  pa.s8i]ig  the 
summer  and  nesting  in  the  North,  and  wintering 
in  the  South, 

There  are  futly  twenty-five  speciea  of  diving 
ducks,  including  the  well'hnown  Canva-t-liacka, 
Ked-heoils,  liroJid-biJIs,  Labradow,  .American  Kidem, 
Velvet  Scooter  and  many  others.  Nearly  »i]  vari- 
eties migrate  more  or  It'ss  at  night,  especially  v  hen 
they  are  disturbed  by  hunters,  and  frequentlj  fass 
the  day  on  the  water  far  from  shore  as  a  meanb  of 
protection. 

HVW  iir  Carolina  ifuek  {Aix  Jpon^a).  — This  is 
the  handsomest  and  most  gorgeously  colorwl  of  any 
American  variety.  While  a  migratory  bird,  it  does 
not  go  so  far  north  as  most  other  varieties  of  wild 
ducks,  and  confines  itself  at  all  seasons  of  the  year 
largely  to  the  United  States.  The  adult  male  has 


Flc.  5U.    Colond  UatOW  dBCkl. 

a  long  flowing  crest,  extending  backward  naarly  to 
the  shoulder.  It  is  puride  and  green  in  color,  with 
bright  metallic  reflL-ctions.  Two  narrow  lines  of 
white,  one  htjirting  from  tbe  uj^por  base  of  the  bill, 
the  other  at  or  behind  tho  eye,  pass  backwanl  Ui 
tho  point  of  the  crest ;  tht  throat  and  snle  of  the 
neck  are  white,  nearly  enclosing  the  violet-black 
back  of  the  head.  The  breiutt  is  chestnut,  ahudcd 
with  purple,  and  spangled  with  triangular  patches 
of  white;  the  wing  covi^rts  and  back  are  purple 
and  black,  with  rich  retlections;  the  sides  of  tbe 
breast  are  marked  with  n  broad  black  bar;  the 
aides  of  tbe  body  are  burred  with  fine  black  lines 
with  yellowish  brown  ground  or  undercobir,  the 
longer  fc^athors  ending  with  a  white  bar.  The  bill 
is  deep  red  or  scarlet,  with  black  at  the  base,  and 
black  bean  or  nail ;  eyes  bright  red  with  scarlet 
eyelids;  legs  and  feet  dusky  yellow.  The  female  ia 
similar  to  the  male  in  color,  hut  much  duller  in 
shade. 

The  Wood  duck  is  rivaled  only  by  the  Mandarin 
duck  of  China,  which  In  a  smaller  variety  and  some- 
what leae  gatdy  in  color.  The  Wood  duck  prefers  a 
secluded  place,  near  a  small  lake  or  nwamp  whi>re 
trees  abound.  The  nest  is  tunally  made  in  b.dlow 
trees  near  the  water,  and  is  eompoeed  of  feathers 


572 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


and  Aoviii  onlv,  pluckcel  by  the  dock.  Should  the 
neat  be  far  from  the  water,  the  yonng  are  rarrW 
by  the  mnther  in  her  beak,  one  at  a  time.  Here 
they  are  at  home,  mid  like  ntber  wild  varieties 
come  to  mnturity  in  a  i'nry  short  [wriul. 

The  MtiUuril  tlufk  [Ant'f  bnivkaA  ia  the  most 
niimtTOUs  of  nil  North  American  varieties,  and  ie 
found  more  or  Icins  in  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia  and 
northern  Africji.  in  color,  it  is  the  same  as  the 
stanilanl  Rouen  ;  Tnedium  In  size  ;  bea<)  of  the  male 
clear  histroLiB  green;  tiltl  greenish  yellow  ;  eyeB 
dark  hazel;  neck  green,  with  distinct  wbitts  ring 
nearly  m«;ting  at  the  back  ;  lirea»t  cU-ar  purpiL', 
brnwn  extending  well  hack;  hack  ashy  gray,  shEu]e<d 
with  greon  ;  wings  grayish  brown  sKiuiiJ<d  with 
green.  The  duck  is  entirely  diirerent  in  color  from 
the  drake,  the  entire  plumage  beinjj;  light  brown 
pencileil  with  <lark  luHtronn  brown  throughont, 

Littr(d\irc, 

Geo.  E.  Howard,  Dueks  and  CJ^eae :  Standard 
Varieties  and  Management,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No, 
64.  Uniteft  States  Hepartment  of  Agriculture 
(1906).    [For  further  references,  see  page  527.] 

GeeH.  Anatida.  Figs.  58G-o90. 
By  Charht  MeClaiv. 

The  goo.se  is  a  water-fowl  raised  for  its  meat 
and  fiiathors,  and  also  to  aome  extent  for  orna- 
mental purpoaea.  The  breeding  and  rearing  of 
dome8ticat«4  and  wild  varieties  of  geese  is  an 
industry  that  is  not  only  interesting  in  mnny  wjiys. 
but  of  value  from  a  commercial  n.tHnd|ioint. 

The  goose  may  be  said  to  he  midway  in  general 
appearance  and  size  between  the  swan  and  the 
dack.  It  is  much  .tmaller.  with  shorter  body,  wing 
and  neok  than  the  swan,  and  much  larger  than  any 
known  variety  of  i[ii(:k.s.  The  In'ak  of  the  gcMJse  is 
different  in  form  from  that  of  the  duck,  being  nar- 
rower and  deeper  and  mora  like  that  of  the  swan. 
The  tarsus  or  shank— that  in,  the  part  of  the  leg 
not  coverefi  hy  fejithers  -  in  the  goose  is  covered 
by  naked  akin,  marked  with  small  lines,  enclosing 
sectioiw  like  mpshes  of  a  net.  In  tlie  dock  family 
thiH  is  Very  dilTerenl  ;  the  front  of  the  shank  or 
taraua  is  covered  with  sejiIeH  or  ,'*cDte!lie.  one  over- 
lapping another  and  forming  a  purfect  covering 
just  as  the  scales  cover  u  fish.  In  the  gooee  the 
tarsus  is  naid  to  be  Teticulato,  while  in  the  duck  it 
JA  said  to  Ik'  scutellnte. 

The  origin  of  all  our  domestic  and  utandard 
varieties  of  g(H>-»e,  except  the  wild  or  Canadian.  !3 
staid  to  be  the  Ktiropean  gray-lag  variety  (Anxer 
cinerni»).  By  curofwl  selection  and  breeding  for 
a  great  number  of  years,  man  has  wnmght  many 
changes  in  color,  tj-pt*,  and  general  characteristics 
of  the  domestic  varieties.  The  geese  that  excited 
the  attention  of  the  guard  by  their  loud  noise  and 
saved  the  Roman  capit)>!  from  destruction  by  the 
enemy,  were  of  a  vt^ry  different  type  from  our 
improved  varietieft  of  the  present  day. 

The  varietifs  of  gepM  recognized  by  the  Ameri- 
can .'Standard  of  Perfection  are  the  .African.  Erob- 
den.    Toolouse,   White    Chinese,  Urowa    CtiinMe. 


Wild  or  Canadian  and  Egyptian.    .\n  are  natives 
of  theeaMtHrn  hemisphere  except  the  Wild  or  Cana- 
dian. The  first  thrett  varieties  are  generally  deeig-j 
noted  by  br(H«)ers  and  specialists  as  the  "  heavy  | 
weight"    or    "market"    varieties  of    the   goon' 
family.    Mature  gee«e,  when  fattened  for  market* 
weigh  seventeen  to  twenty  pounds  each  ;  single 
speciment)  have  been  known  to  rvAch  more  than 
twenty- live   pnundti,  but   the   lattur  figure  ie  an 
extreme  weight, 

Tlte  following  noti'fi  on  African.  Embden  and 
TouIouiMi  geese,  not  prepared  by  the  writer  of  this 
article,  are  inserted  by  the  Editor  to  complete  Iba 
discussion. 

Afriean. 

African  geese  nink  with  the  Kmbden  and  Tou- 
louse in  stKe,  and  are  considered  more  prolific  than 
either.  They  are  strong,  vigorous  and  activa 
birds.  They  aru  characterized  by  a  large  head, 
liejiring  a  pronounced  black  knob,  and  a  heavy  gray 
dewlap  under  the  throat.  The  neck  is  long,  b,ick 
broad  and  Hat.  brcfwst  fnll  and  round,  body  large 
and  upright.  Th(>  thighs  are  short  and  plump,  sati 
the  shanks  medium  l(»ng  and  dark  orange  colored. 
The  wings  an?  of  goinl  nirx,  and  fit  close  to  the 
biMiy.  TliL-  plumiige  of  the  neck  ia  rather  light  (^ay 
in  color,  tnivcrscd  from  the  head  to  the  Iwdy  by  ft 
stripe  of  dark  gray  color.  The  breast  is  gray,  tJie 
under  part  of  the  body  and  thighs  a  lighter  gray, 
and  the  hack  dark  gray.  The  wings  and  tail  are 
dark  gray.  The  standard  weights  are  given  as  fol- 
lows: Mature  gaiidt^r,  20  (lounrls ;  mature  goose, 
IH  {Hkunds;  young  gander,  16  poonda;  young  gooe^ 
14  pounds. 

African  geese  are  moat  profitable  because  of 
their  prolificacy  and  early  maturity.  Nine-pound 
market  birds  are  ready  in  ten  weeks.  Their  darit 
bill  and  ^kin  is  sg«in.it  them,  and  they  are  coosid' 


^ 


Fli[.5t6.    BnMen. 

ered  difficult  to  pick.  Bui  the  flesh  ia  fine-flavored, 
and  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  gandera  are  sure 
breederii.  and  mate  readily  with  any  geese  and  with 
large  numbers.  The  females  are  splendid  mothent, 
and  fairly  good  layers. 

.\frican  geese  are  an  old  variety  and  were 
brought  to  America  at  an  early  date,  varionaly 
known  as  African.  India  and  Guinea  geese.  Tbey 
have  not  been  much  shown,  and  cunaeqaeatly  ara 
not  80  well  known  as  some  other  breeds,  bat  art 
highly  prized  by  a  few  breeders. 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Embdm. 

Thf  beaatifu.  white  plumaKe,  square,  compact 
body,  and  taM,  erect  cniTiaKi>  of  the  Kmbili-n  make 
it  a  wry  attraclive  bin).  It  u  nut  so  proHfic,  per- 
haps, iLt  the  Tonlouse,  averaifiiiK  only  about  twenty 
e;;pt  in  a  ^'luuin,  but  it  is  hifjhly  c-dtwrncd  as  a 
!>ruclical  bird.  The  neck  is  long  and  massive- 
appL-arin^t,  carrying  rather  a  large  head  and  a 
mwliara-sized,  omnKe-coiored  bill.  The  back  is 
sliphtly  arched,  the  breast  round,  dewp  and  full, 
shanks  short,  stout,  and  deep  onioKe  in  cuior,  the 
thigh.>»  strong  and  well-propurtiiine*!,  toea  straight. 
The  winga  art;  large  and  strong  and  the  tail  ehort. 
The  eyea  are  bright  blue,  indicating  vigor  and 
attention.  Tho  standard  weights  are  given  as  fol- 
lows; Mature  gamier,  20  iMiiinds ;  mature  g(KiHe, 
18  pounds;  jroung  gander.  18  pounds;  young  goose, 
li>  poundn. 

Emb<len  geetie  were  originated  by  the  north  fJer- 
itians,  and  e.'^pecially  IhoKtj  living  in  or  n<far  the 
province  of  We>tl])halia. 

For  breeding,  it  w  wl-I!  to  chooAc  a  bright,  active 
gander  of  good  parentage,  that  is  two  to  five  years 
old.  The  gooHe  should  have  simtlar  qualities,  and 
l>e  clean  and  compact.  Fall  or  early  winter  is  the 
best  time  to  mate.  The  gander  antl  g^ijaae,  one  to 
three  in  numlter,  should  lie  put  togi'tlier  and  isolated 
until  they  become  acquainted.  Embden  geese  will 
breed  profitably  until  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age, 
but  they  are  not  generally  allowed  to  do  »o.  They 
likd  to  hide  their  nests,  and  it  U  well  to  place  the 
nests  in  natnaf-the-way  places,  free  from  disturb- 
ance. A  few  nest-eggs  should  be  provided  bo  that 
the  eggs  may  be  retnove<i  each  day.  and  stored  at 
a  temperature  of  46°  to  Gif,  until  enough  for  a 
sitting  have  been  wcared.  By  that  time  the  goose 
will  be  broody.  Incubation  takes  thirty  davs.  If 
the  egga  are  hatched  under  a  hm.  she  witi  need 
attention  at  hatching  time,  until  she  geta  familiar 
with  her  strange  bmod. 

Toulouse  geese  are  an  old  French  breed,  and  have 
long  been  popular  in  France  for  their  superior  fat- 
tening qualities  and  hardiness,  making  them  very 
profitable.  They  derive  their  name  from  the  city 
of  Toulouse  in  France.  They  are  bred  largely  on 
farms  in  America,  and  are  in  demand  on  the  mar- 
ket. They  are  less  esteemed  for  table  purposes 
than  Home  other  breeds,  owing  to  the  coarse  and 
flabby  nature  of  the  Hesh.  They  are  htd  maturing 
and  proline,  averaging  about  forty  eggs  in  a  season. 

Touloufw  gee.w  are  blue-gray  in  color,  marked 
with  brown  :  the  head  i.^  gray,  "the  neck  dark  blue- 
gray,  the  back  dark  gray,  the  breast  a  '.ight  gray  or 
»t<>el-blue.  the  belly  and  under  unrface  of  the  tail 
white:  the  shanks  and  feet  are  deep  orange-red 
ciilored,  and  the  bill  id  orange  colored.  The  prima- 
ries of  the  wings  are  brown,  the  SMondaries  a 
darker  brown,  edged  with  lighter  gray.th?  covert« 
dark  gray.  The  head  is  rather  iargi>  bat  short,  the 
bill  short  and  stout,  neck  medium  long  and  well 
carried  ;  body  compact,  meilium  length,  deep,  the 
belly  lilraost  touching  the  ground ;  back  broad, 
moderately  long,  slightly  arc^  ;  breast  broad  and 


^K 


m^ 


Hi 


^^ 


m 


[■■f 


Fif  ..9S7.    TooJouM  JCOOH. 


deep ;  wtngR  large,  filrong.  folded  close  to  the  body; 
tail  hhort ;  thighn  and  Blianks  Htout.  The  (standard 
weight<4  are  given  &a  fotlows :  Adult  gander,  20 
poundit ;  adult  gooAL>,  18  pounds ;  young  gander, 
is  pounds ;  young 
goose,  IT)  pounds, 

The  comparative 
value  of  the  ditfer- 
ent  brefdn  for  mar- 
ket purposiw  U  a 
matter  of  opinion- 
African  gf««!  are 
hardy,  good  breeders 
and  prolific ;  other- 
wise they  are  not  so 
giHHl  for  market  par- 
pom^  ns  either  the 
F.inbdon  or  the  Too- 
louse.  African  gan- 
ders are  frequently 
used  to  cross  on 
other  breeds,  but 
they  are  pugnacious.  quarrcL-iome  and  hard  to  han- 
dle. The  F-mWen  is  pret-minently  the  market  goose 
for  family  trade  ;  ejjpwially  is  thi,s  so  where  pro- 
ducer and  consumer  deal  direct. 

Young  geese  are  often  as  gou<l  or  better  breeders 
than  old.  Breeding  qualitiua  are  to  be  judged  by 
results  rather  than  by  age.  It  is  well  to  keep  the 
good  breeiters  as  long  as  they  produce  satisfac- 
torily. Gee.se  that  have  been  good  breeders  should 
not  be  condemned  on  one  sea.'ion's  fuilurv.  .411 
bweding  geeeu  have  their  "ups  and  downs,"  und 
results  are  not  always  gui>d.  H  i;*  Wtter  to  tH>t  nil 
but  the  tut  Dggs  under  bens ;  the  latter  are  easier 
to  handle,  and  the  goose  will  usually  lay  two 
litters. 

WTiiU  and  Brown  Ckitiex.  (  Pig.  588.) 

The  White  and  the  Brown  Chinese  (Cj/ffnoprif  cyg- 
noif/fx)  have  the  same  general  charact«ridtic(i,  but 
are  entirely  different  in  color.  The  original  Chi- 
nese Were  colored  and  the  White  hai  been  bred 
from  sports.  It  is  thought  that  no  entirely  white 
variety  nf  geese  existed  among  any  known  wild 
species  of  the  goose  family.  These  two  varieties 
are  native  of  China,  and  are  bred  in  Europe  and 
America  in  large  numbers. 

The  Chinese  are  the  most  ornamental  of  all 
dometitic  varieties  of  geese.  For  ornamenting  the 
lakes  and  lagoons  of  public  and  private  parks  they 
rank  high,  even  rivaling  the  turopeun  swan  in 
this  rcjipect.  They  are  also  a  practical  variety.  In 
egg- production  they  outrival  even  the  famous 
Toulouse.  A»  a  market  goose,  the  Chinese  are  of 
very  superior  quality.  The  bodies  are  plump  and 
round  and  the  meat  is  of  excellent  quality.  As 
feather-]MDdacers  they  are  atiw  valuable,  being 
covered  with  a  good  coat  of  soft  feathers  and  fine 
down.  They  arc  of  medium  size,  mature  specimens 
weighing  ten  to  fourteen  pounds  each  according  to 
ttesh.  In  general  appearance,  the  Chinese  hare 
long  arch  neck."*,  carried  very  upright,  with  a  targe 
round  knob  or  protulwrance  at  the  haw  of  the 
beik— the  larger  tha  knob  the  better.  They  dia- 


574 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


PlE.  sse.    White  Cbti.«c  ceMc. 


play  a  short  eroct  Irody  and  carriage,  (fiving  them 
a  rovpl  aiipearance.  They  are  esperially  valuable 
on  farms  im  which  marshy  or  bniktsn  Iimd  by 
Ktrearo  or  brook  abonnds,  for  thu  is  tik'ir  natural 

ho  mi'.  UurinR 
the  spring  and 
warm  monthB 
they  Rain  nearly 
their  entire  liv- 
ing  from  |)a»- 
ture  H.nd  water. 
Uuritiji  the  win- 
ter, they  necfJ 
the  protection 
of  an  open  shed, 
and  if  supplied 
with  clover  hay 
lA  m^       KX,"**  \i        "^        anJ  other  rough 

fodder  re^iuire 
only  a  small 
amount  of  ^rain 
each  day.  The 
breedinR  Reese 
should  be  fed 
sparingly  on 
corn  or  other  grain,  aa  fattened  specimens  are  poor 
c'jig  -  producera  and  egga  from  them  hatch  few 
goslings. 

Experience  has  taaght  that  it  is  best  to  mate 
two  geese  with  one  gandflr,  although  sc»me  ganders 
wil!  mate  with  three  geese,  When  large  flocks  are 
kept  together,  they  usaally  mate  in  pairs  and  trios, 
and  at  laying  time  the  ganders  become  pugnacious 
among  them^lveji  and  gght  vicinuiily.  It  h  advis- 
able to  allow  the  gnotse  to  sit  and  hatch  hi^r  young, 
but  the  eggs  can  be  hatched  by  chicken  hens  and 
reared  by  hand  with  good  success.  Should  the 
latter  method  be  adopted,  the  goo^  should  be 
remwed  to  new  quarters  as  soon  as  she  begins  to 
be  broody,  and  in  a  few  days  phe  will  lay  again. 
After  the  second  laying  it  is  well  to  allow  the 
goose  to  hatch  and  grow  the  young.  The  young 
grow  rapidly  from  the  shell,  and  at  four  months  of 
age  are  nearly  mature.  The  gander  will  always 
care  for  and  protect  the  young  aa  well  as  the  goose. 
The  young  hatched  and  cared  for  by  the  chicken 
hens  can  be  turned  over  at  any  age  to  the  flock,  as 
the  gamlera  will  fight  for  the  young  at  any  age, 
and  every  old  gander  in  the  flock  will  endeavor  to 
father  the  young  goslings. 

iVitd  or  Caiiadiau.   (Fig.  589.) 

The  American  wild  or  Canadian  goose  (Branta 
Canaden*if)  is  a  native  of  North  America  from  the 
gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Hudson  bay  country  and  even 
Alaska.  It  is  a  migratory  bird,  spending  the 
winters  in  sontheni  United  States  and  in  Mexico 
and  ("atifornia.  In  the  early  spring  great  flocrkw  are 
seen  passing  northward.  Iteyond  the  eye  and  habi- 
tation of  man  to  the  silent  de.solations  of  anhnown 
countries.  It  seeks  the  wild  solitudes  uninhabited 
by  man,  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and  marshes.  U 
ushalty  ne.tt*i  near  the  water  on  elevated  (latf'heA  of 
ground,  and  freijuently  on  mii^krat  honfles  made  of 
reeds  in  the  water.   The  netit  is  carefuUv  m.-vlt!  and 


protected  with  diligent  care  by  both  paoder  aod 
goose.  The  gtmse  dfnes  not  begin  to  lay  until  thrw 
yeare  nf  age,  niid  prctduce.')  live  to  eight  eggH  of 
large  and  uniform  vize.  Invariably  all  are  fertile 
and  each  brings  forth  a  strong,  vigorous  gtMiling. 
As  soon  as  all  are  hatches!,  the  young  are  taken  to 
the  wat*r  by  the  parent  birds,  where  they  feed 
mostly  on  veget^ahle  matter  and  water  inswta. 
The  yonng  are  very  rapid  growers  and  come  to 
maturity  in  about  twelve  weeks,  while  other  vari- 
eties of  our  domestic  geese  retiuire  four  to  five 
months  ta  reach  maturity.  The  Canadian  Wild  geese 
mate  only  in  pairs. 

Wild  geese  were  domesticated  and  bred  on  farms 
at  an  early  period  with  varied  success.  No  change 
in  appearance  or  color  has  been  wrought  by  man  ; 
their  appearance  and  habits  are  the  same.  The 
writer  has  had  many  years  of  experience  in  breed- 
ing and  handling  these  wild  fowls,  and  finds  their 
wild  instincts  always  foremost.  Rirds  reared  with 
our  domestic  geese  will  rii^  and  fly  if  an  opportun- 
ity presents  itself.  The  only  means  of  controlling 
them  is  to  remove  the  last  joint  of  one  wing  when 
the  goslings  are  only  a  few  days  old  so  that  they 
cannot  fly. 

The  standard  weight  of  Wild  geese  is  ten  to 
twelve  pounds.  They  are  of  medium  size,  with  long 
archerl  neck,  email,  well-elevated  head,  with  black 
beak  and  an  ever-watchful  eye ;  head  black,  with 
a  triangular  white  patch  or  cheek  piece  meeting 
under  the  throat :  neck  black,  shading  to  gray  at 
base  :  the  back  dark  gray,  breast  light  gray,  shad- 
ing to  whit?  on  under  part  of  the  bt^y  ;  wings 
long,  large  and  powerful, 
and  in  color  dark  gray 
approaching  black.  The 
young  are 
similar  in 
color  to  the 
adult,  except 
that  they  are 
a  little  duller 
in  shade  and 
the  white 
cheek  piece 
is  marked 
with  black. 
This  disap- 
pears at  ma- 
turity, however,  and  at  one  year  old  the  young 
have  preciifeiy  the  same  color  as  the  adulta. 

Egyjaian  {Cftenalopex  rEgy;^ieu»).     [Pig.  590.) 

This  variety  is  entirely  different  from  all  oth« 
standard  or  dome4>tic  varietiu«  of  the  goose  family. 
It  produces  only  a  small,  number  of  egg»  and  in  of 
little  valne  except  for  ornamental  porposea.  It* 
native  home  ik  north  and  central  Africa  and  llie 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Historians  anl 
naturalists  allude  to  the  Egyptian  as  the  oldest  and 
most  ancient  variety  of  pore-bred  gcesc.  At  preh- 
eat it  is  common  over  southern  Europe  and  occa* 
aionally  (jne  specimens  can  be  fimnd  in  America. 
It  is  the  native  wild  gociw  of  the  River  Nile 
country,    nivanse  of   its  small  size  and    peculiar 


FlK.  319.    wad  «  Omadlas 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


575 


Wii.  sn.    Brawn  ChiDCM  Gmh. 


flhape,  soni'e  nAturalists  place  the  Egyptian  as  much 
in  the  duck  family  as  in  the  goona  family.  It  it)  the 
Hmalkflt  standard  or  dumettticat*^  variety,  wei^b- 
iog  MX  to  U-n  potintlfl,  the  latter  weight  being  the 
extrcmo  for  niaturu  males. 

Thu  malu  anil  fumaiu  aru  alike  both  in  shape  and 
in  color,  and  it  ]»  frequently  difficalt  to  distiniiruij^h 
the  sexes  under  ordinary  circumstance.  It  is 
necejwary  to  "  winR"  both  mature  and  yDung  birtla 
to  prevent  their  flying  away.  Thty  care  little  for 

other  dome.'itif  van- 
etifs  of  fiet'se  and 
ducks,  and  prefer  to 
remain  by  themselves 
near  the  pond  or 
ma  rah.  They  are 
Bought  principally  for 
parks  and  public  ex- 
hilbitions.  VVhilu 
small  in  stature,  the 
old  males  are  very 
pagnacioua  and  quar- 
reJjKome  with  all  other 
aquatic  fow|j<,  and  art- 
pccially  with  malt's  of 
their  own  spucies. 
With  better  domesti- 
cation this  trouble- 
some characterbtic 
will  no  doubt  be 
overcome  to  a  great 
extent. 

In  color,  thw  KK>'ptian  goose  is  the  most  varied 
and  gaady  of  the  gorme  tribe.  The  head  is  timall 
and  rather  long,  a  tittle  inclined  to  duck  shapo ; 
the  bill  of  medium  length  and  rather  flat,  and  tn 
color  pnrpie  or  shaded  red  ;  the  ayvn  orange  color, 
prominent  and  h<ild  ;  th^  n«:k  medium  length, 
small,  gray  and  black  in  culor ;  the  back  niu-niw 
and  arched  or  egg-«haped  from  base  of  neck  to 
tail,  color  grayish  black ;  the  breast  round  and 
deep,  with  a  chestnut-colored  middle,  the  lower 
part  dark  gray.  The  same  chestnut  color  ext^-nds 
around  the  eye,  covering  the  side  of  the  ht-ad  in 
both  male  and  female.  The  winga  are  large  and 
powerful,  and  andt-rneath  the  wing  joints  are  pro- 
vided with  a  strong,  homy  spur  tivtM^ighths  of  an 
inch  long,  being  entirely  ditfercnt  in  thin  respe^ct 
from  other  varititieH  of  gee-w.  The  surface  of  the 
wing  is  whiti^,  with  a  narrow  black  atripe  or  bar 
of  clear  metallic  luitter,  wing  flighUt  dear  black, 
tail  mediom  size  and  metallic  black,  thighs  pale 
buff  or  gr^y,  feet  rwldisb  yellow.  Altogether  the 
Egj-plian  is  a  most  interesting  variety  and  worthy 
of  more  than  passing  attention.  It  breeds  well  in 
contlnem<>nt  under  favorable  conditions,  tbe  goose 
producing  oix  to  eight  eggs,  making  a  nest  and 
hatching  her  young.  If  it  has  access  to  a  pond  or 
waterway,  it  requires  very  little  attenUon  or  grain 
food. 

SAuiapoel. 

The  Sebastapool  goose  ia  a  native  of  eastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia  and  the  Bladt  sea.  and 
was  importofl  to  America  as  early  as  1860.    It  is  a 


pare-bred,  but  not  a  standard  variety,  pure  white 
in  color,  of  medium  size,  mature  sj>ecimemi  weigh- 
ing ten  to  eleven  pounds  each.  The  peculiarity  of 
this  moat  novel  variety  is  its  plumage,  the  hack 
and  wing  surface  feathers  being  long,  inclining 
forward  and  downward,  without  shaft  and  curling 
as  though  fanned  by  the  hre«zes.  The  irregular 
ribbon-like  plumage  attracts  attention  wherever 
exhibited.  Very  few  good  specimens  are  to  be 
found  in  America. 

Wild  jeew  q}'  North  Ama-ica. 

Brant  found  some  twenty  distinct  types  or  van- 
eties  of  wild  gee.se  in  North  .America.  We  here  men- 
tion only  a  few  of  the  more  prominent.  All  North 
American  varieties  are  birds  of  rapid  and  powerful 
flight,  non-divers  except  when  wounded,  and  nest 
on  the  ground  la  high  latitude ;  but  nestii  have 
occasionally  been  found  in  the  forks  of  a  low  tree 
a  few  fevt  from  the  ground. 

Th£  wild  Blue  pooat  [Chen  fttrutetcais)  is  a  dis- 
tinct variety  found  in  the  interior  in  the  Miaais- 
aippi  valley  and  north  to  the  Hudson  bay  country. 
It  IB  rarely  seen  on  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic  coasts. 
It  winters  along  the  gnlf  of  Mexico  and  nests  in 
the  interior  of  Labrador.  It  is  eomewhat  smaller 
than  the  Canadian  Wild  goose  and  much  shorter  in 
neck.  Tbe  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  are 
white,  the  breast,  back  and  wings  brown  and  blue 
tinged  with  gray,  the  tail  brown  edged  with  white, 
the  bill  pale  pink  with  a  black  mark  along  each 
mandible,  and  the  shanks  and  feet  bright  pink  in 
color. 

Larfff  Snow  goou  (Chrn  hjjperborea). ^^Jhi&  vari- 
ety is  native  from  Alaska  to  Texas  and  Cuba.  It 
feeds  largely  on  the  land  from  growing  vegetables, 
and  returns  to  the  water  for  resting  and  drink. 
The  adult  specimt-n  i«  white  in  color,  except  the 
primaries  of  Ihv  flights,  which  are  black,  shading 
to  gray  at  the  base.  The  bill  and  feet  are  bright 
red. 

Small  Snow  ^toom— The  color  and  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  Small  Snow  goose  are  tbe  same  as 
those  of  the  Ijirge  Know  grwiHe  except  as  to  size.  It 
is  found  from  the  Mitwissippi  valley  to  California, 
and  from  as  far  south  as  Lower  (California  to  as 
far  north  as  Hudson  bay. 

The  iiorr  yoo«. — This  gooat-  ia  the  same  in  color 
as  the  Snow  goose,  but  very  small  in  size, — in  fact, 
it  ia  tbe  smalWt  of  all  wild  varieties,  mature 
flpecimens  weighing  only  about  thn^e  pounds.  It  is 
without  doubt  the  bantam  of  the  wild  goose  family. 
It  is  not  numerou?.  In  summer  it  occupiei!  the 
country  about  the  Arctic  ocean  and  in  winter  is 
found  along  the  Paoiiic  coast  and  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Wkitf^froiUai  ffoim  (/truwr  alhifronA  is  of 
medium  size  and  grayifth  brown  in  color.  The  finit 
short  feathers  from  the  beak  towanl  the  eye  are 
white  liorrlured  by  dark  brown,  and  hence  the  name, 
White-fronted  goose.  The  bill,  legs  and  feet  are 
pink  or  red.  It  inhabits  the  entire  western  part  of 
North  America  from  Mexico  In  the  Arctic  ocean. 
It  feedn  almont  t-ntirely  on  grass  and  other  vege- 
table matter,  and  occupies  the  water  only  at  night 


576 


POULTRY 


roULTRY 


ant]  [luring  the  irulting  period.  The  nent  ia  matle 
on  the  low  ground  near  Eresh-wattjr  marshe-H  ami 
small  lakes.  The  gooae  pro(iucB&  ftva  to  «evbii  eggs 
of  a  cream  color. 

The  HuichiHn,  VVesiem,  and  Caekling  varieties  of 
wild  geese  are  all  similar  in  characteriHtica  anil 
color  to  the  Can;Mlian  Wilfl  goose  except  in  size, 
and  are  \vm  niimen)ti.H. 

Tlw-  Bernade  ^msp  {Bernida  aunpiiix)  ih  aalcl  to 
be  a  HtniKjtler  Trom  Kurupe,  where  it  is  common. 
It  is  very  scarce  in  America,  and  i.^  found  only 
alonf:  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  t»  a  small  bird  about 
the  size  of  the  Brant.  The  head  is  white  oxc<>pt 
the  top,  which  is  black  ;  the  neck,  back  and  wings 
are  white,  the  onder  part  of  the  body  dull  white, 
ending  in  clear  white  at  the  rear  end;  the  tail, 
bill  and  feet  are  black. 

Tite  Emperor  ff(u>M  is  a  rare  variety,  fonod  princi- 
pally about  che  Ueritvg  sea,  and  satd  by  aome  writ- 
era  to  be  the  bandsonieat  of  all  American  varieties. 
In  color,  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck  are  white, 
the  front  and  sides  of  the  neck  are  broimish  black 
checked  with  white,  the  tail  is  dark  gray  at  the 
baae  and  white  at  the  vnd.  The  wing  and  body 
plomage  is  of  a  blnii«h  shade,  each  feather  ending 
with  a  band  of  white  and  laced  by  crencent-shaped 
black  markings ;  the  primaries  of  thu  wings  art- 
black,  and  the  aecondsriea  slaty  black  laced  with 
white.  It  nests  on  the  low  marshy  islands  of  Alaska, 
near  the  water  mark. 

Black  Brant.  (Branta  bernida.)— This  goose  is 
of  medium  size,  nearly  black  in  color  except  the 
under  rear  part  of  the  body.  It  inhabits  nearly  all 
of  North  America  as  far  east  a.'*  Greenland,  and 
north  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  The  nent  i»  made  on  the 
ground  on  small  islands  in  freah  water  in  Franklin 
bay.  The  nest  usaally  contains  four  or  five  eggs. 

WUd  varieties  of  Ike  eaxtera.  ketnUpherr. 

Of  the  wild  varieties  of  Europe,  there  are  three 
distinct  types:  the  Gray-lag  gno.ie,  the  rink-f»>otod 
gootie  and  the  Hean  goose.  The  common  domestic, 
or  English  variety,  is  no  doubt  a  descendant  of  the 
wild  Cray-la^. 

TTie  kM  Gray-tag  goote  (Anaer  cinemw),  alone 
among  mVi  varieties,  will  cross  with  domustic 
geese  and  produce  fertile  [irogeny.  V«ry  few  Gray- 
lags  are  to  be  found  in  Europe  except  in  the  Shet- 
land i.tUnda  and  on  the  coa.st  of  iNorway.  As  a 
variety  it  ha«  be<*fime  altnoflt  fxtinct. 

The  Bcaii  tjaom  (Artter  nfffctum)  closely  rwemlpleiii 
the  (itay-lag  in  many  ru^jnectn,  but  ih  (ihnrter  in 
beak  and  has  grtater  length  of  wings  or  flight 
feathers. 

Pifik-ifooted  goom, — Very  little  can  be  said  regard- 
ing the  Pink-footed  goose  except  that  it  resembles 
the  Gray-lag  and  Bean  varieties  in  color  and  gen- 
eral type,  and  is  very  difficult  to  distingaisb  from 
them. 

Tkt  fitvn!natt  or  Spitr'ininfjftt  ffOOK  is  a  native  of 
the  eastern  hemisphtTe,  and  is  vtiry  rart  in  Amer- 
ica. The  plumage  is  black  and  whiti?,  thu  former 
predominating.  The  goose  is  of  nietiium  ai»«,  erect 
in  carriage,  with  a  knob  on  the  head  similar  to  that 
in  the  Chine-Be  variety.  The  eyes  are  bright  brown. 


the  l)eak  and  shanks  dull  red.    Because  of  its  wild 
nature  it  is  rarely  bred  in  confinement. 

The  Cereapitig  ffo^*ge  is  a  native  of  New  Holland 
and  is  becoming  very  scarce  even  in  Europe.  It  is 
a  handsome  variety.  It  is  very  piignacioiiB  in  dis- 
po.titinn.  and  cannot  Iw  kept  successfully  with  any 
other  variety  of  water-fowl. 

Judging  gcf»c. 

For  judging  geese,  the  American  Stasdard  4f 
Perfection  pruvidea  a  tttandard  weight  for  eadl 
standard  variety  —  adult  male,  adult  female, 
young  male  and  young  female.  In  competition  with 
others  of  the  same  kind,  the  specimen  nearest  the 
required  weight,  other  condittonrt  of  color  and  form 
being  equal,  shall  be  the  winner.  However,  in  the 
large  market  varieties,  such  as  the  Toulouse,  the 
Embden  and  the  African,  the  writer  thinks  that,  all 
other  conditions  being  eoiual,  the  largest  specimen 
should  be  the  winner. 

Lltir.-ature. 

Geo.  E.  Howard,  Ducks  and  Geese :  Standard 
Varieties  and  Management,  Fanners'  Bulletin  No. 
G4,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(190C).   (For  further  reference*,  see  page  5"J7-] 

Grouse,    Domestication    of    the  Ruffed.    Bouam 

umMlvf.  Tftraimlilit.   Figs.  tJ9l,  592. 

By  C.  F.  Hodge, 

The  possibility  of  rearing  the  ruffed  grr>a*e,  or 
American  partridge,  in  domestication  is  now  a  dem- 
onstrated fact.  Six  birds  from  a  clutch  of  twelve 
were  thus  reared  by  the  writer  in  1904.  and  three 
were  brought  to  maturity  by  Arthur  Merrill,  of 
the  Masnachuaetts  State  Hatchery,  at  WiUtinson- 
ville,  in  19CN>.  One  pair  of  the  former  lot  bred 
successfully  in  captivity  when  they  were  ten 
months  old,  and  those  at  the  U'ilkinsnnville  Hatcl 
ery  are  apparently  breeding  normally  this  set 

Rearing  the  bird*. 

The  ntlTed  gr^HR^it  1ayn  ten  to  aixteen  eggs  in  a 
alight  deprt'^iun  in  the  ground,  in  a  brush-pile  iv 
at  the  batu)  of  a  Lrev.    The  clutches  are  asuallrj 
completwt  in  Massachusetts  by  May  1  to  10,  aal 
the  incubation  period  is  twenty-four  days.   At  any 
stage  of  incubation  the  eggs  may  be  transported  by 
the  "hat  method"  in  perfei't  safety.  Thijt  method 
consists  in  laying  a  p.-id  of  cotton-batting  in  the 
crown  of  a  felt  Kat,  )dacing  thu  uggs  on  this  andj 
then  simply  wearing  Ihv  hat  with  the«ggs  next  tal 
the  head.  One  ca.'^e  is  known  in  which  the  chickii 
actually  hatched   in  thu  bat.    The  young  pip 
shell  usually  a  full  day  before  they  linalty  emergebj 

The  eggs  hatch  well  under  Cochin  bantam  bei 
Oe«8  80.  thus  far,  in  incubaturst,  and  the  yoni 
may  h^  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  in  the 
one  day  withiiut  feeding.  Tlie  rule  to  be  followed" 
after  this  is,  feei!  lightly  and  often,  and  keep  tbem 
hungry:  expeciully,  keen  then  hungry  and  active. 
The  only  exception  to  this  role  is  at  night,  when 
they  must  be  fed  enough  to  send  them  to  sleep  con- 
tentedly.  After  feeding  liberally  one  evening,  for 


POULTRY 

example,  OU  foDT^Iays-old  chick  was  found  wan- 
dertne  discoiuolatcly  about  in  the  ilti.-tk.  It  ute 
Bixty-five  fall-^wn  maggota  before  it  crept  under 
the  hen.  This  incidentally  illuntratei<  biith  quanti- 
tatively and  ■qii;ilit;iti%'ely  the  foful  of  the  young 
chicks,  which  is,  at  lir»l,  alnKutt  wholly  smull  In^ectA 
B.Dd  spiders. 

Fcrding  and  nirf.— The  best  (Irst-fwi  is  supplied 
by  cutting  branches  of  apple,  maplw.  trhattnut,  and 
elm,  with  k'svea  covered  with  aphides,  and  spread- 
ing them  down  before  the  brood;  or  the  chicks 
may  be  allowed  to  pick  the  small  insects  from  the 
grass  or  from  the  plants  tn  the  garden.  If  the 
weather  is  cold  tr  Wi?t  »y  that  they  cannot  be  risked 
out  of  the  brooder,  they  may  be  fed  for  the  first 
day  or  two  on  well-ripentti  and  cleaned  maggot**, 
B  few  at  a  time ;  and  if  these  fail,  us  they  do  in 
exceptionally  cold  sen^on^,  the  attendant  may  give 
gparingly  of  pheasants"  cn.«tard.  This  is  made  by 
beating  tip  a  frt'sh  egg  with  a  half  cup  of  fre^h 
milk,  and  baking  or  ;'^aliltng  until  cnairulat^.  It 
is  well  to  add  a  pinch  of  chick  b»ne-n)eal  to  each 
feeding.  The  chicks  will  al»o  need  a  good  supply 
of  grit,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  a  bunch  of  fn»4h 
chickweed,  wood  sorrel,  shepherd's  purse,  or  wild 
peppergraaa  before  them  from  the  first.  They 
should,  in  facti  be  encouraged  to  eat  all  the  bulky. 
coarse,  vegetable  matter  possible.  Grated  carrot  is 
excellent  during  the  ftrst  weeks.  All  this  vegetable 
food  may  be  kept  con:(tantly  before  them,  as  it 
always  is  in  nature.  This  rule  also  applies  to  all 
kinds  of  fruits  as  they  ripen  through  the  season, 
from  strawberries,  molberriea  and  cherries  to 
huckleberries  and  black  cherries,  which  are  a 
staple  food  through  the  summer,  and  grapes  and 
apples,  chestnuts  and  acorns  in  the  late  fall. 
Tliroughout  the  summer,  grasshoppers  form  the 
Btaplo  insect  diet.  These  can  generally  be  secured 

in  any  desired  quan- 
tity  by  sweeping  the 
mowings  with  insect 
nets. 

In  the  latentimmer 
and  fall,  leaves  of 
trws  and  shrubs  form 
a  large  part  of  the 
bird's  diet.  It  is 
strange  that,  with  all 
snrta  of  fruits  and 
grains  before  them, 
they  will  insist  on 
eating  leaves  and 
buds;  butqueorasthe 
tasfte  may  seem,  there 
is  no  disputing  it. 
The  birds  winter  easily,  in  fact,  winter  them- 
selves if  supplied  with  abundance  of  budding 
briLnh,  poplar,  apple  or  birch,  some  grains  and 
seeds,  as  of  kafir,  corn,  buckwheat,  millet,  wheat 
and  Buntlower.  a  cabbage  bead  occasionally  and 
apples.  Wo  may  also  add  cranberries  and  winter- 
gre^'n  berries,  but  these  may  l>e  an  unnecessary 
extravagance.  If  provided  with  a  warm  shelter 
with  sunny  wiridows.  the  partridges  will  spend 
their  dAy»  tn  it  wallowing  and  feeding.   They 

C37 


■^;' 


\1 


Pic-  Sn.    RnSed  poiuc  lUnttiu;. 


sleep,  however,  invariiibly  outside.either  perched 
in  the  bnwh,  preferably  a  thick  mass  of  spruce. 
pine  or  hemlock  branches,  or  in  snow  burrows  that 
they  dig  whenever  the  snow  is  deep  enough. 

In  the  spring  the  flock  must  be  carefully  watched 
and  the  cock.'*  must  lie  put  each  into  a  separate 
cage  as  soon  as  any  signs  of  fighting  appear.  The 
hens  may  be  kept 
in  a  cage  together, 
lit  least  until 
mated,  when  itwill 
probably  Ixt  best 
to  gi%-e  each  one 
a  caii[e  or  run  to 
herself.  When  the 
cocks  b<.'gin  to 
drum,  place  the 
hens  with  them 
and  tnpy  will  mate 
immoi lately.  The 
hens  should  then 
be  removed,  as  it  seems  to  be  the  rule  for  a  cock 
to  peck  a  hon  to  death  if  confined  with  her  after 
mating. 

Diffiealtie*  in  the  wajf  ofdomeMiealing  ruffed  groute. 

It  is  usually  stated  that  the  raffed  grouse  is 
untamable,  and  this  is  given  as  the  reason  why  the 
species  has  not  been  successfully  domesticated. 
The  eiiwrienco  of  the  past  tlve  years  has  entirety 
disproved  this  theory.  It  has  also  been  asserted 
that  it  is  too  nervous  to  submit  to  the  necessary 
confinement  of  domesticated  fowls.  This,  too, 
is  disproved.  If  actually  hatched  under  domestic 
conditions,  the  birds  are  quite  as  tame  as  barnyard 
fowls,  and  remain  so;  and  they  are  ciulet,  show  no 
abnormal  restlessness  and  appear  quite  as  contented 
as  ordinary  fowls.  The  real  reason  why  the  Ameri- 
can partridge— and  this  probably  applies  to  the 
bobwhite  and  other  native  grouse-  has  not  been 
brought  under  domestication  is,  that  the  species 
succumbs  to  a  disease,  generally  present  in  the 
domestic  fowl.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  parasite 
which  produces  the  " block- heiid"'  or  "favua" 
of  the  turkey.  This  disease  has  made  the  rear- 
ing of  turkeys  over  wide  areas  impossible  on 
ground  contaminated  by  the  domestic  fowl,  and 
will  render  the  rearing  of  grouse  with  fowls  impos- 
sible in  the  same  region?.  Turkeys  or  grouse  may 
be  reared  in  these  localities  if  the  chicks  are  kept 
in  brooders,  off  the  contaminated  grouml.  for  the 
first  two  or  three  weeks,  and  are  then  taken  to  the 
woods  where  the  ground  is  uncontnminated  by 
fowls.  It  is  possible  that  a  resistant  strain  may 
be  developed,  but  this  will  take  time.  Cot-bin  ban- 
tams may  al.<<o  be  reared  in  incubators  and  brood- 
ers so  as  to  be  entirely  free  from  the  parasite, 
and  then^  on  uncontami tutted  ground,  they  might 
be  used  successfully  to  rear  grouse  or  quail.  How- 
ever, experiments  have  only  recently  l>een  pro- 
jected along  this  line  on  the  theoty,  which  is 
probably  safe,  that  the  parasites  are  not  trans- 
mitted  through  the  egg. 

Another  disease,  known  as  the  grouse  disease, 
has  recentljr  been  distributed  among  the  breeding 


578 


POm-THY 


POULTRY 


stations  and  has  presented  a  new  and  Berious  dif- 
ficulty. This  w  bacterial  in  origin,  due  to  B.  l^olieus. 
All  precautions  should  be  taken  againat  Bpruadin^ 
or  harborinR  thia  (i<>rra  wh^erever  the  rearing  of 
grouse  is  t»  be  att«mptod. 

Literature. 

Sylvester  P.  Jadd,  The  Gronse  and  Wild  Torkeya 
of  the  United  StatM  and  Their  Economic  Value, 
Bulletin  No.  2-1,  Bureau  of  Biolo^cal  Survey, 
United  States  Department  of  Aericulture  (1905); 
G.  F.  Hodge,  Domesticating  the  Huffed  GrottM, 
Country  Life  in  America,  April,  1D06. 

Giiinea-fowL   I^umida  mekagrif.   Numidida..   Fijj;. 
593. 

By  T.  F.  McGrfw. 

The  Koinea-fowls  belong  to  the  gatlinaceoim 
division  of  birds.  TTiey  were  found  originally  in 
Africa,  and  are  said  to  hav«  inten  rearett  cuiituriea 
ago  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  as  table  poultry. 
They  were  brought  into  the  West  Imli^^s  by  imml- 
grantsS.  and  from  there  were  well  distributwd  over  the 
entire  American  continent.  They  are  of  a  aemi-wild 
nature  :  even  wheiidoniei(ticattid  they  almost  refu^ft 
to  make  their  nests  other  than  in  hiding,  where 
they  deposit,  hatch  and  rear  their  young. 

Varielirs. 

The  Pearl  s^inea,  the  most  common  variety  of 
the  family,  haa  been  so  namwl  fmm  the  fact  that 
its  pluiiiiiCB  is  dotted  with  white  spots,  th'C  bi«Jy 
color  being  purpliith  gray,  TheiipoLit  are  of  a  pearll 
shape  and  color.  Tho 
heal  is  hare  of  plu- 
mage, with  a  bony  pro- 
tuberance on  the  crown 
that  1ft  often  Ciilk-d  a 
hidmet,  BometinipB 
fl])t>k(;n  of  as  the  rnmb 
of  the  guinea-fi>wl.  It 
lias  email  wattles, 
bright  -  colon-d  eyes, 
and  ak^rt.  quick  car- 
ri,i[,'i3.  It  is  diificult  to 
<lislingiiir<h  tlii>  male 
from  the  female.   The 

_  male  has  a   tendency 

Pit.  SM.   Commoii  nUiM-twrt.    ^,,  ^^^.^^  „„  jj^.^^  ^ 

bi>  moves  ubmil,  and  hin  cry  or  call  is  a  littlw  louder 
and  harsher  than  that  of  the  foraalo,  and  of  greater 
duration.  This  variety  is  moat  valued  becauae  it  is 
the  largest  and  mo.st  vi(;orona. 

i'ulfJtrinf  ffiiinm  {Afntfiium  vuUurinum). — Thw 
Bo-ealled  Vulturine  guinea-fowl  is  a  most  beau- 
tiful wild  htnl.  It  is  not  a  true  guinea-foivl,  but 
Iwarsa  close  reftemblance.  It  is  fieldoni  proiluued  in 
captivity.  A  few  sfieciniens  have  been  known  to 
deposit  their  egtis  when  confin<.-d  in  runways,  but 
there  is  no  record  of  their  having  reared  any  ynnng 
in  captivity.  The  Vulturine  has  a  biire  head,  the 
neck,  which  is  of  a  reddish  color,  is  nrnamenled 
with  flowing  feathers  nf  considerable  length,  which 
have  a  broad  Atn|H3  of  while  down  the  center.  The 


\V 


B?^ 


feathers  of  the  back  are  of  similar  form,  dotted 
with  white  spots ;  other  parts  of  the  body  are 
blackish  brown,  ornamented  with  numerou?  vpotd. 
The  breast  and  sides  of  the  abdomen  are  of  a  beau- 
tiful metallic  blue,  shaded  with  black.  The  whol« 
plumage  is  cmblaiwned  with  rich,  metallic  blue, 
and  some  pxrt^  are  sliaded  with  a  dull  pink. 

Thr  icUti  erffteit  varifty  is  said  to  hare  come  from 
ICast«rn  and  Central  Africa.  It  ha:>  a  black  creM 
insi«ad  of  the  lonv  protrusion  of  the  other  varie- 
ties. It  has  also  blue  markings  instead  of  white  ; 
the  neck  and  wattles  are  of  a  bluish  cast. 

The  white  rariet^  is  thought  to  have  originated 
from  albino  sports  of  the  Tearl  guinea.  This,  like  the 
broken-colored  varieties,  is  not  natural  to  the  breed, 
but  has  resulted  from  sports.  .Attention  h.'is  been 
given  the  breeding  of  the  white  guinea-fowl  within 
recent  years,  and  much  has  been  added  to  its  size, 
vigor  and  attractive  qualitiee. 

Hatting. 

Guineas  prefer  to  mate  in  pairs,  but  they  do  n<>t 
object  to  mating  with  three  to  five  females,  or 
trios  when  there  are    more  females   than   maL 
They  lay  small  eggs,  about  two-thirds  tbe  size 
an  ordinary  hen'A  egg.  The  shell  is  very  strong, 
a  dark  color,  and  spotted  throughout.    The  ei 
are    usually  remarkably  fertile.   The    fowls 
been  known  to  make  a  dVep,  tapering  nest,  in  whick^ 
they  would  lay  twenty-seven  to  thirty  eggs,  and 
hatch  the  greater  part  of  them  in  four  weeks'  time. 
They  like  to  conceal  their  nest,  and  will  leave  it 
if  they  see  a  person  near  it.   It  is  said  that  thevj 
are  able  to  d<'tect  whether  the  hand  has  touchti4| 
the  nest  in  their  absence,  and  if  so  they  will  de-' 
sert    it.    If  eggs  are    reniove<l    with  a   stick    or 
spoon,  cither  some  should  be  left  or  others  eab> 
stitnted,  so   as  to  leave   about  Ave  in  the  nest 
When  first  hatcheii,  the  keetfl  (young  guineaa) 
to  he  fed  frequently  on  finely  broken  particles  of 
grain»  ur  mn-ils.    Ka  they  grow  older,  whole  wl 
and  cracked  corn  seem  io  be  the  best  food  to  farnul 
them.   Parley,  oats,  buckwheat  and  millet  arc  al 
recommended.    Guinea-fowls  generally  feed 
the'  chickens,  and  thrive  on  the  same  foods.   The] 
should  not  be  over-fatiencid  for  market.   A  fatten- 
ing pi-riod  of  one  to  two  weeks  is  ordinarily  enough. 

Generally,  only  a  few  guinea-fowls  are  bred  OB^^ 
a  farm.   A  few  attempts  have  been  made  to 
Ihom  in  considerable  numtwra,  the  most  succe^sfBll 
of  which  were  in  Ohio,  where  a  guinea  bn»iler  farmj 
of  modest    pretensions  has    been  conducted   fori 
fiever-il  ye.irrt.  The  place  most  suited  to  the  guinoac' 
fowl  is  the  farm,  from  the  fact  that  it  pri-fer*  to 
live  in  a  partially  wild    state.    It  is   a  wonderful 
forager,  and  will  almost  support  ittelf  and  you n 
during  the  entire  summer  months,  if  there  is 
goixi  supply  of   bugs.  worm.s  and  seeds  uVt-r  tbe 
range.    It  likes  to  wander  over  gre.it  distanceti.    It 
retains  in  caiitivity  itf  ability  to  fly  almost  as  well 
as  though  it  had  never  bueD  domesticated. 

Guineas  prosper  remarkably  well  in  the  Sooth, 
It  is  not  imasual  to  see  large  numbers  of  them  in 
flocks  during  the  early  fall.   They  seem  to  cluster, 
in  groups  at  that  time,  as  do  the  blackbirds.    Thej 


POULTRY 


POULT  ity 


579 


take  ap  their  atxKle  at  niVht  in  the  tnei  near  to 
builditigH,  ur  ftted-lcttx.  wh<--rL>  lhL<y  can  ffalo  A  food 
supply  from  wasU;  Krain  and  other  iDalcrials. 

Imprfuftnent. 

If  proptT  attention  were  given  to  the  mating  of 
pnineii-fuwls  l»  impruvo  their  size  and  layin;;  quiil- 
\tj^,  they  rould  im  dt-velujied  int^i  h  m'>iit  ]iri»litabl(i 
kind  of  piiultry.  Tht;y  an?  [irutific  BK);-|"''*'luc«r8 
(luritiii  the  spring.  Attention  flhould  be  givon  to 
the  culling  «iit  nf  inft-rior  sjH'rimens  and  tho 
smaller  HiaMl  hens,  lireefiing  fur  iinprovement  being 
done  only  by  the  best  specimens. 

Um. 

The  eggs  are  more  valued  for  cooking  than  for 
table  uw.  Tba  guinea-fowl  h  very  wbnlciioine  meat, 
and  the  broiler  is  cimsideri'd  one  of  the  delicacies 
in  poultry.  Hoth  old  and  young  are  nsed  a.s  substi- 
tutes for  game  birdn.  Guinea.-*  are  very  watchful, 
and  sound  the  alarm  if  the  poultry-yard  in  moleiited. 

Literature. 

i.  H.  tMgerton,  Guinea  Culture,  Marietta,  Ohio  ; 
The  (luinen-Kowl  and  Its  Usu  as  Kotwi,  Karmers" 
Bulletin  No.  234.  Unit<;(t  States  Department  of  Agri- 
cultaro.    [For  further  references,  see  page  527.] 

PhMittnts  and  Related  F0WU4  Pfuuianida.  Figs. 
594-097. 

By  Homrr  Davenport, 

The  pheasant  family  includes  within  iU  scope, 
the  turkey  (which  see),  poafowl  and  junglo-fowl. 
aside  froin  what  are  called  pheasants  in  cnmrnnn 
speech.  The  guinea-fowl  13  nearly  related.  The 
membeTi*  of  thin  group  are  valued  chiefly  for  their 
feathers  and  for  ornamental  purp'iaes.  But  the 
economic  value  of  pheasantji  to  tho  farmer  i^ 
scarcely  sofliciently  apptt-ciated.  The  birds  destroy 
enormous  numliers  of  injurious  injects.  Upwards 
of  twelve  hundred  wire-worma  have  been  taken  out 
of  the  crop  of  a  pheasant;  if  thin  numlwr  were 
consumed  at  a  single  meal,  the  tutal  dctitroycd 
must  lie  almost  incredible.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
insects  are  preferred  to  grain,  while  the  roots  of 
various  wex-ds  are  apparently  relishcMl.  One  phejw- 
ant,  fllutt  at  the  close  of  the  shooting  season,  h.'ul 
in  its  crop  T2fy  wire-worms,  one  acorn,  one  anail, 
nine  K-rhes  and  three  grains  of  wheat.  Yet  it 
munt  be  noted  that  in  captivity  grain  forma  the 
favorite  food,  and  a  field  of  standing  beans,  as  is 
well  known,  will  draw  pheasants  for  miles.  Pheas- 
ant«  are  occasionally  camiroroos. 

Deter  iption. 

The  pheaaants,  typified  by  the  genus  Phasl- 
QBQs,  arc  readily  distinguished  by  their  long, 
straight,  pointed  tail  fcathem,  eighteen  in  number, 
the  middle  pair  being  much  the  longest,  and  the 
tail  tapering  if>  a  point.  Th<«4e  tail  feathers  attain 
their  maximum  development  in  the  Ileeve's  pheas- 
ant, reaching.  In  that  species,  to  a  length  exceed- 
ing five  or  nix  fwt.  The  writer  once  exhibited  a 
Reeve's  pheasant  that  measured  sEx  feet  and  one 


inch  from  th«  first  bar  an  hl<i  tail  to  the  tip.  The 
pheasants  are  all  de-ttituLe  of  feather't><t  crests  or 
fleshy  comb><.  but  are  furnished  with  small  tufts  of 
feathers  btihind  the  eyi'!*.  In  their  native  state  they 
are  essentially  forest  birds,  frequenting  tht-  mar- 
gins "f  woodd.  coming  into  the  open  tracts  in 
s^^iiirch  of  fiwwl,  and  retreating  into  the  thick  under- 
w<mkI  at  the  slighte.'^t  csiMMi  for  alarm. 

The  flight  of  the  fih«a.'*ant  is  strong,  and  i:^  per- 
formL-d  by  rapid  and  freijuent  beats  of  the  wings, 
the  tail  at  the  same  time  Wing  esp(inde<J.  The 
wings,  considered  with  reference  to  the  sixe  and 
weight  of  the  bird,  are  short  and  small  (with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  Argus  phfa.4.intt.  the  sec* 
ondary  (inilLi  Iteing  nearly  as  lung  as  thi.>  primary ; 
they  are  very  rounded  in  f-Tm.  The  third  and 
fourth  primary  feathers  are  the  longest.  The  wings 
are  not  adapted  to  very  prolonged  flight,  although 
the  denizens  of  the  wilder  district))  in  the  country 
fly  with  n  siieeti  and  cover  distance.'*  that  are 
unknown  to  the  over-fatttsned  binls  in  onr  pre- 
serves. Ijong  flights,  however,  are  nut  altogether 
beyond  the  powers  of  pheasiants.  The  compara- 
tively small  size  of  the  wings  necessitates  their 
being  movi.-d  with  great  force  and  velocity,  and 
consequently  the  moving  powers  or  muscles  of  tho 
breti-st  are  very  large  ami  well  develojMHl.  taking 
their  origin  from  the  d»>p  keel  »n  the  breii-il-bone. 

Drttding  note$. 

As  the  breeding  seasou  approaches,  the  crow  of 
the  male  of  the  common  pheasant  (Torquatus)  and 
others  of  like  species,  may  be  heard  distinctly, 
resembling  the  imperfect  attempt  of  a  young  fowl. 
It  is  followed,  and  not  precluded,  as  in  'the  game 
C'Kk.  by  the  clapping  of  the  wings;  the  pheasant 
and  the  domestic  cock  invariably  reverse  the  order 
nf  succi'ssion  of  these  two  actions.  Like  the  domes- 
tic fowl,  pheasant;*  will  also  answer  any  loud  noise, 
occurring  either  by  day  or  by  night.  The  di.*iplay  of 
the  plumage  by  the  males  during  courtship  varies 
in  almost  every  species  of  gallina«.*<»us  birds. 
I'heusants  seem  to  posseiw  no  other  mnide  of  dis- 
play than  the  lateral  or  one-sidBd  method.  In  this, 
tho  mules  disport  themscilves  so  as  to  exhibit  to 
tho  females  a  greater  numbc-r  of  their  beautiful 
feathers  than  could  otherwise  !>e  seen  at  »ne  view. 

In  a  state  of  nature  them  is  littb  doubt  that 
the  pheasant  is  [K'lygamous.  The  males  are  armed 
with  sharp  spurs,  ujth  which  they  tight,  the 
Btronger  driving  away  the  weaker,  and  the  most 
vigorous  propagate  their  kind.  This  is  true  with 
the  single  exception  of  the  .\rgii»  phea'*ant,  nuist 
beautiful  of  all  in  piumage.  The  nest  of  the  female 
is  usually  a  simple  hollow  acraped  in  the  ground. 
The  eggs  that  are  laid  vary  lorgely  according  to 
the  species.  The  Torquatus  pheasant  in  its  wild 
state  in  Oregon  generally  lays  fifteen  to  nineteen 
eggs  in  its  n«»t  before  sitting,  whereas  the  Pea- 
cock pheasant  lays  but  two.  As  a  mle,  the  main 
pheasant  takes  no  heed  nf  the  eggs  laid  by  the 
female,  bat  he  seems  to  hnve  great  regard  for  tbo 
offspring,  and  in  mnne  instaiicos  will  defend  them 
to  his  death.  Pheasants  osQatly  nest  to  lay  in  the 
latter  part  of  April,  the  date  varying  somewhat 


680 


POULTRY 


with  the  seaHon  and  the  latitudi?!.  The  Siker  pheas- 
ant iiKimlly  \h  tht>  lirnt  U>  lay,  and  the  Impej-an,  or 
Honaul  pheuHant,  the  luHt. 

DKarR]PTIVE  NOTES 

Peafowl  or  peacock. 

The  peafowl  nr  peacock  represents  the  j^enos 
Pnro  of  the  suit-family  I'avonina?,  of  the  pJieasant 
family  n'hasianidie).  Of  the  peafowls  there  are 
two  distinct  sfiecit^s,  linth  apparently  ominR  from 
Jiiiiia  or  the  neighhonrin;;  cimntrips.  The  common 
or  jcrey-wirijfed  peafuwl  is  tlie  one  generally  seen 
throughout  ihecivilizud  world  at  the  prewnt  time. 
The  green  or  Java  peafowl  is  fonnd  in  Java  and 
Burmah.  and  is  a  distinctly  different  species  from 
the  others.  The  hlaek-winged  peafowl,  which  is 
prolialiiy  a  variety,  ia  said  to  have  originated  in 
Japan.  Two  other  varietien  are  knnwn,  the  white 
and  the  pied. 

The  Gncn  tT  Jatm  {Pai'o  mu.lieu}i).—T}m  Wrd  is 
a  native  of  Chittaffoufi,  in  the  eastern  part  of 
India,  through  Uurma  to  Java.  Perhaps,  if  feather 
for  feather  were  contrasted  with  other  birds,  this 
woold  rank  as  the  most  beautiful  of  all  known 
birds,  piMiaessing  in  ita  maj-'stic  plnmage  every 
color  of  the  rainbow,  every  tint  and  tone  in  the 
priam«t-ic  scale.  Ita  neck  feathers,  leaa  rich  in  hue 
thin  the  blue  of  its  rival,  have  a  particularly 
buuutifulelfuct.  as  if  made  of  metal;  and  the  almost 
equal  beauty  of  the  hen  places  her  far  above  the 
dowdy  mate  of  the  common  peacock.  It  ia  mnch 
larger  than  other  species,  breeds  readily  in  any  cli- 
mate, and  is  a  handsome  ornament  to  any  country 
home.  Most  important,  perhapft,  is  the  fact  that 
It  does  not  utter  that  shril!,  ear-splitting  scream 
that  makes  the  common  peacock  a  rather  uopopnlar 
bird. 

TTie  Cfimimn  veafairl  {Pam  crUtatut). — Little 
need  be  said  of  this  beautiful  bird.  It  ia  found  all 
over  the  world,  breeds  readily  in  any  climate,  and 
18  very  tame. 

T%c  Japanned  or  Blatk-iringed  [Pavo  mgripennit). 
—This  peafowl,  erroneously  called  the  Japanese 
peacock,  is  attributed  to  Japan.  It  is  among  the 
really  beautiful  types  of  the  peacoclca.  The  mate 
bird  ia  the  darkest  of  all  the  peacocks,  and, 
strangely  enough,  the  female  ia  the  lightest,  being 
almost  white.  It  is  hardy,  and  can  be  reared  in 
any  climate  where  peacocks  are  bred. 

White  and  yied  pfacocl:».—Of  the  peacock  family, 
there  are  two  other  varieties,  the  white  and  the 
pied.  Both  hare  attained  wide  popularity  owing  to 
thtjir  fiulicati?  beauty.  The  white  jveacock  has 
reached  its  hight-st  state  of  cultivation  in  India, 
and  for  a  time,  at  lt.*ast,  was  supposed  to  have  been 
worshipped  as  a  sacred  I)ird  by  some  of  the  jjeople 
of  India.  The  pied  peafowl  is  one  of  the  most 
attractive,  and,  possiltly,  is  the  reaolt  of  the  cross- 
ing of  one  or  two  species  of  the  peacocks. 

Pktatanl. 

TJtc  Argil*  {Ar<i\t*mnuK  arnas)  \»  classed  by 
some  oaturalisU  in  tht-  peacock  group.  It  h  a 
native  of  Malacca,  Siam  and  northwestern  Borneo, 


frequenting  the  jungleii.  It  is  undoubtedly  one  of  ^ 
the  most  magnificent  of  the  pheasant  family.  It  is' 
80  extremely  shy  in  its  habits  that  there  are  few 
instances  of  it-s  bt*iiig  shot,  even  by  native  hunters. 
It  meawre.t  live  feet  in  length,  the  tail  being  three 
feet  and  over  in  length.  The  prevailing  color  ia 
ochreous  red  or  brown,  without  brilliant  relief. 
There  is  a  pninounced  harmony  in  the  distribution 
of  the  tints,  tht^re  U-ing  such  a  profusion  of  small 
spots,  i!ometimL'.H  lighter  and  sometimes  darker  than ' 
the  ground,  that  they  assume,  apparently  at  will, 
the  t^nes  of  their  environment.  Ita  broad  secondary 
feathers  are  covered  in  their  entire  length  by 
row  of  eye-like  inputs  imitating  half  globes,  and' 
nothing  from  the  liru.<th  of  nature  is  more  artistic 
or  more  Iwautifu!.  It  is  from  these  spots  that 
the  Argus  takes  its  name.  The  naked  skin  of  the 
face  and  neck  is  bright  blue,  contrasting  well  with 
th«  hronxe  hue  nf  the  plnmage.  The  female  pos- 
sesses none  of  the  markings  of  beauty  characteris- 
tic in  the  male,  and  is  but  twenty-six  inches  la 
length.  .\Ithougfa  the  Argus  \s  remarkably  wild  in 
its  native  state,  it  becomes  anusually  tame  in  cap* 
tivity.  returning  to  its  aviary  at  night  after  enjoy- 
ing full  liberty  during  the  day. 

The  Imjwijan  (iMpfiopkurus  impqfantt*). —  The 
Monaul  'or  Iroperun  pheasant  is  one  of  the  most 
gorgeous  birds.  The  wonderful  metallic  brilliancy 
of  the  cock's  plumage,  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold, 
batllcs  description.  It  inhaliits  the  high  rangts  of 
the  Himalayas,  seldom  coming  below  an  elevation 
of  G.(MKl  feet.  It  is  tough  and  hardy,  and  digs  with 
ita  strong  bill  for  roots  and  worms.  It  becomea 
tame  enough  in  captivity  to  be  allowed  to  run  Ioom 
in  the  barnyard.  Owing  to  its  unsurpassed  iteauty, 
combire^i  with  itj  rugged  nature,  few  speciefl  of 
pheasants  are  more  attructtvo  than  the  Impeyan. 

The  Tra<jopan  iTragf'patt,  or  Orinnti*.  spp). — 
There  are  five  species  of   the  Tragopan  family: 
Crimson,  Temminck's.  Cabot's.  Horned  and  Slalen. 
They  are  easily  Kcured,  with  the  exception  of  tba 
last  named.    In  the  display  of  his  plumage,  thai 
Trapopan  cock  is  more  interesting  than  any  other 
of  the  phea^nt  family,  mainly  for  the  reason  that 
under  the  proper  conditions  the  male  bird  elevate*  a 
tiny  pair  of  buiish  fleshy  horns  on  either  side  of  tha 
cars  on  top  of  the  head.  This  gives  the  bird  u\ 
Satanic  expre«sion,  bewildering  and  unparalleled-, 
in  the  bird  family.  Under  the  throat  he  drops  down 
a  tl^fihy  bib.   Then,  with  the  tail  scraping  on  thai 
ground,  and  hie  wings  down  like  those  of  a  tarkey, 
be  struts  in  a  semi-circle.    The  Tragopan  is  very 
tender.   It  Is  bred  readily  in  captivity. 

ifanekurian  (fr  E!arrd  phfafant  (CroitopiUon  ilant^ 
churicum).- -This  bird  is  a  native  of  Pekin.  It  ia  not 
of  gorgeous  plumage,  although  a  majestic  bird.  It 
is  hardy,  with  a  gloffy  hair-like  plnmage  of  the 
richest  bronto,  shading  to  a  delicate  purple  on  the 
lower  feathers  of  the  tail ;  the  upper  tail  feathers 
are  pecnliarly  curved  up  and  down.  Tader  tha>| 
throat  it  has  a  white  muff  running  up  back  of  tba 
head,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  person  with  a 
sore  throat  having  a  handkerchief  tied  round  it. 
It  is  the  only  member  of  the  pheasant  family  En 
which  the  plumage  of  the  male  and  the  female  are 


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POULTRY 


581 


exactly  thfi  same.  There  are  several  species  of  the 
MiiTiuhuriHii  or  EareJ  pheasant. 

Vctidiek  pkfanitat  {Poiypfectrtm  chirujuit}. — This 
stranKtit  phi-asant  is  one  of  the  motit  p'O^aliar,  aud, 
at  thu  same  lime,  one  of  the  most  fai^cinatiag.  It 
inhiibiti)  the  deep  gulliea  of  the  Asiatic  mountains. 
It  is  itmall  an<)  quick  of  flii;ht.  The  hen  hya  but 
two  tfggn  l>ufore  sitting,   lla  the  male  bin],  at  the 


^If^'k^W^^d^^- 


^ 


■-^iir-\~.M'; 


-■'J:- 


end  of  each  ^ray  feathtT,  is  a  metallic  purple  or 
grewnieth  spot,  whence  the  niime  Peacdck  pheasant. 
Unlike  other  phea.«aTitfl.  the  legs  of  the  male  are 
adomcfl  with  muny  Hpiint,  and  Die  wril^T  haM  h:ul 
males  with  'a»  many  an  five  a[nirn  on  ohh  \v^.  The 
rnrk  liiril  uhmtlcM  fu  plainly  that  be  hoit  been 
knuwn  l<>  call  thv  ilo^g. 

RtL-iY'n  phfUMtit  [I'katianut  ItaLvxi).  —  This  is 
the  largest  of  the  true  pheasant  family,  and  is 
one  of  the  grandest.  It  in  a  very  hanly  liird.  ami 
is  the  swiftest  of  all  the  pheasant  family  nn  the 
wing.  ItA  tail  meaHiin>a  more  than  six  feet.  It 
inhanit!4  the  Tniiuntains  of  ('hina. 

apmrnvrrinij't  pkirifaiit  [I'haiiianux  Sirmmer- 
ringi).  --This  bird,  alau  called  the  CoppiT  pht^aitant, 
is  a  native  of  Japan.  It  is  one  of  the  handsomest 
of  the  tnje  pheasant.^.  The  males  are  very  pugna- 
oioosand  ttoimetimes  battle  to  death  with  olherft  of 
the  same  race,  tt  in  rather  rare,  htith  in  aviariifH 
ami  in  the  wiK!  state,  mainly,  (lerhaps,  lieiraUHe  of 
thf  number  killtnl  f(ir  Uie  fi-al heirs.  Tht.-  tail  of  this 
pht!a!tant  is  freqnently  soon  dangling  from  women's 
hats. 

Ellinft  phftiMitt  {Piuuiattua  EHiotO.—This  spe- 
ciefl,  named  after  Pntf.  Ii.  G.  Klliut,  of  Chicago,  is 
one  of  the  very  fine  siweieit  of  the  triiw  pheanant. 
It  ifl  very  hardy.  It  inhabits  tbu  mriuiilairui  near 
Ningpo,  China.  In  aviaries,  the  hens  havL*  ImtMi 
known  to  hatch  and  rvar  their  yoang  without  a 
single  loRS. 

Thr  Mnngalian  ih'hirmtiriKS  Mtmgolirug).  Fig.  595. 
— The  Mtmgnlian  phea.sant  \a  a  native  of  Asia.  It 
comes  from  the  valley  of  Syr-Daryr,  and  an  far  eaat 
as  I^ake  Saiwin,  in  the  valley  of  the  Hlai-k  Irtish.  In 
England,  it  hiw  iRt-n  criKweil  on  the  conimon  Eng- 
lish pht'asant,  and  the  hybrid  has  produced  a  n-mark- 
ab!e  game  bird.  Chily  one  pair  is  known  to  have 
reached  America  alive,  and  they  were  so  wild  that 
no  yonng  were  ever  reared  from  them.  This  phejw- 
ant  ia  commimly  mi-itaken  for  the  Chinese  ring- 
necketl  phe.'Liant  (/'.  tnrquiUiui),  but  the  Mongolian 
is  a  much  larger  and  more  iteautiful  bird. 

Vergieolor  ur  Wrm  Japanrde  Whatianut  wr«- 
m/or).~This  beautifQl  small  btrtl  inhabits  nearly  all 
partA  of  Japan.  Owing  1^  it.t  use  to  the  milliner, 
it  is  jKrhaps  better  knuwn  than  any  other  variety, 


although  the  pure  specimens  are  very  rare  tn 
Amuriea. 

HinS'tirrJc  {I'kruviau*  (orquatu*). — This  hand- 
some game  bird,  called  also  the  China  toniuatus, 
is  the  common  pheasant  of  China.  It  is  froi)UL-ntly 
miscalled  the  Mongolian  pheasant.  In  18H4,  a  few 
Hpecimenw  were  liberated  in  Oregon,  and  today  Ihi-re 
are  probably  more  in  Oregon  than  in  China. 
Throughout  the  Willamette  valluy,  in  Oregon,  it 
can  bi?  found  in  gn-at  numl)ers.  It  is  fiir  Mupmrior 
to  the  English  pheasant  as  a  game  bird,  as  it  is 
much  wildt-r  and  swifteron  the  wing.  It  is  uxceed* 
ingly  hardy. 

EniflitJt  U'haJfianut  eotehiau). — The  common 
Black-necked  Knglish  pheasant  w;»r  a  native  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and  in  suppoMnl  to  have  Wen  brought  tn 
England  by  the  Romans.  Hwing  to  the  infu«iun  of 
Torquatus  blood,  it  is  almost  LniposwildL'  at  the 
presunt  timi;  to  lind  the  old  common  Knglish  phuas- 
ant  in  its  purity. 

Cliffr   (Catreut    WaUieJii).    -This    rather  large 

[jhea^ant  inbibits  thu  mountains  of  Asia.  It  l»  very 
lardy  and  rieli»hi-K  niots,  but  iwldttmeats  gr.-isK.  Its 
ijlu[cia[,;e  is  a  sort  of  monoUmouK  check  of  gray. 
The  malu  and  tho  feniak-  muich  n!i>vmble  each  other. 
Siamew  Firrimei-  {Lopkiira  praiata).  —  There 
are  several  9[«Kcies  of  the  Fireback  phe,i»ant,  the 
moHt  common  of  which  is  the  Siamese,  which  in- 
habits parts  of  Siam.  It  is  a  beautifal,  small,  gray 
bird,  witha  tasKelon  the  head,  and  an  oddly  hooked 
black  tail.  The  malp  displays  the  Iw^auty  of  hia 
plumago  by  lowering  his  wings,  so  that  his  bright 
yellow  and  r«t  back  are  exposed  to  view. 

B^iramn  Firelxiek  {Lophura  wV/i/w).— TTiis  spo- 
cies  is,  perhaiiB.  the  next  most  familiar  of  the  Fire- 
backs.  It  comes  from  Lower  Homeo,  and  is  very 
similar  to  the  Siamesw,  except  that  the  color  of  the 
fl(wh  of  tht)  fa*.'e,  instead  of  being  bright  red,  is 
duep  blue.   It  is  also  a  slightly  larger  hird. 

ViUiott  Firtfnick  {fxiphura  rt(/fl).— This  is  pos- 
sibly a  more  Iteaiitiful  bird,  owing  to  its  brilliant 
blue-s,  than  the  other  species  of  Fireback.  It  is  a 
native  of  Siam,  and  is  rarely  seen  in  collectiims. 


Fic.  $n.    Toiquna  pnuuni. 


•SV/iYr  fAeamni  (Gennifuii  nffrlhrmrruf}.— The 
Silver  pheasant  ta  one  nf  the  most  common  species 
of  the  family  known  as  th**"K"aU*ege."  Iti.ia  native 
of  China.  The  males  are  strikingly  markei!,  the 
apper  part  of  the  botjy  being  white,  delicatidy 
markt>d  with  black  diagonal  stripes :  the  tower  part 
of  the  body  is  jet-black. 

Linf-ated  jikenmnt  {iirnaau*  tinrottu).  -This  spe- 
cies of  pheasant  inhabits  Iturmese  countries.  It  is 
very  heaiitiful  and  graceful,  quick  on  the  wing  and 
very  hardy. 


es3 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Anderson't  Kiduge  (Geanaut  .4)Kfer»0Bt).— Tliis 
type  in  mitivis  of  t1iQ  Ilimataya^.  It  '\a  an  handsome 
as  any  of  tha  Kaloet^o.  and  ait  hardy.  It  U  alightly 
lightwr  Ihan  tht  LincaU-d  and  darker  than  the  SiU 
VBf  fihu-aaatita. 

Tiif  Mdanolttsor  Blat^k -hacked  KaJeege  {Gennmit 
MutJturai. — This  jtheaaant  inhaliitw  Sikhtm.  Napal. 
It  is  charncberiKt ic  of  the  inaEe  to  churn  thd  air 
with  his  wings  until  he  causes  vibrations  that  are 
truly  remarkuhlu  in  thuir  elfeut. 

Striitlioe'f  fthMsaiil  {thnrurut  SiririhoU).  —  Thi« 
bird  inhabits  Fornnisa.  Its  giussy  f*?ather8  have  thu 
apfifarancij  of  blue  velvet.  The  female  of  this  spu- 
eivn  in  unlike  moat  of  the  other  dull  bniwn  hen^*,  as 
h«r  feathers  re3oml)Ie  exiiiiisite  tapestry,  bo  d«li- 
cate  and  fintdy  are  they  markt-d. 

The  Lady  Amhrrxi  i_Ckrtisiii»phux  AmIserfticB).  Pip. 
fiil6. — This  bird,  a«  an  omami-nl  fur  the  aviary, 
cannot  be  aurpatteud.  It  is  niort-  RtrikinK,  even,  than 
iU  relative,  thu  fiulden  pheu.'<ant.  It  \s  found  in 
("hina,  bordering  on  Eiu«tem  Til>et,  anil  is  called  by 
the  natives  the  Flower  pheasant  The  siiecres  de- 
rived il5  name  from  tho  faet  that  Ijidy  Amherst,  of 
KrKland,  i«  curmidered  to  have  received  the  firnt 
pair  that  ever  ramt*  to  Kurujie. 

Tilt:  iioUi^L  {('hrjji'Dl'fphuiiipictUf).—T]m  pheasant. 
pt^hapH,  neetis  no  description.  It  is  to  bu  seen  in 
every  ruiiloKical  jjanien.  It  inhabits  the  mountains 
(if  Western  and  Central  Chitiil.  The  male  bird  is 
mneh  prizeil  for  his  ^•i'"'y  red  and  K'dden  feathers. 

Htark-lhroatf.it  (hhlvn. — The  habitat  of  this  beau- 
tiful pheiwant  is  not  known.  It  varies  .s!i{;htly 
frnrti  the  comraon  apacios.  Thu  hons  are  darker 
and  biindHomer,  and  the  chicks  whuo  small  have 
while  thruaLx. 

JungU-foiii. 

The  .inngle-fowl  are  of  the  genos  Gallus,  of  the 
pheasant  family.  They  are  native  of  aimtheastern 
A.Hiu,  India,  Sumatra,  Java  and  Borneo.  Four  Hpe- 
cieH  are  known,  and  all  b^ar  strikini:  re.'^emblanoe 
to  the  common  dumeatic  fowls,  being  rathi-r  over 
buntiun  eizo.  They  possues  the  carriage   of  the 


^„ai502M^. 


Fll.  SK.    LBiy  AmberiC  ptwiuut. 

pheattant,  but  the  tail  is  vaulted  anrt  carried  rather 
low.  The  cockii  have  f!in);;lf>,  small-6iKed  comha  and 
lony  sharp  spur.". 

JTie  Ittd  iCiiihis  femcgiaetu).  Fib.  r»97.  — Thiit 
Fei>enibk-g  the  old  Hud-black  Game  of  thu  CngHah 
fighting  type,  and  i.^  frequently  mistaken  for  small 
specimenH  of  that  brood.  This  gives  ri.'sc.  with  ju.!- 
tiee.  to  the  concluaion  that  it  is  the  direct  ancestor 
of  all  our  domestic  breeds  of  fowbi.  It  in  eaftily 
tamed.  The  hen  lays  nine  eggs.  Tha  cocks  are  very 


Pig.  S«.    Rrt  Jonclr-Iow) 
tan  Htm.) 


puti^Dacioas  and  will  battle  to  the  duath.  The  Red 
jungle-fowl  LH  found  in  India  and  nio«tt  of  the 
islands  south  as  far  as  the  Philippines. 

The  Irmif  or  Siinnrrati  (/7a//tuf  mmncraii). — Al- 
though rather  aomW,  thi«  epvcies  possesseH  a 
peculiar  hackle  feather,  tiptied  with  a  wax-like  sub- 
stance that  resembles 
bumtshed  gold.  It  is  less 
hardy  than  the  Red  jun- 
gle-fowl, iKirticuiarly  in 
captivity.  The  Gray  jun- 
gle-fowl in  one  of  the  raj- 
est  of  the  pheasant  fam- 
ily, and  it  is  indewl  un- 
usual to  find  one  in  any 
of  the  great  "koos"  of  tJie 
WHfld.  It  inhabits  lower 
India.  The  cock's  cry  re- 
M.'mb}es  a  mtream  mnre 
thai)  a  cry.  It  is  ImpnH- 
sibie  t»  doroeBticatu  this 
jungle- fowl. 

fjie  GrefR  or  Jam  (GaUtis  poWaa).— This  is  the 
most  distinct  of  all  the  species.  The  cock's  comb  is 
phiin  edgeiJ.  .and  not  serrated.    The  face  is  very 
naked,  and  instead  of  wattle-s  he  has  a  dewlap  that 
expands  and  eontmrt.4  like  that  of  a  turkey,  the 
face  and  dewla)i  changing  coIdh  when  the  latter  is 
contracted.    L'nder  this  condition  the  bird  actualljfj 
blushes  a  bright  red.  The  neck,  instead  of  boin|^ 
comported  of  hackles,  is  made  up  of  green  scale-like' 
fe-ither.-!  that  extend  to  the  upper  part  of  the  back. 
The   general    plumage    is    a    metallic-parple    an4 
gidden-green.    It  is  the  rarest  of  all  the  jungle 
fowls,  .\lthimgh  the  writer  has  tretl  this  sjiccies  ti 
captivity,  he  has  failed  up  to  the  present  to 
any  mature  birds. 

The  i>yhm  {(Jallvf  Lafayettii). — Thi*  is  found  oi 
Ceylon,  and  is  seldom  met  with  in  captivity.  It  mI 
not,  in  any  p-irticular,  so  beautiful  as  the  sp-.-cie* 
abiivo  desiTilied.  The  peculiarity  of  the  cock  ts  the 
yellow  center  to  }\i»  comb,  and  the  peculiar  note 
that  he  issues  in  his  cry,  which,  at  a  diaiance, 
sounds  likcflotne  one  calling  "George  Joyce." 

Ijiterature. 

Togetmeier,  Natural  History  and  Management  of 

I'heasants,  new  edition,  New  York  tliUJT);  Elliot. 
Monograph  of  the  Phasianid*.  London  (187ii-72); 
Stejneger.  Stiindard  Natural  Hwtory,  Vol.  IV,  Boa- 
ton  (1885)  Nolan,  The  Domestic  Fowl. 

Pigeons  and  Squabs.    ColuadHi,  spp.  ColumlniUe, 

Fig.  59a 

By  Thomag  M'rij/W. 

The  raising  of  pigeons  for  fancy  has  long  re- 
ceived attention,  but  it  is  only  comparatively 
recently  that  the  raising  of  sqaabs  for  muat^  pur- 
poses has  asaomed  commercial  importance, 
or  "toy"  pigeons  are  generally  kept  for  ami 
raent.  and  are  rained  rather  for  their  ornamenta- 
tion than  for  their  usefuUiess.  [See  /'c(ji.]  Moct  of 
them  are  too  smalt  to  be  classed  as  utility  birds, 
although  occasionally  a  few  grow  to  good  aite^  and 


POITLTRY 


POT 


th-causd  of  imperfc-ct  plQm3|;c  are  killed  and  dressed 
ftir  tlif  tubk'.  ThL-  follon-ing  varit^tits,  among  a 
Er«at  many  otJiers,  ar^?  raii*ed  for  fancy:  Tumbler. 
Uwl,  Turbit,  Jsicobin,  Itarb,  Archangel,  FanUiil, 
EnglisK  ("arrier.  Nun,  liwallow. 

The  Dtility  or  wjuab-brewlinR  pijjuonB  are  receiv- 
injf  mons  atttntion  today,  porhapa.  than  tho  toy 
|>i(5w>nR.  The  breeder  who  j;row8  siiaabe  for  the 
market  not  only  has  the  pleasure  of  bandllng  the 
pig^ns,  bi]t  gets  a  reward  for  his  efTortd  in  addi- 

liOQ. 

Choiee  ef  pigeons  for  gquah-ramng. 

Praotivat  rnun  dilTur  in  their  opinions  as  to  the 
Uost  variety  of  piijeoiia  for  squab-raisina  purposes, 
juet  OA  there  are  advocates  of  certain  breeds  of 
dairy  or  beef  cattle.  Ry  snme  brei-dera  the  Homer 
pii^eon  in  held  to  be  the  bi'itt,  and  many  of  the 
5qaab  ptantd  in  America  rai^  only  Homer  pif^ons. 
The  writt^r,  among  othwra,  has  had  best  reantts 
fr<'m  a  bird  that  combines  the  finalities  of  the  Hunt 
(Kiislish).  MonJiiinea  (Swiss  and  French),  and  typ- 
ical Florentine  Araalffamated,  infused  with  the 
Homer.  This  pigeon  produces  a  large,  heavy 
squab  for  the  same  outlay  afl  the  Homer,  and 
is  equally  prolific. 

In  crMsinK  for  utility,  the  cock  should 
always  be  the  lari^-itt  bird  and  ithould  be 
younjf.  One  should  never  bree«l  a  bird  that 
may  often  be  seen  with  the  winps  drooped, 
a?  it  U  direct  e\idence  of  poor  health  or  lack 
of  confltitutton.  The  front  of  the  lej^  und 
the  beak  should  be  a  lijiTht  color,  as  dark  lei^s 
and  beak  di-note  dark  meat.  A  btaok  bird 
with  a  brii^ht  red  11-^  ia  mom  desirable  than 
a  white  bird  with  a  dark  leji;  or  beak.  Tho 
male  fthoatd  exhibit  a  Rood  disjio-iition;  the 
bird  that  doea  much  cooing  and  promi^niiding 
ia  likely  to  be  a  gwxi  brtwder.  A  bird  with 
an  apparent  sullen,  phU'^rrnatic  dii4)niaition 
should  not  be  used.  The  plumage  should  not 
be  ruffled  in  any  way,  bat  the  feathers  should  be 
close  to  the  body.  Any  other  condition  of  the 
plumage  is  unnatural  in  a  perfectly  healthy  ep4>oi> 
men.  One  should  not  use  a  bird  for  bn^-ding  that 
i»  in  any  way  related  to  iU  mate  or  that  m  bred 
from  blood  relations.  Inbreeding  is  fri-quently  in- 
dulged when  type  alone  is  rwiuin-il.  but  it  is  jwr- 
missilile  only  under  certain  conditions.  Market 
specimens  need  a  vigorou.4,  hardy  constitution,  and 
this  depends  much  on  the  union. 

Feeding  and  mrr. 

In  the  matter  of  feeding,  variety  is  tiMontltl  A 
good  nition  constitts  of  i^gual  parlit  of  whole  corn, 
cracked  corn,  red  or  amber  wheat,  Canada  field- 
peas  and  kafir.  Hemp  .seed,  mtJlct  and  rape  may  be 
fed  occiuiionalty  at  the  rate  of  about  one-tenth 
the  quantity  of  other  ingredienta.  Two  kind*  of 
green  fved  that  may  t>e  fed  aafely  are  lettuce  and 
plantain,  and  it  is  well  to  supply  them  in  seation. 
The  drinking-water  should  be  placed  inside  Ihu 
pens,  preferably  in  a  galvanized  fountain.  A  bath- 
pan,  eighteen  Inches  acrom  and  four  inches  deep, 
afaoald  be  placed  in  the  aviary  outride,  and  should 


be  accessible  every  day,  except  in  the  severe 
weather  of  winter,  when  it  i>hould  be  placed  inside. 
twice  each  week.  .\  bojt  containing  grit  and  oyster 
uhells  should  be  on  the  floor  of  the  pen.  A  piece  of 
mineral  rock  salt,  similar  to  that  used  for  cattle, 
should  be  always  before  the  birds.  Table  salt, 
which  is  sometimes  recommended,  is  likely  to  he 
used  too  freely  fur  health  and  may  better  not  be 
used. 

Hoasing. 

A  house  for  pigeons  should  be  entirely  free  from 
dampness  and  should  be  set  up  on  posttt  at  t^aitt 
two  feet  above  the  ground.  Any  building  that  is 
tight  and  dry  may  easily  be  conwrted  into  a 
pigeon  house.  A  southern  exposure  is  preferable. 
About  one-third  of  the  front  should  be  of  gla^a.  so 
as  not  to  admit  of  any  draft.  Pigeons  are  hardy 
and  not  very  susceptible  to  dii<ease,  and  owing  to 
tho  fact  that  the  blood  is  about  r«0°  warmer  than 
that  of  man,  they  can  withstand  rather  severe 
weather  without  evil  results.  A  warm  houae  that 
is  damp  will  promote  disease  very  quickly.  Three 


^       f 


X^  *X„ 


•id^' 


V  :.:.     'yi^  .        A     well    ,1: 


™**flr.' 


square  feet  of  floor  space  in  the  pen  to  every  pair  of 
breeding  bird*  is  about  right.  Perches  may  or  may 
not  bo  nsed  in  the  lofts.  If  the  birds  are  properly 
working,  while  one  of  the  pair  i.inittingonthe  neat 
at  night,  it.^  mate  la  roosting  on  the  front  of  iU 
If  roosts  are  desired  they  m^iy  be  m.vie  by  nailing 
a  piece  of  Kcantling  seven  incht^  long  to  the  end 
of  a  pifce  six  inc-hue  long,  each  piece  Iwing  fire 
inchee  wide.  When  nailed  they  form  the  letter  V. 
These  pieces  are  turned  up-side-down,  and  may  bo 
nailed  to  a  strip  the  height  of  the  pen,  ^ven  or 
eight  incheH  apart.  On  the-se  the  hirdfl  may  rooat. 
one  above  another,  without  fouling  one  another. 
The  dropping)!  are  e:Lsity  gathentl,  and  are  always 
in  deipaud  by  leather  mannfacturers,  who  pay 
about  sixty  cents  per  bushel,  by  florists  and  by 
gardeners.  The  use  of  earthem  nest-pans,  or  "nap- 
pies" art  they  are  more  generally  known,  is  a  matter 
of  dispute,  and  maiiy  large  commercial  plants  have 
abandont-d  their  UAe.  The  writer  has  had  good  suo- 
ci-M  by  using  nest'panii  nine  or  ten  inches  across 
and  four  inches  deep,  and  has  not  been  troubled 
with  the  squabs  getting  over  the  edges,  as  so«* 
growers  have  reported. 


684 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


Drtsaaig. 

It  is  iinpoesible  to  dictate  a  method  of  drcsaiiiK. 
as  80  much  dt-pencts  on  the  wishes  iif  the  cu«tomt!r. 
Some  briyurt  prHfor  the  t^qiiahtt  ttim[>ly  with  thoir 
ni>ckK  broken ;  othurs  prefer  to  biivo  the  featherH 
rumoved  ;  atill  uthtrs  |iref«r  tu  have  them  bltjii  as 
18  doiiH  with  poultry.  If  tht-y  are  [lickwl,  thuy 
^onld  bb  placed  in  cold  water  afU-r  piekinj^,  as  it 
gives  them  a  plump  appearance.  Picking  shonld  be 
done  while  the  br»dy  in  etill  warm.  When  sold  un- 
picked, they  tthmilii  alwayn  bt>  laid  »n  a  cool  recep- 
ta<:li<  with  th()  breuat  dtiwii,  for  tliB  animal  heat  to 
I'Oave  th«  body. 

Pigeons  are  ivilstively  free  from  dJBcaso,  and  will 
endure  mnch  privation  and  abuse  without  bad 
results.  The  must  common  ailments  are  atrophy 
or  "going-light,"  megrim  and  canker. 

Atrufihy  may  Im  trtiatKd  most  <!UtiiIyand  RucceMi- 
fully  by  giving  five  or  »\x  drojM  of  ctHl-liver  oil 
night  and  morning  for  four  or  five  days.  All  tail 
feathers  should  be  drawn  and  a  good  varit^ly  of 
food  should  be  fed,  including  brccid  crumbs,  which 
never  injure  the  birdH. 

Xfrffrim  is  gt^nerally  the  result  of  injudicious 
feeding,  and  afllii^lH  only  over-fat  hirdft.  Csrhona- 
ceouft  food,  sueh  as  com,  fed  to  excess,  cinsea  the 
blood  to  congeat  in  the  brain.  The  bird  may  be 
eeen  with  th*!  head  twiatyd,  and  often  throwing 
itself  on  it«  back  as  if  in  a  ceiivulrtive  Htate.  The* 
remedy  is  to  isolate  the  patient  in  a  perfectly  dark 
pen.  and  give  it  a  mild  do»o  of  Hpsom  Balt,t.  It  is 
taken  from  iU  dark  solitude  once  each  day  to  drink. 
The  bird  in  held  in  the  hiind  and  the  lieak  inserted 
in  the  water.  A  few  day.s  ahuuld  tiffect  a  curH.  If 
tbi.4  tn^atmont  id  not  succeaiiful  the  bird  ahuuld  be 
killed. 

Vanhrr  u  a  form  of  diphtheritic  roup.  Gener- 
ally, n  bird  afflicted  with  it  should  be  killed. 

Lxleraturt. 

Money  in  Squab-s,  Howard  Ptiblishing  C-ompany, 
Wa*hingfoii,  D.  C;  Tegetmeier,  Pigeons,  London 
(1868);  Evans.  Bird»,  New  York  {1900);  Wm.  K. 
Rice,  Squab-Kaising.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  177, 
United  States  Department  of  Agricnltare  (1904). 
[For  further  references,  see  page  527.] 

Quail,  DomesUcatlon  of  the  Bobwblte  or  Ameri- 
can, ('olinti*  VinitniaauA  (sub-family  OdontO' 
pkorinte].    THnmiiifte.   Figs.   699, 600. 

By  a  F.  Hodge. 

No  bird  13  more  prolific  or  more  easily  reared  in 
domestication  than  the  bobwhite :  and  certainly 
none  makes  a  more  interesting  and  companionable 
household  pet.  The  past  season  a  pair  nested  and 
laid  eighteen  eggs  in  a  window-box.  Two  hens 
with  a  cock  in  a  yanl  at  the  Maflsachusett*  .State 
Hatchery  produced  seventy-six  eggs.  Morrill  has 
found  that  bobwhite  eggs  can  be  hatched  suc- 
cessfully in  an  incubator  by  allowing  them  long 
periods  for  cooling  off.  as  much  as  one,  and,  in  hot 
weather,  even  two  hours  a  day.  Thvy  also  hatch 


Fis.  SM.  Ow-week-<t\i  bobwUfcs. 
hatcbed  In  aa  iDcubaUn. 


well  under  bantiun    henn,    the   incubation    period 
being  normally  twenty-four  day.s. 

The  young  have  been  reared  auccessfoify  aimply 
by  allowing  them  to  range  about  the  yard  with 
their  bantam  mother,  care  being  taken  that  they 
are  well  .lupplied  with  food  for  the  first  few  days. 
Thixmay  citasiiit 
of  scalded  or 
fresh  "ants' 
Bgg«,"  maggoU 
or  pheasants' 
custjird,  and, 
beat  of  all,  in- 
auo  tfl  aeKureil 
by  sweeping  the 
grass  with  an 
in.sect  net.  As 
with  the  rnffed 
grouse,  there  is 
dangpT  of  dis- 
ease, e»|i<'eiHlly 
if  tho  brucMl  is 
confined    with 

the  hen.   The  safest  method  ia  probably  to  hatch 
and  rear  them  with  the  incubator  and    brooder. 
Great  numbers  nf  eggs  from  ne.'*tfl  broken  up  in 
cutting  hay  and  gr.iin  might  lie  iwived  and  l>e  made  . 
to  supply  a  domesticated  .strain  of  the  R|K>cip-».   Thf] 
eggs  may  always  be  prevent4?d  from  chilling  bj 
wearing  them  in  the  crown  of  a  hat,  and  thay  maj 
he  carried  in  this  way  for  the  better  part  of  a  dayJ 
without  injury.  Tho  young  mature  rapidly,  bein^;! 
nearly  full-grown  in  almntten  weeks  from  hatchia;. 

b'm. 

Perhii[ia  no  bird  is  capable  of  rendering  more 
varied  and  important  service  to  American  agricul- 
ture than  the  bobwhite.  The  young  have  be<n 
found  to  eat  their  weight  of  insects  daily.  For  the 
year  as  a  whole,  animal  mattor,  mainly  insects. 
forms  about  15  per  cent  of  the  bird's  food  ;  and 
fmm  May  to  Septemlwr  thisi  item  increa,**  to.?I.u 
[ler  cent.  The  great  variety  and  large  numbers  of 
the  insect  (teste  consumed  by  t)a-  bubwhit«  makej 
this  bird  a  more  effect- ' 
ive  ally  of  the  farmer 
than  many  smaller  birds. 
although  tho  latter  may 
eat  a  larger  percentage 
of  insect  food.  *'  Ow 
one  humirod  potato  bee- 
tle«''  and  "a  table^iooii- 
fnl  of  chinch-bugs"  are 
reported  from  the  crop 
^^■^    ,  ^^\  ^^  "  single  (juail ;  and,. 

(^^^ '      .  }  l)  if  sufliciently  niim«rotiR 

nt^-^-^--^  /iiJi  pri'bably  yimilnr   ooa-' 

berg  of  nearly  one  hun- 
dred other  tnjurioo*  in- 
sects would  be  eateBvj 
among  them  the  rose  beetles,  cucumber  beetle 
sejuash-bugs.  cutworms,  cotton- worms,  tot 
worms,  clover-weevils,  all  kinds  nf 
and  crickets,  cabbage  caterpillar^  many  planUlioaj 
and  mosquitocof.  A  bobwhite  about  three  weeks  i 


Fic.  600.   Bobwut*.  immA 
tioin  th*  tag. 


POULTRY 


POITLTRY 


5S5 


ate  668  (all  there  wtre)  mosqiiitoea  ns  fant  as  it 
eootd  catch  tliem.  The  bobwliita  wib«  the  Hoiwian 
fly  larva,  pupa  uml  adultx.  and  wouli)  cnuTtunie 
thoiuaDds  daily  if  they  were  numi^roua  and  acCL-aai- 
hk'.  \  tame  bohwhile  hen  waa  M,  in  addition  U> 
aH  the  seedH  and  (jf«ins  she  wished,  l.IiiO  fully 
gniwn  niKH-Hl uipi  in  unu  day. 

Weed  H«^a  turm  ovw  half  the  liohwhJte'it  yearly 
food.  Amonjj  the  weeds  whose  j^et-cla  are  tUus  con- 
■ametl  may  be  mentiDned  rajfwved,  piKweK?d,  dock, 
bin<iwee^(l,  lutnb'n  quarters,  sorrtd,  wild  buckwheat, 
begEar-ticEiR,  wit<"h-gn«»,  crah-RrasB  and  bam- 
yard-Kfass.  and  [wrhaps  one  hundred  atherg.  Th« 
quantitiet^  taken  at  a  meal  are  ennrmous :  S(K) 
smartwew)  wjhIn,  5'K>  red  aoiral  seetU,  I.OIX)  rag- 
weod  seeds,  :i,OCKJ  liektrefoil  Beed».  5,000  rosLail 
grass  seeds,  and  10,0011  piifweeid  (M.*tHlB.  It  is  Utile 
wondiir  that  the  farmer  Ja  iK-ji^inning  to  lose  sym- 

Eathy  fur  the  i^pnrtjfman.  And  to  one  who.  aa  a 
oy,  haa  livefl  on  a  binlleits  farm  and  seen  more 
chineh-bu{fx  than  wheat  on  the  platform  of  the 
reaper,  it  would  Beom  that  the  farmer'a  judgment 
in  the  matter  ia  correct. 

In  addition  to  its  value  aa  a  destroyer  of  insect 
pests  and  weed  Aeeds,  at  present  prices  the  hob- 
white  misht  (hj  reared  to  l)etter  proilt  than  ordi- 
nary [jonltry.  After  securing  breeilinB  stoek,  a 
prime  condition  iif  snecetw  must  he  the  Htri^-t  con- 
trol of  natural  eni^mieM,  chief  among  which  at 
present  in  most  localitii.'3  i«  the  cat.  If  it  wert'  not 
for  this  arch  enemy  of  bird  life,  we  might  soon 
have  the  bobwhite  at  home  in  every  garden  in  the 
land.  Other  comparatively  rare  and  occasional 
enemies,  as  Hnake.-*.  foxes,  weaitelH,  minkn.  nkunks, 
raltt  and  certain  hawkn  atwl  uwbt,  miLst  be  dealt 
with  effectively.  It  is  about  as  tiwy,  and  much 
more  interesting,  to  keep  traEit*  always  set  in  likely 
places  aa  it  ia  to  have  them  lying  about  idle,  as  is 
commonly  the  ca«e. 

WinUr  cart  of  native  qttail. 

Creat  numbers  of  bobwhiles  are  killed  during 
seT«re  winteim,  eapwially  in  sleet  storms  that  may 
cover  their  food  with  ice  or  imprison  whole  coveyi* 
under  the  cra^t.  Winter  proviaion  should  bo  gener- 
ally made  north  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  by 
leaving  clainpa  of  sumac  and  wild  r^weumlvr  shelt- 
ered bunk.<<  and  nn  the  Hciuth  side-i  of  groves.  An 
ideal  shelter  with  food  combined  may  be  made 
cheaply  by  laying  down  llrst  a  pile  of  weeds,  clialf 
or  hay-loft  «weeping«,  placing  over  this  a  lot  of 
brush,  and  then  piling  over  all  a  rick  of  coarse 
weeds  cut  before  the  seeds  drop,  as  ragweed,  pig- 
weed. Honflnwer,  dock,  and  the  like,  leaving  the  hnish 
expOBed  on  the  south  aiile.  An  arrangement  of  thi.4 
sort,  placed  ia  a  suany.  shelterul  exposure,  will  pro- 
vide food  accessible  at  all  time«  as  well  aa  shelter 
and  prot^-ction  from  hawks.  Preeh  aapplies  of 
screenings  or  grain  may  be  thrown  into  the  brash 
an  needed  during  the  winter.  In  this  way  great 
numbers  of  bobwhites  midht  be  carri<'d  wifely 
through  the  winters,  their  iiuml>er9  rapidly  in- 
ereatfed  up  to  the  natural  limitmuf  insect  awl  weed- 
sMd  food-KQpply,  and  the  range  of  tha  species 
extended  northward  considerablv. 


/^  tferaturc. 

Sylvester  D.  Judd.  The  Bobwhito  and  Other  Quails 
of  the  United  States  in  their  Ekroaomic  Relations, 
Bulletin  N'o,  21.  Bureau  of  Biological  iSurrey,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Swan.    Cfmninir.   Pig.  601. 

By  Charifs  McClave. 

Swanx  are  the  largest  aquatic  fowig  of  the  duck 
family  and  are  found  wild  in  the  ea.^t<.-rn  and  the 
we.'^tern  hemi.tpherei»,eapecially  north  of  the  equator. 

Black  (Chcnopu  airata). 

Australia,  iaolaled  aoath  of  the  equator,  has  a 
distinct  varivty  -  tliu  Black  swan.  Like  many  other 
80-called  black  varieties  of  water-fowl,  it  is  not 
aolid  black  in  plumage.  The  bill  ii*  red,  cAgv(\  with 
white,  tho  eyes  scarlet,  the  plumage  ttbaded  black, 
edged  with  gray,  and  the  wing  flight*  slaty  white 
or  pure  while.  The  slander,  arched  neck  and  curly 
appearance  uf  plumage  over  wing-iand  back  give  it 


.>* 


Flf.  601.    8WM. 

a  novel  appearance  on  the  water.  Though  leos 
common  than  the  white  swan,  this  species  is  a 
familiar  sight  in  city  parks.   It  is  mute. 

Mutf  (Qigmcf  oiori. 

The  Mut«  swan  is  a  native  of  Enrope,  ABJa  and 
Africa  and  ij*  the  common  domesticated  species. 
The  neck  is  long  and  slender,  the  bill  red,  the  eyes 
brown,  the  legs  and  feet  brownish  gray,  and  the 
entire  plumage  apotlciss  white-  The  young  cysnets 
for  the  fir»t  year  are  gray  or  dusky  chestnut  in 
color,  but  chnngi*  to  white  after  the  first  molt. 
When  migrating,  it  i»  a  very  rapid  flyer,  and  with 
a  favorable  wind  haii  been  known  to  travel  fully 
one  hundred  miles  an  hour. 

Poiitk. 

The  I'olish  swan  is  a  large  white  variety  of  ('.  ator, 
found  in  Europe.  It  remmblea  the  Mul«  swan,  hut 
the  shape  of  the  head  is  different.  The  young 
cygnets  hatch  white  instead  of  gray  or  chi.-«tnut. 

Wftirfiirijf  (Cpgnut  muficut). 

The  Whistling  swan  \»  also  a  white  .npecies.  but 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  foregoing  species ; 
the  neck  is  shorter  and  thicker,  and  the  bill  is 
yellow  without  protuberance.  The  naturalist,  Olaf. 
writing  of  the  notes  of  the  Whistling  awan.  speaks 
as  follows :  "  When  a  company  of  those  birdfc'Nf*"**^ 


58t> 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


through  th&  air.  their  »ons  le  truly  delightfal. 
e<tunl  to  the  not<^  of  a  violin."  It  bt  a  native  of 
tiorthern  Europe  and  ia  seldom  domesticated. 

Bcrmek  {CyffHtu  [tcrwwkt). 

Tht*  Berwick  swan  is  tlie  siaaUi-'et  whiti-  variKty. 
The  Hftk  is  short  and  very  fliender.  This  .swan  ia 
very  ahy  and  wild  in  disposition  and  ditHcult  to 
\}Tv.&i  in  conKnt*ment. 

SlaeJc-neckal  {St^riietus  niffrieailig). 

Till!  nhick  -  n«cket!  Hwan  ix  nativa  tii  South 
America.  It  is  very  rare  and  in  sflduni  seen  in  pub- 
lic or  privatL-  [larks.  It  ix  of  ji^oimI  Mm,  with  brttwa 
eyua,  the  liill  a  lL>ad  i.'ijliir  with  a  rvil  protu)>LTn.nce 
at  the  base,  the  lc^»  a  ruddioh  orant;e.  The  plum- 
age is  Bpotlerts  white  i^xcept  on  thv  head  and  neck. 
Vihifh  are  clear  lilack  wiih  a  ntirrow  hiind  of  black 
scrr«w  the  wye,  Thu  carriage  of  tliu  neck  ia  muth 
strainhltr  than  that  of  any  other  x'ariety  of  swan. 

TYampeter  iOhr  huceinafnr). 

Thu  Trumpt't^-r  xwan  is  a  native  of  the  United 
Htuttis  and  is  found  principally  west  of  thu  Miasift- 
Bippi  river,  hut  has  been  foen  n»  far  east  aa  Ohio. 
In  fcirmer  yearn  it  bred  in  Dakota,  Miinlana  and 
Tdnhrt,  hilt  at  thi>  prc>.sf>nt  tiint>  it  netilt;  in  the 
country  almiit  Ku<lson  bay.  The  m^Bt^  arti  madt-  on 
small  i^landH  and  in  th«  marshus  and  shorfS  of 
lakeH.  Five  to  aeven  f^^  is  tho  nsanl  nnmber  pro- 
duced. Matnri!  birvla  ar«  pure  white,  while  cygneta 
&Tvt  iffay  or  rusty  color. 

American  (Olor  Columbianuf), 

The  Ameririin  swan  ia  a  pure  white  variety 
slightly  amaliisr  than  Lhe  Trumpeter  KWun.  It  ia  a 
native  of  the  United  Statt?a  and  in  found  principally 
went  of  the  Mi»siBsippi  rivor,  althoDgh  often  eoen 
in  autumn  inouth  to  Florida  and  Maryland.  It  win- 
Ufn  principally  in  Oregon,  Wa.'»hingtfin  and  Cali- 
fornia. In  early  spring,  it  migrates  north  to  Alaska 
and  the  Yukon  country  to  neat 

Literature. 

8t«jneger,  Proreeilin|i:a  of  United  States  N'atEonal 
Ma-wum.  Washington  (181*2);  Newton,  Dictionary 
of  liinJi*.  Vol.  IV„  U>n<lon  (1S%);  Oinnull,  Ameri- 
can Duck  Shooting,  New  York  (1901J. 


Turkey  a. 


Mdm^ris  spp.   Phfuianida,  Pigs.  602- 


By  T.  F.  MeCrew. 

The  present-day  turkeys  are  all  prooped  in  one 
breed,  but  represent  a  number  of  varwties.  The 
origin  of  the  present  domijstic  turkey  waa  undoabt- 
edly  in  whst  ia  known  3a  the  North  American 
turkey,  which  existed  in  a  wild  state  over  the  greater 
part  of  North  America  from  the  Carolinaa  well 
up  into  Canada.   lU^corda  show  that  turkeys  were 

frown  or  domesticated  in  England  as  early  as  1541. 
bey  were  rea.'*onably  plentifal  in  nTJUhroughout 
the  agricultural  di.-'tricts  of  Kngland.  Some  writers 
think  that  the  first  ones  were  taken  from  the  West 
India  isknds  into  Europe, 


Wild  turkeyt.  (Fig.  602.) 

There  are  three  distinct  "originala"  or  wild 
turkeya.  one  known  aa  the  North  American,  one  the 
Mexican,  and  the  third,  the  ino«t  delicate  of  all. 
the  Honduras  or  Ocellated  turkey. 

Tilt  American  "vri^Uial"  or  tc'dd  lurkeg,  the 
one  that  frequented  the  United  States  north  of 
Carolina  and  Into  Canada,  is  designated  as  MfleO' 
grii  Americana.  The  color  of  this  tj-pe  ia  black, 
nhaded  with  a  rich  bronze:  the  hreaat  plumage  ia 
very  brilliant,  tinged  with  a  finish  of  coppery  gold 
indiH^tiun.  In  the  rays  of  the  sun  the  combination 
of  bronze  with  the  copper  and  gold  glistens  like 
burnished  metal.  Prom  this  wild 
original,  crooked  with  the  do- 
mestic Black  turkey,  which  was 
undouht("dly  brought  by  the 
early  g^-ttleni  from  Kngland.  was 
created  the  well-known  variely 
of  Bronze  turkeys. 


Fix.  esz.    WUd  Uukey. 

The  Mrxiran  vitd  lurkn/  {MrJeagri^  Aferienna}  is 
of  shorter  bnild  than  the  nurthern  turkey.  The 
cobir  is  very  miicli  the  «ame,  but  o^'un  more  bril- 
liant in  slmding  than  the  North  American  variety. 
with  the  distinction  that  the  tail  and  other  featheni 
are  tipped  with  white.  Thi."*  .••pecies  seems' to  hare 
been  the  first  introduced  into  Spain  and  other  coun- 
trie'S,  It  is  thought  that  the  white  markings  of  thin 
variety  had  an  influence  in  creating  what  in  known 
an  the  Narragunaett  turkey. 

H<}»dura»  lurkey.  -The  wild  apocies  known  as 
the  Honduras  tnrkey  i.\feUaffrit  oefllata).  the  origi- 
nal brtM>d  of  Honduras  and  Central  .■Xmerica,  is 
described  aa  the  most  beautifully  colored  of  all  the 
turkey  family.  The  head  and  neck  of  thta  wild 
variety  are  naked.  No  bre-aat  tuft  is  found  thereon. 
Tho  caruncles  cf  the  head  and  neck  differ  some- 
what from  those  of  other  lurkeVH.  The  plDmage 
color  is  descril)ed  as  a  beautiful  bronze-green. 
banded  with  Hidden  hronze-blue  and  red.  with  soma 
bands  of  britliant  black.  This  variety  has  nerar 
been  domesticatHi  ■iuccesw fully.  The  few  that  hare 
be«n  kept  in  confinement  hare  failed  to  produce  of 


POULTRY 


POULTRY 


587 


their  kind,  and  live  but  a  short  time  out  of  their 
own  natural  realm.  They  are  of  what  might  be 
termed  a  low  carriage,  the  breast  rather  drooping, 
the  tail  usually  carried  in  a  downward  or  low 
position. 

Crested  turkey.— A  distinctive  domestic  variety 
h  the  crested  turkey.  This  has  a  crest  or  topknot 
of  feathers  on  the  bead,  or  rather  just  back  of  the 
head  on  the  oeck.  This  type  cannot  be  classed  as 
an  original  variety. 

Common  domestic  imrietks  of  turkeys. 

The  domestic  varieties  of  turkeys,  as  known  to 
this  country,  are  the  Bronze  (Pig.  603),  Narragan- 
set,  Buff,  Slate,  White  (Fig.  604)  and  Black.  The 
Bronze,  as  originated  in  the  United  States  by 
crossing  the  wild  variety  with  the  Black  turkey, 
known  in  England  as  the  Norfolk.  It  is  the  largest, 
hardiest  and  moat  admired  of  all  varieties  of  tur- 
keys for  the  market.  The  Narragansett  turkey 
undoubtedly  had  somewhat  of  the  same  original 
blood  as  the  bronze,  influenced,  perhaps,  by  a  cross 
of  the  variety  from  Mexico,  which  gave  a  mixture 
of  white  in  the  bronze  and  black  plumage  of  this 
variety.  It  is  second  in  size  only  to  the  Bronze, 
and  has  been  most  favorably  considered  in  many 
parts  of  New  England.  The  Buff  turkey  should 
have  true  buff  plumage  throughout.  As  usually 
seen,  the  feathers  are  of  a  reddish  buff,  the  wing 
flights,  and  at  times  other  feathers  of  the  wing, 
being  white.  The  Bourbon  Red,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly a  kindred  variety  of  the  Buff,  that  originated 
in  Kentucky,  perhaps,  is  of  deep  reddish  buff  in 
plumage,  and  somewhat  larger  than  the  Buff 
variety.  It  is  thought  to  have  been  created  through 
a  mixture  of  the  wild  and  the  Buff  varieties.  The 
Slate  turkey  might  be  called  a  blue  variety,  the 
plumage  color  being  of  a  bluish,  slaty  shade.    The 

White  variety 

is  pure  white 

in     plumage 

.^^^     throughout,  and 

'^J^^^^^^^^^i^^.J^HI     has    pinkish 

white  shanks. 
The  Black  vari- 
ety is  pure  black 
throughout  the 
'■:!.'   ^^^^KBCSj^miiP  '        entire  plumage. 

As  we  now  see 
it,  it  has  un- 
doubtedly been 
crossed  with  the 
Bronze  variety 
to  improve  its 
size,  and  this 
cross  has  illuminated  the  plumage  somewhat  with 
coppery  shading. 

Turkey-raising, 

Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
raising  of  turkeys  for  market  throughout  the 
world.  The  early  tendency  to  neglect  the  constitu- 
tional requirements  and  permit  constant  inbreeding 
without  the  intermingling  of  new  blood  reduced 
the  vitality  and  permitted  a  disease  to  creep  in. 


FiiE.  603.    BnniM  tnrker- 


Wg.  604.    WUte  HoUand  turkey. 


known  aa  black-head,  which  can  be  obliterated  only 
through  care  in  selecting  the  most  vigorous  speci- 
mens and  introducing  them  as  new  blood  into  the 
flocks. 

Turkeys  seem  to  adapt  themselves  to  diverse 
climatic  conditions.  They  do  equally  well  far  north 
into  Canada  and  ^ 
south  into  Texas.  -^ 
The  climate  both 
of  New  England 
and  of  California 
seems  fitted  for  the 
growing  of  large 
numbers  of  them 
for  market  pur- 
poses. Locality 
does  not  seem  to 
influence  their  cul- 
tivation, provided 
the  parent  is  strong 
and  healthy  and  the 
young  are  pro- 
tected from  the 
cold,  damp  and  in- 
sect vermin,  all  of 
which  may  be  con- 
sidered most  dire- 
ful enemies  of 
young  turkeys.  Being  of  a  rather  semi-wild  nature, 
they  do  best  when  permitted  to  have  their  freedom 
and  range  with  their  young  over  an  extended  area. 
Where  the  natural  food  on  the  range  is  unbounded, 
they  prosper  best. 

These  fowls  do  not  seem  to  do  so  well  in  confine- 
ment as  other  poultry,  being  more  like  the  guinea- 
fowl.  They  become  nervous  and  restless  when  con- 
fined in  limited  quarters.  A  few  of  them  may  be 
handled  successfully  in  enclosures,  as  are  poultry. 
Under  such  conditions  they  will  not  grow  so  large 
nor  prosper  so  well  aa  they  will  in  freedom.  The 
turkey  hen  lays  thirty-five  to  forty  eggs  in  a  season. 
It  takes  twenty-eight  days  for  the  eggs  to  hatch. 
The  young  turkeya  feed  themselves  as  soon  as  they 
come  from  the  nest.  "Little  and  often"  is  the 
rule  for  feeding  the  young  turkey  for  the  first  few 
days  after  coming  from  the  shell.  [See  article  on 
Feeding  Poultry.] 

Turkeys  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  strong, 
vigorous,  healthy,  well  matured  and  not  akin. 
Constitutional  vigor  is  of  first  importance  in  the 
male  or  torn,  as  it  is  called.  A  medium-sized  male 
with  good  fair-sized  females  of  strong  constitu- 
tional vigor  and  mature  age  will  give  best  results. 
The  best  rule  for  mating  is  to  have  four  or  five 
females  to  one  male,  although  greater  numbers  of 
females  have  been  used  with  good  results. 

Literature, 

T.  F.  McGrew,  Turkeys ;  Standard  Varieties  and 
Management,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  200,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1904) ;  J.  F. 
Crangle  and  others,  Turkey  Culture  ;  Herbert  Myr- 
ick.  Turkeys :  How  to  Grow  Them ;  Turkeys ;  Their 
Care  and  Management,  Reliable  Poultry  Journal, 
Quincy,  111.  [For  farther  references,  see  page  527.] 


688 


REINTiEER 


RGINDBER 


REINDEER.  Rangifcr  tarandui'.  Linn.;  Rangifrr 
iapponkus,  Friisch.  {Rangifer  refers  to  the  old 
French  wonl  "  nm^ier,"  \)\m  the  Latin  "  fera," 
wild  beast,  while  the  coEunion  name,  reindeer,  Ja 
probably  an  adaptation  of  the  Lapp  "  reino."  pas- 
turage, or  of  the  Icelandic  "hrcinn,"  nHodecr.) 
Oervida.   Figs.  7,  005,  60G. 

By  C.  C.  (!rifrt)rt.m. 

The  reindeer  hsis  been  successfully  introduced 
into  -Alaska,  and  efforts  are  now  being  ma^ie  to 
introduce  it  into  Labrador,  to  supply  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  barren  Inndx  with  meat  and  other 
productii.  and  tu  afford  a  means  of  transportation. 
The  reindeer  is  the  only  doniestii^ated  member  of 
the  deer  family.  Fundamentally,  it  is  identical  with 
the  .A>merican  caribou,  although  the  latter  has  heen 
divided  into  several  species  by  mammalo^irit.^,  tlie 
name  "reindeer"  being  now  appliii'd,  liow<-ver,  only 
to  the  Eoropean  deer,  both  wild  and  domesticated, 
whiW  caribou  is  the  name  of  the  wild  deer  found 
on  the  American  continent. 

Reindeer  vary  much  in  (die.  The  food  supply  ia 
an  important  factor  in  their  development,  At.  in 
the  case  of  other  animals.  Ajjain.  breed — or,  per- 
haps, we  should  call  it  race  —characteristics  are  a 
factor  having  an  influence  on  size.  The  average 
animal  ia  three  feet  and  nine  inches  to  four  feet  at 
the  withers,  but  Home  breeds  are  ^ar^er,  as  for 
example,  the  Tun^use  de«r  in  Siberia.  Many  of 
them  stand  five  feet  high  and  can  carry  a  hiirden  of 
two  hundred  pounds  on  their  backs,  and  because  of 
their  strength  are  rather  generally  used  for  riding. 
Compared  with  other  members  of  the  deer  family, 
the  reindeer  is  not  a  graceful  animal.  The  head  ia 
large,  muzzle  broad  and  nose  covered  with  hair; 
neck  short,  set  tow  and  usually  carried  horiKontally; 
when  the  animal  walks,  the  top  line  of  the  neck  is 
below  that  of  the  back;  the  withers  are  high, 
reaching  above  the  line  of  the  b;ick ;  shoulders 
rather  heavy,  with  prominent  shoulder  points.  The 
back  is  narrow,  rump  sloping,  hind-i;uarters  light, 
flaok  low  and  rather  full,  and  the  undur-line  nearly 
parallel  with  the  back.  In  the  fawns,  the  legs 
seem  disproportionately  long,  but  in  the  mature 
animal,  on  the  contrary,  they  appear  rather  short. 
The  fore-leg8  are  straight,  but  the  hind-legs  are 
crooked  and  spread  outward  from  the  hock  a.*  if  to 
brace  the  hind-iiuurters.  The  feet  are  targe  and  the 
hoofs  spread  when  pressed  again&t  the  ground— a 
provision  of  nature  which  aids  the  animal  to  get 
over  soft  snow  or  mud.  The  prevailing  color  of  the 
domestic  reindeer  is  a  grayish  brown— darker  in 
summer,  lighter  in  winter,  but  many  are  more  or 
lean  spotted  and  some  almost  white.  All  are  lightor 
on  neck,  shoulder  and  belly  than  on  the  back.  The 
coat  ia  thick,  longer  in  winter  than  in  summer, 
and  underneath  the  neck  the  hair  'm  Dvo  or  six 
inches  long.  There  is  no  iiuwsy  undercoat,  Runh  a« 
moi«t  animals  have  that  are  indigenouii  to  arctic 
latitudes.  The  hair  is  brittle  and  breaks  readily 
when  handle<l.  l-Vr  this  reason,  reindeer  skins  do 
not  make  good  rugs.  The  bide  is  thick  and  imper- 


vious to  water  to  a  marked  degree,  and,  by  a  cer- 
tain mode  of  tsnning  practic^  by  the  liapps.  it 
can  be  made  perfectly  impervious.  On  the  face  and 
tower  parts  of  the  legs,  the  skin  \i  particularly 
thick  and  durable,  for  which  reason  the  Lapps  dm 
these  parts  for  footwear. 

k  peculiarity  uf  the  genus  is  that  both  male« 
and  females  have  horns,  or  antlers.  They  shed 
them  annually  in  March  and  .\pril,  after  which  a 
new  pair  immediately  starts  to  grow.  The  young* 
animal  has  cylindrical  horns,  which  grow  to  a  foot 
or  more  the  tirst  summer :  as  the  animal  grow* 
older  the  horns  become  palmat^d  and  curve  outward 
and  backward.  The  prongs  or  branches  increase  in 
number  annually  up  to  the  age  of  seven  or  eight 
years :  from  that  time  they  decrease  in  numlwr. 
until  in  old  animals  there  are  only  a  few  points  on 
the  outer  ends  of  the  horns.  In  the  prime  of  life. 
one.  or  sometimes  both  horns  produce  ttattened 
branches  that  reach  down  over  the  face.  The  size 
of  the  antltfra  varies  with  the  siie  of  the  animal ; 
those  on  females  are  smaller  than  those  on  males. 
Antlers  have  been  found  that  measorecl  four  feet 
in  length  an<I  weighed  as  much  as  forty  pounds ; 
btit  this  is  extreme.  Ualf  this  length  and  weight 
more  nearly  represent  the  average  on  the  domesti- 
cated  animal. 

It  is  nut  easy  to  see  just  what  function  the 
horns  fulfill  in  the  animal  economy.  They  appear 
to  be  a  hindrance  rather  than  a  help  in  the  Rtroggle 
for  existence.  It  must  be  a  vast  drain  on  the  sy»* 
tem  to  furnish  nourishment  for  their  rapid  and 
prodij^iouH  growth,  and  they  are  tender  and  of  but 
little  use  fur  defence  during  the  summer  months 
while  growing.  They  are  at  Ibis  season  covered 
with  skin,  which  Is  abundantly  supplied  with  blood 
vessels,  and  a  coat  of  fine  hair.  This  condition  is 
technically  called  being  "in  the  velvet."  Tbey  are 
full  grown  about  the  time  the  breeding  Mason 
btitgins  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  and  then  the  mates 
U3e  them  freely  on  each  other.  Otherwise,  they  are 
not  of  use  either  for  ortV'nce  or  defence ;  instead, 
reindeer  strike  their  antagnnl'^ti  with  their  fore- 
feet. Nor  does  the  animal  use  the  antler  in  digging 
away  the  snow  to  reach  the  moss  underneath,  for 
this  is  done  with  the  feet  and  noM.  The  natural 
life  of  the  reindeer  is  about  fourteen  years,  and  it 
does  not  reach  its  prime  until  it  is  six  or  sevea 
years  of  ^je. 

HiMorjf  of  reimieer  in  Alagka. 

.■Mthouph  the  reindeer  hju«  been  domesticated  for 
ages  by  the  Eskimos  on  the  .Silvrian  side  of  Bering 
f^t^ail,  tlw'  E)^kim(M  on  the  .\raencan  i«ide  have  not 
kHpt  it.  They  could  nul  have  bwn  ignorant  of  the 
x-aluH  of  the  dii-r.  bi^canse  trailing  expeditions  from 
one  side  of  thi.'  Straits  to  the  other  were  of  fn>- 
(juent  Incurrence.  Oni;  is  forced  to  the  concInsioD 
that  tbey  lacked  the  enterprise  and  thrift  neces- 
sary to  take  up  the  work  of  reindeer-broedlng. 
InRt(>ail.  they  hiintt^)  the  wild  cariliou,  which  was 
abumiant;  they  hunted  the  whale,  the  walrus  and 
the  seal,  and  tha  spoils  of  the  hunt  gave  them  their 
food,  and  the  funt  and  skins  atforded  them  goods 
for  barter.  With  the  coming  of  the  white  man  all 


RRINDEFR 


REINDEER 


589 


this  was  chanf^.  He  killiid  or  drove  away  the 
whale,  heytmd  the  rt-Mih.  nf  thi;  l^skimo  with  thu 
means  at  his  rommanil.  Ttiu  fur  atiimalH  becante 
reilucetl  tu  tht;  \n3iat  of  extinction ;  the  caribou  was 
kiltud  ur  43rivL-n  uwjiy.  In  nddition  to  this,  the 
white  man  intruduceil  intoxicants,  arnl  his  vicefl 
sproad  dtseasa  and  dastruction  nmont;  thcrio  primi- 
tive people  so  as  to  reduce  their  pnwHr  ti>  [inr»ue, 
an  well  as  the  amount  i>f  their  ftHxl  ;^ii[i[>ly.  ThiB 
wan  the  condition  of  tho  Kskinion  in  arctic  Alaska. 
wlian,  in  1890,  Dr.  Sholdtm  JackiioD  wiis  sont  to 
that  rt>Kioi^  hy  tho  Uoitt.'d  .States  Coinn)issii.>neT  of 
Education  to  iwtahlish  schdoltt.  It  bccani'e  apparent 
to  him  at  once  that  something  must  be  dnno  to 
provide  the  Eskimo  with  a  food  supply,  and,  in  cast- 
ing aliout  for  means  to  that  oml,  it  Oi-rurrHd  to  him 
that  the  reindeer  wonld  solve  Iho  pniMyni.  On  hin 
return  to  Washington,  he  ur(,i!d  that  Coni-rfss 
should  make  an  ap|iropriatton  fur  the  introduction 
of  ruindtier  in  Alaska.  Congri:>83  did  not  act  imme- 
diately, however,  and  as  the  needs  were  urgent, 
Ur.  Jackson,  with  the  a|ipmval  and  aid  of  the  C.tJin- 
missioner  <'f  E«luc.sti"ii.  Itr.  W.  T.  Harris,  made  an 
appeal  for  fuiidti  tlirooiih  tho  public  prens,  where- 
with to  bejtin  the  work,  fn  reHpoufw,  the  sum  of 
$2,l4fi  waa  rucbived,  and  with  thi^  fund  he  lK.-gan 
tho  purchase  of  reindeer  in  Siln'ria  and  their 
transfer  to  Alaska.  Tho  first  importiitinn  consisted 
of  sixteen  heiid.  which  wi>re  huiiled  in  Ilnaluska  in 
the  autumn  of  IfWl.  DurinK  the  suininyr  »(  1892, 
hi;  made  five  vir^iu  to  Siberia  and  purchased  and 
imported  171  hi'ad  of  roindcer.  These  deer  weru 
landed  at  Port  C!larwnce,  where,  on  the  2S*th  of 
June  of  the  samo  year,  the  first  institution  in 
Alaska  for  the  hrecding  of  roindeor  was  eatab- 
liahcd,  It  was  named  Teller  Heindeer  Station,  in 
honor  of  Senator  Teller,  of  Colorado,  who  had  taken 
much  interest  in  the  enterprise.  The  guvi-rntnent 
aided  in  thfi  work,  however,  by  a-ssigning  a  revenue 
cutter  to  tntu.-'iiort  the  purchased  lU-er  tu  Alaska. 
The  first  appropriation  by  CorigrL-t«  for  the*  intro- 
duction of  reindeer  into  Ahiska  was  made  March 
3,  189:*,  and  consisted  of  $*i.0<>l1,  to  lie  expended 
ander  the  directicm  of  the  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior, who  delegated  the  work  to  the  Bureau  of 
Education,  and  I>r.  Harris,  the  ('oinniissioiier  of 
Education,  assigned  the  task  to  Pr.  Jackson,  who 
has  thus  been  the  prime  mover  of  the  enterprise 
throughout.  The  object  was  iirimarily  to  provide 
food  for  the  Eskimos,  but,  before  the  deer  could 
beoome  of  real  benefit  to  them,  it  he<':ime  neces- 
sary to  teach  them  how  to  cure  f»r  and  handle  the 
deer.  The  task  was  heset  with  difricultie.H.  It 
muaot  a  change  in  the  mode  of  life  of  these  prirai- 
tivo  people.  \s  fishermen  and  hunters  thfir  chief 
accomplishment  was  to  destroy  lifo;  now  they  had 
to  learn  to  foster  and  preserve  it.  It  was  a  process 
of  education.  They  had  first  to  leam  the  advan- 
tages of  the  new  life  and  then  slowly  anrl  labori- 
ously be  introduced  to  it,  and  the  plans  that  were 
finally  adopted  for  the  breeding  and  distribution  of 
the  deer  were  formulated  with  a  view  to  meet 
these  conditions. 

Appropriijions  nnd  purrkaM  n/"  tiwr,  — From  tho 
first  appropriation,  in  1S93,  to  the  close  of  the 


fiscal  year  1906,  Congress  had  appropriated  $222,- 
r>00  for  this  purpose,  tn  varying  amounts  from 
$S,000  to  $2ri.)XX>  annually,  and  in  all,  twelve  hun- 
dred and  eighty  dwer  were  imported  from  Siberia 
between  tlie  years  iSy2and  VMYl.  .N'o  importations 
have  been  mads*  since  l*Ji)2.  Of  those  imported 
deer,  ^y\  were  tho  large  Tungase  deer,  a  race  or 
breisl  kept  by  the  Tunguse  people  in  central  Siberia. 
Thuse  Were  juiTchaned  and  introduced  by  Lieut.  K. 
P.  Bertholf  of  the  llevenue  Cutter  Service,  who 
was  detailwl  for  that  duty.  They  are  noted  for 
their  great  Hiz«  and  strength.  The  herds  brought 
here  have  done  so  well  that  it  la  deemed  unneces- 
sary to  maku  further  importations. 

Plan  of  dUtrihuiion.  —Since  the  object  of  their 
introduction  was  to  benefit  the  Eskimos,  it  waa 
evident  that  the  sooner  they  could  be  taught  to 
handle  and  care  for  them  the  sooner  the  end  in 
view  would  lie  attained.  Arrangements  vere  there* 
fore  made  with  a  number  of  miasiOD  stations, 
already  etitahlished  at  all  the  main  settlements  of 
native.s,  to  become  t<iachers  of  their  wards.  The 
government  madd  loans  of  small  herds,  usually  one 
hundred  head,  to  the-se  station!!,  .is  an  outfit  of 


Jf^-; 


V: 


^ 


m-'- 


\  icK  HDloial. 


industrial  apparatus,  the  loan  to  be  returned  to  the 
government  at  the  end  of  five  years,  but  tho 
increase  to  remain  tho  property  of  the  mission. 
The  slaughter  or  sale  of  female  doer  was  strictly 
prohibited.  Male  deer  might  be  sold,  but  only  with 
the  advice  and  consent  nf  the  governmfnt  reindeer 
superintendent.  The  mission  ohtigateil  ilself  to 
support  a  mr|w  of  apprentices,  while  under  instruc- 
tion in  the  art  of  herding  and  training  the  deer. 
The  apprentices  wore  selected  from  the  brightest 
young  men,  and  tho  average  period  nf  apprentice- 
ship was  fix'cd  at  five  years.  As  a  rewani  nt  merit, 
each  of  these  young  men  who  faithfully  CDrajtlete^i 
the  stipulate<l  jwriod  as  a  pupil  was  given  a  few 
deer,  which  were  tn  furm  the  nucleus  of  a  iwfrsonal 
heni.  Competent  teachers  to  instruct  the  appron- 
liciffl  wore  hired  by  the  government.  These  instruct- 
ors were  Lapps  who  had  been  reindeer  masU-rs  in 
their  native  country  and  who  were  brought  to  ALiska 
for  the  purpose.  The  government  assumed  general 
supervision  over  all  the  htTds,  At  prestnt,  the 
reindeer  territory  li  divided  between  two  general 


590 


REINBEER 


REINDEER 


saperintendonts  in  the  employ  of  the  KovBnimont, 
ono  having  charge  of  the  herds  along  thw  shon.'^  of 
the  Arctic  ocean  and  northern  Heringsea.  ami  the 
other  having  charjce  <'f  thp  henlw  on  the  shnrefl  "f 
Gol'ivin  hay,  Norton  8(iuriiii,  and  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Yukim  ami  Kusltoliwiiii  rivars, 

iSfa/iijftJi.— AcconlinK  to  l>r.  Jackson's  report, 
there  wlto,  in  WiOd,  iha  following  ststiona,  with 
tho  number  of  deer  at  each  : 

ItretT 

Barrow  hbA  Wainwrieht  CPreabyMriiin  mtMion) .     797 

Kivdlinn  (nutivn  [-^kiin<p«) 279 

KotiebaetSoc-wty  of  Frieii'lB) 900* 

Deering  {Society  of  Friunifal 649 

WftlMandS}iUhmiLref(Confrr«gntiAnalintiuii>nh  1,770* 
Sanbell.  St.  Lawrence  islaiii)  ( Preaby terian]  .     250 
Teller  (NorwL^fcian  Emngtlical  Lutheran)   .   ,  1,169 
Oolovin  (Swedish  Evanijellcal  Union)    ....  1,434 
PnMlakleel  (Swi'ilish  EvunKflii'iil  [.'nion)  .   .    .1.177 

E^ton  (Swodiah  EvantfcliiuL  I'nion) IJIOS 

Bethel.  Kaakokwim  ri;-_>r(Moravi«n)     .    .   .    .  1.700* 

niiamna  (GovifTnnivDt) 5^> 

KoHorefsky  (KoraiinGaUiolic) 330* 

Tnnana  (Eplncopal) 440* 

BetltBB,  Knyukuk  river  (Gcnremmettt)  ....     400* 

13,215 
"Extifflst^-d.    Report  not  in. 

The  misfiionary  awietiea  herd  named  do  not  own 
all  the  deer  accrediti^d  to  their  reapectivo  stations. 
In  190r>,  s&venty-eight  Eskimo  apprentices  had 
become  the  owners  of  a  total  of  3,817  deer,  acquired 

fiartly  as  reward;!  of  merit  and  partly  through 
nana  from  the  govemmynt  on  the  8am<>  basis  as  to 
tht?  missions,  ft-veral  of  the  Lapp  herders  had  in 
Hko  mannor  roceivc-d  loans  of  deer  from  the  guv- 
ernmont,  as  wages  for  their  Bervicea.  and  all  these 
various  owners,  with  their  herds,  were  located  at 
the  stations  named.  In  1905,  when  the  total  num- 
ber of  deer  aggregated  10,241.  the  ownerflhii)  was 
divided  thua:  K.ikimo  appn^ntioes  3,837,  jiovern- 
ment  3.07:J,  miswion  stations  2.127.  Lapp  herders 
1,224.  Theeo  various  ownirs  kept  their  herds  at 
the  stations  named,  scattered  from  Toint  Barrow 
in  the  extreme  north  to  Lake  niiamna  oq  Cook 
Inlet. 

Incrcatf.— The  average  annual  increase  in  the 
henls  by  fawns,  from  1S9'1  to  1905,  wax  4.'>  per 
cent.  Tnin  does  not  mean  tht^  iiumW  of  fawns 
bom,  but  the  number  that  survived  each  year.  As 
the  herds  incn^aM*  in  shv  the  y>L>rci;n,tage  of  fawns 
that  survive,  however,  is  slightly  diminished,  prob- 
•bly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  native  herders  are 
less  vigilant  than  their  Lapp  t«.i(;her!t.  who  cO'uld 
give  every  deer  individual  attention  when  th^  henls 
were  small;  but  it  is  aA.<tume<!  as  a  safe  baj^is  of 
computation  that  the  incri-aae  will  not  fall  below 
3.1  per  cent,  and  at  that  rate  tbu-re  will  U  2r.G,000 
deer  in  Alaska  in  1019.  From  1892  to  lOa'i,  4,184 
deer  were  sold,  butchered  or  died. 

An  importation  fnm  l^plnnd. — An  experiment, 
which  proved  .i  faihire,  should  be  mentioned,  because 
it  \\M  lipen  advanceti  .'is  a  priwf  aK-'»in«t  the  practi- 
cability of  the  teiniiwr  enterprise.  In  the  winter 
of  lft!>7  the  rumor  spread  that  many  American 
miners  in  the  Yukon  valley  were  on  the  point  of 


starvation.  Congress  appropriatwl  money  for  their 
relief,  and  it  wad  thongbt  that  the  beet  way  to 
transport  provisions  to  them  was  by  meamt  of  reift^ 
dL'er.  I'arauant  to  this  plan,  539  trained  reif 
and  sixty-eight  Liipp  drivers  with  their  familieB' 
were  importeii  from  Norway  and  branght  to  the 
head  of  I-ynn  t'linal.  Alaska,  from  which  point  they 
were  to  start  overland.  Owing  UmnforeseeB  delays, 
thf  moss  brought  from  Norway,  on  which  to  fwd 
the  deer,  becamo  exhausted  before  the  start  was 
made,  and  the  alfalfa  and  other  hay  given  then 
caused  digestive  disturbances  which  resulted  in  the 
death  of  most  of  the  deer  before  they  couH  reach 
the  ma«  fitddft  in  the  interior.  In  the  meantime, 
word  came  that  the  rejKirt  of  sinrvalion  wa>;  untrue, 
and  the  expedition  was  abandoned.  These  dwr 
were  geldings,  and  form  no  part  of  the  breeding 
experiments. 

/)i«/riAufirtji. 

The  reindeer  occupies  the  arctic  itone  on  both 
hemi.ipheres.  In  the  western  part  of  the  American 
continent  the  caribou  ranjjes  fnim  the  shore*  of 
the  Arctic  ocean,  along  the  Ala.<ikan  range,  throagh 
British  Columbia  to  the  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  and  in  the  eastern  part  through  Labrador  to 
New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland,  where  it  is 
yet  nnmerouB,  while  on  the  plains  it  ranges  as  far 
South  as  latitude  64.  The  dome.>4tic  reindeer  can 
alfto  maintain  itself,  therefore,  through  the  whole 
of  this  range. 

In  ICnropc,  the  reindeer  is  found  throughout  tl 
northern  reijions  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  ani* 
Siberia,  the  range  extending  far  Wtow  the  arctic 
circle.  It  is  found  in  Iceland,  in  Greenland,  in 
Spitsbergen  and  other  islands  of  the  Arctic  ocean, 
even  beyond  the  eightieth  parallel.  It  is  domesti- 
cated in  this  extensive  region,  wherever  man 
a  permanent  abode,  but  mora  particularly  by  tl 
Lappa  in  Norway,  Sweden  and  ituMia,  and  also  " 
the  tribes  occupying  Eastern  Siberia  from  KamUi 
chatka  to  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  and  other  regions  of 
northern  Siberia.  In  short,  the  present  range  of 
the  reindeer  and  caribou  is  bounded  on  the  sottti 
by  the  isothermal,  which  determines  the  cbaract 
of  the  Vegetation  on  which  they  feed,  and  on  the 
north  by  tho  limit  of  mosses  and  lichens  in  qnaotity 
aull^cient  to  sustain  it. 

In  a  by-gone  epoch,  tho  reindeer  inhabited  all 
Europe,  even  do^vn  to  the  Mediterranean,  having 
apparently  been  driven  south  by  the  advancing  ice. 
Its  remains  have  been  foond  in  France  and  eb 
whtre  in  continental  Korope.  and  in  Scotland  and^ 
Ireland. 

Carihou  were  numerous  in  Ala^  until  recent 
years.  But.  since  the  influx  of  the  white  man  in 
pursuit  of  gold,  the  number  is  rapidly  decreasing. 
In  the  Kenai  penin.iula  they  may  still  be  found, 
although  .'Scarce,  while  in  the  interior  they  are  now 
numerous  only  in  the  unexploited  n^gions,  momj 
particularly  in  the  so-called  Alaskan  range. 
which  Mt.  McKinley  U  the  principal  poak  In 
winter  of  liM^Tf-tj.  thousands  of  them  croosed 
Tanana  river  some  milos  below  Fairbanks,  and ' 
sUiughtered  by  the  hundreds. 


REINDEER 


RRTNDEER 


591 


Thu  reindtwr  oecupitM  a  zone  wholly  outsi^le  that 
in  which  agricnlturc  is  poseibte.  It  lives  on  lichen 
and  herh.igp  [Kfiiliar  to  the  regiun  where  no  agri- 
cultural plants  will  grr)W.  It  doe.'t  not  thrive  in 
thA  warmer  rt>Ki<>i>!*  wh«rn  aRriuulluru  is  jiraiiticalile, 
anul  it  (^anmtt  livt-  uk  Ihi*  kiiiil  of  furaKW  we  fwed  to 
■cattlu  and  hwnws.  But  it  id  tiy  far  tlii;  most  ust-fiil 
animal  under  liomt-stk'jition  for  the  rogiim  north  of 
the  aKricaltural  lielt.  It  i»  a  means  of  traiiRcnating 
a  vnst  amoBfit  of  otherwisA  uwlewi  vegetation  into 
forms  that  can  be  utilized  hy  man  for  food  and 
shelter. 

Training. 

Traininjf  for  the  aled  heginfi  at  the  BRf  of  three 
years,  and  the  stowtest  maloa  and  gftdimKB  are 
setected.  The  lessons  beKin  by  Ia''soing  the  se- 
lected aninrnln.  The  prMir  lieasts  are  much  arared 
and  jump  about  in  frantie  elTorta  tn  escajie.  When 
4|Hietwl,  they  are  le»l  about  for  some  time,  or  tied 
to  a  post  to  accustom  them  to  confinement.  They 
are  then  released,  to  have  the  lesson  repeated  day 
by  day  uiitil  they  are  tame  erongh  to  I»e  hantessed. 
and  in  the  same  manner  accustomed  to  draw  Eight 
Inadd.    This  tatfen  a  long  time  and  persisti^nt  work. 

There  are  M-veral  methiMls  nf  h^rnewting  them. 
The  must  primitive  and  Ic3.st  humane  cnnsistH  in 
putting  a  raw-hidu  strap  ahuuL  the  neck,  and  to 
this  attach  a  single  trace,  which  i»  cither  drawn 
between  the  legs,  or  simply  stretched  along  the 
side  of  the  animal.  !ind  fjistened  tn  the  sled.  An 
Impnived  hamea'<  uwed  in  .Aloftka  consiHts  of  n  cnt- 
lar  and  a  pair  of  light  h:tmt'H,  fmm  whirh  a  short 
trice  goes  luick  on  each  side  to  the  ends  of  a  swingle- 
tree,  Htwi>endt>(l  under  the  body  by  a  strap  uver  the 
back.  Krom  the  center  of  this,  a  single  trace  goes 
back  to  the  sled,  either  between,  or  on  one  side  of 
the  hind-leg.  Thi.i  trace  is  covered  with  fnr,  to 
prevent  it  chafing  the  leg«.  .\  Bingle  linf  is  faritened 
to  the  left  side  of  the  halter,  and  with  this  the 
animai  is  guided  and  held  in  check-  In  Alaska,  a-s 
in  l^pland,  there  is  seldom  more  than  one  hitched 
to  a  sled. 

The  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  606>  shows 
two  forms  of  the  aletls  nsed.  The  one  pl.iced 
above  is  imported  from  I^apland.  and  in  there 
called  a  "pulka,"  It  is  seven  fewt  long  and  two 
feet  broad,  pointed  in  front,  and  wiuare  in  the 
back,  and  rounded  underneath  like  a  boat.  It  pullit 
ewily  and  does  not  sink  into  soft  snow.  Thi*  other 
slod  fignred  in  like  the  dog  sled  or  hiind  sled  in 
common  use.  It  is  largely  home-mjide,  and  varies 
in  aize  ami  nhape  with  the  art  and  fnncy  of  the 
maker.  It  is  usually  nine  feet  long  and  two  feet 
broa<J,  built  of  thin  slata,  and  the  t4>p  inchwtnl  by  a. 
raiting  a  foot  high.  It  may  or  may  not  hav»  hnn- 
dU-«  liehind  to  nse  in  guiding  it.  or  to  hold  on  to 
when  the  driver  mnn  Iwhind  for  exercise. 

Tlie  reindeer  is  gregarious,  and,  when  left  to 
it«elf,  pastunv*  in  great  herds,  sometimes  numlwr- 
ing  thousands.  In  summer  it  fewls  on  the  twigs 
and  leavp.H  of  the  alder,  willow  and  other  shrubby 
plants,  un  lichena  and  mossee,  and  to  a  leaa  extent 


on  gra-ss.  In  winter  it  live.-*  ftlmost  ftxclufiively  on 
a  whitish  nutritious  lichen  (nadimia  rani/fffrina), 
which  for  this  rmwon  haa  l>een  l«rmt)d  reindeer 
mnsH.  It  fetnlit  also  on  other  mosses  and  lichens, 
howuvuF,  ami  is  vury  fond  of  mushrooms,  tl  is  of 
a  roaming  disposition  and  U  almost  constantly  on 
the  move  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  fortl. 
For  thta  reagmn  a  herd  reijuireB  constant  watching 
day  and  night  to  prevent  ita  bmaking  up  and  Ktray- 


Ptf .  606.    Two  formt  of  slcdA  u»ed  wltli  rciDaeer. 

ing  off  in  ditferent  directions.  It  is  timid  like  other 
memliers  of  the  deer  family,  and  a  henl  is  easily 
suittennl  by  dogs,  wolves  or  other  wild  animals. 
It  is  polygamous,  wt  are  cattle.  The  rutting  season 
occurs  in  the  fall,  and  the  fawns  are  dropped  in 
March  and  April.  If  the  weather  then  happens  to 
bo  severe,  there  is  large  mnrtality  among  the  new- 
born fiiwns.  The  herder's  life  then  bet^ome-t  stren- 
uous, ind(>eil.  He  cannot  seek  shelter  himself,  but 
must  face  the  Hlorm  and  give  succur  to  the  fawns 
by  way  of  ahulter  and  warmth. 

In  Siberia  and  among  the  (japps,  where  the  reiiw 
deer  is  almost  the  onlydnme-ftic  animal,  It  suppliM 
alt  the  frugal  nee<l8  of  itn  owner.  The  meat  is  his 
chief  foiwl  ;  frum  the  milk  be  makea  chi?*«e,  or  he 
keeim  it  in  frozen  chunks  for  n/te  in  cooking,  or  it 
in  made  into  butt«.'r ;  the  blood  ia  saved  and  eaten ; 
the  fat  is  ased  for  food,  for  candles,  and  for  making 
footwear  and  clothing  waterproof ;  the  skins  are 
used  for  clothing,  for  tenLn,  mats  and  blankets, 
strapa  and  thongs ;  the  boneti  and  horns  are  used 
for  tools  and  utensiltt,  or,  t«igether  with  the  hoofs, 
they  are  ummI  in  boiling  glue;  during  life,  the 
animal  draws  hia  sled  over  the  anow  and  carries 
hia  burden.  The  reindeer  thus  enables  part  of  the 
human  race  to  secure  a  livelihoiKl  in  a  region  where, 
without  it,  life  would  he  well  nigh  impii.'%»ihle. 

Thtir  ralue  fesini.      That    the    reinde«.*r    is   an 
unqualilied  success  both  as  a  source  of  food  and 
as  a  means  of  tran?tportation  has  Iwen  proved  re- 
peatedly in  the  last  ten  years.   The  most  severe 
te«t  to  which  they  have  Iieen  put  was.  perhaps,  the 
relief  expedition  to  Point  Harrow,  under  the  leadr-r- 
ahip  of  Lieut.  0,  H.  Jarvis  of  the  Revencie-rutter 
Service,  in  the  winter  of  1X97-9H,  when  the  whaling 
fleet  frote  tn  and  some  ;i(H  whalemen  faew)  !itiir\-o- 
tioii.    Liou*^enant  Jarvis,  assiaU-d  by  l.v^'s.^..  W...  *<  - 
Bertliolf.  Surg.  S.  J.  fall.  Mr.  W.  T.  '^'V^-^**-^^^ 
natiws,  drove  a  herd  of  several  hiirvA**^  »*«»-«?:«.- 
mon>  than  800  TO\.W,'M.t«w.>iw6\>-»-'«'^**^* 


I 


oS2 


REItVDEBR 


SIIEKP 


ered,  uninhabited  wa^te,  from  Norton  Saant\  to 
Foint  Barrow,  durinj;  the  dead  of  winter,  with  the 
temperature  20"  to  ^itf  below  zero,  anJ  broaght 
them  Bafdy  to  their  destination.  The  deer  found 
their  own  food  in  the  moss  which  they  uncovered 
hy  scraping  away  the  snow,  and  on  arrival  in  Ajiril 
u  lar|5«  numlKT  of  healthy  fnwntt  were  born  to  the 
herd.  Thu  leading  partici|iantB  wore  awanled  nold 
medals  aud  the  tKanlu  of  Concretui.  Reindeer  have 
also  been  employed  to  carry  the  mails  betwwn  the 
scattered  settlements  along  Bering  sea.  They  have 
the  advantage  nver  dogi)  that  it  ia  not  necessary 
to  carry  their  food  with  them. 

Ditetuet  and  ditahililU^. 

Hoof  difeaK,  perhaps,  is  the  most  troublesome 
affliction  of  the  reindeer.  It  produce^  a  swelling 
above  thi.'  hoof,  with  a  formation  of  pus.  Opening 
the  swelling  and  treating  it  with  disinfectants  may 
re.<*ult  in  a  cure ;  or  it  may  become  systemic,  in 
which  ciLie  the  animal  ii.-tanEly  dies.  An  affliction 
designated  "lieer  and  fuaij  ditcaw,"  resulting  from 
an  atTection  of  the  spleen  and  from  congestion  of 
the  brain,  is  uaualty  fatal.  No  a^lequate  reroodfes 
appear  to  hfivo  been  discovered.  The  great  number 
of  savage,  widf-like  dogs  that  infest  all  Indian  and 
E.'iikimo  .settl'pmentf*  in  A!a.''ka  w.iund  and  kilt  many 
deer,  and  are  a  great  drawback  to  the  bundling  of 
the  herds.  Tlie  reindetr  in  al.«»  very  prone  to  aciii- 
dent.  The  hones  are  brittle,  especially  during  the 
Bummer,  when  the  antlers  are  growing  faflt.  Many 
doer  break  thoir  legs,  their  necks,  or  their  backs 
while  running  about,  or  while  fighting  with  each 
other. 

Reindeer  for  Labrador. 

By  /'.  ir.  Fnmxe. 

Guided  by  the  good  res^ultB  Becured  fn  the  intro- 
duction of  tame  reindeer  into  Alaska  by  Vr.  Sheldon 
Jackson,  the  Governor  of  Newfoundland.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Macgregor,  and  Dr.  Grenfell,  of  the  Deep  Sea 
Mission  to  Labrador,  very  earnestly  took  up  the 
project  of  introducing  domesticated  reindeer  into 
I.abriidor.  Before  the  srheme  could  be  carried  ont 
practically,  meoBurea  were  taken  by  the  Governor 
and  Dr.  <;renfell,  assisted  by  the  Moravian  mliwion- 
arie«  at  I^brarlor,  to  ascertain  whether  the  common 
food  of  the  caribou  exii"t»>d  in  sufficient  qoantitiea 
all  over  the  peninsula.  S|)ecimen3  of  mosses,  lichens 
and  grasses  from  every  part  of  the  great  peninsula 
were  collected.  These  were  carefully  arranged  and 
sent  to  the  authoritie.<i  at  Kew.  GngUnd,  for  classi- 
fication  and  identiiication.  Tbey  were  pronounced 
to  ixt  thi*  true  reindeer  moiu  and  the  actual  common 
food  of  the  reindeer.  Thia  was  a  foregone  conclusion, 
as  thu  native  caribou  wen*  known  to  have  been 
abundant  at  Labrador.  The  indi.-^criminate  slaugh- 
ter of  the  herda  by  the  Eskimos  has  driven  them 
farther  inland,  hut  they  ,'ire  still  fairly  abundant, 
although  not  to  be  compared  with  the  vast  herds 
of  Newfoundland, 

With  these  preliminaries  settled,  the  next  prob- 
lem was  to  secure  funds  for  the  experiment.  Dr. 
Grenfell  toured  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and 


aroused  much  interest  in  the  undertaking.  The 
Canadian  government  made  a  grant  of  $a,OU0  for 
the  work.  The  Newfoundland  adminislmtioB  may 
alsoa8sist.Togethfrwith  private  subsrriptions.suffi- 
cicnt  funds  were  collected  to  begin  the  enterprise, 
and  it  U  now  in  the  process  of  accomplishment. 

The  pnrp<i,*e  of  the  undertaking  is  largely  the 
.>«ame  a-t  in  the  .\la.ska  im porta tion.<4,  n.tmely,  to 
provide  food  and  other  prvducts,  »»d  a  means  of 
transportation  for  the  people  living  oo  barren 
Labrador.  The  place  for  the  landing  of  the  rein- 
deer has  been  carefully  choHen.  Lapland  herdsmen 
will  iiiHtruct  chosen  apprentices  from  among  the 
natives  in  the  hitndling  of  the  n;indeer,  and.  even- 
tually, if  the  ex|)eriment  succeeds,  the  animals  will 
be  parceled  out  to  the  natives.  Macb  interest  cen- 
ters in  this  venture,  as  far-reaching  results  Biay  be 
expected  if  it  i»  successful. 

In  this  connection,  the  question  arises,  why  not 
domesticate  the  native  wild  caribou?  Every  year 
fawn.''  are  taken  and  trained,  and  they  make  delight- 
ful pets.  But  thus  far  it  has  been  Impaesible  to  erad- 
icate the  wild  nature,  and  it  would  probably  rei|uire 
manv  generation.i  to  devt^lop  a  domesticated  tvpe. 

About  $13,0C»  was  collected,  and  in  1907.  after 
a  highly  satisfactory  voyage,  a  herd  of  IJOtt  dome^g- 
ticated  Lapland  reindeer  were  landed  in  northern 
Newfoundland,  accompanied  by  Lapland  herdsmea 
and  dog!i>.  A."*  sodh  as  navigation  opens  up,  a  part 
of  the  herd  will  be  taken  to  Labrador.  Some  fifty 
reindeer  were  also  brought  over  by  the  Hannswyrih 
Company,  and  have  been  placed  on  their  estate  at 
Grand  Falls.  Newfoundland.  So  far,  the  experiment 
has  been  a  complete  amxess,  and  the  reindeer  aro 
reported  to  be  in  excellent  condition. 

SHEEP.   Oris  aruat,  Linn.   Bovidm.   Pigs,  50-54, 

Sheep-farming  in  North  America  kas  paswd 
through  several  phases,  and  it  is  now  ropnwntod 
by  several  rather  distinct  types  of  effort,  tn  the 
eastern  states,  sheep-farming  i«  a  bttSinoM  of  smitll 
flocks  that  are  kept  within  fenced  fields  and  are 
houiHd  in  winter  in  regular  bams.  The  European 
system  of  shepherded  (locks  is  practically  unknown 
anywhere  in  this  country,  due  to  the  price  of  labor, 
the  fact  that  persons  are  not  trained  to  the  burli- 
ness of  shepherds,  and  to  general  economic  and 
social  conditions. 

In  the  great  West,  a  characteristic  American 
type  of  sheep-ranching  has  developed,  on  a  very 
large  base.  This  ranching  is  subject  to  aps  and 
downs,  depending  on  the  price  of  wo.>l  and  mutton; 
but  as  a  general  statement  it  may  W  snid  that  it  in 
following  the  large^rea  cattle-ranching,  whi«'h  is 
now  passing  away.  Sheepcan  subsist  on  lands  that 
are  not  adapted  to  catlle-ranohing,  and  the  returns 
from  fiheep  are  rapid,  as  then  is  a  crop  each  y.'ar 
of  both  wool  and  lamhe. 

The  business  of  winter  sbeep-feeding  bus  now 
grown  to  great  proportions.  This  consists  in  tfie 
feeding  of  purchased  sheep— chiefly  range  sheep 
of  the  West— for  the  winter  and  sipring  market. 
Immense  feeding  enterprises  of  thb  Una  iro  cos- 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


S93 


ducted  in  the  sheep  8tat<;»,  as  in  Colorado,  MonUna, 
Wyominij;,  the  animals  b«jne  brought  down  to  tho 
feediTig-i>ens  from  Uu*  high  summer  rangt's.  Thfsto 
"  feedcra  "  are  also  shipped  into  the  Eawt,  sis  far  us 
New  York,  where  ^eat  numhers  are  now  M  in 
bams  and  aheds.  in  cKse  prDximity  t«)  the  markets. 

Bccaas^i  of  the  grt>at  areiis  of  cheap  landfi  and 
public  range  in  parts  of  the  We«t.  aheep-f arming 
has  largely  pnHsed  out  of  the  Eattt.  The  equilibritiTn 
prf>mises  soon  to  ba  restored,  h4>wever.  Not  only 
will  the  old  style  of  sheep- farm  in  g  he  revived,  hut 
it  ifl  probable  that  something  like  the  range  etfort 
of  the  West  wilt  crmie  into  the  chpap-ijind  hill 
regions  of  the  East.  Many  uf  the  semi-ahtindoned 
areas  are  exctfilently  adapte*!  t<i  sheep,  particularly 
when  several  farms  can  be  combinefi.  or  when  the 
owners  can  agree  to  enfrai^e  in  a  similar  businu^. 
In  «ome  caaes  it  will  probably  be  found  to  be  more 
economical  to  introduce  a  system  of  shepherding 
than  to  attempt  to  re-fence  the  old  arms. 

Another  type  of  aheep  business  is  the  rearing  of 
"  hothouse  lamlw."  Ewes  are  bred  at  such  time 
that  the  Iaml>!t  are  dnipped  early  in  winter,  and 
the  lambs  are  fattened  by  forced  feeding  and  extra 
caw,  and  are  ready  for  market  in  about  sixty  days. 
Not  all  sheep,  or  all  kinds  of  sheep,  will  breed 
freely  at  this  time  of  tho  year  (in  June  or  summer  : 
the  period  of  gestation  for  the  yheep  is  five  monthB), 
and  importations  of  Dorset*  and  "thers  have  been 
made  for  this  purpose.  It  i»  now  a  prevailing 
opinion  that  the  mountain-bred  aheep  of  the  West 
are  well  adapted  to  this  business,  whether  because 
they  are  mountain-bred  or  because  they  are  of  the 
proper  type  for  this  businesij,  is  not  determined. 
The  long-wool  kinds  do  not  breed  well  for  this  pur- 
pose, nor  do  the  lambtt  fatten  quickly.  The  Merino 
tjpeJi  ^ivo  better  results  but  the  pure  Merinos 
Hdm  to  lack  in  mitk-pr<Klucing  and  other  qualities 
fortheV-st  production  of  winter  lamhg.  The  middle- 
wools,  as  the  n<ir»et.  are  now  preferred,  the  targe 
{»rodncers  of  hothouse  lamb?  securing  their  ewea 
TOMtly  from  the  West,  but  the  smaller  producers 
breeding  their  own  atock.  The  ideal  )(ea:4on  for  win- 
ter lambs  to  be  dropped  is  November,  but  it  is  difficult 
t*»  make  itheep  breed  early  enough  for  this,  so  that 
I>ecembor-droppedl8mb«aremoro  common.  The  hot- 
houiie-Iamb  bu^ine^  depends  on  very  special  markets 
and  it  does  not  appear  to  be  incre;Lsing  at  present. 

it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the  sheep  business 
has  actnally  left  the  East,  fur  this  would  be  erro- 
neous; but  in  some  regions  it  hju<  dccreasetl,  and 
in  few  ha«  it  develops  coordinately  with  other 
agricultural  busineiw.  The  husineiw  of  breeding 
sheep,  as  well  aa  the  general  rearing  for  mutton 
and  wool,  is  imiKiftant  in  many  eastern  regions, 
particularly  in  parts  of  Cana«la;  the  interest  in 
nigh-<:laB8  animals  has  not  divd  out  for  sheep  more 
than  for  other  live-tdock :  there  are  many  sheep- 
breeders'  societies  in  the  East;  and  at  present  the 
interest  In  aheep  in  that  region  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. One  of  the  great  handicaps  to  sbeep-huB- 
bandry  is  the  danger  from  dogs.  Tight  woven- 
wire  fences  prove  to  be  effecti%*e  bnrriera  to  dogs  ; 
but  the  only  real  relief  is  to  make  all  dog-ownera 
legally  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their  dogs,  and 

C3S 


this  can  readily  bo  done  and  the  law  can  be  effec- 
tively enforced  when  the  sheep-growing  aentiment 
nf  the  community  is  well  developed. 

The  uvttem  ranching. 

The  sheep-farming  of  the  mountain  states  of 
the  We^t  M  practically  a  pu-sturage  business. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  the  very  high  pastures  in 
summer,  and  of  the  plains  in  winter.  Immense 
flocks  or  "bands"  are  kept,  btdng  moved  from 
place  to  place  as  the  pasturage  dictates.  This 
nomadic  business  re<|uire«  men  and  a  n?gular  "  out- 
fit" of  camp  equipment  that  move  with  the  sheep. 
The  work  is  done  in  a  wholesale  way,  with  very 
few  of  the  niceties  of  care  and  feeding  but  with  an 
excellent  business  management  of  (he  entire  enter- 
prise. The  sheep  arc  exposed  to  many  riska  and 
the  losses  of  animals  are  likely  to  be  great.  The 
real  range  ranching  business  is  largely  8]>eculative. 
It  is  often  spnken  of  lui  a  "game."  With  the  pass- 
ing of  the  public  range,  this  type  of  business  will 
recede,  and  a  kind  of  fenced  farming,  with  fewer 
risks,  will  take  it.-*  place,  although,  because  of  the 
character  of  the  land,  great  areas  will  still  be  held 
in  single  ownerships  and  large  Hocks  will  be  kept. 

For  years  there  has  been  dispute  and  contention 
between  the  cow-men  and  the  sheep-men  as  to  the 
occupancy  of  the  public  range.  This  contention 
has  often  taken  the  form  of  open  violence,  usually, 
in  thu  past,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  sheep-men, 
who  have  sometimes  lost  whole  flocks  ty  having 
them  driven  over  cliffs  and  into  canyons  and  by 
other  means-  With  the  passing  of  the  big  cow- 
men, however,  and  the  growth  of  the  sheep  busi- 
ness, the  sheep-men  have  now  gained  supremacy 
in  many  partit.  This  old  strife  will  soon  be  a  paii 
of  the  romantic  history  of  an  unsettled  country. 

In  so  vast  a  region,  it  is  to  t>e  expected  that  the 
practices  will  vary  greatly:  but  it  is  possible  to  pre- 
sent a  graphic  picture  of  feature  of  the  business 
as  it  is  followed  in  at  least  part  of  the  great  West. 

The  essential  features  of  the  sheep-ranching  of 
the  West  are  the  winter  range  and  the  summer 
range.  The  winter  range  is  the  home  area  or  the 

tilace  of  business.  It  is  on  the  plains  or  in  a  val- 
ev,  It  may  be  an  enclosure  or  domain  of  several 
hundred  acres  or  several  thousand.  U  usually 
becomes  p3rcbe<I  in  summer,  and  it  is  alao  too  hot 
for  the  best  mteceaa  with  aheep. 

The  summer  range  is  on  the  high  lands,  often 
above  timber-line  and  neur  the  snow-line.  Here 
the  grasses  are  fresh  and  nutritious,  and  the  cli- 
mate is  cool.  To  tho  summer  range  the  sheep  are 
taken  either  "  trailed  "  or  ehipixMl  by  train— juat 
after  shearing,  and  here  they  remain  till  the  sea- 
son closes.  The  summer  r.inge  is  usually  not  owned 
by  the  sheep-man.  The  summer  range  will  be  ona- 
Tailable  with  the  settling  of  the  country,  and  tbia 
will  determine  the  extent  of  the  bosiness. 

On  the  summer  range  the  sheep  are  in  ebarge  of 
herders,  whose  business  it  i;*  to  sec  that  the  oand 
is  move<l  on  to  fresh  pastures,  that  the  band  is 
kept  together,  that  poisonous  weed*  (page  119) 
and  wolves  are  avoidt.'d.  and  to  look  after  the  aheep 
thai  are  dropping  larobei  and  to  take  care  of  the 


SHREP 


SBEEP 


lanbi  themMlm.  The  herder  remains  with  the 
band  th«  entire  seaaon.  The  sheep  may  b«  h(.Td«d 
by  corralling  them  or  by  allowing  them  to  ran 
Iran.  The  corral  iti  made  of  board  fi>ncing  In  paneU 
fourtddn  to  aixtuon  tvH  long  and  about  four  f^t 
high,  which  is  transported  by  wagons.  The  corral 
is  roado  near  a  watt-r-hole  or  spring,  and  is  mored 
when  tha  paataragB  becumya  poor. 

The  free  ranging  allows  the  sheep  to  drift  over 
the  country,  being  gtiidsd  hy  the  herder  and  his 
dogs.  The  herder  Hvm  in  a  covered  wapon.  Often 
then)  ar»  two  mvn,  one  niLin  duin^  most  of  the  h(;rct- 
inp,  on  hor»Ghack,and  the  other  cooking  and  actinp 
as  assistant.  If  the  band  contains  only  2,0(f0  to 
2,500  sheL'p,  only  one  harder  may  be  nveded  and  hu 
may  not  have  a  horse ;  the  camp-tender  visits  him 
two  or  three  times  a  week,  bringing  provisions 
and  roovinj^  camp. 

In  whatever  way  the  herding  Is  done,  the  men 
on  the  rangfl  are  supplied  with  "(rriib"  from  head- 


Tho  weather  is  often  rainy  at  the  buDbuf  seawa. 
The  new  arrivals,  when  firet  drnpp«»d,  mast  In  kept 
uniier  cover  if  the  weather  is  not  bright  and  warm. 
The  herder  in  charge  of  the  "drop  band"  most 
keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  ewea  that  are  having 
lamba.  for  thuxe  ^heep,  with  their  lambii,  mut<t  be 
hauled  to  the  main  corral.  The  wagon  for  thtfl 
work  is  divided  into  corapartmonta,  altogether  huW- 
ing  aliout  twelve  ewes.  The  man  driving  this  wa^D 
goes  to  the  herder  and  d^terminej^  how  many  eves 
have  had  Iambs  and  where  they  are.  The  te-amster 
then  catchefi  the  ewes  and,  seeing  that  the  lamb 
hai*  ha>i  milk,  hi^  put^  ewe  and  lamb  in  a  rom]>art- 
ment.  He  then  taki^  them  to  the  main  corral, 
where  the  man  in  charge  checks  up  the  ewee  and 
sees  that  they  all  claim  their  Iambs. 

There  in  otlo'a  trouble  if  the  ewe  is  rooghljr 
handled  and  shv  im  frightened,  for  when  tamed 
looM  she  may  leave  her  lamb,  la  tliia  case,  the  ci>rral 
man  catchea  her  and  putit  her  in  a  "claiming  pen.' 


Pf|-  W.    A  KootauA  abtep  ooml  and  nuin,    Wai«r-ha)«  In  tli*  dUune*. 


quarters  once  or  twic*  a  week,  taken  nut  by  a 
L'amiHteiKter.  One  tender  mnkeH  the  rmundH  nf  all 
the  huTJers  ill  an  "  outfit  "  or  single  ownerHhip.  A 
hardy  and  self-reliant  lot  of  men  are  lirwi  in  this 
herding  bGsinL-s,s,  hut  thL-  occupation  laekK  the  pic- 
tare-sijueiiesrt  of  the  old  cowboy  days.  When  Ihe 
summer  ranging  is  over,  the  herders  go  to  head- 
(juarti-rs  and  are  assigned  duty  on  the  winter  range, 

TMalns  that  are  apparently  lifeless  in  summer 
of ti-n  afford  uxcolleiit  grazing  after  the  rains  eiime. 
The  sheep  roam  at  largu  all  winter,  seeuring  fw?d 
from  various  plants  and  the  natural  hay  made  of 
the  dry  grasReet.  In  many  establishment*,  cheap 
sheds  are  provided  on  the  winter  range  where 
flnpplemenUl  fieeding  may  be  given  in  very  cold 
weather  or  when  the  snowfall  is  heavy.  The,se 
t)bed»  are  usually  covered  with  wild  hay.  A  shed 
one  hundn'd  feet  ftciuare  will  provide  feeding-pliice 
for  ^.O**)  to  3,000  Hhoep.  Seventy-five  tons  or  lews 
of  hay  shotcld  provide  wint*,'r  feed  for  S.rri'Nl  sheep. 

Wethers  are  handled  in  bands  of  2.000  to  8.000 
animals.  Kwes  are  handlwt  in  bands  Jibout  half 
this  size,  for  the  care  of  lambing  sheep  in  aniuous. 


This  pen  is  jiiRt  large  enongh  for  her  to  stand  in, 
and  yet  gi%'e  the  lamb  a  chance  to  get  milk  without 
buing  butted  away.  If  the  ewes  all  "claim,"  they 
are  tiiken  tti  a  small  corral  that  will  hold  alMJiit  uoe 
day's  drop,  with  gJMid  paoturage  near.  One  day's 
drop  on  the  start,  with  2,n00  ewes,  will  be  SS  to  ^ 
lambs,  increasing  to  a  maximum  of  100  to  liiO  ia 
the  middle  of  the  period.  These  small  bunches  nf 
ewes  and  lambs  are  mitved  from  one  small  etirral  to 
another  to  make  way  for  different  daya'  drop ;  and 
after  ten  days  they  are  merge<l  into  what  is  callc 
a  "  lamb  band."  This  band  is  added  to  daily  as  tl 
lambs  become  strong,  and,  finally,  when  all 
ewe-s  have  lambed,  it  bpcomes  the  main  hand.  The 
lamtw  that  c*ime  in  the  night  are  separated,  with 
their  ninthern,  by  the  ntght  man,  who  patrols  the 
corral  all  night. 

It  retptints  about  ten  men  to  "lamb"&  band  of 
2,500  ewes,  and  this  bt  as  many  as  can  be  larabed 
together  with  good  results.  When  the  himbs  we 
nbout  a  month  old,  their  tails  are  cut  olT.  they  are 
ear -marked,  and  the  ram  lambs  castrated.  To 
ascertain  the  percenUige  of  increase,  the  tails  are 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


6B6 


c<'unl).-«l,  this  Eivinir  the  txart  numbt-r  of  Umbs, 
The  average  incream*.  one  ywir  wiih  anotht-r,  will 
be  from  7n  to  SO  jwr  cent.  This  mesna  th«  lainlis 
that  are  count«id  in  the  antumn.  It  is  gt'nerally 
estimated  that  it  vuxln  twenty-five  t-enta  p.*r  HpjliI 
for  every  Iamb  droppt'd,  but  this  dejwriiH  cm  how 
dost  t's(ioniWs  are  watched. 

Probably  thore  ist  ni>  place  in  the  world  where 
the  Bheep-du2  in  more  useful  than  ir  this  ranching; 
in  the  un-at  WvU.  The  dug  is  a  CVtlif,  light,  quick, 
int«lli£ent.  Th«  pap  is  uxually  trained  by  working 
him  with  an  older  dng.  The  dopi  hrinj;  in  the 
(ttrajiglinR  ahet-p,  ntand  ap  tht-  Hiiirl<,'Umk  nut  for 
wolveg  and  other  dan}p>r!<,  and  n^'ird  tho  outfit. 
They  an-  the  objects  of  much  affection  hy  the 
sheep-men.  They  work  persintfntly  on  niujjh  and 
f'ften  cactuc-eoverwi  liuui*.  and  share  with  the 
hsnler  his  privations  of  food  ani]  water.  This  use 
cf  the  sheop-dog  (see  page  3Sa)  i^  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  damage  done  the  shi.>ep  indu.'^trr  in 
other  regions  by  untraine«l  iind  irresponnibte  dogs. 

It  is  said  that  the  dfig  and  western  wolf  crotks, 
and  that  the  hybrid  itntmnl  ia  preferreti  by  j-ume 
henieni  :l»  l>eiiig  hiirdier  and  aI.to  tougher  in  (he 
fiwL  Othera  Kay  that  the  d^g  and  nmite  croHS, 
Thi»  crij«»  ia  said  to  partake  »f  the  rulnr  of  the 
coyote,  but,  when  the  dog  parent  is  a  collie,  the 
animal  carries  himself  more  like  a  dog,  holding  hi** 
head  in  the  uir  rather  than  carrying  it  down  as  (he 
coyote  does.  The  fact  that  no  systematic  efforts 
are  put  forth  to  make  either  of  lhe»e  crotwea, 
raiKert  a  iiueatlon  ah  to  their  value,  if  they  occur. 

As  a  generiil  prii|K)8ition,  the  sheep-rancher  cal- 
calattis  that  thi^  wihjI  crop  will  pay  the  cost  of  the 
bnsineiw.  This  leaves  mutton  and  lamba  to  repre- 
sent the  pri»(its.  Althmigh  the  chief  crop  is  wool. 
yet,  whun*  wi  many  Hhwp  are  niised,  there  are  a 
great  number  of  mutton  wethem  shipped  ont  ent.'h 
year.  Tho  major  part  of  thiH  mutt«n  product  goes 
Ea.*»t,  chiefiy  to  Chicago.  The  Hheep  thnt  are  in 
prime  condition  and  fat  go  directly  on  the  market. 
They  will  average  about  11(1  pounds,  and  bring 
from  $:l.riO  to$l  per  hundred  live  weight.  It  costs 
from  60  t«  ?.">  cents  per  hearl  U)  ahip  and  care  for 
them  in  transit.  They  aroshipptHi  in  douhle-deckfvl 
cans,  each  car  holding  uIhiuI  ailTi  nbeep,  this,  how- 
ever, depending  on  the  size  of  the  aheep.  Pnim 
pointii  in  Montana,  these  sheep  are  nntoailcd  and 
fed  twic-e  before  reaching  Thicugo.  They  are 
finally  delivered  at  some  of  the  numerous  feeding 
stations  near  the  market,  where  thi-y  are  held  for 
a  few  days  and  generally  put  on  the  market  in 
from  two-  Ut  six-4*Hr  bita.  The  commission  man 
rei^lntes  the  quantity,  however,  and  onlerx  fnim 
dav  to  day  tbi>  numl>er  of  car^  he  thinks  he  can 
Mil  to  the  lM*t  advantage.  The  i>het-p  that  are  not 
in  shape  to  send  to  market  at  nnce.  are  put  on  feed. 
This  feed  coiisii'ts  of  mil!  M-reenings,  corn  and  hay. 
all  of  which  is  given  them  fur  about  ninety  days. 

The  (dieep  int^-mkil  for  long  Tet-ding  ari?  gener- 
ally put  in  tho  fet^l-jienrt  during  the  aatumn  and 
winter.  Very  few,  if  any.  are  fed  in  summer. 
In  late  years,  the  farmers  of  Michigan,  lllinora  and 
Indiana  have  fed  great  nnmliers  of  w^i-st'Tn  shec>p. 
Thejsecm  to  have  maile  gtMHl  profit,  for  th4>y  Msiiire 


the  market  price  or  better  for  their  grain  and  hay 
by  feeding  it,  and  they  have  the  mnnure  and  are 
abh?  to  find  empbiyment  for  their  men. 

The  shearing  on  these  ranches  in  jierformeii  by 
men  who  go  from  place  to  phice,  beginning  early 
in  the  .^ouLh  and  working  northward  with  tile  sua- 
flon.  The  work  ih  done  by  piece  or  contract,  either 
liy  hand  or  with  clippers  run  by  ektctric,  eteam  or 
gasolene  power.  Although  the  machine  is  nearly  as 
slow  as  hand-nhearing,  it  does  cleaner  work  and 
therefore  gives  the  owner  a  heavier  fleece.  An 
expert  w<trkman  will  Hhwir  aliimt  one  hundred  wheep 
perday»iuan  average,  altliouj^h  the  number  runs  as 
high  a.^  1.'>(I  aheep  in  ten  hours,  and  it  is  said  that 
there  is  a  record  of  808  in  thiti  time.  At  eight  cents 
each,  a  shearer  expects  to  earn  ?S  to  ?I0  a  day. 

threat  nomberft  of  high-class  sheep  have  Iw-en 
introiiiicpit  into  the  western  sheep  regiims  in  reei'nt 
ye-ara,  largely  of  tho  fine-wool  and  niiddle-woid 
classes,  and  these  are  having  a  marked  effect  on  the 
flttckM.  8heep-breeding  cent<-rs  are  developing  in  the 
West.  From  its  natural  adaptabilities,  the  region 
will  always  remain  a  great  mutton  and  wool  country. 

The  numl>er  and  farm  valne  of  sheep  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  seven  leading  states  (all 
above  a  fiirm  value  of  $10,{)0(),000),  on  .lanuary  1, 
ISW7,  are  given  in  the  Yeiirbouk  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (lyOtl)  as  follows; 

United  Sutes    .  .  53,240.282  $2(M.2I0,I29 

Uontnnu &,e36.711  ^O.&IS.SHS 

Wyoming     ....  4,986,796  l!),244,(Mr. 

Ohio 3.140,720  15.U8,-127 

N.-W  Mexico   .   .    ■  4A'>».3€5  t3.4r>8,:{6a 

Idtth« B.*MS.IS3  13.1H1.:i.->3 

ftah 2.r:j1.2.'V0  1I.131,SW 

Michigaa     ....  2.108.705  10.314.117 

The  wool-product  for  tho  United  States,  and  of 
the  eight  leading  states  (all  above  KUKHUWO 
pounds),  is  given  in  the  same  Yearbook  as  follows  : 

Nn   of  khivp       mill  obxihIimI 
Api'tl  1.  IWW  Uw. 

ITnitfd  SiNtM  .   .  ,  38..U0.798  2.'^\91.^.].10 

Montana 4.fW.000  STi.mrj.OOO 

WvoDiiiiK 4..'i,tl,000  S2.84».750 

Idaho 2.300.000  I6,»0fi,000 

S'trw  Uexioo  ....  2.»X),0OO  15.9&O.OO0 

Onwon l.80n,{K>0  1 '..300.000 

CalirvmlK I.7&0.(X)0  VA.V^jXXi 

ftaS l.fKin.000  12,.t50,nOO 

Ohio I.8un.000  11.562.500 

The  imports  and  exportfl  of  wool,  unmanufac- 
tured and  raw.  for  the  seven  months  ending  .lan- 
uary I,  ltl*>:,  KM37,  UWS.  are  given  as  follows  in 
the  Quarterly  Re[K)rt  of  the  Trea.sury  of  the  United 
Stales : 


Imports-  p^„^, 

1D06 100,180.7% 

1 907 SJ-.tVj.Frfi.-. 

v.m 7].a0f>,!W6 

ExpurU- 

f'-'fl 11..T7S 

1^*07 imjt24 

IWS 41.763 


$I8.IW.727 
17/>:tti.70l 
13,860.0f!8 


tZA2R 
40.1  IK 
12,(Mft 


E96 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


The  Yearbook  of  thtt  United  Statin  DnparLmeat 
of  Agriculture  for  190ti,  gives  the  nunitinr  of  shttip 
in  Canada  as  foLtowa : 

Year  Satnlwr 

Total  Canada 2,971,2)2 

Nflw  Brunswick    ....  1905  IX^JMO 

Ontario 1903  l,3M,e08 

UanitAtiA 1906  28,975 

Saakstchewnn 1906  121.290 

A-lberta 190G  Ifil.;^!:^ 

Other 1901  1,178.872 

The  Canada  Yearbook  for  1905.  gives  the  value 
of  sheep  in  1901  as  fdllows  ;  Total  Canada,  $1U,- 
4flO,5;>4;  British  CnUmihia.  $Ifi4,(;79;  Manitoba, 
$144,01H;  New  Brunswick.  $538,682;  Nova 
Scotia.  $7.57.278;  Ontario.  $5,518,403;  Prince 
B.lwanj  ioland,  $:^:^,790:  Quelwc,  $2,a76.471 ; 
Territuritfs.  $006,27^. 

Literatun. 

Probably  the  one  book  that  hor*  had  moat  infla- 
ence  on  .American  shijep-huabaniiry  U  Randall's 
"Practical  Shepherd."  by  H.  S.  Ilandall  of  Cort- 
land. N.  Y.  Since  the  publication  uf  thin  work  the 
character  of  the  business  has  changt-d  radically, 
and  no  single  book  now  ha.s  nndinptited  precedence. 
Following  are  «yme  of  the  titles  ;  Youatt.  Sheep  : 
Their  Breed;4,  Manat^em^nt  and  Diseattett.  London 
(18.17);  L.  A.  Morrell.  The  Amt^rican  Shephenl, 
New  York  (184(5) ;  H.  .'^.  Kandall.  The  Pr-wtioal 
Shepht-rd,  Rochuster  {I86;i);  earae,  Pino  Wool  Sheeji 
Huabandry,  New  York  {186B);  gamu.  Sheep  Hus- 
bandry, New  York  (3883);  Powers,  The  American 
Mwrino.  New  York  (1887);  Spooner.  Sheup ;  His- 
tory, Structure,  Economy.  Diseases,  London  (1888); 
Elenrv  Stewart.  The  Shepherd's  Manual.  New  York 
(1890);  same,  The  Domestic  Sh^p,  Chicann  (189S>; 
('arman,  Heath  and  Minto.  .^puciiU  Report  on  the 
History  and  frpsent  CondiLioii  of  the  Sheep  Indus- 
try of  the  llnileii  SUiti-H,  Waahin{;t<in  (1892): 
H'rightfton,  Sheep  ;  Breed  sand  MaiiaK*""L'nt,  (189:?); 
Coleman.  Cattle.  Shw|)  and  i'ijp*  (if  Groat  Britain, 
London  (1K8TI;  CraiR.  .IndKing  Live  .^tocfc,  The 
Author  (mi4);  Ceoree  W.  Curti.s,  Horses.  Cattle, 
Shoop  and  Sivino  (ls^8);  David  Lnw,  On  the  Do- 
mesticated Animals  i)f  the  Itritish  Ishimls,  London 
(1842);  Wallace,  Farm  Live  Stin-.k  of  Creat  Bri- 
tain, Edinburicli  (1!>07);  .Shaw,  Tln'  Study  of  Brueds 
in  America,  New  York  (190.'0;  SandtTs,  The  Broeds 
of  Live  Stock,  ChicaKO  (1S87I;  The  Itcat  Breeds  of 
British  Stock,  Undon  (l«y8);  Plumb,  Typc^  and 
Breefls  of  Farm  Animals  (liHtG);  .1.  E.  Winp.  .Sheep 
ParminK  in  America,  Chicago  { I JC:'.);  Riwhworth, 
The  Sheep,  Buffalo  (181H1);  Milburn.  Shet-p  and 
Shepherdinu ;  Bennett,  WmI  and  Sheep;  Miller 
and  \Vinj:,  Tht<  Winter  Ljimb ;  Clarke,  Fitting 
Shsep  for  the  Show  Ring  .T.nd  Market. 

it  is  seen  that  the  literature  on  sheep  is  obnn- 
dant.  These  little  animals  have  long  bwn  [lopular 
with  writers,  popular  and  scientific,  and  as  well 
with  those  who  delight  to  use  thi,>caTnera,  Numenms 
illustrated  articles  are  to  be  fouml  in  the  current 
iDimaiinea.  There  are  many  experiment  stjition  and 
government  publications  on  .thefp,  which  may  lie 
traced  throtigh  the  Experiment  Station  Record. 


INDRX  TO  SbBRT  ARHCLSS 

Orijcia  of  DomMLic  Sfaft«p &96 

Wrtnl-  ai\4  MutUin- Production fi96 

The  Fee.ling  of  Sh«rp 600 

Detemiinini:  thu.  A^e  of  .Sheep 60S 

CoEunion  AUmeDtfi  of  Sheep 603 

Cheviot  Shnrj) 609 

CotiiwoM  Sheep 611 

DorHvL-EIurn  Sheep 612 

HamfUihirD  Down  Sh^^p 614 

Leicet-ter  Sheep GIS 

Lincoln  Kht-ep 617 

M«nti<i  Sh^ep 618 

Arnrirati  Mi-rino 621 

DelaiHo  M.-rinu 622 

Ramboulllet  or  Pn-nch  Merino     ....    ....  62S 

Oxfun)  Down  Sheep 624 

Slirii|ii4liiro  Down  Sheep 626 

Southdon-n  Sheep 627 

Suffolk  Down   Shft.'p 629 

UUc^llsRifi'ijs  Breetl*  of  Sheep 631 

Origin  of  the  Domestic  Sheep. 

Our  dfimejilic  .theep  have  probably  been  derive*! 
from  more  than  onu  spocios  of  tlie  geoiu  Ovia, 
They  are  supiiatt-d  to  have  been  descended  from 
the  arRati,  or  wild  sheep,  of  Asia  {Ovit  ammoN), 
and  the  mnsimon  of  the  sooth  of  Earopo  iOri» 
mufimaii). 

The  arpili,  or  wild  sheep  of  Asia,  is  a  latvor 
animal  than  our  common  sheep,  being  somewhat 
smaller  than  a  stag.  Theargali  posseK8e«  enurmons 
horns,  Hometimus  a  foot  in  circumference  at  the 
bast-  and  thrue  to  four  feet  long.  The  color  of  fur 
is  brown,  with  a  butf-i'olorcd  streak  along  tbe  back 
and  a  larfro  spot  of  butF  color  on  tbe  baunch. 
The.se  animals  are  found  on  the  elevated  plaina  of 
.\sia  from  thv  Caucasus  northwani  and  eastward  to 
Kamschntka  and  the  ocean.  They  are  ver>'  a^le 
and  strung,  but  wary  and  suspicious.  They  roam 
together  in  small  flocks.  They  are  hunted  for  their 
desh  'ind  their  ukins.  which  are  made  into  clothing. 
Taken  young,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  tame 
them,  b'nt  adult  wild  animals  never  become  thor- 
oughly domestic.ited. 

Thi;  musmon  or  mouUon  (Fig.  G08)  Inhabiti;  the 
islands  iif  Crete  and  Cyprus  and  the  mountains  of 
Greece.  It  ifi  also  still  found  in  Corsica  and  Sar- 
dinia. It  is  much  smaller  than  the  argali,  le«<«  pow- 
erful and'  active  and  inhahitj*  a  lower  range  of 
mountains.  The  musmfin  ruamf  in  large  henls.  and 
iti  with  difficulty  domesticated.  The  muFioion  has 
been  cr^isstil  with  thi*  common  sheep  and  the  prog- 
eny an*  fniitful.- 

Whether  tl)e»H  two  wild  forma  ant  really  to  be 
reganled  as  di»tiaet  apt^cies,  and  whether  our  com- 
mon sheep  have  descendt^^l  from  them,  or  either 
one  of  them  directly,  or  from  a  related  form  now 
extinct,  are  (inestions  that  do  not  appear  to  bave 
been  settled  by  zoiilogistR.  There  an'  other  forms 
of  wild  sheep  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  Init  they 
app.s,rently  have  not  cantribnt«d  to  the  common 
domestic  races.  .Ml  members  of  the  sheep  trilx-s 
are  mountain  and  highland  animals.  In  fact,  then* 
are  few  animals  that  live  in  more  inoecessible  and 
inhospitable  heights.    Our  domestic  nheep  inherit 


r 


SHEEP 

thit  peenliarity,  prvrurring  ciml  climates,  hic^i 
landt,  open  raoguH,  unJ  iiuickl)'  HiilTiTiTig  whon 
closely  housed  for  any  It-nKth  it  tinw. 

In  North  America  there  ar«  three  species  of 
will!  ftheop, — the  bi^-horn  (Ovi»  etitiadenjiii^,  aome- 
times  called  0-  ecrrinna  and  0.  montanu*),  the 
hliirk  fihwti  (On'j*  n^fm^'O.  thi^  white  aliifep  (f*. 
dalli).  Then?  an-  twu  ur  three  HnbsjpeciM  or  forms 
of  thwte.  Of  tht-'so,  the  hest  known  is  the  Ififr-hom. 
native  to  the  mountain   region   from  Mexico  to 


SHEEP 


B97 


FlC-  MB.    Ttw  nnuUDOB  I  (Mj  mtitiMvii}. 
AtUpiMl  fri>m  Umhm. 

Britiiil)  Colnmbi.!.  but  are  must  abundant  in  the 
Borthem  [lartd  of  the  Unitt.'d  States  and  j^iarts  of 
Canada,  this  animal,  which  is  considered  aa  one 
of  the  "big  game"  of  the  West,  is  characterixed 
by  immen^t;  b(^^n«  curled  downwiiTtl  at  the  f^ideit 
of  the  head.  It  standi,  wht-n  mature,  ahout  furty 
inches  high  and  weighs  :!2."i  poundA.  It  is  yellow- 
ish in  san]mt.-r  and  (;ray-bruwn  in  wintur.  It  is 
exceedingly  alert  and  very  difficult  to  capture. 
There  ii«  now  a  herd  of  abont  two  hundred  head  of 
these  fine  animala  in  the  Yellowstone  P.irk,  roam- 
ing free.  There  apjwara  to  be  n«ne  in  captivity, 
nor  haj*  any  ftffort  been  made  to  breed  them.  The 
white  sheep  and  black  aheep  are  Bmaller  than  the 
Wg'horn.  with  much  lip:hter  horns.  The  wliite  \& 
an  Alaflkan  species ;  efforts  to  bring  it  into  cap- 
tivity have  failed.  The  black  sheep  is  n.itive  to 
British  Colombia :  cipecimens  are  in  several  zoo- 
logical parkd. 

Not  to  be  confoanded  with  the  bi^-hom  or  other 
monntain  flhoup  are  the  "wild  sheep"  (ir  "native 
■keep"  of  the  Vivni  and  Smith,  which  an;  degenvr- 
ato  and  run-wild  formn  of  domestic  sheep  early 
introduced  hy  the.'^panianis  or  others.  With  the  set- 
tlement of  the  country,  butter  bUK«d  i«  beinp  intro- 
duced and  the  scmh  range  sheep  arn  passing  out. 

.\n  animal  that  may  be  confused  in  the  |iopiilar 
mind  with  the  big-horn  and  the  "  native  aheep"  is 
the  mounUin  goat  {Orfamnos  moalanuM).   Tliis  is  a 


gnat  only  in  looks.  It  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the 
-intflojw-s.  It  iohHbits  the  highest  range.-'  and 
peaks  from  Idaho  and  Wai<hington  Uj  Aluitka.  The 
male  animals  weigh  as  much  a»  3(>U  pounds  when 
mature.  The  mountain  goat  has  a  coanie  shaggy 
coat  of  white  hair  and  m-arly  straight  en-ct  i^hin- 
ing  black  horns.  It  is  a  jtecuHar  beast,  quite  unlike 
any  other  animal  in  any  part  of  the  world.  No 
erforts  have  been  made  to  d'ome.'<ticate  this  animal, 
but  H  few  specimens  are  in  captivity. 

As  is  to  t>e  expected  of  an  animal  that  haa  been 
long  under  domestication  in  many  countries,  the 
sheep  presents  many  forms.  The  animal  is  grown 
chiefly  for  wool  and  meat,  and  there  are  breeds 
valuable  primarily  for  wool  and  others  primarily 
for  mutton.  There  are  variations  that  are  not  cor- 
r«lat«d  with  these  uses,  however,  as  those  with 
three,  four  or  more  horns,  and  those  with  no  horns. 
There  are  short-tailed  and  long-tailed  breeds,  and 
there  is  an  Asian  breed  with  very  thick  fat  toils. 
There  are  also  dwarf  races,  as  the  Shetland  and 
Fariie  island  aheep,  yielding  a  fleece  of  two  pounds 
or  less,  which  is  pnlled  instead  of  being  sheared. 
Then  are  many  kinds  of  tieece.  Borne  kinds  of 
sheep  have  a  marked  double  coat,  and  in  tropical 
countries  thera  are  woolless  sheep.  The  Shetland 
and  similar  sheep  hav«  a  fleece  with  hair  inter- 
mixed ;  in  fact,  this  intermixture  is  characteristic 
in  cold,  moist  climates.  Sheep  differ  greatly  in 
color,  the  exposed  pnrtd  being  soft  white  or  some- 
times jet-black.  There  are  Asian  forms  with  an 
extreme  development  of  fat  on  the  haunches. 

In  Roman  times,  the  mountains  of  Spain  were 
recognized  as  excellent  sheep  countries;  and  as 
more  northern  regiong  were  not  then  civilized,  the 
Spanish  sheep  early  gained  great  prominence.  The 
Spanish  aheep  is  a  fine-wool  type.  The  English  de- 
veloped coarse-wool  types,  apparently  not  from 
Spanish  foundations.  The  early  Spanish  introdnc- 
tions  tti  North  America  gavecharacter  to  our  early 
Hheep  husbandry.  Later,  the  long  wools  ami  middle 
wools  of  ICngland  were  introduced,  and  they  are  now 
the  prevailing  typi-s.  The  character  of  the  introduc- 
tions from  Europe  has  changed  from  time  to  time, 
depending  very  largely  on  the  tariff  conditions  and 
the  general  nature  of  the  demand  for  wool-stuffs. 

The  domestic  sheep  is  a  good  illustration  of  the 
inlluenceof  domestication.  The  modern  animal  ha* 
Very  few  chaniclers  th:U.  would  indicate  iui  deficent 
from  the  wihl  species.  Shoep  have  been  under  sub- 
jection tc»  man  from  earliest  recorded  time.  Abra- 
ham's wealth  W.1S  measured  by  his  "sheep  and  oxen 
and  camels."  The  peculiar  sheep>- herding  methods 
recorded  in  scripture  are  followed  today  by  the 
Kurds,  Turcomans  and  Aralm  of  Asia.  There  are 
remains  of  sheep  in  the  prehistoric  lake  dwellings 
of  SwitwrUnd. 

The  character  of  the  wool  has  given  rise  to  the 
classificatiunof  brwda.  The  domesticated  varieties 
of  sheep  arc  numerous.  In  this  article  only  those 
of  most  importance  to  America  are  considered. 
The  breeds  most  prevalent  in  America  are  tlie 
Merino,  a  breed  noted  for  the  finem'BA  of  it«  fleece, 
and  the  .Shnipithire,  Hampshire,  Oxfordshire,  South- 
down,   Horned    Iiorset    and    Cheviot,   sometimes 


598 


SHEE? 


SHEEP 


culled  middle-wottlijiil  lireedx,  but  mnn  frvqu»ntly 
ii[]i>ken  of  as  mutton  aheep.  TTit-  Litieuln,  Leiw.sU?r 
and  CoUwold  are  largo  bivedii  with  long,  cuarsu 
flfeces,  primarily  raised  for  their  tlt-sh. 

It  hiis  been  u  ctKnnnin  practice  to  classify  aheep 
acctirdiiif;  to  the  length  nrtiiiiility  of  fleece  i>ro- 
dui'i.^!.  Thiia,  WH  have  (I)  fine-wnfd  lireed«  :  Ameri- 
can, Delaine  atid  Kambouillel  or  Fncnrli  Merinni^ ; 
(2)  mBdium-woiil  i)rt?ad« :  UorMet-Hurn,  Hnmfwihirt] 
Down,  Oxford  Down,  Shrti|jshiru  Duwn,  Southdnwn, 
•Suffolk  Llown,  Tnnis;  (8)lonK-woyl  brewis:  Cheviyt, 
Cotswold,  Leicester,  Lincoln.  Another  claaailica- 
tiim  would  group  the  breeds,  according  to  utility, 
intit  the  fine-wool  type,  as  (1)  above,  and  place  all 
the  others  totfetber  under  thy  miitton  type.  Thtre 
an*  num«rouK  niitu!eli»ne»im  breed.^,  not  inclnd«l  in 
thid  clcuMiliuation,  aa.  Hlaf-k-Facfd  Hij^hlnnd,  Kent 
or  Koniney  Marsh,  Wenflleydak",  Herdwick,  Kyelaud. 
Barbados. 

Wool-  and  Mutton -Production. 

Hy   a.  C.  Uumphrni. 

The  pnxluction  of  wool  and  mutton  ia  an  indos- 
try  nf  vyry  jtreat  proiwrlions,  and  of  increaBing 
national  interest. 

Wool  is  a  Btaplt!  article,  very  ^issential  to  all 
mankind.  NV-xt  to  otlon,  it  is  the  product  m'wt 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  felt 
and  other  fabrics.  Argentina,  Australia.  Amt-ricii, 
Russia,  Great  Britain  and  liriti^h  India  are  the 
RHwt  noted  wool- producing  countries.  According 
to  an  estimate  made  by  the  National  .A.xsociation 
of  Wool  Manufacturers,  the  world's  wool  clip  for 
1900  was  2,685,000.000  ponnds.  The  ITnited  States, 
in  1905,  as  reported  by  the  National  Uepartmont 
of  Agriculture,  produced  2il8,015.130  pounds  of 
wool,  equivalent,  when  Pcotireil  and  ready  for  the 
manufacturer,  to  329,410,9^12  iiound-i. 

For  many  ypans,  dheep-breeders  in  America 
devoted  thoir  main  efforts  to  the  imprcivement  of 
Wool,  and  duveioped  some  excellent  types  of  the 
Amiirican  ard  Delaine  Merino  breeds.  These  wera 
iQiMt  po[iular  when  shwp  wore  reared  principally 
for  wool-[>ntduction,  and  prices  for  wool  were  com- 
paratively high.  Since  the  marked  decline  in  the 
prices  in  1893,  and  the  demand  and  prices  for  rant- 
ton  have  increased,  shwp-jfrowers,  esiwcially  in 
the  East  and  middle  We-^vt,  h:ive  tumwl  their  atten- 
tion largely  to  the  medium-wool  mutton  breed?, 
and  have  had  little  rej^ard  for  the  improvement  of 
wool.  The  tim«  undoubte<ily  will  never  come  when 
the  shoop-grower  can  afford  to  ignore  the  v.-iluo 
of  Iiis  flock  for  mutton-production.  bat  lie  likewise 
cannot  affonl  to  ignore  or  neglect  the  improvement 
of  wool. 

Iin.firovvmjr.ni  of  wool. — In  all  imttatictes,  wool  ia 
incidental  to  the  growth  and  e.\i8tencu  of  sheep, 
and  any  iriiproveinent  in  its  character  insures 
greater  i»rufilfl  in  8heBi>-n-aring.  At  the  present 
time,  to  SUV  the  most,  wool  is  very  much  neglected 
and  badly  handleii  in  .America.  On  the  ranches  of 
the  West  and  the  Southwest,  more  attention   is 


given  at  preeent  to  wool  •growing  than  in  the 
ea.itern  states.  Experience  naa  taught  that  the 
fine-wcwl  breeds,  estpecially  the  strong-bod ieil,  well- 
wooled  Rtmbouillets,  are  more  hardy  and  mon 
capaiiie  of  with.^tanding  range  cunditioos  than  arc 
the  Down  breeds.  The  ranchman  haa  alpo  learned 
that  he  can  bett«r  afford  to  produce  and  market  ■ 
good  clip  of  wool  than  attempt  to  fatten  sheep  for 
market.  He  can  grow  lambs  for  feeders,  and  for 
this  reason,  a  breed  that  will  combine  wool  and 
mutton  qualities  is  being  sought.  The  United 
States  I>epartment  of  Agriculture  is  leading  aid 
to  this  project  through  the  Wyoming  .\gricultQraI 
Experiment  Stjition,  which  is  endeavoring  to  e-^ab- 
lish  and  develop  a  breed  of  fiheep  highly  adapted 
to  the  range. 

Great  improvement  can  be  made  in  the  wool  of 
all  breedri,  without  altering  their  other  character- 
istics, by  giving  careful  attention  to  the  selection 
of  pure-bred  rams  that  are  well-wooled,  providing 
better  feed  and  shelter,  and  giving  more  heed  to 
keeping  dirt  and  foreign  substances  out  of  the 
fleece.  A  good  fleece  should  be  dense  and  even 
over  the  entire  body ;  be  free  from  foreign  sub* 
stances,  kemp  and  cot ;  possess  a  strong,  well- 
crimped  fiber  of  bright  and  lustrous  appearance : 
and  have  sufficient  yolk  or  oil  to  preserve  and  keep 
the  fiber  strong.  Exposure  and  lack  of  proper 
nourishment  affect  the  value  of  woul  from  tbn 
point  of  view  of  the  manufacturer,  who  buys  wool 
on  its  merits  and  is  dependent  on  the  grower  for 
the  quality.  There  should  be  a  close  relationship 
between  the  grower  and  the  manufacturer,  which 
would  force  the  local  buyers  and  commission  men 
to  make  ranre  di.-ittnction  between  prices  paid  for 
different  lots  of  wool  than  they  are  accustomed  to 
make. 

ClamficaUon  and  grades  qf  wcl. — According  lo 
Mamford,  wools  are  classilied  on  the  basis  of  their 
length  and  strength  as  <I),  clothing  wools,  coat- 
prising  short,  fine  wools  suitable  for  making  bigb- 
grade  woolen  cloth ;  (2),  combing  wools,  which 
are  strong,  over  three  inches  long,  used  for  worste<J 
goods;  and  (.1|,  delaine  wools,  which  are  fine. 
strong  wools,  two  U>  three  inches  long,  desirable 
for  making  delaine  cloth. 

Clothing  wools,  according  to  the  finene«  of 
their  <iuality.  grade  as  Picklock.  XXX.  XX.  X.  No. 
1  or  i  b!oo<i.  Xo.  2  or  8  blood  and  No.  3  or  J  hlood. 
Picklock  and  XXX  are  very  rare  grwles,  which 
formerly  found  their  way  to  American  markela 
among  imported  wools.  Combing  wools  do  not 
grade  higher  than  %  blood.  Delaine  wo^^ls  grade 
as  tine,  medium  and  tow. 

Marketing  iroo/.—All  wools  that  are  bright  and 
comparatively  clean  are  termed  "domestic  wools." 
Dirty  and.  discolored  wools  are  quoted  as  "terriU>r>" 
wooB."  The  bulk  of  wool  is  marketed  today  as 
"unwashed"  or  in  the  grease,"  which  refers  to 
wool  with  dirt  and  yolk  adhering  to  it.  Formerly, 
it  wa.')  the  common  practice  to  wiuab  sheep  aod 
remove  a  part  of  the  dirt  aad  yolk,  when  the  wool 
was  m:irketed  as  "washed  wool."  Tub-washed 
wool"  is  wool  that  has  been  wished  by  band  or 
machinerv  after  it  has  been  taken  fron  the 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


699 


**Scoun«i  wool"  irt  fai(;t(iry-wa«hw}  wool,  fntm  which 
all  dirt  and  yulk  havu  lii>vn  ruinovcd  and  which  is 
ready  for  the  raanufartnrHr. 

timwera  should  familiarize  themselves  with 
marktil  demandH  und  ijiiulaliDnii,  endeavor  Ui  re- 
inuvo  all  fealunnt  th»L  ari>  objectionable  t»  the 
manufacturer,  and  tnKi.il  that  local  huyonand  i^aai- 
niiiuiun  men  jtay  prices  correapunding  to  the  merita 
of  the  wool. 

MnUon-produH  ion. 

The  rearing  and  feeding  of  sheep  for  the  prodnc- 
tion  fif  mutton  is  today  a  prominent  festnre  of  the 
live-tit«ck  induHtry.  The  nnmlwrof  >theep  HJaugh- 
tered  during  lh«  yeam  1SS()  ami  l'.H)7,  renpw lively. 
at  the  Chicane)  Uniun  Stoek  YariK  Iht.'  yrt^atwit 
papking-honse  and  live-stock  center  in  the  world, 
indicates  the  growth  of  the  sheep  indnstry  and  the 
pripularity  of  mutton  aa  an  articleof  food.  In  1&07. 
there  were  3.069,391  sheep  slaughtered  at  this 
point,  aa  eomparwl  with  I79,S(X)  in  1S80.  Prire-s 
paid  i«-"r  hundred  pourielH  in  1:M)7  for  Bhee[)., 
gr»u|>e<l  in  the  following  ciasA*)',  ranged,  according 
to  the  grade,  as  fijllwwa  :  Native  8heei>,  $2  to  $7; 
native  yearlings  and  lamhs.  $4  to  JS.Gtt;  weattTn 
sheep,  $2  to  $7,2o;  western  and  Mexican  lambs, 
$4  to  $9.2o.  These  prices,  on  the  average,  have 
not  fluctuated  materially  for  the  past  ten  years, 
although  the  sheep  market  tends  to  fluctuate  at 
certain  i^easons  ot  the  year  in  a  manner  grvully  to 
concern  feeder*  having  large  flockn  to  market. 

Miihmtii  nf  prtwlvring  mutUm.  —Several  methotlfl 
of  feeding  and  fitting  shfep  for  the  market  are 
in  practice.  One  is  the  forcing  of  lambti  from  the 
time  they  are  drnppe«l  until  they  are  six  to  ten 
weeks  oU.  when,  if  properly  fitted,  they  furniflh  the 
finej*t  quality  of  mutton  and  bring  the  highest 
market  price.  When  R]>ecial  houses  are  provided  in 
which  to  force  this  claAs  of  lambfl,  whatever  may 
l>e  the  season  of  the  year,  the  term  "holhouae 
Iambi"  ig  given  them.  Such  lambs,  depending  c^n 
tin  Moson  they  are  produced,  are  also  termed 
"ChrlBlmas."  "winter."  '"Eaator"  or  "spring  laratia." 
They  are  much  sought,  and.  when  one  understands 
breedingand  forcing  them.  Urge  profits  are  derived. 
The  cost  of  production,  po  f.ir  as  feed  in  concerned, 
itt  relatively  low ;  but  unlew  one  hax  suitable  btlild- 
ings  and  \a  willing  to  devot«  the  utmost  care  and 
altentioD  to  the  work,  he  had  better  be  utislied  to 
pruluce  mutton  after  some  other  method. 

The  selection  of  ewes  that  will  br«ed  at  the 
proper  season  of  the  year,  he  prolific  and  produce 
an  abundance  of  milk,  is  the  firat  consideration. 
The  profits  come  in  having  the  lambn  at  fli>me 
extraordinary  aeaiwn,  when  extremely  high  prices 
will  be  Mid  for  them.  Consequently,  one  mibtt  aim 
to  breed  the  ewes  much  earlier  than  the  usual  tinw. 
Dorwtn  are  the  mo«t  popular  for  early  lamb  ]iro- 
duction,  since  it  is  characteristic  of  them  to  breed 
at  any  8*»a*on  of  the  year,  be  prolific  and  produce 
an  abundance  of  milk.  The  Rambouillet,  Tunis. 
Hampshire  and  Delaine  breeds  are  also  worthy  of 
cottiiid'eratioD,  if  one  can  aelect  choice  d^eep-milking 
ewe«. 

At    the    ^VIKOIlslD    Agricultoml    Experiment 


Station,  six  owed,  four  being  grade  Doractd  and  two 
i^hropeh  ire-Mori  no  grades,  produced  st^ven  lamlis  al 
about  New  Year's  time.  .\  warm  pen  having  arti- 
ficial heat  was  providetl  for  the  ewes  at  lumhing 
time,  and  the  feud  for  ewes  aod  lambs  was  <'.are- 
fully  recurdcM]  after  the  lambs  were  dripped.  The 
ewes  Were  fod  oats,  bran  and  oil-meal,  20:10:1, 
with  clover,  alfalfa,  cabbage,  rtxits  and  silago.  By 
providing  a  lamb-creep,  the  lambs  were  fed,  sepa- 
rately, bran,  oats,  com  meal  and  oil-meal,  4:2:2:1. 
and  alfalfa  hay.  The  lamlts  were  marketwl  when 
seventy-live  days  olii.  They  averaged  fiO.4  pi)un4ls 
[)er  huad,  and  returned  a  profit  over  and  abuve  thw 
co.st  nf  feed  for  ewtw  and  lambs,  aod  of  marketing 
lambs,  of  $ti.4.'l  [(er  heJid. 

.Another  method  more  commonly  practictMl  than 
the  above,  is  to  carry  the  lanilis  until  fall  and  soil 
ihem  at  a  time  wht-n  they  otherwise  would  have  to 
be  housed.  By  fee«ling  weii-lired  Iambs  eontinuouHly 
a  small  ammmt  of  grain,  })6rhii|m  one-half  pound 
per  head  daily,  while  on  g<iu<]  pasture,  it  in  [tOKsible 
to  make  them  Weigh  close  tu  one  hundred  [Hiunds 
at  the  age  of  eight  raonthn  at  a  comparatively  low 
cost.  To  Mw  rape  {Brasaiai  eampettris.  Uwarf 
Knsvx  variety)  in  com  or  on  ground  spi'ciaEly  set 
apart  for  it.  and  pasture  it  supplementary  to  grass, 
greatly  ajwista  in  this  method  nf  fattening  sheep. 

A  third  popular  ninthod  of  fattening  sheep  for 
market  is  fee<iing  native  or  westorn  iambs  and 
yearlings,  beginning  at  about  the  age^  of  eii;ht  or 
twenty  months,  respectively.  Corn  is  the  principal 
grain,  usfd  in  conjunction  with  clover  or  mixed 
hay.  com  stnver  or  othor  dry  roughage.  Oats  are 
excellent  at  the  beginning  of  the  feeding  period, 
since  sheep  like  them  and  will  eat  them  at  once 
without  harm.  They  produce  little  gain,  however, 
and  should  bo  substituted  by  corn  m  rapidly  aa 
tiheep  will  {>ear  the  change  and  continue  to  mani- 
fest a  keen  appetite,  which  is  essential  to  insure 
good  re(«ults.  Pvas  produce  excellent  results,  but 
are  Qj^ually  too  expensive.  Barley  has  been  tried 
and  proclncea  fair  returns,  hot  will  prove  more 
satisfactory  if  mixed  with  other  grains,  as  peas  and 
com.  Some  succulent  feed,  silage  or  roots,  tends 
to  keep  fatt«ning  sheep  healthier,  and  thus  make 
better  gains.  Pea-straw  and  com  stover  are  next 
to  alfalfa  and  clover  hay  as  rooghage  for  fattening 
sheep. 

Cull  eves  are  oaually  marketed  soon  after  shear* 
ing.  when  a  sarrifice  can  be  made,  if  neoeBsary.  on 
tho  amount  they  will  bring  for  mutton.  Using  good, 
pure-bred  rams,  docking  and  castrating  lambs  at 
ten  days  to  two  weeks  old,  and  giving  them  a  good 
start,  are  factors  to  be  empha«ib?d  in  att«mptmg 
to  produce  mutton. 

L  itrralttn: 

Jfumford,  The    Production   and    Marketing    of 

Wool,  Uulletin  178,  Michigan  .Agricultural  College 
(1900);  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufactur- 
ers, .\nnual  Wool  Review,  Hotitoa:WiKOnsin Expert* 
ment  Station.  Twenty-third  Annual  Report  (1906); 
Tnior  Stock  Yani  and  Transit  Companv  of  Chicago. 
Annual  Uve  Stock  Report  (1907).  [For  further 
references,  see  page  596.] 


aoo 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


The  Feedine  of  Sheep.  Figs.  609,  610. 
B;  John  A.  Craig. 

It  IB  nutiwable  that  the  imwt  saccessftil  sliep- 
Iierds  are  invariably  quit-t  in  manner,  luw-vnicett 
and  KL'ntle  in  Llioir  waya.  Rhwp  n?*ipii!nii  ta  mch 
characttTifttics  on  tht-partof  tht-ir  carw-takem  more 
sy  ID  pathetically  than  other  classes  f>f  stock,  and  at 
no  other  time  more  than  at  tfie  feeding  hour.  They 
are  easily  frighteneil  anfl  HtampedeH,  and  con- 
TOrsely,  thay  are  very  trustful  and  deiwndent  on 
those  havinj^  char){»  of  them.  KaiHt«rou.sness, 
Qonpled  with  ruuf^h  UA&fCQ  and  reckt^^wi  driving  in 
changing  about  from  picture  to  fi-'od-lot,  and  any 
carcilessness  in  manadcmi-nt,  are  dirt«t)y  oppoawl 
to  thrift  and  well  doing. 

It  tR  neceH-Hary  to  see  ttiat  the  food  and  the 
trcmghH  are  clean.  This  requiree  that  the  troughs 
flhouM  alwaytt  Im  denned  liefore  the  sheep  are  fed 
from  them  ;  and,  furthermore,  e.»[H;cia]ly  in  thf-  case 
of  lambtt,  the  trnuchi;  tthnuld  have  a  atrifj  ulong  the 
top  which  will  prevent  the  lambs  crowding  into 
the  trough,  or  putting  their  feet  into  the  feed.  They 
dislike  damp  and  muddy  conditions,  so  thnt  a  clean 
and  dry  feefling-place  is  neceiwary.  Sheep  ciin 
etand  almmt  any  nrndiint  of  colfl,  providcn:]  ihe 
qnarters  iire  dry  and  thwy  are  sheltered  from 
wind.  The  latter  not  only  nrnterially  interferes 
with  their  comfort,  l>ut  also  inducwi  eye  trowblefl 
under  some  circumstances.  Ilegularity  in  feeding 
is  imperative.  Irregularity  will  make  the  sheep 
restless,  which  wil]  retard  their  thrift  and  gain, 
Under  mint  conditions,  it  will  he  advisuhlt^  t«  feed 
sheep  twice  a  day.  The  more  the  .s.h<,'[>h(.Tii  t^ees  hiti 


'^ 


-_•-  .-  u^-= 


>fM.l'Ai: 


T^A- 


Piit.  609.    Sbeev-faedlnc  eetae. 


sheep,  and  the  more  he  u  with  theni,  the  better 
they  are  likely  to  thrire. 

When  only  a  pound  of  grain,  nr  less,  is"  fed,  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  divide  it  into  two  feeds.  The 
Qsual  practice,  unless  self-feeders  are  used,  is  to 
feed  the  grain  lirst,  and  then  fill  the  racks.  In  thif 
way  the  .ihepherd  m.iy  follow  the  feeding  more 
cloeely,  for  at  no  time  is  it  ea«ter  to  gauge  the 
thrift  of  the  sheep  than  when  they  are  lined  up  at 
the  feeding  trongh.  It  is  often  good  practice  to  go 
among  the  ahoep.  and  by  felting  their  backs  make 
accurate  note  of  their  condition. 

As  a  rule,  it  dix^  not  pay  to  grind  grain  of  any 
kind  for  sheep,  although  this  statement  should  be 


qualified  when  peas  or  beans  are  fed,  for  duwp  do 
very  decidedly  better  when  these  are  cracked.  In 
the  case  of  young  lanib«,  ground  com  will  give 
gains  go  much  greater  over  the  whule  com  aa  tOi 
pay  f<jr  the  grinding.  In  the  case  of  old  eves  with  i 
Icwt  teeth,  it  will  pay  too,  although  when  feeding 
such,  es[}ecially  in  the  summer,  iuiakod  com  will 
give  oven  more  satisfactory  results.  It  wil!  likely 
prove  profitable  to  shred  or  cut  corn  fodder,  owing 
to  the  reduced  waste ;  bnt  clover  hay,  poa-«traw, 
oat  hay  and  other  forage  of  this  class,  may  just  aa 
well  lie  fed  uncut  R/xits  may  be  fed  sliud.  mora- 
satisfactorily,  ns  a  ntle.  As  accessories  to  sticcesa-^ 
ful  feeding,  the  sheep  need  to  have  access  to  salt 
and  water  at  all  times.  Some  shepherds  are  of  the 
opinion  that  water  is  not  necessary  where  wiow  is 
abundant ;  bat  clean,  fresh  water  at  all  times 
certainly  contributes  to  their  well-being.  It  is  a 
common  practice  to  mix  some  snlfor  with  the  salt, 
nnd  this  may  be  considered  g<>od  practice  for  a  few 
duya  at  a  time  during  dry  weather. 

Fadittfj  lambs  before  irfaning. 

When  a  ewe  has  but  a  single  lamb  and  she  has 
an  abtindance  of  milk,  there  is  no  need  of  feeding 
tho  lamb  any  grain  pnti!  near  weaning  time.  In 
fact,  some  ew&s  give  too  much  milk  for  a  single 
lamb,  and  the  latter  may  become  too  fat  in  the 
early  stage*  of  ita  life  to  aecure  the  best  ultimate 
results  in  health  and  thrift.  When  a  ewe  has  two 
lambs,  thci  latter  are  the  better  for  getting  some 
grain.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  feed  some  grain 
prior  to  weaning,  so  that  when  the  Iambs  are  In-ing 
weaned  they  can  be  carried  on  without  any  check 
in  growth  or  thrift  becauw  of  the  withdrawal  of 
the  mother's  milk.  It  is  very  ea«y  to  teach  Iambs 
to  eat  grain  before  weaning  by  arranging  a  creep 
that  they  can  go  through  into  a  small  lot  or  sec- 
tion of  die  fold  and  get  the  grain  withont  the  ewes 
going  through. 

When  the  ewes  are  getting  nourishing  and  succu- 
lent To^h],  there  is  nothing  gained  by  feeding  them 
grain  while  thev  are  suckling  lambs;  hence,  if 
any  grain  is  to  be  fed,  it  should  be  given  to  the 
lambs  direct.   If  Ih^  lambs  are  to  be  sold  before , 
weaning,  or  at  that  time,  and  it  is  advisable  to 
have  them  then  as  fat  as  possible,  it  is  necessary 
to  begin  feeding  them  grain  ad  early  as  possible. 
When  they  are  two  weekjr  old,  they  may  sometime* 
be  induced  to  eat  a  little  grain,  but  it  is  not  likely 
they  will  do  so  until  they  are  about  a  month  oU. 
The  most  satisfactory  mixture,  if  rapid  gains  ar» 
desired,  is.  perhaps,  a  combination  of  three-foorths 
com   meal  and  one-fourth   bran   by  weight.  The 
lambs  will  take  their  time  in  beginning  to  eat.  bat 
soon  after  they  start  to  eat  this  ration  they  wilt  be 
eating  one-fourth  to  one- half  pound  per  head,  daily. 
When  they  begin  to  eat  it.  it  is  well  not  to  feed 
them  enough  to  cloy  their  appetites.   Theyshoold! 
be  given  only  what  they  will  eat  up  clean,  and' 
always  with  a  relish.    If  they  arc  wnnewhat  back-^ 
ward  in  eating  after  they  have  l>oen  started  nicely, ' 
old  feed  should  not  be  left  in  the  feeding-trough, 
but  regularly  changed,  so  that  the  feed  may  not  baj 
stale  at  any  time.    Lambs  intended  for  hi 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


pnrposM,  aa  a  rale,  do  not  r*<ti]ire  any  K^ain  ontil 
v«ry  tiliortl}'  before  weaning;  then  tlioysboold  hara 
it  in  orJer  that  they  may  not  become  checked  in 
(frowth  incident  ta  weaning.  The  aim  in  feeding 
lanibfl  intended  for  breeding  [iiiriKMeR  Ahonid  he  to 
kuep  them  in  mat  flu^h  and  djilundid  tawing  con- 
ditioQ. 

Fading  lambs  ajU't  meaning. 

To  keep  the  lamb^  unchecked  Jn  fj^owth  after 
weaning,  they  fthnuld  have  the  Wst  of  feed  and 
care  just  at  this  time.  It  is  well  to  have  for  them 
frt!iih  (Ktsture,  or  rape,  or  nomtj  other  Buccnlent 
ftied  which  they  like.  If  grain  has  lieen  fe<i  Iwforo 
woaning,  tha  lamba  have  gradually  become  aiT.att- 
tomni  to  grazing,  iinj  havw  railed  more  and  morn 
on  the  grain  an  thL<  mitk  of  thtir  daraa  has  dried 
oj>.  So,  when  the  lambs  rtstch  the  weaning  ago, 
they  are  relying  moBtly  on  their  own  rations,  and 
th«y  will  not  miss  the  milk.  It  ia  advisablo  to 
TumovH  thu  Hwe«  an  far  aw  pnwiible  from  the  lamlis, 
ao  that  they  will  be  sn^iiragud  to  forget  each 
other. 

In  addition  to  good  pasture,  or  rape  or  oome 
other  green  food,  the  iambs  ebould  bc<  fed  liberally 
on  grain.  Those  intended  for  breeding  pnrpoeea 
Hhould  get  Hoch  food  afl  tends  to  favor  growth  as 
wi-ll  as  comlition,  Bttch  :ia  bran  and  oaU,  while 
thi»e  that  are  intimded  for  m:irket  nhould  be  fei] 
moru  fattening  food.  For  these  reanons  it  is  well 
to  separate  the  wether  iambs  from  the  breeding 
lambs.  Again,  the  latter  should  be  aeparat4.-d  ho 
that  the  ewe  lacnbd  are  together  and  the  ram  lamba 
by  themAclvpM. 

If  the  wether  lamltB  are  to  lie  fattened  for  tfae 
early  fall  market,  they  shotild  be  given  a  lilieral 
allowaniM  of  grain.  There  is  no  grain  mure  fatten- 
ing for  lambs  and  wetherx  than  corn.  Bat  to  get  the 
best  resnlts  from  it,  some  other  grain  should  be  fed 
with  it,  HO  that  the  appc-tites  of  the  lamba  may  Imj 
sustained  and  the  gain  in  Hesh  progreM  steadily. 
Bran  in  always  a  safe  food  to  feeij  wethers,  and  it 
i»  alwaya  advisable  to  finn]  mime  uf  it,  although  it 
has  never  proved  very  fattening  in  any  feeding 
OTperimcnts.  The  same  is  true  of  oats.  They  are 
both  very  wholesome  and  nutritious  fewiin,  greatly 
relished  by  sheep.  When  it  comes  to  making  fat  or 
gain,  however,  corn  or  cracked  peas  are  the  most 
natiHfa«tnry.  Cracked  corn  and  peas,  with  .'jome 
bran,  make  a  very  8U[)erior  ration  f^ir  fatli'ning.  In 
feeding  wethi^rs  that  have  alreiuly  had  grain,  it  ts 
an  easy  matter  to  start  them  gaining  qnickly  and 
BOatain  the  increase;  while  eomc  care  is  nevded, 
yet  there  is  seldom  any  diingcr,  aa  in  the  case  of 
feeding  sheep  unaccostome<l  to  grain.  Lamba  fed 
grain  before  weaning  will  take  a  p<>und  of  grain 
daily,  per  head,  after  weaning,  and  make  aatisfac- 
tory  gain  on  it,  while,  to  feed  Inmbs  unaccuntomed 
to  grain  that  amount,  imniuliately  after  weaning, 
would  likely  result  in  serious  los«. 

When  the  lamlis  are  being  fed  so  that  they  may 
go  on  the  market  fat,  sometime  during  -January  or 
thereabouts,  they  do  not  need  such  nipid  crowding 
during  the  fall  months,  for  it  is  easy  to  get  mature 
lamlis  U>Q  fat  and  heavy  for  the  higheat  market  price 


p«r  pound.  It  iii  a  fart  that  the  genera)  market 
prefers  a  fat  lamb  of  one  hundred  pounds  or  under 
to  one  that  is  ovlt  that  weight,  provided  the  con- 
dition as  to  fle,shiness  is  the  same.  For  fattening 
mature  lamlw  during  the  fall  eeiwon,  there  is  noth* 
ing  \tKtU-r  than  giHwl  grass  pasturage  and  raiie  or 
rutabugati,  with  a  mixture  of  grains,  such  as  com 
and  oaU.  The  grasH  pasture  should  be  used  to 
turn  the  lamb»  on  in  the  morning  before  they  are 
permitted  to  go  on  the  rape.  If  the  lamlis  get  a 
small  grain  ration,  toij,  in  the  morning,  before  be- 
ing |>ermitte(l  to  graze  on  the  rape,  there  is  very 
little  danger  from  bloating.  This  grain  ration  may 
consist  of  l>ran  and  corn  or  oats  and  corn,  half  and 
half  by  weight. 

After  the  Heason  for  rape  and  roots  and  pasture 
is  passed,  the  wi-tlier  lambH  l>eing  fattened  should 
be  penned  or  yarded.    They  apparently  do  better 


Fix.  610.    A  (liMp-teediaK  lUed  tn  Utak, 

when  limited  in  range  at  this  time.  A  nice,  dry 
yard  adjoining  the  feeding-pen  is  very  desirable  to 
turn  them  in.  In  the  North,  fattening  lambs  need 
dry  shelter  but  do  not  new!  to  be  rinsed  in  so 
aa  to  lit!  warm.  Ifryness,  with  free  ventilHliim  of 
the  quarters,  are  the  main  considerations.  In  the 
South,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a  corral  on  a  high 
dry  site,  where  the  lambs  can  be  put  during 
feeding  time  and  at  night,  A  woven  wire  corral, 
dog  and  wolf  proof,  is  a  necessity  under  such  con- 
dition^.  In  the  .South,  the  Inmlts  can  Ih>  allowe<l  to 
run  on  rajie  or  turnitis  during  the  great^'r  part  of 
the  winter  Mea«on,  and  fed  dry  foilders  only  a  short 
time  before  shipping,  so  that  the  ahrinkage  may  b« 
reduced.  In  the  North,  fodder- feeding  becomes  a 
necessity  during  the  yard-feeding,  although  soch 
frMidfl  as  wheat  screenings,  or  others  in  which 
there  is  considenible  chaff  or  roughage,  may  lie 
fed  alone.  Roth  dry  and  succulent  fiwider,  with 
some  grajw,  will  give  tho  liest  reaulta.  Of  the  dry 
fodders  for  fattening,  it  ia  hardly  likely  that  any 
will  surpass  alfalfa  or  the  clovers.  For  succulence, 
com  silage  or  roots  are  very  satisfactory,  while 
for  grain,  corn,  oats  and  bran  and,  perhaps,  some 
oil-meal  or  cottonseed  meal,  if  aot  too  high  in 
price,  may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  lambs,  when 
pnt  in  the  fee<)ing  yard  or  fiens,  should  be  taking 
about  a  pound  per  head  daily  of  the  oats-and-com 
mixture.  This  should  be  increased  gnwlually. 
Highly  bred  mature  lambs,  accustomed  to  grain 
alt  their  lives,  will  ultimately  take  two  and  ono- 
half  to  three  pounds  of  grain  per  head  daily  when 
they  are  ripe  for  market  or  ahow  ;  but,  of  course, 
this  high  feeding  cannot  be  continned  long.  Th«y 


60*2 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


will  mnke  cmrespontlin;;  f;;ain  on  it,  thiid  Hliowirt;; 
what  raraful  IraiiiiiiK  in  feuding  will  Jo,  coupled 
with  i[ili>erlt«d  rattL>niiit;  t«;nik-nciuH.  The  lambs 
need  just  onoiiKh  oxurcise  in  t,h')  yardd  to  k^ep 
thum  Btroii|r  and  sound  on  their  le^^  ;  more  tban 
this  or  any  excitement  tells  in  reduced  gain. 

Ilefeiring  ha<'k  l<*  the  brt'pding  lamlw,  they 
should  hav«  a  run  of  nipE;  und  pastare  and  have 
some  oatH  and  luruti,  ulthuu^h,  if  thuy  keep  in  gutnt 
gruwlhy  condition  without  the  Krain,  it  would  Ijk 
good  tiConoDiy  to  withhold  it.  Hy  keupinf;  thu  owe 
lanbH  jrpowing  steadily  nnd  fet-ding  them  nonrish- 
inK  fodders  during  winter,  auch  as  clover  hay, 
com  fodder,  and  iiome  naLi  or  bran  during  the 
winter,  they  grtiw  into  gtunl  large  yearlings  ami 
clip  a  Kurpriaingly  heavy  IIwmw  in  the  spring. 

The  ram  lamlit;  should  aliw  have  an  Bbuniiuiii^e 
of  nouriBhing  food,— clover  hay,  onts,  roots  and 
8ijch  fooda  as  lend  to  encourage  growth  and  tl<?«h 
rather  th^in  fnt.  Hotb  the  ewe  lambs  and  the  ram 
lamhn  shouM  have  abundant  exercifle.  Thi-s  may 
iie  encmiragwl  in  the  North  by  feeding  them  their 
fodders  Home  diKtanue  from  the  fliiedi*,  and  tliuH 
inducing  them  to  take  exereiBe  to  get  tbeJr  ftwd. 

Hhort  fatlercini!  period. — The  majority  of  the 
lamhe  that  go  on  the  fat  market  have  had  a  short 
fattening  period  of  three  to  four  months.  Western 
lamlM,  or  those  from  the  nmches,  are  fed  in  this 
way.  In  fee^ling  the-8«i  l.imlis,  the  firnt  point  to 
remember  i,t  that  thfy  have  never  hiid  any  grain, — 
nuthing  except  grajwea.  To  feed  mch  lainlw  on  the 
farm,  it  is  advisable  to  get  them  comparatively 
early  in  the  aeaaon,  unless  the  market  i*  not  favor- 
able for  purchasing.  When  they  are  brought  on 
the  farm  early,  they  may  do  a  gre-at  deal  of  good 
in  cleaning  up  stuhble  corn-fielda,  weedy  pastiirpfi 
and  the  like  before  the  fee«iing  l>egins,  pnivided 
the  lieMa  are  free  fron^i  burs.  For  auch  Iimilw 
there  i/>  nothing  better  than  a  month  or  so  of  pre- 
paratory fee<ling  on  rajkc  or  roots,  as  it  puta  them 
in  tiappy  and  thrifty  condition.  They  need  to  ite 
managed  very  carefully  while  Ijemming  accostomed 
to  the  rape.  Of  all  things,  they  need  most  the  run 
of  a  pjiBlurp  Iw'fore  heing  turned  on  the  rape,  and 
when  on  the  latter,  they  shuuld  bo  hurdl«i;  that 
is,  a  t&mponiry  fence  should  tie  used  in  !<uch  a  way 
that  the  lamba  get  only  a  limited  amount  of  rape. 
for  grain,  bran  or  oats  is  about  the  safest  feed 
to  begin  with.  At  first,  put  about  one-fourth  of  a 
pound  per  head  daily  in  the  trough.  An  soon  iw  they 
realize  what  the  grain  is  for,  they  will  !»•  anxious 
for  mure.  Whether  the  grain  should  ha  incre.-wed 
rapidly  or  very  slowly  wilt  depend  greatly  on  the 
quality  and  previous  feeding  of  the  lambs.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  always  safest  to  increase  the  quantity 
■lowly.  At  the  end  of  two  weeks,  they  may  have 
ono-hnlf  pound  per  head  dai!y.  and  by  the  end  of  a 
month,  one  pound  per  head  daily  wil!  be  nhoiit  as 
muL'h  u  they  should  have.  When  this  quantity  is 
reached,  maice  the  grain  ration  oii&-haIf  corn  and 
one-half  bran  or  oat^  by  weight,  and  feed  this  mix- 
ture in  two  feed*,  one  in  the  morning  and  the  other 
in  the  afternoon.  For  fodder,  feed  clover  hay.  corn- 
stalks, or  pea-8traw,  varying  the  ration  according 
to  the  foods  available. 


At  the  end  of  three  months  of  earernl  feeding. 
the  lambit  will  be  taking  one  and  one-half  to  two 
[MiundH  of  grain,  and  about  two  or  three  pounds  of 
clover  hay,  according  to  the  quality  and  tbeir 
relitth  for  it.  A  pound  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  per 
head  per  week  may  be  considerwl  to  be  the  range 
of  gain  in  live  weight  from  such  feeding.  A  western 
lamb  weighing  lifty  to  sixty  pounds  when  parchawd 
may  Iw  expected  to  weigh  eighty  to  ninety  pounds 
at  the  end  of  three  and  une-hulf  months  of  feeding, 
provided  the  lamb  is  of  a  smooth,  thrifty  type,  and 
continaee  to  do  well  on  saoh  feeds  as  thoee  meD* 
tioned. 

Feeding  bireiling  emt. 

While  sheep  wilt  eat  a  wider  range  of  weeds  and 
other  plants  thjin  iither  classe-s  of  stock,  yet  they 
show  very  decide*!  prefen-nKea  for  some  ffMldera. 
To  carry  hrefling  ewes  over  winter  ftoccessfnlly, 
in  the  North,  it  is  very  necessary  to  know  their 
likes  and  dislikes.  Itreeding  ewe^.  and,  in  fact,  all 
classes  of  sheep,  have  a  decided  liking  for  clover 
hay.  and  the  liner  It  i«  in  leaf  and  stem  the  cleaner 
they  will  eat  it  up.  For  this  reason,  alfalfa  and 
alsike  are  greatly  liked,  although  »K:ond  cropri  may 
HHri>a«i  either  of  these.  I'ea^Jtraw.  shreddtNi  com 
fodder  and  oat  hay  are  good.  The  fodders  may  be 
fed  some  distance  from  the  fold  so  that  the  ewes 
are  forced  to  take  some  exercise,  A  mutton  grade 
ewe,  weighing  100  to  ^W  poiimU,  will  eat  two  to 
three  pK>unds  of  the.<«e  fodders  daily  during  the 
winter  season.  Ilf  the  breeding  ewen  have  had  good 
grma  in  the  fall,  they  will  have  gained  in  lleitb  after 
the  weaning  of  the  lambs,  and  they  are  not  likely 
to  need  any  grain  unless  just  at  breeding  time. 
Thvy  should  certainly  have  iwme  oat«  if  the  pasture 
has  not  l>een  suHicienL  and  they  have  not  received 
any  rape  to  supplement  it.  The  ewes  should  go  into 
winter  in  strong  condition.  It  is  advisable  to  cor- 
ral them  and  handle  their  backs,  to  ho  satisfied  on 
that  point,  although  most  shepherds  can  tell  by  a 
ewe's  appearance  as  to  whether  or  not  she  in 
thrifty  enoDgh. 

As  Inmbing  time  approaches,  the  ewe«  ahonld  ba 
fed  lilierally  on  a  variety  of  roughage.  Some  sac- 
culent  food,  ituch  as  corn  silage  and  roota.  is 
thought  to  induce  a  free  flow  of  milk.  As  soon  as 
the  ewea  lamb,  they  should  receive  some  grain. 
Wheat  bran  and  oats  are  very  satiafactory.  Corn 
may  ba  fed  in  moileration,  hut  it  cannot  Ite  con- 
sidered  an  whole.some  a  food  for  breeding  ewes  as 
bran  or  nals.  If  the  ewes  lamb  about  the  time 
grass  is  ready  for  them,  there  will  iwj  no  need  of 
feeding  them  further  on  grain,  althoogh,  if  the 
grajw  is  very  lush  and  immature,  some  grain  may 
be  fed  profitably.  Frequent  change  nf  pasture,  witi 
some  rape  cat  and  foil,  should  keep  the  ewes  milk- 
ing well.  They  may  become  thin,  but  it  la  not 
advisable  to  feed  them  grain  if  the  succulent  feed 
is  available  and  tbe  ewes  remain  in  good  condition. 

Feeding  ramt. 

In  the  feeding  of  ram  lamba,  there  is  no  grain 
more  satisfactory  than  clean  heavy  nata.  The  ram 
tsmbs  should  g«t  oats  from  weaning  time.   This, 


SUEEP 


with  good  pastun',  will  lie  nil  that  is  nPMwary 
until  wintiT.  Tht^n  clover  hay  anil  com  fodiltT. 
with  riK»tfi  «r  Milaj;«.  fihwuW  rtmittitiiLe  the  riition. 
The  ram  lamb  siiouM  he  jfivt-n  littltj  serviw,  tf 
any.  A  ram  lamb  that  was  born  vory  early  and 
hail  mude  an  unintorrupti'd  growth,  and  hunt  bet^n 
fed  well,  may  be  UBcd  for  nervico  ti»  a  Iamb,  but  aa 
a  rule  it  ia  best  to  delay  nntil  a  ytjir  nUi,  During 
the  winter  the  ram  lamlw  shmild  be  nin  togfthor. 
TJiey  flhoulcl  pit  their  f<wlet<T  tnitsiile.  so  that  they 
are  made  tu  take  n»  much  exercJite  h.i  iiiicmihle. 

Duriut!  the  breedinj;  .setwDri,  a  ram  rc-quire-s 
extra  attention,  vs|H>eially  in  Twdini;.  Bran  and 
OfttR  are  spk-ndiil  foods,  and  these-  ithduld  be  fct] 
libt>raliy  if  nec««ary  tn  maintain  the  ram's  condi- 
tifin.  A  ram  in  good  condition,  with  firm  fl(.-»h, 
will  jinive  more  sntiKfnctory  aB  a  iireeder  than  one 
over-  or  under-fed.  To  wcore  such  condition. 
ex[M*ri«nce  teaches  that  the  mml  etfective  meth^t 
\»  to  incUidi'!  liberal  fuedinu  on  clover  hay,  roote 
and  oats,  coupled  with  abondaut  exercise. 

Liieraiure. 
For  references,  see  paga  596. 

Determming  tlie  Age  of  Sbeep. 

By  H.  H.  Wing. 

Sheep  have  two  sets  of  incLtor  teeth,  on  the 
loirar  jaw  only.  Tho  first  oriniddio  jmir  of  tempo- 
mry  teeth  is  replaced  by  permanent  (jne«  when  the 
lamb  is  thirteen  to  fiftwn  month?  old.  and  thert- 
after  the  succeeding  pairs  of  jiermanent  teeth 
appeHr  at  int'ervalu  of  a  little  ]v9s  than  a  year. 
Moat  shepherds  riK^fcon  a  year  for  each  pair,  so 
that,  wht*n  the  laxt  pair  i.^  fully  up  and  in  wear,  the 
sheep  13  four  yeara  old.  i\s  age  advanced,  the  teeth 
grow  narrower  and  Blimmer  anlil  advanci-d  age, 
eight  or  nine  years,  when  they  often  shorten 
rapidly  from  wear  and  finally  disappear.  So  long 
an  the  teeth  remain  strong  and  fairly  firm,  the 
sheep  may  be  said  to  be  in  good  working  condition. 

Common  Ailments  of  Sbeep'.    PigR.  611-^14. 

Py  I^^uh  A.  Ktein. 

We  may  gronp  the  ailments  of  nheep  that  are 
to  be  diacuased  in  this  connection  under  thr»>e 
general  heads:  II)  Diseases  caused  by  animal 
parasites:  (2)  bacterial  diaea.sejt;  (3)  non-con- 
tagioaa  diseased.  It  is  poasible  to  consider  here 
only  the  more  common  ailmvntA  that  come  under 
tbefiti  three  heads. 

1.   Il|SEAt«£t<  CaUHEE)  by   AMMAL   PARASITES 

The  diseases  that  are  most  common  among  sheep, 
and  that  are  of  the  greatest  economical  import- 
ance, are  catued  by  animal  parasites  —  worms, 
fluke*,  ticks,  mites,  lice,  gnihs.  Itet:aiiSK  of  their 
smaller  sizo  and  strength  and.  to  a  teas  eitent, 
their  habit  of  cropping  forage  clotte  to  the  ground, 
sheep  are  more  vulnerable  to  the  attacks  of  the^e 
pesti  than  the  domestic  animals  of  other  specieji: 
while  the  custom  of  keeping  them  in  flocks  favors 


the  reproduction  and  development  of  the  parasites. 
Lnmbs  are  moru  .susceptible  than  obler  sheep.  The 
wiirni  season  of  the  year  is  the  most  favorable 
]Hiri<Hl  for  the  development  of  the  parasites  and  the 
infeatation  nf  the  sheep,  which  fact  explains  why 
tlie^e  ili.>ii'aHe.s  are  more  severe  in  the  warmer  sec- 
tions of  the  country;  but  the  Hymptoms  of  disetiw* 
do  not  usually  appear  until  late  »<ammer  or  in  the 
fall.  Low-lying  wet  pastures,  and  those  with  a 
retentive  soil  or  with  a  clay  subsoil  near  the  top, 
supply  conditions  favorable  to  the  development  of 
the  parasites.  Kwping  sheep  c<'ntinn;illy  in  the 
same  tut  or  pasture  also  assists  in  the  propago* 
tion  of  the  para^ite^.  and  the  smaller  the  pasture 
in  comparison  with  the  sixe  of  the  Hock,  and  the 
longer  it  is  u.*ed,  the  more  severely  will  the  sheep 
suffer  from  these  disuases. 

Stomath'iivrrn  disfoae. 

This  ia  tho  common  name  for  a  condition  which 
occurs  when  the  fourth  stomach  is  infested  with  a 
large  number  of  thread-like  worm.-*  (H'T-mottfhut  or 
Strongffluf  contorluf.  Fig.  till  I  one-half 
to  one  Inch  long,  of  a  whitish  color  with 
a  red  spiral  running  through  the  body 
like  a  cork-screw.  The  infested  animals 
are  unthrifty,  dull,  and  gradually  lose 
flesh  and  strength.  After  a  time,  a  soft. 
non-inflammatory  swell  ingapjwars  under 
the  jaws  and  diarrhea  develops.  Thirst 
is  increased.  The  appetite  for  food  may 
be  diminished  or  it  may  continue  to  the 
end.  tho  animula  eatingafter  they  are  too 
weak  to  stand.  The  eggs  of  the  worms 
pass  out  with  the  manure  and  young 
worms  hatched  from  them  are  swallowed 
by  .«heop  and  cattle  fettling  on  infested 
ground.  In  this  way  the  disease  is  traiw- 
mitted  from  one  animal  to  another. 

TVffl/men/.— Chanjcing  tht*  flock  to  high.  dry. 
woll-drained  land  which  has  not  been  occupied  by 
sheep  for  at  least  a  year,  feeding  generously  and 
providing  plenty  of  salt,  will  bring  about  an  im- 
provement and  usually  stop  loases,  although  it  will 
not  save  those  animals  that  are  in  the  advanced 
stages  ;  and,  if  the  sheep  are  moved  from  time  to 
time  to  other  lots  or  pastures,  the  improvement 
will  continue.  No  drug  or  combination  of  drugs 
can  be  abftolotely  depended  on  to  remove  the  worms 
from  the  sheep,  but  good  results  may  be  obtained 
with  coal-tar  creosote  or  gaaoline.  Ten  drams  of 
coal-tar  creosote  ar«  shaken  up  in  a  gallon  of  water, 
and  of  this  mixture  four  to  six  tablespoon fu Is  are 
given  to  lambs,  and  eight  to  ten  tablespoon fu Is  to 
yearlings  and  older  sheep,  every  other  day  until 
three  doses  have  been  given.  The  mixture  shoald 
be  well  shaken  before  measuring  out  each  do«e. 
The  ga-wline  is  given  in  milk,  raw  linseed  oil  or 
flaxseed  tea.  two  teaspoonfuls  for  lambs  and  one 
table«poonful  for  sheep  daily,  for  three  successive 
days,  each  dose  being  measured  and  mixed  sepa- 
rately. The  sheep  should  have  no  feed  (or  at  leut 
twelve  honrs  before  the  medicine  is  given,  and  no 
feed  or  water  for  at  least  three  hours  after.  All 
the  aheep  in  the  flock  should  receive  treatment. 


VM.  MI. 
BmbiyoDlc 

■unutii 
wotm  CO 

gl4M 

bbute. 


604 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


Medicines  intended  to  oiierate  in  the  fourth 
Btomach  or  in  the  h^fwels  iire  motit  elTective  when 
given  in  :i  liijuid,  Wing  poured  eilowl^'  into  the 
mciuLh  friim  a  iKittli',  with  the  sh»vp  tttandin^  in  a 
nalumi  |icMiticin  and  tha  hcai!  sti(;htl>'  ulovatei]. 
Thifie  who  may  ^mfvr  thu  wasiur  Ijut  leaa  off«ctivc 
method  (if  giving  niLi)it;inij  with  the  fc'od  can  aac: 
Arsi'nioos  acid  L  tlrarii,  aulfaLc  of  iron  5  drams, 
powdered  nux  vomica  2  drams,  powdered  areca  nut 
2  oiinct*.  common  aalt  '(  ouncea  ;  mix  thoroughly, 
div'kie  into  thirty  d*ifie«  and  give  each  sheep  oriM. 
done  (taily  in  ground  fi'i-d  for  t«n  dny?. 

Kraili(!atii)n  uf  llio  worms  from  infesLod  luts  or 
pasturt?s  liaa  btjun  atlt'inpted  in  several  way«. 
Burning  off  thu  grasd  in  the  spring  or  fall  hue 
proved  effective.  Keeping  sheep  oat  of  a  imstiire 
will  not  caupe  the  worniK  to  die  out  unless  cattle 
are  also  excluded  for  at  least  a  year. 

.VWrj/(ir  (iiseoie. 

Nitdiilur  dinoatK!  is  characterized  by  the  pn>Aenci^ 
in  the  wall  of  thu  inteatinea  of  turaora  or  nodules, 
in  which  is  found  a  miniature  worm  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long,  which  is  the  cause  of  the 
disease.  This  is  the  larval  stage  nf  the  tKmphngns- 
toma  enhunh'uiuum.  Thw  fully  devi'io|ii'd  worms  an' 
one-li:i!f  to  threp-fourths  uf  an  inch  long,  iim!  are 
found  altat;hed  to  thu  inner  lining  of  the  larg*f  intt-s- 
tinos.  Theegg«and  worms  pass  out  with  the  manure, 
and  the  postures  or  feeding  lots,  and  pools  receiving 
the  surface  drainage  from  them,  become  infestt^d. 

Ijbc.Ic  of  ciinUition  m.iy  he  the  only  iniiicition  of 
the  HiseJise.  When  the  infection  is  more  extensive 
the  sheep  is  dull,  weak  and  Lhin,  the  wixil  dry  and 
the  eyes  and  lijw  (lalt?.  In  severe  cases  there  is 
rapid  emiwiatioti  and  dinrrhL^a. 

Treatmail. — The  entire  flock  should  be  removal 
from  the  infests)  paslurej^  to  land  that  htis  not 
been  used  hy  sheep  for  at  least  eight  months. 
should  be  given  as  much  range  !is  poRsihle,  and 
should  lie  shiriHi]  jiliout  :ls  ofl^n  as  conditiuns  will 
permit.  A.  plentiful  supply  of  salt,  with  some  grain 
in  addition  to  the  graAH,  would  also  he  bem-fieinl, 
Wat«r  free  from  infection  should  Iw  provided. 
Much  can  bcanTomplished  in  this  way  in  repressing 
the  disease  even  if  it  is  not  eradicated,  esjiecially 
if  the  sheep  are  placed  on  high,  dry  land.  IT  prac- 
ticatile,  each  sheej*  shnnld  receive  a  dose  uf  thymol, 
thirty  tn  forty-five  grains,  shake-n  up  in  water  or 
in  the  cooE-tar  creosote  solution  prescribed  for 
stomach  worms,  before  the  flock  is  removeil  to  the 
clean  pasture.  Repeat  in  a  week  or  ten  days.  The 
greatest  benefit  will  be  derived  from  the  medical 
treatment,  if  the  sheep  are  removed  in  about  a  v/ts:k 
or  ten  days  from  the  inrlosure  in  whicrh  they  are 
placed  after  treatment,  to  another  clean  pasture, 

Tape-trorms. 

Two  species  of  tape-worm  arc  fonnd  in  sheep 
in  America,  the  fringed  tape-worm  {T(tnia  Jim- 
brinta)  and  the  broad  tape-worm  (T/Fnia  rxpanaa). 
When  fully  doveloped.  the  fringed  tape-worm  is 
six  to  twelve  inches  long  and  consists  of  a  head 
And  a  large  number  of  vmall  joints  or  aegmenis ; 
but  in  the  immature  form  in  which  it  is  swallowed 


by  the  sheep,  it  is  only  on<yflfth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  The  hriiad  tape-wonn  aim  consists  of  a 
head  with  many  joints  or  segnienti<  attached,  and 
in  found  onlv  in  the  intestineis.  It  attains  a  length 
of  livo  yariis  and  grows  very  rapidly.  The  st-g- 
meiiU;  or  joinUt  at  the  end  t>ecome  separated  and 
pai^s  out  with  the  manure,  and,  as  these  are  filled 
with  eggs  or  embrycjs,  pa.ttures  are  infesl«d. 

The  indications  of  infestation  develop  slowly. 
Unthriftinessirt  usually  the  first  sign,  l-iter,  there 
is  gradually  incrpasing  weakness  and  lo^  of  flesh, 
the  Hanks  are  drawn  up  or  distended  with  gas  and 
the  gait  is  unsteady.  The  appetite  for  f(«d  and 
water  is  often  increased,  or  preference  is  shown 
for  unusual  substances.  In  cases  of  exten.sive  infes- 
tation, the  weakness  and  emaciation  is  extreme  and 
there  is  pronouncA^d  diarrhea.  Segments  or  joints  of 
the  worms  m-iy  lie  olwMTved  in  the  bowel  dischargee. 

TrraJmmL — Shetip  that  do  nut  show  symptoms 
of  infestation  should  lie  removed  to  a  pasture  or 
lot  which  is  not  infested  and  provided  with  clean 
ilrinking-water.  fed  well,  given  plenty  of  salt,  and 
provided  with  sullicient  protection  against  severely 
eidd  weather  and  stonns.  Those  that  are  visibly 
affecteil  should  be  cared  for  in  the  same  way,  and  if 
they  ran  also  lie  placed  on  knd  free  from  tlu>  worms 
it  will  be  advisable  to  do  it.  The  pastures  should  not 
be  overcrowded,  and  the  sheep  should  be  moved  fre- 
quently from  one  pasture  to  another.  Planting  for- 
age crops  will  greatly  facilitate  the  change  to  fre«h 
feeding-ground  at  fnquent  intervals. 

I>rugs  are  of  little  or  no  value  in  combating  the 
fringe<l  tai^e-worm.  as  it  is  not  pcjssible  to  reach 
the  worms  in  the  liile  duets ;  but  when  the  broad 
taiie-worm  is  prewnt,  every  sheep  id  the  flnck 
should  receive  one-half  to  one  dram  of  the  extrairt 
of  male  fern  in  two  to  four  ounces  of  castor-idl,  or 
one  to  one  and  one-half  drams  of  kamala.  Tbey 
should  have  no  fewl  the  night  before,  nor  on  this 
morning  of  the  day  on  which  tba  medicine  is  to 
be  given,  and  they  should  reooivd  HO  water  for 
five  or  six  hours  after  ti-eatment.  Feeding  pine 
sprouts  is  recommended ;  also  pumpkin  seeds, 
twenty  to  thirty  seeds  to  each  animal. 

The  species  of  tape-w<irm  present  can  bo  deter- 
mined by  milking  a  post-mortem  examination  of 
one  of  the  most  seriously  alTeetetl  sheep.  Pastures 
that  are  badly  alfucted  with  the  fringed  tapt»-wonn 
can  be  mogt  economically  cleaned  hy  excluding 
sheep  and  using  them  for  burses  and  cattle  until 
the  worms  die  out  Where  the  broad  tape- 
worm is  present,  rattle  most  also  be  ex- 
cladh-d,  as  this  worm  infests  cattle  as 
wvll  a-u  sJiwp. 

Fhifce  difeate  or  liver-rot. 

Thi.4  disease  is  caused   by  flat,  (eaf- 
shaped  parasites  {Digtmnnm  hrpalieum,  D. 
InnfeoSatam  Fig.  612)  which,  after  having  2™ii" 
been  swallow^  with  the  foo^l  or  water,  iiT«r  flute, 
migrate  to  the  liver  and  destroy  the  sub-    '''*,'^'*' 
stance  of  that  organ.  Th«  eggs  deposited 
by  the  flukee  are  carried  out  with  the  manure,  but 
the  embryos  that  are  hatched  from  them  must 
pass  a  Twiod  in  certain  snails  (/.tmnama  trunetd^- 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


605 


tu$  B.  miniUU),  and  another  atago  in  tfac  water 
before  they  are  capable  of  infestinK  xheep.  Damp, 
swampy  pastares  and  stagnant  p«>f>l»  of  water  fur- 
nish the  conditions  favorable  to  the  development  of 
the  parasites. 

Larabs  and  yearlinga  and  sheep  of  feuble  consti- 
tution 3ulT*r  moat  readily.  The  smptoms  of  the 
itiseaM  do  not  apt>^ar  until  the  damaRo  to  the 
liver  ie  extensive— about  one  and  one-half  to  two 
months  after  infection.  Then,  there  'a  a  rapid  losa 
of  condition  and  weaknen-i ;  the  woo!  becomes  dry 
and  may  drop  utf :  the  eyett  and  lipa  become  blood- 
leaa  and  pnffy  awellinga  may  appear  around  the 
eyelids,  under  the  j.iw  and  along  the  hriaket ;  the 
appetite  is  poor,  or  umisaal  Fubstancea  may  be 
eaten ;  the  bowela  are  irregular,  constipation 
alternating  vnlh  diiirrhnea. 

Trtatment. — Preventive  measures  are  of  more 
value  in  combatinR  the  disease  than  medicinal 
treatment,  as  the  ilnkes  are  ^u  located  that  drug^s 
cannot  operate  on  them  with  sufficient  effect,  and. 
In  those  sheep  ahowinp  flymptoma  of  infeatation. 
the  changes  in  the  liver  are  too  extensive  to  be 
repaired  by  dnigs.  The  elieep  ehouM  be  remove*! 
to  high,  dry  pasture*,  the  sick  being  separated 
from  the  well;  thev  ahoulJ  be  given  nourishing 
food  with  a  plentifuf  supply  nf  iiait.  Infested  paj't- 
ures  and  pools  should  be  drained  and  should  not  he 
used  by  cattln  or  eheep  fur  a  time.  A»  anaiU  are 
essential  to  the  development  of  the  Hukes,  their 
destruction  wlU  a^siitt  in  the  eradication  of  the 
paranitefi.  Frogn,  tnada  and  carp  have  been  used 
for  this  purpose  with  gorid  results.  The  introduc- 
tion of  carp  into  the  Willamette  and  Columbia 
rivers  waa  followed  by  a  great  decrease  in  flukt* 
disease  in  ahc-ep  pasturing  in  elough  lands  along 
the  lower  parts  of  those  streams. 

CW.  Kturtfy,  tifnggcn,  ttim-nirk  (Fig.  (Jl.'t). 

The  most  prominent  and  characteristic  symp- 
toms of  this  disease  are  the  peculiar,  unconscious 
and  uncontrollable  movements  of  the  victims  — 
moving  in  a  circrle,  twisting 
or  turning  as  on  a  pivot, 
swaying  and  reeling,  running 
straight  forward  with  the 
head  elevated,  and  the  like. 
It  is  caused  by  the  preaene*.' 
in  the  brain  or  t^pinal  con!  of 
the  gid  bladder  worm  (C>rnuru 
eerebralit),  the  cystic  or  blail- 
dur  stage  of  one  of  the  tape- 
worms  infecting  the  dug 
{Tirnia  nrtitint).  The  eggs 
are  scattered  by  the  dog  on 
the  graiw  or  in  the  drinking 
places,  and  the  <;mbry<M  that 
are  hatche*}  from  them  wht?n 
they  are  swallowed  by  sheep 
migrate  in  ttome  manner  to  the  brain  i>r  spinal  cord. 
Thi!<  peri<Hi  of  migration  lasts  eight  to  ten  days  and 
is  altendiJ  in  some  animals  with  little  or  no  dis- 
turbance', while  ntherv  are  mon*  serinu»ly  affected, 
dept'nding  on  the  number  of  panisitM.  There  may 
only  be  some  depression,  a  clumsy  gait  or  ntupia- 


PlK.  S13. 
Skall  of  tbcev.  tkovriniii 
biaiD    Infntcd    with 
Cld  Uodiier -worms. 


niws.  When  the  Infestation  is  more  extensive,  the 

head  m  hot,  the  eyes  n>d,  the  head  is  held  in  a 
peculiar  position,  and  the  animal  may  nin  ainipHsly 
about,  turn  in  a  circle,  press  to  one  side,  or  stag- 
ger, rteath  may  occur  in  four  to  six  days,  but 
usually  the  sympLoms  nulwtidi^  when  the  embryos 
have  edtabliMhed  themselvfa  in  thf  brain  or  splnat 
cord.  ^^  reap[)ear  in  four  to  six  months  when  the 
bladder*  have  reached  a  suflicient  size  to  seriously 
affect  the  functions  of  these  nrgjins,  The  animal 
will  stop  eating  suddenly  without  any  apparent 
cause,  there  is  dullness  and  wenkneifs.  the  eyes  are 
glassy  and  sLiring.  sight  in  l^wt.  and  the  uncon- 
trollable and  unconscioud  movements  referred  lo 
above  occurat  intervals severnl  timeaduringaday. 
Trcafmmt.  —  li  will  be  found  most  economical  to 
slaughter  infcfit^d  animals  when  the  first  symp- 
toms of  the  final  stage  appear,  and  while  they  are 
stilt  in  good  flesh.  Preventive  measures  are  very 
important.  Carcasses  of  infested  sheep  .should  be 
disposed  of  in  such  a  manner  that  the  brain  or 
spinal  cord  cannot  be  eaten  by  dugs;  and  tiie  dogs 
on  the  place  should  be  treated  at  regular  intervula 
for  tapt!-wormB.  Thw  treatment  should  be  given 
&»  follows:  the  dog  should  receive  one  to  two 
table^poonfula  of  castor-oil  to  empty  the  bowels, 
and  should  receive  no  food  for  a  day  except  a  lit- 
tle soup  or  milk.  The  next  morning,  fifteen  to 
forty  minima  of  extract  of  male  fern  ."hould  he 
given,  followed  in  two  hours  with  a  tablespoonful 
of  castor-oil.  During  the  course  of  treatment  the 
dog  fibould  be  kept  tied  up.  and  the  bowel  dis- 
charges ihoold  l>a  buried  in  quicklime  or  burned. 

(^rab  ill  Ihr  head. 

Tbiii  ia  a  diik-ase  of  the  cavities  of  the  nose  and 
sinnsea  of  the  head,  which  ia  caused  by  the  larvx 
or  grubs  of  the  sheep  gadfly  {(Kttrut  ovu}.  Un  the 
appearance  of  the  tlies  the  sheep  become  greJitly 
excited,  and  souk  to  pr-jtvct  themselves  by  thrust- 
ing their  noses  between  the  fore-legs,  holding  l.boir 
heads  close  to  the  giMund,  or  by  crowdinj^  logyther 
ia  a  circle  with  heads  depressed.  If  larvie  are  de- 
posited about  the  nostrils  they  shake  their  heads, 
run  about  and  rub  their  nose«  against  their  fore- 
legs or  any  object  that  may  be  accessible.  No 
symptoms  of  db«ea.x<e  appe;tr  until  the  following 
spring,  when  the  larva?  liegin  to  emigrat*'.  Th(>n  a 
nasal  discharge  occurs,  which  is  sumetimus  blrKwiy, 
and  there  is  alao  con-tiderabk-  ancwiag  and  snort- 
ing, during  which  lan'ae  are  often  cast  out.  These 
are  three-quarters  to  one  inch  long  and  of  yellowish 
brown  color.  There  is  ab'o  shaking  and  swinging 
uf  the  heaii  .ind  rubbing  of  the  nwe ;  the  eyelids 
are  oft^^n  swollen  and  there  is  a  dis«harge  of  tears; 
sometimt-s  the  bruin  is  also  afffcted  and  then  there 
is  duUnt-jw,  file  of  dizxiness,  an  unateudy  gait,  or 
convulsions. 

IWaimfiit.^li,  is  possible  to  open  the  sinuses 
with  a  trephine  and  remove  most  of  the  larvie,  but 
this  method  of  treatment  is  not  available  to  the 
average  flock-master.  InjiTtions  arc  of  no  value 
OH  they  cannot  Ik*  usi-d  in  sntficient  strength  to 
destroy  the  litn'iv  without  injuring  the  membranefl 
of  the  nasal  cavities  and  ainusM.    All  animals 


606 


SHEEP 


SHERP 


severely  afFectod  Kboulct  be  sent  to  market :  the 
others  will  recover  as  soon  as  ail  the  larva-  have 
emigrated.  All  lan*ie  fminil  on  the  gToiind  ghould 
be  dt'stryycJ  and  the  heads  of  any  infested  shc-ep 
that  may  be  slaughtered  ahunld  bu  dinpo^ed  of  in  a 
manner  that  will  destroy  the  larva?.  Where  the 
gadfly  abounds,  the  noaea  of  the  sheep  should  be 
dmearod  every  three  or  four  days  during  the 
swarming  tteoAon  with  a  inixture  of  equal  parts  of 
tar  and  (jreaae.  or  tar  and  fiah-oi],  or  tar  and  whale- 
oil.  Another  mothixi  of  prevention  is  to  plow  a 
furrow  in  the  pasture  to  give  the  aheep  an  oppor- 
tunity to  bury  their  noses  when  the  fly  approaches. 

i/onw,  Ar/jtt,  papr,'-gkin,  Iniiff-worm  ili-miK. 

These  tenmi  are  used  in  desi^atc  a  dlxciisc  of 
the  longs  and  bronchial  tubes  produced  by  two 
Bpecies  of  parajiites.thi-  thre-ad  luTig-worm  iStrongy- 
luM  ftitiria)  and  the  hair  lung-worm  {Strimgtilu^mris- 
ptdraimnli*).  Tha  thread  lung-worm  is  one-half  to 
two  inches  long  and  is  found  in  the  bronchial  tubus. 
Tho  hair  lung-worm  i»  much  smaller,  two-thirds  to 
one  inch  long  and  of  the  diameter  of  a  hair,  and  is 
found  in  the  Jiir  cells  and  lung  tisHUe. 

Infested  Hhci^p  do  not  i^how  any  nignn  of  dineaiie 
until  many  wornw  are  prw*ent  and  extenmive 
changes  have  occurred  in  the*  bronchial  tubes  and 
lungs.  Tho  most  prominent  symptom  ia  a  emigh, 
which  ocL'ura  in  flts  or  .spasms,  leaving  Lhu  victim 
ulmotit  sulfiwated.  During  tiie^e  coughing  spella 
the  worms  are  ejected  and  ncatterod  about,  and  an 
these  discharges  contain  the  emhryoa,  food  and 
water  Kuntamlnatwl  in  thin  way  bpcnme  infectinus. 
There  in  alisu  a  diachargn  from  thu  nontrils  in  which 
the  young  woniifi  and  fragments  of  uld  wi>rmH  can 
likewisii  be  found.  In  the  Liter  atagiw,  the  wkin  ia 
dry  and  harah,  whence  tho  name  pap«ir-skin ;  the 
wool  is  dry  and  can  easily  he  polled  out ;  tho  eyes 
and  lips  are  hloodices  and  there  is  loss  of  tiesh  and 
gradually  increaj^ing  weakness.  The  apjietite  is 
fair  in  the  beginning  but  later  it  may  (iimippear 
entirely. 

TVni/mcH^  — It  will  ba  best  for  the  flonk  in  which 
this  disi^aae  appears  to  send  alt  the  -sheen  which 
seem  to  bo  most  infei^ted  to  market,  uiileaHlhey  are 
of  value  for  breeding  purposes,  or  untesa  i\\t*  dis- 
eaue  has  advanced  so  far  that  they  are  weak  and 
emaciated  ;  in  any  cane,  they  should  hs  »i?paratecl 
from  the  ll(«k,  ax  they  art"  a  WHirce  nf  iafectiim 
to  the  others.  The  entire  tlia-k  shiiuld  Ite  removed 
to  non-infi>ated  encluaurea  urtd  given  riuuri»liing 
feed,  plenty  of  salt,  and  water  frw  from  the  para- 
sites. Lambs  should  be  weaned  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  placed  in  a  pa.<<tiire  or  lot  which  has  not  been 
occupied  hy  sheep  .ninre  the  previous  winter  at  leant, 
Injeetiiins  n(  vennictdes  inUt  the  wind-pJiie,  either 
in  .solutinn  iir  iti  the  form  of  a  spniy,  Jmve  given 
good  resulLs  in  the  treatment  of  sheep  infwitfd 
with  the  thread  lutig-worm.  but  these  methods  are 
not  available  lo  tlie  ordinary  flock-master.  .\  more 
simple  mot  hod  of  treatment  is  fumigation.  To  carry 
this  out.  it  is  neceiwjiry  to  ha%'e  a  tightly-closed 
riMim  in  which  to  place  the  sheep.  A  mixture  of 
fliiwers  of  sulfur  and  slcohol  in  .1  deep  dish  or  [lan 
flouting  in  a  vemel  of  water  is  then  plained  in  the 


Pla.  614.    &  MM  «l  •twev  Kab. 


room :  the  alcohol  and  .oulfur  is  ignited,  and  the 
door  cloned.  Some  one  should  remain  in  the  ro<jm 
with  the  sheep,  or  they  should  \v  closely  watched. 
80  that  they  will  not  be  sulTficated.  A  mixtnre  nf 
one  part  of  salt  to  twenty-tive  parts  of  coppema  is 
also  advised,  to  be  kept  constantly  l>efort;  the  sheep. 
For  the  eradication  of  the  worms  from  lnfeBt«d  lots 
or  pasturea,  the  same  methods  can  be  med  as  for 
stomach  worms. 

Scah.  (Fig.  K14.) 

Scab  is  an  itch  or  difwaae  of  Iha  skin  caosed  by 
a  species  of  mite  [Vtoropla  cummunir)  just  UreB 
enough  to  be  visible.  These  little  insects  bite  tiie 
skin  to  obtain  food,  and  the  irritation  or  itching 
thus  producer!  causes  the  sheep  to  scratch,  rub  and 
bite  the  infested 
place.^ ;  little 
LliciterH  Uixm 
where  the  mitea 
bite,andtherub- 
bing,  scratching 
and  biting  of  the 
sheep  inflames 
the  skin,  which 
becomes  red, 
thickened,  hut 
and  l*'nder.  The 
blisters  rupture  and  the  yellowish  litjuid  they  con- 
tain, drying  on  the  skiu  with  the  sweat  and  dan- 
druff, forms  the  yetlowish-lirown  scab  from  which 
the  disease  takes  it«  common  name.  The  wool  he- 
come-s  "tagged"  or  glued  together  in  tufts  and 
finally  falls  nnt,  exposing  the  rough,  dry,  scab. 
which  may  Ik;  full  of  cracks  or  Assures  and  nlt^era- 
tions.  The  disease  is  vi>ry  contagious  from  one  ani- 
mal to  another.  Tags  of  wool  from  infected  shet>p, 
fences  or  posts  against  which  scabby  sheep  have 
rubbed,  sheds  or  buildings  occupied  by  them,  or  old 
bedding  may  harbor  the  mitns  and  convey  the  dis- 
ease to  healthy  sheen.  The  common  variety  of  scab 
affects  the  liaek,  side*,  rump  and  shoulders.  The 
other  varieties-head  scab  or  black  muzzle,  fiMt 
scab  and  follicular  scab—  occor  very  rarely  in  this 
c<ountry,  Itching  causetl  by  ticks  and  lice,  inflam- 
mation of  the  skin  glands,  luid  rain-rnt  have  Iwen 
mistaken  for  scab;  hut  such  mistakes  will  not  occur 
if  the  mange  mite  is  always  searclied  for  in  the 
edgi^s  iif  the  scab. 

Trtntment. — When  scab  appears  in  a  fkwk,  all  of 
the  sheep  should  bo  sheared  and  confined  to  one 
part  of  the  farm  or  in  a  certain  pasture  for  two 
to  four  weeks,  after  which  each  animal  should  be 
"dipped"  in  a  mixture  that  will  kill  the  mange 
mites,  and  returned  to  the  s;une  jiart  of  tht>  farm. 
or  to  the  same  pasture.  Seven  to  ten  days  later 
Lhey  should  be  "dip|)od"  again,  and  then  placid  iti 
that  part  of  the  farm  or  {lasture  from  which 
they  have  been  excluded  since  shearing.  The  lime 
and  sulfur  dip  is  one  of  the  most  ratisfaetory  mix- 
tures for  treating  scabby  sheep.  It  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  To  eight  to  elevt^n  jiounds  of  unslaked  lime 
add  enough  wate.r  tii  slake  In  a  paste  ;  sift  intit  this 
pa.HteejLactly  three  times  as  many  pounds  offluwefB 
of  sulfur  as  of  lime  used,  weighing  the  salfur  and 


SHEEP 


SREEP 


w~ 


lime  accurately  :  placi-  the  mixture  In  a  boiler,  add 
twonty-five  galloiu  of  water,  an»i  boil  for  at  least 
two  hours,  Btirrinc  frw)iiently  ;  allnw  iht*  seiiinient 
to  itpttle,  and  then  dip  utf  thu  fluid  and  add  enough 
water  to  make  ont*  hundred  nallons.  While  u»inir 
tht!  dij).  it  must  he  kept  at  a  te.m|ierature  of  100" 
to  110°  Fahr.,  the  temperature  being  delermiocd 
by  a  thermometer,  Eavh  t<heep  should  hi:  kept  in 
the  dip  fnr  two  minuten  hy  the  watch,  the  entire 
bo(]y  Wing;  cornred  with  the  liquid,  and  the  head 
immiireed  at  luHttt  uncv.  Whi-n  only  a  jtmall  floak  is 
to  bo  tniated,  an  ordinary  Jinttlti  may  b«  lutnl  for 

Ereparing  the  dip,  and  a  wash-tub  for  thu  dipping; ; 
ut  when  large  nuniljiiPH  of  sheep  are  to  be  dipped, 
involving  much  work,  apecial  apparatus  will  be 
found  muHt  economicaC 

Sheep  iiek: 

The  Mheep  lick,  which  in  really  not  a  tick  but  a 
winnleRK  lly  with  u  k'alhury,  bristly,  flatti-nwl  biNly 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  lunt;,  iidmbitH  the  Wvcv 
of  the  Bheep  and  bites  tlie  skin  at  intervals  to  suck 
blood.  Oen  the  tieka  are  few  in  number,  they 
ll.-vi'«  little  effect  on  the  sheep,  hut  when  they  are 
numeroiu  thc>  ilohin;;  and  pain  raui*o<t  by  the  tdtejt 
of  the  in«ectj«  keep  tliH  sheep  iiitinj;  and  «Talr]iiny 
mft*t  of  the  time,  atTeetinn  their  nanural  condition. 
I<amb8  Hulfcr  most  severely. 

Trfrt/nwwA  — Dipping  the  flock  in  the  lime  and 
flulfur  mixturo  or  in  a  keroKone  emulsion  wilt  rid 
them  of  the  para»iteK.  The  kernsene  emulttion  is 
maite  a»  followi! :  Bhavu  a  pound  of  neap  into  a 
gallon  of  water  and  dissolve  by  litdlinK,  add  two 
Kallons  of  kerof>i'ne  and  churn  ur  mix  until  the  oil 
is  "cut"  or  emulsified  :  ui^e  one  |:;allon  of  the 
emulflion  t^  eight  of  water,  it  is  bext  to  dip  twice, 
with  an  interval  of  two  wt'ekn.  and  to  keep  the 
8huep  out  of  Ihu  old  pens  or  pastures  for  a  week. 
The  penn  and  other  nuting-pluc^eH  Rhiiuld  he 
ftcraped  out  and  cleaned. 

Sherjt  liee. 

The  fiheep  loa»e  i%  very  small,  only  onB  twenty- 
fifth  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  reddish  head  and 
whitish  body.  Itehing  is  a  symptom  of  the  pres- 
enco  of  thin  panmite,  which  also  causes  the  Kkin  to 
become  thickened,  rtiujih.  and  covered  with  small 
black  scabs,  whilo  the  wool  noverin;;  these  place.-* 
becomeA  short,  dry  and  lwist*'d.  Infesletl  flwks 
should  be  dipped  in  the  kerosene  omuljtion. 

llaggotfl  are  somctimM  found  in  wounds  on 
shMp.  These  are  the  larv;e  of  a  fly  (Laedin  maed- 
laria)  that  \»  common  in  America,  especially  in  the 
warmer  Bection^  and  that  w  to  be  recognized  by 
its  blue  body,  streaked  with  darker  blue  or  purple 
bands.  The  fly  deponits  Hn  e^K*'  ^^n  the  wool  or  in 
the  wounds  or  sores,  and  when  the  larva*  are 
hat<:hed  they  burrow  into  the  diseased  ttasueo, 
ciinsiny  much  distress  to  the  sheep.  Pbiwer»  of 
sulfur  and  lienroated  !ani.  mixwl  in  equal  parts,  or 
oil  of  tar.  applied  to  the  dise-ased  areas  will  destroy 
the  D)ag|rot«  and  ^BO prevent  the  tly  from  depositing 


n.    BaCTEHIAL    DlSBASBfl 

Fitr  information  concerning  thoAe  eontagiooe  or 
infectious  disi-atu-s  which  atlect  sheep  an  well  as 
the  domestic  animals  of  other  sjiecieit,  the  reader 
i»  referred  to  the  article  on  I^}re^io1u  Diseata 
of  Animal*,  pagiai  124-146.' 

Fno!-rof. 

Fttil-rot  usually  Wgins  in  one  foot  and  ttubae- 
qiienlly  attnck.<i  one  or  more  of  the  others.  Lame- 
ness is  tliti  lirst  indication  of  the  dlKease,  and  when 
the  foot  is  examined  a  rwl,  moist  spot  is  found  in 
the  cleft  jui^t  above  the  horny  part.  The  disease 
extends  b_-iiiiath  the  horn,  and  in  a  short  time  there 
is  a  thin,  sticky  ili-scharge  of  a  diHiigreeablo  odor 
from  a  hole  in  the  horn.  The  region  almi-e  the 
hoof  Ui'omisH  swollen,  hot  and  tender.  If  the  dis- 
e;we  is  neglected,  a  large  part  of  the  hnrn  In  under- 
min<4J  and  loosened,  and  the  exteiision  mav  cuntinue 
until  es'en  the  bones  are  affwluil.  During  warm 
Weather,  maggots  may  attack  the  aFTectei]  parts. 
The  di.'«easo  is  caused  by  a  germ  [Baeilius  necro- 
phirroug),  which  exists  in  large  numbers  in  the  dis- 
chiirge  from  the  dispased  feet,  and  healthy  I'heep 
idaeed  on  ground  or  in  sheds  contain irtaleij  with 
this  material  are  liable  to  contract  the  diseast;. 
('untagioua  fuot-rot  should  not  be  confused  with 
foui'foot,  which  results  from  muddy  lots  or  nianthy 
pastures,  or  from  wounds  from  sharp  stones  and 
the  like;  or  with  the  swelling,  siipporation  and 
lameness  that  uccurs  when  the  ojxvning  of  the  lit- 
tle oil  gland  in  the  ebft  of  the  hoof  ia  choked  up 
with  mud  or  sand. 

TYeaimrni.—Whvu  thu  diw-iwe  is  diwovered,  the 
feet  of  the  healthy  sheep  should  be  treated  with  a 
solution  of  one  pound  of  chlorid  of  lime  to  each 
twelve  quarts  of  water,  or  one  pound  of  carbolic 
acid  crystals  t«  each  funr  gallons  of  water,  after 
which  they  should  be  remiiVMl  to  uncontaminated 
lots  or  pasturk!K.  When  the  flock  is  large,  the  solu- 
tion may  tie  plat-ed  in  a  wooden  trough  about  six 
feet  long,  twenty  inches  wide  and  one  foot  deep, 
thu  solution  being  about  four  inches  deep,  and  the 
sheep  made  to  walk  through  it  slowly.  The  diseased 
sheep  should  lie  treated  as  fullows:  f'ul  away  all 
liHiHe  or  onderminiil  honi  .'ind  nil  proud  flesh,  and 
stand  thH  animal  for  It'n  minutes  in  a  solution  con- 
taining four  pounds  of  cupper  sulfate  tn  each  five 
gallons  of  water,  applying  a  soft  bandnge  when 
deep  cutting  has  been  necessary.  When  the  disease 
has  extended  into  the  deeper  parts,  the  affected 
art'ii  should  lie  ciirefuily  w:i.thed  wilh  a  solution 
containing  one  ounce  of  carlstUc  acid  crystals  in 
twenty  ouncEM  of  water,  then  dusU^d  with  a  pow- 
der cumtijtling  of  ei|ual  [iart!<  of  lK<ric  ai-id  and 
oxid  of  Bine,  and  covered  with  a  soft  bandage. 
After  treatment  is  begun,  the  diseased  sheep  should 
be  placed  in  lots  or  pastures  free  from  infection, 

In  order  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  the  dis- 
ease, sheep  pun^hased  for  addition  to  the  flock 
should  be  kepi  under  otist-rvatiim  in  at'paraU'  ijuar- 
ters  for  a  few  days.  Keeping  the  feet  of  the  sheep 
properly  trimmed  will  UHslst  in  keeping  the  cleft 
of  the  foot  fret'  of  dirt  and  help  to  prevent  the 


008 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


spread  of  the  disease.  Pasturea  occnpied  by  dis- 
eawd  sheep  can  be  d»«1  safely  fur  hf  nlthy  sheep 
the  following  spring,  but  infected  Utitt  ami  wheds 
ahiiuld  be  Ihoroui^hly  cleaned  mid  disLiif<.H:ted. 

Sort  motUh  and  fttf.. 

The  conta^ioaa  foot-and-mouth  dinea^e  of  Europe 
does  not  exist  In  this  country,  but  sheep  ore  some- 
times affected  with  an  ulcerative  condition  of  the 
month  and  feet  that  is  often  referred  to  by  this 
name.  This  di-seaae.  which  is  caused  by  the  Buciltug 
nfxrophorous,  does  not  itpread  from  animal  to  ani- 
mal  like  the  true  foot-and-mouth  disease,  but  cer- 
tain lot«,  pastures  or  sheds  become  infected  with 
the  germs,  which  enter  the  tiseuei^  when  thu  mouth 
or  foot  i&  injurijd  by  stiff,  brittle  forage  or  briars, 
and  set  up  the  disease.  Ulcers  appear  in  the  akin 
of  the  left  above  the  hoof,  and  in  the  membrane 
lining  the  lip».  If  the  disease  is  neglected,  these 
ulcers  may  spread  over  a  large  area  and  extend 
deep  into  the  tissue-s :  the  ulcers  may  also  appear 
on  the  face.  When  the  Uvi  are  affected  there  h 
lameness,  while  di^eaxe  of  the  Mys  is  accompanied 
by  an  interferenct-  with  feeding. 

Titfiimmt. —  R&movms  the  scabs  or  shreds  of 
tissue  from  the  diiwaaed  areas  and  washing  them 
twicu  daily  with  a  solution  of  one  tablespoon  fill  of 
cfeoline  in  a  quart  of  water,  then  painting  with 
Lugal's  Bolution  of  iwline,  will  rwult  in  a  curaplete 
cure,  if  tmiatment  is  begun  in  time.  In  u.'iing  the 
latte-r  solution  on  sores  in  the  mouth,  care  should 
bo  taken  to  cnntlne  the  application  to  the  diseased 
places.  Infcctt^l  lots  and  iihuda  ehould  Iw  cluanwl 
and  iiiHinfiH't«l. 

.We  mouth  may  alao  resnlt  from  the  «heep  feed- 
ing on  grains  or  graasus  affoetvd  with  fungi  and 
othi.-r  VL'gL-Ubk'  organti^nis,  a  condition  which  may 
exist  in  wot  aeasons.  Rlirttersnr  ulcers  art;  si>en  on 
the  membrane  lining  the  mouth  and  lips,  and  th« 
breath  mny  have  a  auur  odtir.  Thi-nw  bliittvrw  and 
II!^3enssoml■tjm^is  ixiciir  on  the  teats  of  thi?  ewL-s,  ami 
lambs  suckling  them  suffer  an  attack  of  tho  mouth 
dtaoflse.  The  tri'atment  consists  in  changing  the 
foed,  wasliing  the  mouth  with  a  solution  coutain- 
ing  a  half  ounce  of  boric  acid  to  a  pint  of  water, 
and  afterward  placing  a  litllf  puwderod  nlum  un 
the  tongue.  Alfecteil  teats  ran  be  tn^nted  with  the 
same  drugs.  Sore  mmith  has  occurred  in  shtiep  f«d 
on  wheat  scrnenings  rich  in  mustard  sm*ds,  and 
ulc!crntii>ii  uf  the  gums  and  jaw-boni.-s  has  occurred 
from  the  barbed  awns  of  atiuirrol-tail  grass- 

Malignant  cctarrkal  fever. 

This  diseaae  usually  affects  a  nnml>er  of  sheep 
Bimultaneously.  Therw  Ls  a  discharge  from  the  nofi- 
trils :  the  eyelids  are  swiiUon  ami  may  be  stuck 
together  with  a  Krea.<<y  mutter;  in  addition,  theru 
is  a  cough,  rapid  breathing,  constit>ation  or  diar- 
rhen,  am)  loss  of  apiH-lite. 

Trtatment.—  'Shw^  that  are  neverely  affected 
should  be  slaughten-d,  and  the  healthy  animals 
should  be  Atjpnrat^-d  from  thoise  slightly  afffcted. 
The  sheds  occupitii  by  the  diseased  animals  slinutd 
b©  cleaned  and  di«inf*H*ted.  The  entire  (luck  shimid 
be  gJTen  nourishing  feed  and  each  sheep  should 


receive  a  tablespoonful  of  the  foilowing  tonic  mix- 
ture in  the  feed  twice  daily  :  Powderi-d  nux  vomica 
3  drams,  powdere«i  .lulfate  of  iron  3  ounce*,  powdered 
gentian  rout  4  ounces,  powdered  potassium  nitrate 
1  ounce,  linseed  meal  8  ounceii,  mix  thoroughly. 

in.     NON-CONTACIOI'S  DISEASES 
Wool-rating. 

Woot-eating  is  regarded  as  a  habit  and  also 
an  indication  of  a  deficiency  in  certain  food  el 
ments.   As  a  rule,  the  general  health  is  not  affect 
but,  when  the  rice  is  practiced  eicesaiveljr,  wool  tl| 
swallowed  in  such  quantity  that  digestion  i«  dis-i 
turbed,  and  there  is  loss  of  condition.  The  affection  ' 
UHually  develops  during  the  winter,  when  the  sheep 
are  confined  and  are  being  fed  on  dry  feed,  ana, 
disappears  when  they  are  turned  out  to  pasttire. 

TVeu/mffi/.— WooJ-eatere  should  be  immediately 
separated  from  the  flock,  and  there  should  be  a 
change  of  feed,  especially  of  the  hay  or  roughage. 
The  feeding  of  corn  often  hsa  a  good  effect.  .V 
generous  ration  should  be  fed,  and  the  following 
should  be  mixed  with  the  ground  feed,  one  tea- 
spoonful  being  allowed  for  each  Bheep  in  the  flock : 
Powdered  gentian  4  ounces,  common  salt  8  ounces, 
bicarbonate  of  soda  4  ounce.a.  and  sulfate  of  soda  4 
ounces.  Some  veterinarians  have  u.«ed  with  great  j 
8ucce.s5  hypodfrmic  injections  of  apomorphine,  onttj 
and  one-half  graine  daily  for  three  successire  daj 
T^mbfi  uaually  begin  the  practice  of  the  vice  by 
gnawing  the  Boiled  "tags"  of  wool  about  the  udders 
of  the  uwes,  and  for  this  reason  trimming  the 
nddi-rs  has  been  recommended. 

Bloating. 

Illo-iting  usually  occurs  when  green  com,  rape,, 
clover  and  other  succulent  plants  areeaten  by  sheep  i 
unaccustomed  to  them,  or  when  IheJM  planta  ard 
consumed   in  unusual  quantity  ;  the  condition   ia 
unpwially  liable  to  occur  if  the  planta   are  wet 
from  dew  or  rain.  Drinking  cold  water  in  * 
amount  immediately  after  eating,  and  frozen  feed," 
are  other  caii-ses.    The  digestive  pri>cei«ea  of  the 
paunc.h  are  deranged  and  the  material  in  this  organ 
ferments,    forming    ga«.    The    abdomen    becomrt 
swollen  or  bloivled,  WEJecially  on  the  left  side,  and 
omit8  a  drum-like  sound   when  struck   with   the 
5ngurs :  feeding  and  rumination  ceases,   there  ia 
dullne.08  or  depreasion,  and  breathing  ia  difBcult.] 
Usually  a  number  of  sheep  are  affected,  and  prom| 
action  is  neceswary  to  save  them  from  suffocation.! 

Trcatmtnt. — Relief  can  be  afforded  most  qnicklj 
anil  certainly  by  letting  the  gas  oat  of  the  paoi 
with  a  trocar  and  eanula  ;  if  one  of  these  instni*? 
ments  is  not  available,  a  knife  ma;  be  used,  bat 
the  blade  should  be  clean.  Following  the  opention 
each  sheep  should  receive  a  tabtespoonful  of  baking 
soda  dissolved  in  a  half  pint  of  warm  water  to 
check  the  fermentation.  Driving  the  sheep  into 
stream  will  often  cause  the  expuUion  of  the 
After  the  acut4>  symptoms  have  subsided,  each  anl 
mal  sh'O'uld  receive  the  following  dose :  Sodium  et ' 
fate  :i  ounces,  powdered  Jamaica  ginger  2  di 
tinctaro  of  nox  Tomica  1  dram,  water  1  pint. 


1.  Oitai4  Down  own 
Z,  Rvntnty  Hmsb  ram 


PUt«  XXn.    Breeds  of  loag-woal  »b»ap 

i,  Botdn  Lncester  ran  s.  Shiovaliite  ewu  7.  Bampililrc  nm 

«.  Unoota  ram  e.  Shiopablic  tan  B.  Co4i<wld 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


609 


Bloating  may  alno  occur  in  chnliing.  In  ench 
coavs  it  will  disappear  with  the  removal  uf  the 
obdtractioo  in  the  ^llet. 

Scourt. 

The  chief  sign  of  this  disease  is  a  diarrhea,  the 
fonl-fimelling  discharges  soiling  the  tail,  hipn  and 
legH ;  the  appetite  U  lost ;  the  abdomen  u  dis- 
tended ;  there  ie  abdominal  pain,  which  is  mani- 
fested by  reatlfewnesa  and  switching  the  tail ; 
f;ruliiall7  increasing  weakness  and  emaciation  foU 
ow.  In.  iaciilingg.  the  condition  result'*  from  faulty 
feeding  or  mismanagement  of  the  ewe,  or  in  due  to 
a  contagion  that  entera  through  th«  navel  cord 
immediately  after  the  Iamb  is  dropjted.  In  the  lat- 
ter  case,  the  lambing  p^ns  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  as  soon  as  the  lamba 
are  dropp«J  the  stump  of  the  navel  cord  must  l>e 
waithe<i  with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
and  then  painted  with  tincture  of  iodine.  Over- 
feeding, pudden  changes  from  drj'  to  green  feed, 
cold  and  damp  quartern,  are  some  of  the  causes  of 
the  condition  in  weanlings.  In  thrae  cases,  two 
teaspoonfula  of  caat«r-oiI  containing  two  or  three 
drops  of  creolin  should  be  given  at  once,  and  fol- 
lowed with  a  tablespoonful  of  the  following  mix- 
tare  three  times  daily  :  Paregoric  1  dram,  sherry 
wine  3  dranui.  subnitrate  of  bismuth  2  dram^,  salol 
)  dram,  mucilage  of  acacia  5  ounces.  Attention 
abonld  also  be  given  to  the  feeding,  and  clean, 
dry,  sunny  quarters  provided. 

(irau  tiangfri. 

Grans  staggers  li  a  term  ase<l  to  describe  chronic 
catarrh  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  when  it  is 
associated  with  a  staggering  gait  restlessness, 
delirium,  running  into  obj*?cts,  drowsiness,  or  other 
symptoms  of  nt-rvous  derangement.  The  condition 
sometimes  occurs  when  dry.  woody,  and  innutri- 
tious  feed  is  eaten  in  large  amount  with  insufficient 
water :  when  sudden  changes  of  feed  are  made 
repeatedly  ;  atid  when  rich  concentrates  are  fed  in 
excess,  and  the  roughage  or  bulky  feeds  are  insuf- 
ficit^nt.  Millet  hay  rich  in  seeds  has  also  caused  it. 
UauaUy,  the  diaease  develops  slowly.  At  first, 
there  is  only  diminishiKl  appetite  and  irregular 
rumination;  then,  constipation,  abdominal  pain, 
"  grinding  of  the  teeth,  groaning,  and  fever,  which 
is  indicated  by  the  dry,  hot  no«o  and  MUirine  eyes  ; 
later,  the  nervoui^  svmptomg  mentioned  above  may 
appear.  The  condition  should  not  bo  confused  with 
gio. 

TVeafflirnJ.— Affected  animals  should  receive  the 
purge  prwKrriljed  under  "Overloading."  and  this 
•hould  bo  followed  with  two  tabJespoonfnla  of  the 
following  mixture  in  a  half-pint  of  linseed  tea 
twice  daily:  Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  1^ 
ounces,  fluid  extract  of  nux  vomica  J  dram,  alco- 
hol 2i  ounces.  When  the  appetite  returns,  easily 
digested  feed  should  be  given,  with  oil-meal. 

Gargtt, 

There  are  two  diseases  commonly  known  under 
this  name.  One  is  a  simple  inflammation  of  the 
odder,  which   nHolts  from  increasing  the  grain 

C89 


feed  too  rapidly  after  lambing,  lying  on  cold 
ground,  the  bunting  uf  the  lamb,  or  from  the  milk 
not  lieing  removed,  as  may  occur  when  a  Iamb 
dies.  The  udder,  or  a  part  of  it.  is  swollen,  hot  and 
tense;  the  milk  contains  clumps  of  pus  or  streaks 
of  blood.  The  other  disease  is  a  malignant  inflam- 
mation in  which  the  udder  is  swollen  but  soft  or 
doughy,  and  the  skin  is  rt-d  or  parjile.  In  addition, 
the  general  health  is  affected ;  the  ewe  is  dull, 
sto]M  eating,  i.t  feverish  and  loses  flesh  r.ipidly. 
Finally,  the  affected  part  of  the  gland  becomea 
gangrenous  and  slougha  off.  This  form  is  infec- 
tious. 

Trmtmml. — In  the  simple  form  of  garget,  five 
ounces  of  epeom  salts,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water, 
shonid  be  given ;  the  udder  should  be  bathed  fre- 
quently with  warm  water  and  nibbtKl  with  cam- 
phorated oil  and  kept  milked  out  clean.  Treatment 
of  the  malignant  form  i»  very  unsatisfactory,  but 
much  good  can  be  accomplished  by  preventive 
mcaaures  in  controlling  the  disease.  Aifected  ani- 
mals must  be  isolated,  and  the  places  they  hiive 
occnpiod  cleaned  and  disinfected.  When  gangrene 
has  set  in.  the  alfected  purt  should  be  amputated. 
Injections  of  antiseptics  into  the  udder  are  of  no 
value. 

LUtmlnre. 

For  references  to  literature  on  ailments  of  sheep, 
the  reader  should  consult  the  publications  cited  on 
pages  l:i4-  14(>.  330,  446.  ^7.  [Figs.  611-614 
adapted  from  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture.] 

Cheviot  Sheep.   Fig.  616. 

Hy  Da7.-xd  MeCrae. 

The  Cheviot  is  one  of  the  mountain  breeds  of 
Scotland,  named  after  a  range  of  gra.'^y  hilU  on 
the  ea.«tern  borderland  between  England  and  Scot- 
land. It  is  noted  both  for  wool-  and  for  mutton- 
production. 

UttxripHtm. 

The  Cheviot  is  of  medium  siiie,  hornless,  face 
and  legs  white,  the  body  closely  covered  with  wool 
of  a  soft  fiber  akin  to  the  Down  wools :  but  unlike 
the  Uown-t,  which  are  always  likely  to  have  more 
or  less  a  gray  tinge  to  the  wool,  the  Cheviot  gives 
a  pure  white  wool.  The  head  is  bold  and  broad, 
and  the  fleece  of  snowy  whiteness  comes  close  up, 
forming  almost  a  ruff  about  the  face.  The  ribs 
are  llatttT  than  in  either  the  Southdown  or  the 
Highland.  It  is  a  very  active,  hardy  animal,  with 
a  bright  eye  and  erect  ears.  Unfortunately  it  bos 
a  tenden<:r  to  scatter  rather  than  tlock  together. 

The  following  scale  of  points  was  adopted  by 
the  American  Cheviot  Sheep  Breeders'  Association  : 

Scale  ar  Points  roa  Cbeviot  SaEsr    Perfwt 

•cora 

1.  Blood.— rore-hr*<I  from  om  or  more  importn. 

lidim  fntm  i^mttanil la 

2.  Conititotioo  and  Qoalitr.— In<]icatMl   by  the 

form  of  body  ;  ilt<«p  ud  large  in  breast  and 


610 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


ECkLE  OP  POISTS  POK  CHKVrOT  ShEKP, 

rontiouciJ  Porf*nl 

■eons 
throutth  the  heart :  b&ck  wide  aod  atraimht  aod 
well  covvred  with  li?un  niL'St:  viiAe  and  full  in 
thiiiti :  (leop  in  flank ;  f)kin  ^ft  snd  pink  in 
color  ;  prominent  eytM  ;  hL>atthfal  rountonanr-e. 
Deficiency  ot  briskpt  or  Hth-hnck  o!pj*i"ti(>nahlo.    20 

3,  Slie.— Jn  fair  condilian.  when  full-tnaturcfl  rams 

should  weigh  nut  Icm  thu:;  '^JO  puuuls  ewf-K. 
150  |>nuTirfa  (when  brpd  in  America.  Imiiorto<l 
stock.  r»DW.  125  to  150  pounds,  av/ee,  100  to 
lli'vj II) 

4.  Geaerat  Appearanco. — Oood  ^A^H&g1^;  h^nd  well 

up:  elufllic  [novt>ra«nt :  i^howinii  cyniinttlry  of 
fi>rin  ftnH  tinlfcirmiLy  l^f  rhnrni-lw  ihmughnut  .  10 
n.  Body. — Well  propiprlinnorl ;  emnll  lionri;  Rri'iit 
sL'aW  and  l«nj(t)i ;  wvlJ-finished  hind-quarten), 
thick  buck  »n<!  Imh^^  ;  ^Undin^  with  jrt^i  ni-ol] 
placed  out^de:  br^Oi^t  wid*!  and  prominetit  in 
(runt ;  tail  widi^  iLiid  wl'II  ruvered  with  wool  .      10 

6,  Head. — I.onjj  and  lirond,  wiiii-  botwfun  the  oyes  ; 

ears  of  medium  }*Ti(jth  and  prect ;  face  wbil*, 
but  sinal]  blMck  Bpote  un  huad  uilJ  enn  nut 
obj^ctinnable ;  KtrntKht  or  Roman  now;  a 
white  none  ulijccticrnable  ;  end  of  nose  dark 
(but  n«ver  smut  no*^  ttn  Uip  with  bl»ck  or 
brown);  Bo  tuft  of  wool  tin  head M) 

7.  Nfrck. — Mudium  in  length  ;  thick  and  wt'll  placed 

on  the  flhoiild«>ra S 

8-  Legs  and  feet,  aort  lejpi,  set  well  apart ;  coinr 
white- ;  no  wool  on  lefpi ;  foro-kgB  round;  hitid- 
]ega  tlat  and  BCraij|i;ht ;  honfa  Idnck  anri  w«-)l 

Kbnpwl      & 

9.  Covering  —Body   and   b*lly   well   cowred  with 

fteere  'if  mi'dium  lenKtb  and  good  qijality  .   .    10 
10.  Quality  of  wool.   -Mpdiura;  ouch  as  ia  known 

in  miirkct  -m  half  (jocobing  wool 5 

PerfMlion 100 

The  cheviot  has  l>een  brnl  for  a  very  long  \mriod 
on  the  Scottish  bonJore.  The  tnonka  of  the  middle 
ages  had  the  briM?<I  about  the  paature  lands  uf  the 
old  monasteries ;  and  to  Ihe  sbeep-famiing  church- 
men of  Teviotdale  are  we  indebted  for  the  first 
iroprovementa  tn  the  breed.  The  numks  of  Melroae 
had  Ijirge  flocka.  which  were  dispersed  in  the  bor- 
der fields.  It  waa  not  till  about  17.nO  that  the  bor- 
der farmer  Ravo  much  attention  to  the  breed  or 
accomplished  anything  in  its  improvemont. 

In  Amcrka.—Ch^Yiois  were  taken  to  Canada 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century.  In  1838,  Robert 
Young,  of  Delhi.  New  York,  made  an  importation, 
followed  four  years  later  by  other  i  in  porta  tionji  to 
the  same  county.  In  184.'>.  they  were  imported 
into  Wisconsin  by  T.  J.  ('■annichael.  Subsequent 
importations  hava  been  made,  but  the  breed  did 
not  make  much  progress  in  America  prior  to 
1880. 

niilrihuiioTi. 

In  the  Cheviot  hills,  the  Cheviota  are  «tiU  the  lead- 
inj;  breed.  .About  the  yi^ar  18(10,  Sir  John  Sinclair 
tried  them  in  Claithni-M^  }thin>.  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Scotland,  and  they  have  spruad  into  Sutherland- 
ahire,  wht^re  tliey  are  bred  in  large  number)).  They 


have  done  well  In  many  p.?rls  of  the  United  States, 
but  not  so  well  in  Canada,  where  the  close  confine- 
ment of  the  winters  is  iiuainst  their  active  habitF. 
Wherever  they  can  have  outdoor  exercise  all  the 
yeiir  round,  they  art  at  homo.  They  are  »[)ecially 
adiiptt-d  for  high,  ura-isy  tablelands.  They  are 
moj^l  numi^niuH  in  central  and  eastern  L'nited 
States,  but  have  tjecome  very  widely  scattered' 
throuRhout  the  country. 

f'jtw. 

The  Cheviot  ia  remarkably  hardy,  and  can  lire 
on  very  poor  graring;  bat,  nevertheless,  it  must 
have  grass  of  some  kind,  and  with  it  needs  little 
else.  It  yields  a  Rttfd  class  of  well-marbled  mat- 
ton,  that  ia  not  too  fat.  It  dreas&e  a  carcass  of 
Kood  weight  It  bears  traveling  on  foot  for  long 
dtstancejt  better  than  other  modem  breeds,  and  ta 


Fts  615.    Cbciot  ram. 

exceedingly  hardy.  The  ewes  are  good,  careful 
mothers,  and  highly  prolific.  The  Cheviot  caanot 
be  said  to  be  superior  as  ii  wool-producer,  owing 
to  the  light  (Jeecc.  which,  however,  ia  of  good 
quality,  medium  length,  and  in  demand.  Accord- 
ing to  Wallace,  an  average  clip  for  ewee  is  four 
and  one-half  to  fi%*e  pounds  of  washed  wool.  The 
tendency  of  American  breeding  is  to  improved 
wool-production  and  more  compact  form.  Cheviot 
ewes  produce  a  good  claw  of  early  maturing  grade 
mutton  sheep  when  cnwacd  with  Lincoln.  Leicwter 
or  Oxford  Down  rams.  These  croaseB  have  been 
popular  in  the  native  home  of  the  breed  for  wm^ 
years. 

Orifanimtiotut  and  neords. 

The  Cheviot  Sheep  Society  of  Great  Britain  vu 
organized  in  1891,  and  has  published  a  volama  of 
its  flookbook  for  each  year.  Volume  I  having  been 
issued  in  1893.  The  American  Cheviot  Sheep 
Breeders'  Association  was  organised  to  1S91,  at 
Ilartwick.  New  York,  and  two  years  later  issued 
its  first  flockbook.  In  lHD-1.  the  National  CbevtU 
Shi-ep  Society  was  org.inized  at  lndianapo1i.<i.  Indi- 
ana. Six  ycara  Liter,  these  two  societifts  united  to 
form  the  American  Cheviot  Shoep  Society.  Thr 
latter  organization  continues  the  pablicatioa  of 
the  t^ocrkbook. 

Litrriifurr. 

For  references,  see  page  596. 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


611 


Cotswotd  Sheep.  Fig.  616. 

By  [tarid  MeCrat. 

The  Cotawold  U  a  breed  of  ehecp  raised  both  for 
wool  un<l  f(>r  mutton,  It  is  of  larue  size,  and  c^pH- 
bl(>  i)f  4>ndurin^  much  h»nUhip  and  cxjKHiire,  and 
well  adapted  to  many  &uilA.  Tlio  naniw  iHcItriv^d 
from  n  rnnuo  Qf  bleak  uplands  in  Gloucv^t^rahire, 
Etijfland,  known  as  Cntswold  !il]Ib, 

Deteriplion, 

The  Cotawdld  is  a  targe.  hiKh-standing  breed, 
with  hwivy  fltiK^ti  nt  long,  white,  lustrijiis  w^xjI.  A 
matun;  ram  Khould  weiyh  '.iBO  pouiidH  i:>r  m<»re.  and 
a  mature  ewu  )iW  pounds  at  leaiit.  An  ainp!i;  tu]>- 
knot,  ofttn  covering  the  oytts,  is  one  of  the  dintin- 
Kuiahingt-haratleriBticenf  the  breed.  It  is  uniform 
in  type,  with  liuld,  tiprijjht  carriage,  lirtiad  back, 
and  ahows  a  fair  leg  nf  fnuttcm.  It  is  a  superior 
feeiltT,  iipceially  well  adaplt^ij  to  good  pasture  land, 
anil  fairly  prolific. 

The  following  is  the  atandard  of  excellence  and 
scale  of  poiTiU  adopted  by  the  American  Cotswold 
Sheep  Assiiciation : 

ScALB  OP  Points  poit  Cotswold  Suser 

Fbr  ntnj  t*»rf*et 

1.  Head. — Nut  too  fine,  DoderatelyBmaU.wiil  brood 

between  the  eyN  and  nruiriSK,  hul  wJth'iut  a 
ihorc.  ttiick  appeursnce :  and  ia  yuuiig  animals 
well  cuvt-rf-d  cin  imwn  with  long  la^lnmn  *onI.      8 

2.  Face.— Bithei  whit*  or  sIiRhtly  mixed  with  gray 

or  whilt^  idriiiplHd  with  lirwn I 

3.  Ifoslrils. — Wi'lc  And  ^xptknii^  :  noM  dark     .    .  1 

4.  Eyes. — rronjjnunt,  but  mild  looking 2 

5.  Eaia.     Krowl.  long,  nnwJt'rately  thin,  and  eov- 

f  rvd  with  nhort  hair 4 

6.  CoiUr,—  t'ull  from  breaflt  and  shoulders,  tafter- 

iiw  Kradually  idl  Ihp  wny  to  wht>re  thv  neck 
and  head  join.  The  neek  nhrnild  1>(>  iihort,  thirk 
and  Ktrong,  indicating  ci>n«titutionul  rigor,  and 
fnw  from  cuanie  ami  hmnf!  akin 6 

7.  Shontdera.  -~  Brnud  and  fnll,  and  at  tho  »ame  tin!« 

jiiin  00  gradually  to  th«  cnllnr  fnrwiLnl  and 
chine  backward  an  not  to  leave  lh»  least  hol- 
low in  either  place 8 

8.  Fore  legs.     The  mutton  on  the  arm   and   fore- 

tbigb  8b"uld  cume  quilv  to  Itve  kni^.  Leg  u|>- 
rigfit^  with  lieat7  bone,  being  clear  from 
nptrflaous  skin,  with  wool  to  f«tlock,  and 
may  be  mixed  with  Rray 4 

9.  Breaat.   -Rroad  and  woll   forward.  k««|iing  ttie 

legs  wide  apart.  Ginh  or  chest,  full  and  deepi.    10 

10.  Fora-flaok.— Quite  fall,  not  Hhowing  hollow  l>c- 

hind  the  shoalfler fi 

11.  Back  and  loin.— Rroad,  flat  kmi  xtniiKhi.  from 

which  the  nb«i  mu»t  spring  wiib  a  fine  cirvular 
arch 12 

12.  Belly.— Stmight  on  UDder-line  .   . 3 

15.  <?uaiters.     Long  aad  full,  with  matton  quite 

down  to  th«  bock 8 

14.  Bock.— Should  Ktand  neither  in  nor  oaL  ....      2 

16.  Twist,  nr  Janet)i>n  intiidw  th«  thigh*,  <Ie«p,  w\i9 

and  full,  whirh.  with  a  brood  breaat,  will  k»ep 

the  Ipj^tipcn  anfl  uprijihl       B 

16.  Fleece,  —The  whoU-  l>o]y  ahould  be  covered  with 

long  luKtrouA  w(H>l  .       18 

Perfection 100 


Scale  or  Puiktk  ma  Cotrwoui  shbkp,  coatinned. 

For  evti  I'rrttti 

1.  Head.  — Moderately  rinv,  broad  betwuen  the  ej'ea 

and  nofltrib,  hut  >  'ithoat  a  Jihort,  thick  appear- 
ance, and  wvll  covered  up  crown  with  long  hia- 
trnaa  wool 8 

2.  Pace. — Eitht^r  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray, 

or  white  dan[>led  with  brown 4 

3.  NDstnls.—Wtde  aad  exjwuied,  nose  dark  ...      1 
■I.  Kyea.  -Proniiiwnt,  but  mild  looking 2 

5.  Ears. — I)ro«d,  long,  moderately  thin  and  covered 

with  Hhurt  hair 4 

6.  Collar     Full  from  breuat  and  ahontdera.  taper- 

ing gradually  all  the  way  to  wher«  the  oeck 
and  head  jnin.  The  neck  nhould  be  llae  and 
gracdfal,  and  ttv^  from  co^irsc  and  lou&e  skin,      5 

7.  Shenlder*.-   broiul  and    full,  and   nt  thf  aamf 

t{m«  J'lin  «o  gr»<lually  to  the  collar  forward 
and  chine  backward,  aa  not  to  leavv  the  least 
hollow  in  either  place 8 

8.  Fore  lega. — The  mutton  on  the  arm  nr  funsUiigh 

should  comu  quite  Ut  the  knee.  1.«r  aprignt 
with  heavy  bone.  Wing  cJvar  fruci  «upi>r- 
fluMis  akin,  with  wool  to  fetlock,  and  ma>  be 
mixed  with  gray 4 

9.  Breast.     Bro^  and  well   forwartl,  keeping  the 

legs  wide  apart,  girth  or  chiist  full  and  deep  .    10 

10.  Pore^Bank.- guile  full,  not  showing  holJow  !>«•. 

hind  tht?  Hhmulder 4 

11.  Back  and  loin.  — Broad,  Hat  and  RtraLKht.  from 

which  th<^  rib«  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular 
arch 12 

12.  Belly. -Straight  on  undcr-line 6 

1'3.  Quatlcra.  —  jjirng  and   full,  with  mutton  qaite 

down  to  the  hock 8 

14.  Hock.— Should  stand  neither  in  uur  out  ....  2 
16.  Twist,  or  junction  ioj^idfl  the  thighit,  deep,  wide 

and  full,  which,  with  a.  broad  breast,  will  keep 

the  leRE  opea  and  upright 5 

16.  Fleece.- The  whole  hody  should  be  covered  with 

long  lutitroQd  wool 18 

Perfection 100 

Thtt  rotswdlti  is  an  old  English  breed,  who«e 
anLi<iuity  is  andrmbteiL  It  is  one  of  thi*  earliest 
fiheiip  mvntioawi  by  nanin  in  Anglo-Saxon  ni-orda. 
In  tho  time  of  the  Uomau  cnnqut-Kta,  Ihu  region 
fnim  which  these  aheep  come  is  eaid  to  have  bi-en 
famous  for  the  pnxhction  of  wool.  Low  siiggeals 
thai  the  Cutswold  vins  tle%'oloppd  from  the  sheep 
found  in  th*;  cuuntifS  of  Warwick  and  Oxford  at 
an  wirly  period.  The  m«dnrn  t'otswohl  in  not  no 
large  nor  «o  high-standing  an  waa  thw  older  bri>ed, 
bnt  has  more  style,  Wing  remarkable  for  ay  tnmelry, 
early  maturity  and  weight,  with  a  lofty  carriage, 
a  line,  well-covered  hejid,  and  an  ulmndant  fleoce  of 
white,  wavy  wool.  Much  of  this  imprnvt-mont  ia 
aacribed  to  the  dm  of  Ixdcitilnr  rama  on  rntitwold 
ewi«,  u  prat:ticL>  \'L*ry  common  abuut  the  iieginning 
of  th^  niiiet4>enth  century. 

The  type  of  the  brtfctl  haa  been  well  maintain(!d 
by  the  English  breedera.  and  the  flocks  of  the  varj- 
OUB  brecdera  now  ahow  a  uniformity  that  is  very 
deairftble.  Oarne  of  North  lipach,  Hugh  Aytmer  of 
Norfolk,  GiUett  of  C'huUbury  and  Swacwick  of 
Cfrenoester  were  notable  breeders  who  had  flocks 
of  good  tTp«. 


612 


SKEEP 


SHEEP 


In  America.— We  have  a  record  of  an  importa- 
tioii  tif  ('utswuld  vheap  by  ('liriat^jphir  Dunn,  of 
Albuny,  N.  V.,  in  18^2.  Docblltws  there  had  Iwwn 
previous  impurtationtt,  for  even  at  that  <jat<i;  »\iwp 
of  Uiis  type  witw  rathur  common  in  Sew  York. 
In  1S34,  Eftiiiic  Maynard  took  a.  smal}  flock  into 
Ohio.  In  1837  they  reachoii  Kentucky,  where  they 
later  becnme  very  pn|niliir.  In  1810.  Brarttua  Corn- 
inj^,  uIjio  of  Allmny,  brought  over  a  9ele<.:t  lot;  and 
W,  H.  Kothiim  madf?  :)n  importation  of  ninettn^n 
about  Lhu  same  time.  In  IHW.  Ovoruu  Miller,  of 
Markham,  Tanuda,  brought  over  thirty  head,  and 
these  were  shown  at  the  Provincial  Fair.     In  Que- 


m 


■**^>^ 


it' J*  *■*( 


& 


v-i 


vr-' 


Tig.  616.    CotswoM  ewe. 

bee  Province.  A.  U.  Torrance,  of  Montreal,  and  J. 
L.  Gibb  Compton  had  pt-od  flocks,  from  which  they 
sold  into  Maine,  Massachusetts  ard  Vermont.  Fegin- 
Ding  abont  1S70.  with  the  decreaiiing  popularity  of 
Merinos,  the  Cotawold  experienced  an  increasing 
demand^  and  many  flocks  were  c-^tabliabed,  espec- 
ially in  central  Uaitcd  States. 

DiMribution. 

The  Cotawold  has  become  wide-spread  in  Amer- 
ica. The  largest  number  of  breeders  are  in  Ontario, 
although  there  are  many  flocks  in  the  other  prov- 
inces of  Canada.  In  New  York,  there  are  good 
flocl(.<i.  Going  westward,  Indiana.  lUinoin.  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Inwu  and  Wisconsin  etand  in  the  order 
named  for  number  of  breeders,  but  all  are  ex- 
ceeded by  Orefjon.  which  has  the  largest  number 
of  any  state  in  the  Union.  Thera  are  iarire  flocks 
ill  Utah,  and  many  half-breeds  in  Montfina  and 
other  sections  of  the  We.-^t.  Kentucky  at  one  time 
had  large  flockii,  and  the  blood  thore  ta  Btill  in 
eviiience,  but  they  have  not  been  kept  on  record.  In 
Kngland,  the  Cotawold  \»  moat  popular  in  it.^  native 
county  of  f'ilou(^ester  and  neifrhboring  counties.  It 
has  bet-n  exporteil  to  Russia.  (lermany  and  France. 
on  the  continent,  and  to  .Australia  and  Xew  Zealand, 
as  well  as  to  many  parts  of  N'ortb  .America. 

Umm. 

The  Cotswold  is  a  fair  mutton  sheep,  giving  a 
big  CWCU8  of  strong  mutton,  very  popular  in  the 


ininiri^  ditttricta  of  England.    It  has  not  heen  mi 
jKipubir  in  America  for  mutton,  except  the  lamba.-^ 
The  abundance  of  external  fat  ia  against  it.    In 
America  it  has  been  used  for  crossing  on  Uerino 
and  native  sheep,  the  produce  being  a  lamb  of  tha 
mutton  type,  quick-feinling  and    hardy,  weighing  i 
120  to  140  poiind.'i  at  a  year  old  and  carrying  fair 
fleece.    For  wooJ.  the  breed  Haa  always  been  cele- 
brated, giving  a  heavy  fleece  of  ittrong  combing 
wool,    weighing  stxttMin    to  eighteen    poands  per 
Swi-v  in  tho    be»t  i5p<.'cimens.    The  staple  should 
average    ten    inches  in    length,  and    freqaently 
exceeds  this*.    The  half'bre<)  lamlis  yield  a  large 
flooce,  giving  much  profit  to  the  wool-grower. 

OrffanizatiotiA  and  reeordt. 

In  1^7H,  the  .American  CoIhwoM  Sheep  AAMcift-i 
lion  was  formed  to  keep  the  recvrd  of  the  br«ed.1 
Fourteen  volumem  of  the  record  have  been  iMned, 
with  over  forty  thousand  animals  recordi.-d.  The 
list  of  brooders  is  steadily  increaaing.  The  pres- 
ent headquarters  of  the  association  are  at  Wao- 
fcejfha.  Wis.  The  English  reprefientative  of  thi«_ 
breed  is  the  Cotswold  Sheep  Society  of  Enj^ 
land.  organi::ed  in  1892.  It  also  publishes  a  flock' 
book. 

Littraturt. 

For  references,  aee  page  596. 

Dorset-Horn  Sheep.  Fig.  617.  61S. 

By  H.  F.  MiUer. 

The  Dor^Krt  is  an  English  breed  that  takes  Itcj 
name  from  the  county  in  which  it  originated.   It 
a  mutton  breed,  specially  x'aliiable  for  cromiag  toj 
produce  early  lamW.    It  is  characteriied  by  grac(H 
fully  curving  horns  in  both  mule  and  female. 

D(gcnplio3i. 

In  form  and  fleece  tho  Uorset-Hom  closely  r&- 
sembles  the  Down  breeds,  but  in  some  features  pre- 
sents strong  contrasts.  Its  face  and  legs  are  pure 
white,  and  the  modern  American  type  ou  a  flesfa-| 
colored  nose.  Roth  sexes  have  homn,  the  rams 
very  heavy  ones  that  have  a  forward  spiral  curve. 
In  e'lze  these  sheep  are  between  the  Southdown  and 
the  Shrupi^bire,  the  standard  weight  for  rams  being ' 
about  '200  pounds  and  for  ewes,  IGO  pounds.  They 
generally  are  taller  than  either  of  the  alwve.  but 
are  not  so  uniform.  In  length,  quality  and  ijuantiiy 
of  fleece  they  are  also  between  the  above  two  breeds. 
Some  of  the  breed  early  brought  to  America  wen  [ 
exces.<?ively  tall  and  inclined  to  be  coarse.  Thejr 
were  also  quite  bare  of  wool  on  legs  and  belly.  The 
prev.iiling  ty|>e  at  present  approaches  the  Shropshire 
in  form,  althongh  it  is  not  so  heavy  in  the  breast 
and  chest.  It  is  now  well  covered  over  the  body  and 
legs  to  knees  and  hocks,  and  has  a  good  foretop. 
There  is  still  lack  of  uriformity,  style  and  quantity 
of  fleece.  A  somewhat  common  defect  is  a  con- 
stricted heart-girth.  The  breed  staDds  confinttment 
well  and  is  a  good  feeder.  It  is  also  pruHAc.  [A 
general  discussion  of  the  mutton  type  a  giTsn  oo 
pages  51,  52.] 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


613 


The  Cnntinental  Dorset  Club  adopted  the  follow- 
ing scale  of  points  for  ficoring  Dorset-Horn  Sheep : 

Bciue  OP  Points  mn  Pobsbt-Horn 

Sheep  ivrfp« 

1.  Bead.  — Nt>at.   i»ct   white,   no»triU  krue,  well 

covered  with  wool  on  tup  and  under  JawE  .   .      5 

2.  Horns. —Small  and  gleefully  corrinK  forward, 

rather  rtnse  to  jaw 6 

3.  Byea.— Prominent  and  bright 2 

4.  BaTs.—Uodlvin  sit«  and  cOTi>r»d  with  short  whit« 

hair      2 

5.  Hack. — Short,  fymmotrfcal. atrongly  net  on  ahonl- 

dprw,  eraduully  tajH'ririg  tu  junctinn  with 
h(.>aii I] 

6.  Sboulders.— Broiiul  and  full.  juLoinir  nvck  aai 

chino.  with  no  dep'r^fuion  at  «ithi<r  jHiiiit     .    ,     IB 

7.  Brlalcet.— Wido  and  full,  chuHl  full  mad  dwp  .    .      6 

8.  Fore-flaak.  -Full,  ehowing  little  di'))re»iun  be- 

hind .ihanlder B 

9.  Back  an^  toin.— Wide  and  straight:  riba  should 

H[irinf;  with  a  fi&l^  cjrrular  urch 10 

10.  Quartera  —Wide  and  fall,  with  mutton  extend- 

ing duMn  to  hix-k    .   .    .    , 10 

11.  Belly.— StraiRht  on  nnder-line 3 

12.  Fleece.    Modiam  urade.  of  even  quality,  extend- 

ing itvcir  Mly  find  well  down  on  Ivi^n.  and  pnv 
Btsntinu  a  smooth  sarfaM >    ,    12 

13.  General   conformatioa.— 4f   the   miitton  type, 

bi>dy  moderately  Ions;  short,  ntout  leRs.  placed 
Kquitrely  under  body;  skin  pink;  appearance 
nttrartive 15 

Perfection 100 

This  Dorset  is  one  of  the  oldest  distinct  bret-dfl 
in  Rn(;lanil,  no  ottiLT  roct!  ba%'Jng  beiin  mingled 
with  it  originallj',  within  the  timp  of  any  records 
referring  to  it.  It  was  lirst  mentione*!  in  1707, 
when  it  Vina  rpportcd  to  hnvp  ye-inpH  in  Decemlwr 
and  again  In  June.  The  Iwu  counties  of  Dorset  anti 


I'l  i.-D-t-HaiB  ram. 


BoBureet  seem  to  have  bevn  the  home  of  two  races, 
differing  somewhat,  which  beciune  mingled  in  tho 
pre«ent  Dorset.  Th*  original  stock  nf  DHntctuhlri' 
was  Bmall,  light  in  the  ahoulderB,  with  white  tacf 


and  legK  and  a  black  nose.  Both  males  and  females 
bore  horns.  The  stock  of  Somerset  was  larger, 
coarser,  longer-wookd,  with  Upwli-colorfjd  noee  and 
hotter  form.  T!ie  Diiraet  seeraa  never  to  hiiw  had 
a  devot-oo  with  thi-  gi'niuii  of  Hakewetl  or  Ellmiui, 
and    at  one    time  camo  near  tossing   it^    iilentity 


.  ''-v? 


W^ 


-^:^-, 


Pig.iU.   ttontt-Rott  ewe. 

through  aiiiiiixture  of  th«  improved  hreeda  of  the 
day.  its  ability  to  produix*  lambs  earlier  than  an; 
other  brev*l  seeniH  to  have  saved  it. 

Thic  Dorset  was  first  recngnized  at  the  leading 
Kngliflh  »how«  in  IS*>2,  It  has  been  greatly  im- 
nrovetl  »ince  thatdat*' ;  in  fact,  American  bre4-<ier» 
navi?  greatly  modified  and  unitiod  tho  breed  in  the 
past  quartur  century. 

In  .4mfrj>«,— Tho  introduction  of  Dor»ot«  to 
.limerica  haa  been  very  recent.  The  first  specimens 
were  shown  at  the  Chicago  Fat  Stock  Show,  in 
1885.  That  same  year  an  impurtattnn  was  made 
into  t'anaila.  In  1SS7,  A.  Thayer,  of  Hikhic  Falls, 
New  Yurk,  and  K.  F.  Bowdil*-h,  of  Frariiinghani. 
MasH.,  matje  impwrtationB.  In  1SK9,  T.  S.  (hooper,  of 
Pennsylvania,  imported  153  head.  They  have  not  as 
yet  gainetj  the  popularity  in  America  that  other 
English  breeds  have,  and  have  had  only  a  limited 
trial  on  the  ranges. 

DUtribttfimt. 

The  prineipal  flocks  in  Anieriea  are  to  Im  fimnd 
in  New  Jerney,  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia  and  Canada,  although  the  sheep 
are  fonnd  in  other  Htatea.  A  few  have  been  taken 
tn  Australia  and  elsewliere,  but  they  h»%'e  not  the 
wide  disfleminatinn  of  the  other  Knglish  breeds. 
They  are  nuinerdUa  in  their  native  counties  of 
J>on«-'t  add  Somerset,  in  England,  while  very  excel- 
lent llookd  may  be  found  on  islands  of  Wight  and 
Portland. 

Uie$, 

The  strong  rwommendatifin  nf  thp  breed  in 
-America,  as  in  England,  is  fi>r  the  pruluction  of 
hothouse  or  winter  lamlM.  It  will  breed  earlier 
than  any  other  of  the  Engli^th  br)5ed8,  and  the  ewet>, 
being  heavy  milkers,  prepare  their  lambs  for  mar- 
ket in  about  ten  weeks,  so  that  they  command  a 
good  price  for  mutton,   Under  high  feeding  th«y 


614 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


will  produce  lambs  twice  .i  year  in  some  clienatas, 
tiut  it  has  nftVf^r  prnvtKl  exp{>ilwtit  to  hiivv  tlietn 
do  m.  It  is  liuuiitftil  whipther  tliey  huvu  fliiiwrinr 
merit  as  a  jjetitTal  fanii  sliwiJ,  but  for  Ihw  jtruiliic- 
ti»n  of  early  market  laniiiB  thi-y  arv  e!!ij>e(.'ialiy 
Ruiteii,  Rams  of  the  liruwil  arc  vt-ry  aatinfactory 
for  u.ie  on  grade  Murino  fwos  in  the  pnxluction  (if 
feedi-rw.  The  ewes  are  also  bred  to  Khropsliire  or 
Sttatltdnwn  rams  tn  pn>iluce  market  lambs.  Tlie 
mattun,  i'X(*«[>t  that  lif  fat  InraUH,  is  not  si]|H?rior. 

For  wool-proil action  the  D'iniet-Horn  hsis  rather 
a  liKht  fleece.  The  tle<'Cm  ifi  short,  and  still  aanm- 
what  scant  under  the  body.  Ewen  avcrago  about 
six  pounds  and  rams  ai>oat  seven  pounds  of  wool  of 
fair  (luality.  The  lleece  pmbiibiy  has  the  least  «il 
of  any  of  the  mifldte-wocjl  breed?,  and  is  less  dense. 

Oriianization*  and  records. 

The  American  Dorset-Horn  Sheep  Brwders'  Asso- 
ciation was  organised  in  1H9I,  and  the  Continental 
Dorset  Club  in  18!)7.  The  former  is-iut'd  two  vol- 
umes of  its  flockbwk  bound  to^^-ther.  in  IS^M,  and 
the  latter  isfinod  ila  seventh  volume  in  19<)7.  The 
Continental  Doniet  Club  publisher  a  book  on  the 
breed  entitled  "The  Winter  Lamb."  The  Dorset- 
Horn  LSheeji  Itreeders'  Society  of  Enpland,  organ- 
ized in  18^1,  hm  mmd  nx  volumes  of  it«  record. 

Lilerature. 
For  references,  see  page  59G. 

Hampshire  Down  Sheep.   Figs.  133,  619.  620. 

By  H.  P.  MUier. 

The  Hamphirtd  breed  derivos  its  name  from  the 
Goanty  of  Lnut  naniu  in  the  south  of  Rnt^land,  one 
of  the  countius  in  which  it  was  d«velo[>ud.  It  is  a 
Tnutt4>n  breeii 

Df&rriptwn. 

The  Hampshire  isa  black-faced  breed,  larger  than 
the  Shr'tiMhir*".  and  i:*  r.-inlied  by  some  persims  as 
the  largest  cif  the  Down  breedH,  althou;;h  that  dit<- 
tinctinn  is  K»?nerally  arcorded  the  Oxford.  .'Vn 
average  weiKbt  ahould  \m  2i">()  jjonndM  fur  mature 
rams,  and  1S.">  to  19&  for  mature  ewt'S, 

It  is  the  coarsest  in  hone  and  head  of  any  of  this 
irroup.  Its  fleece  somewhat  rt'scmbles  that  of  the 
Southdown,  althnuph  it  is  coarser  and  less  dense. 
The  breed  ranks  rather  low  in  WDol-pHKbiction.  the 
SufTiilk  only  ranking  lower.  The  wmd  is  of  filiout 
the  same  grad*?  ;w  that  of  theShrojwhire,  but  sburter, 
and  covering  the  body  len!i  comiitetely.  The  face  i« 
inclined  to  be  Ion;;,  and  the  nose  numewhat  Kom&n 
in  the  rams.  Tht>  ears  are  large  and  drooping,  the 
face  and  legs  are  almost  black,  or  a  very  dark 
brown.  As  compared  with  the  Shropshire,  it  is 
somewhat  longer  in  body  and  leg,  and  fw-rhaps  10 
per  cent  he^avier.  The  ewes  jire  pn>lific  and  heavy 
milkers.  They  strongly  com^tete  with  the  Shrop- 
shire in  the  production  of  twimi.  [A  general  discni*- 
sion  of  the  mutton  type  is  given  on  pages  51,  r>2.] 

The  .American  Hampshire  Down  Sheep  Kreeders' 
Association  adopted  the  following  standard  in 
1890 :  Head  moaerately  large  but  not  coarse,  and 


well  covered  with  wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks : 
noiiitrils  wide ;  color  of  head  :ui(l  tegs,  dark  brown 
or  black  ;  eyes  pntminent  and  lustrous  ;  eara  mud* 
erulely  long  and  thin  ;  legs  well  under  ouLtide 
of  body,  straight,  with  good  size  of  bone;  neck  a 
regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any 
hollnw  in  front  nf  sbmjider.  set  high  upon  Utdv  ; 
shoulders  sloping,  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line 
of  the  iiack  and  neck  ;  chfst  deep  and  full  in  the 
hfart  phicp,  with  bri-asi  pruminent  and  full  ;  ba<rk 
!<traight  with  full  spring  of  rib;  loin  wi'le  and 
straight  wilhout  depres.«ion  in  front  of  hipe;  ijuar- 
ters  long  from  rum{)s  to  hips  without  sloping,  and 
deep  in  thigh  :  aliio  broad  in  hips  and  rumps  with 
full  hams :  insiile  of  thighin  full. 

SCAfj:  OF  PoiNTif  FOB  UAWSHUtB  SBBET  P*^**' 

r  Head. — LSi2«  and  shape    .  .  .  i & 

2.  Eyea  and  eaia 3 

3.  Color & 

4.  Legs  and  f«et 2 

r>,  Reck,  ahoalders  aud  brMat.—NMk 6 

SboQldiins 10 

Che^t  and  breAi<l -    IB 

6.  Body. —Hack  and  loins 15 

Ribs 5 

7.  Hiod-quArtcrs. — Lengtli     10 

Width 10 

Twiet B 

8.  Wool.  -I'Divhead  and  checks 2 

Belly  wull  covered 8 

IJnaiity 5 

Pnrfeclion 100 

The  Hampshire  Down  sheL-p  was  produced  by  the 
use  of  the  Southdown  on  the  Wiltshire-homed  and 
the  Derkdh ire-knot  aheep.   The  former  wa«  a  whit«- 


FtC-fil9.    BiBipablie  ram. 

fac«)  race,  and  the  latter  black-faced.  The  Wilt^ 
shire  wiis  considereil  the  largest  of  the  native 
bretils.  Mr.  William  Humphrey,  of  Newbury.  Hamp- 
shire, who  is   ai-crBdited    as   being  the   ^rrt    ud 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


915 


BTUtaBt  bnsrover  of  tW'  bn^ed,  a3.semb1e>rl.  about 
1834,  a  flock  of  careTally  seWU'd  eweti  nf  what 
wen;  ilien  referred  li>  in  u  (Eent-ral  way  a»  Wwnt- 
Coontry  Dow-na,  including  the  two  above-mentioned 
local  Htrama.  He  bci^un  hia  work  of  im|)r(»venient 
byselt^ction,  but  latter  became  imbued  with  the  ides 


Pic.  UO.    BAoipiihlrc  «we. 

thtt  crOflBing  would  ba  advuntii^tjou)!,  and  in  suc;- 
Cowiroyears purchased  three SoDthdowr  rams  from 
Jonaa  Wcbh.  A  little  later,  James  KawlenoL'  heg&a 
ini|>n>vBnient  <»f  what  was  known  an  the  Sussex 
shvep.  He  UMeJ  some  Hampshire  and  VVest-Cmintry 
Down  blood.  Cjatisr,  th«  two  Hw;ka  were  coiiliwced 
to  form  thti  Hampshin?  Iiuwn  breed.  HaniiiKhires 
rere  first  accorded  a  class  at  the  Koyal  Agricul- 
tural Society  .Show  in  18G7. 

[n  /4m#rtM.  —  HaTnpphin3  Down  Sheep  wore  impor- 
Ivd  into  America  in  I8;kt  by  Thomas  Mp««enBcr  of 
Lone  Island.  No  further  impnrtntiont^  are  recorded 
nntiT  1881.  In  that  ywir,  Henry  Metcalf,  of  Canan- 
daigTia,  New  York,  imported  iiw  ram,  Shepherds' 
Pride  2.  In  1883,  the  brot^d  was  introduced  into 
Michigan,  and  En  1885  into  Ohio. 

Diitrilmiion. 

Thia  briMH)  ia  now  widely  difweminated  through- 
oat  the  United  f^tates  and  Canada,  espeicially  in  the 
Mutum  w>ction«.  It  Heems  hanlv  ami  wttll  adapl«<j 
to  Amt-rican  cunditiontt.  and  itt  a  x'^)i«\  ;rrazer.  It 
has  made  Us  way  throuf;bi>nt  the  (loutbern  countieit 
of  England,  and  into  atl  the  Hn^'lish  colonics.  Now 
it  iti  found  in  many  countries,  among  which,  aside 
from  North  Aimrifji,  iRcliidin^  Mexio.  may  he 
Bamod  Rufffiia.  Ciermany,  PorLuKal,  Hungary,  ^)utb 
Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  ws'eral  purta 
of  Sonth  America,  notably  Argentina  and  Urugnay. 

Vmi. 

I^e  claim  of  the  breed  to  smperionty  is  baaed  on 
the  rapidity  with  whirh  th^'  lamlw  prow.  In  Eng- 
land, th['  flwks  are  generally  folded,  and  the  lambu 
fetl  for  rapid  devehtpmenl.  It  is  not  unusual  for  a 
Hampshirv  lamb  to  giiin  a  pound  a  day.  The  brewl 
ranks  very  well  for  mutton-production,  »ip«cially 
where  earlv  markot  lambs  ar«   wanted.   In   tbid 


country.  Hampshire  rams  are  especially  prized  for 
airinff  iambs  tt>  be  marketed  at  three  to  five  months 
of  age,  Thyy  are  winning  some  favor  on  the  range, 
as  sires  for  mating  with  Merino  grade  bwwi.  The 
lambs  ar*  daid  to  be  good  rustlers.  Pure-breiis  will 
doubtless  prove  profitable  for  the  production  of 
Iambs  to  be  marketed  in  the  early  sprinp  or 
summer.  Hut  pure-bred  flockit  wiH  be  chiefly  valu- 
able in  America  for  the  supply  of  rams  for  cross- 
breeding. 

As  has  huen  said,  for  wiHjI-pnjduction  the  Hamp- 
phire  Down  ia  very  mt-Jiocre.  Th«  ttuece  i^  light, 
abort,  and  of  rather  inferior  quality. 

Organizniiont  and  Trmrdt. 

The  Hampshire  Down  Sheep  Breeders"  Association 
waRorganizHi  in  England  in  ISS9,  andhad  published 
soventeen  vulumwi  I'f  it*  flwklMiok  up  to  1907.  The 
H:impshire  Down  Sheep  Breeder*'  .\«s(H-i,itioii  of 
America  waa  alao  organiaed  in  1889,  and  ha«l  ijwuwl 
nine  volumes  of  its  flockbook  up  to  1907.  The 
number  of  regttitratiuna  in  each  ia  large. 

For  reforencea,  tee  page  596. 

L«ic«Bt«r  Stieep.   Fig.  621. 

Uy  David  MeCrae. 

The  Leicester  (pronountted  Les'ter)  sheep  are  a 
lonji-wool  mutton  breed,  developed  largely  in  the 
county  of  l-eiceater  in  England.  The  land  in  this 
county  in  fertile  and  rolling,  and  well  adapted  for 
8houp-raL»ing. 

De^rriplion. 

The  Ixiieosters  are  a  hornless  breed  of  sheep,  of 
large  size,  rectangular  form  of  body  on  clean  legs, 
and  with  bare  faces  or  carrying  a  very  scant 
topknot. 

Thf  Leicester  breeders  have  no  authorized  stand- 
ard of  excellence  or  scale  of  (jiiintH.  The  f.Hct  that 
there  are  two  types  in  the  bryed,  the  Englinh  nr 
Bakewelt,  and  the  Border  Leiccstens,  and  that  theite 
vary  somewhat  in  form  and  details,  has  so  far  pre- 
ventol  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  scale.  Both  types 
are  recH;^iw>d  by  all  licicefltcr  associations.  The 
folliiwing  wale  of  puinta,  prepared  by  the  writer, 
favoDi  the  Border  tyi>e,  and,  while  not  authnriEed, 
has  b«-en  carefullyconaidofed  and  approved  by  good 
judges  of  the  breed.  It  is  introduced  here  merely 
as  a  aaggeation. 

SCAI.£  OP  POIKTS  rOA   LeICERTRR 

1.  BMd.^I<nnK,iii(Ml«ratKly9inaM,ta{M!rin|r  towards 

the  muulv  ;  whil«  and  w«t]  cov«red  with  hair; 
lipH  and  ntwtrilii  black 6 

2.  IfoM. —Somcwkat  aarrow.  ihnost  straight  ia 

ew«a  and  slightly  Soman  in  rmnu 2 

S.  Face  ^HariiiK  a  w»di[»-iiha(>ed  ippaarancfi,  well 

r«v«rvd  with  fin«  whitoi  hairft 2 

4.  EarB,    Thin,  rathpr  lonjt.  moUI«  and  directed 

backward:  a  black  spKik  on  fac«  and  «an  not 

■nconunon  2 

u.  KyM.— Laig*  aad  promlnMit 4 


i 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


SCALS  OP  POIMTg  PUK  LKICESTEK  SHEBP, 

continQed  P»rf»et 

6.  Neck. — t;trong  Jind  moderately  thort,  level  with 

Ibu  back  iin<]  brv:id  at  ita  buu  where  it  leHt^ei* 
the  choHt,  ;;r:idaallr  taperinR  toward  the 
h«Ad,  Mng  finu  whcr«  hvukl  Ami  nock  ji>in ; 
nefk  fltraight  from  i^hcMt,  ehnwinx  a  atralKbt 
line  from  rump  to  poll S 

7.  Breast.— Ihjeii,  brnoil  ikml  Tull S 

8.  Shoulders. — Upright,  wide  ai^roj^  th«  top,  giT- 

ing  i^oix]  tliii-katwH  tbrmuili  thi.'  hiuu't  ....      G 
0.  Chest.— Woll   fiilud   hehind  the  ahoolder,    with 

lurtfe  girth 6 

10-  Back. — Broad  and  wt'll-fipshni  ;  rilm  wall.'ipniniK, 

loins  wiil<>;  hipHt(<vel:quart«!rsHLraightiin<lIoD|j:    12 

11.  Barrel  round,  well  rihbrN)  home;   ntraii^ht  line.4 

above  and  bebw 10 

12.  Legs  of  minkTKlf  longth,  fairly  largi*  nmd  witlo 

apart,  with  atronc,  flat  bone,  covered  with 
n-liitu  hair;  hruwn  huir  ur  hihi1«i  uliJMctiouuliIti      6 

13.  Flesh  firm.sprinKy  pelt;  pink  skin 8 

14.  FlMce  tiao,  nnifurm  and  miuiid  tn  iitapla,  curly, 

with  good  bright  lu-iter  nnd  no  dark  hairs  or 
kemp;  belly  veW  covered 10 

15.  Caicaaj. — R^ctan^ilar,  leps  well  set  on,  hncks 

Btriiight,  piut«nu4  gcKxl,  with  neat  feet ;  good 
general  aprx-'i^rfLncH 12 

PerfBClicin lOO 

Hittory. 

TTie  liBiCtister  sheep  are  nH.med  from  theconnty  of 
l^iceater  (Lws'ter)  in  EiiRlatid,  whwrK  tht?  brt-'Ml  had 
its  origin.  Kobt-rt  Bakewoll  of  Dishiwy,  rn<ar  LoukIi- 
boroufih  in  LeicMtershire,  began  his  sheep-breed- 
ing elTorts  abnnt  ITfiii.  His  object  was  to  pnxiuco 
a  breed  thjit  wniilil  fatten  ([nickly  at  an  early  age. 
Before  this,  Imlk  i)f  hni]y  ami  wsight  cif  fl^pecA  had 


Fll.bii.    LelMatCT  rim. 

been  the  aim  of  breeders  of  luntt-wools.  Thii  com- 
mon sbeep  of  the  county  at  that  time  were  large, 
heavy  and  coarse* wooled.  white-factfd.  tijit-sitied, 
with  largp  b'vni-s  nnd  long,  thick,  roagh  leg--^.  Mr. 
Bak(>W(rlE  would  never  tell  how  he  got  hi.^  fl^K-.k  up 
to  the  exfullfncf  which  later  distinguipbvd  it,  nor 
yet  the  brc-iHis  he  usod,  biit  it  ts  thought  that  the 
basis  was  Iht*  old  To^.-jtwattT  brettl,  modifiwi  by 
eelcctions  from  the  Iwal  hreeda  of  long-wools  in  the 
diatrict.  This  Teeswater  breed,  fnira  the  valley  of 
the  river  Tecs  in  Vorkshine,  was  a  tall,  clumsy  ani- 


mal, mnall  in  the  hone,  round  in  the  rib,  and  with 
A  thin  flaece  of  long  wool.  It  made  good  mutton, 
but  wmoilow  in  maturing.  Bakewell  bred  for  mut- 
tou,  with  the  k^ast  bone  and  the  least  waste,  and 
for  quick -feeding  lambs.  The  breed  was  called  UiCj 
N'ew  Leicester  or  Dishley  breed.  Formed  bjr  c«i 
fut  selection  and  inhrnmiing,  thu  nuw  llocka  had 
great  prepotency,  were  pomt-timcH  delicate  in  con- 
stitiiticm  ami  sliy  bn^lt^tK.  Even  now,  after  150 
vearK,  thvat"  ff-aturys  aomctimfs  appiiar. 

The  Uishli--y  flock  became  famous.  Mr.  Bakewell 
dL-eided  to  let  his  rams  inHte.ad  of  selling  them  oat- 
right.  In  17G(.»,  ho  let  three  rams  for  $4  each,  and 
two  for  Jl.rill  eneh.  The  next  ywir  hix  price  wsa 
$■')  each,  antl  this  eontiiiU'i-il  with  varying  auoceM, 
until  in  ITAfl  ha  reached  $r>0  for  hi«  beat.  Then 
thedtrmaiid  iiicreajicd  rapidly,  la  178;").  the  toppric« 
wa--i  JnOO.  In  ITS9,  he  let  thri-e  rams  for  $t>,000, 
fleven  for  $10.lXtO,  and  the  remainder  of  hie  flock 
for$iri,OUU.  Hi^  reputation  0ra««>tablisbBd,an(]  the 
New  Ijeieester  liwame  the  most  popular  brwd  in 
England.  It  was  much  uwed  frtfcroaning  with  other 
breeds  to  prixluei;  quick -feeding  lamtw ;  and  this 
reputation  still  holds. 

In  .4meriru.^BakewelI  or  Dishley  sheep  reached 
America  in  colonial  days.    It  ia  said  that  fVorge 
Washington  had  Bakewell  ewes  at  Mount  Vernon. 
nther3   were   known    in    Pennsylvania  and    New 
Jersey.    Alxiut    the   beginning  of  the    nineteenth 
century,  Mr.  Tonfy,  nf  tiuubec,  made  an  impurlatiun. 
Irnter,  about  ISOfi,  tht-y  were  imported  into  Maaaa-; 
iL'huiietUt.    In  the  name  year,  Captain  Boanes  hroaghl 
some  rame  and  ewes  from  Kngland,  and  placed 
them  on  a  farm  in  New  Jersey.   The  Beane«  rtot-k 
suht«eqnontly,  in  the  hands  nf  others,  attained  much  i 
nottiriety.    .\  aumber  of  importatiomt  wt>j 
made  hiter,  and  gradually  the  breed  workwd' 
Westward. 

In  America,  a  type  has  been  developed  that 
differs  somewhat  from  both  the  Knglifihlyt'ices- 
ter  and  the  Bonier  Tieicester,  both  of  which 
types  have  lieen  used  in  many  of  the  tlocke  in 
Canada  and  the  United  Stati-s.  Some  owners 
aiwert  that  the  modern  American  I^icester  is 
a  buttur  sbeL-p  than  either  of  the  Engluih. 
types,  and  that  this  is  the  only  English  bi 
of  sheep  that  has  lieen  improvtul  in  America.^ 
Certainly  the  mtHlern  .\merioan  lA-icester  isa 
tine  sheep,  evenly  developed,  and  vhen  in  good 
form  is  a  lieautiful  animal. 

Diilribulion. 

The  Ix'iceaters  are  at  home  in  the  border 
counties  of  Kngland  and  Scotlan<l,  and  in  other 
parts  of  Great  Britain.  While  tried  to  some  e«tcnl 
abroad,  notably  in  part  of  Kun)pe,  New  Zealant^l 
.'Australia  and  .America,  they  hare  not  atlaine<l  tta9>< 
reputation  of  the  heavier-woolcd  breeds;  In  Amirr- 
ica  they  are  found  mainly  ia  Ontario  and  otbei 
Canadian  provinces,  and  in  Pennsylvania,  Mtcbigu^^ 
Illinois,  Iowa  and  Nebraska. 

np  [HfJihp  or  BfUctwtil  If/in  In-came  widely  lid 
in  England,  and  has  become  known  as  the  &i|^kb 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


617 


Leice-st^r.  Because  of  ittt  great  prepotency  ami  its 
quality  of  puttini;  un  fat  qaickly,  it  lHH>.uniu  ptipular 
as  the  greatest  of  all  the  mutUin  brvMJji  fur  cruHgjng 
purpoites  and  fur  Etartv  markft  lanibB. 

Tlic  Bt/rdnT  /xi«-W<T  ist  so  named  because  it  is 
brwl  in  the  Uorder  cuuntios  of  EnBlanci  and  .Scot- 
land. Ilox))oroii^li«hir&  in  Scotland  Iwing  now  the 
headquarters  of  the  breed,  (i^orge  Cttlley,  of  Iten- 
ton.  near  Darlincton  in  nurham,  am]  hia  brother 
are  Looked  on  us  the  original  bretMltm  of  the  Horder 
Leicester.  The  ('ull«y8  hireil  ruma  from  Uiahley 
and  crossed  them  on  a  stock  of  Teeawator  ewea  till 
they  bad  a  flwk  of  Leiceatera.  When  they  retirtd 
in  1806,  their  Jloclc.  through  that  of  Comptnn  of 
Learmonch,  supplied  a  part  of  the  Mertoun  flwk 
of  Lcird  I'olworth.  This  fi(>ck  hn»  bei-n  breit  with 
the  greatest  car©  since  1802,  and  by  judicious  Holee- 
tion  and  without  outside  blood  haa  been  made  Iht; 
premier  flock  of  the  breed. 

The  Bonier  breeii  haa  a  whit«  face,  fre*  from 
wool.  The  EnjjlUh  I-eiceater  may  have  a  small  tuft, 
and  may  he  btuiah  white  in  color.  At  one  time, 
blue  facea  were  in  fashion.  The  head  and  eye  are 
important  point^i  in  a  quick-feeding  animal.  "Never 
pick  a  rascally  bead  tnd  a  bud  eye."  no  matter 
what  the  carcasa  may  be,  is  the  advice  of  a  famous 
breeder. 

Uaa. 

The  Leicesters  are  osed  very  much  for  crossing 
porpomfl,  to  get  early  lambs  for  the  market.  Hav< 
ing  been  bwd  more  for  mutton  than  for  wool,  the 
breed  has  no  far  not  been  so  widely  difitributed  in 
.America  as  its  good  qualities  deserve.  Of  late 
years,  however,  the  market  for  fat  Iambs  has 
become  a  feature,  and  there  is  dow  more  demand 
for  the  Leicester  f(jr  croas-breeding.  For  mutton 
alone,  the  breed  is  inferior.  It  U  too  large  and  too 
fat,  unlosa  killed  young.  The  cross-bred  mutton  on 
IIamjwhir«s  or  Merinoa  is  superior  to  the  pure-bred. 
The  Border  licicester-Cheviot  cross  has  found  much 
favor  for  the  production  of  choice  mutton  for  the 
British  market. 

The  wool  of  the  Leicester  is  fine  and  long,  and  the 
fleeces  will  Wf  igh  nine  to  eleven  pounds.  Fine-wool 
rams  on  grade  I^ictjtter  owes  produce  a  fine,  com- 
pact fleece  that  is  heavier  than  that  of  the  Leicester 
pure-bred. 

For  grazing,  the  (ieicester  is  in  no  way  supe- 
rior. It  is  not  speci.illy  hardy,  and  cannot  rustle 
sufficiently  well  to  adapt  it  to  mucli  of  the  range 
lands. 

Organhatiinu  and  reeordt. 

The  first  organiMtion  devottjd  to  the  T^eiceeter 
was  tho  t)ishley  .Society,  which  was  formiefd  to  sos- 
tain  the  efforts  of  liakewell.  This  society  has  l>een 
Bucceeded  by  the  Ijeicoater  Sheep  Breeders'  Society. 
In  Kngland  there  is  also  the  Society  of  Border 
Leicwster  SIipi.-p  Rreedera.  The  AmKrican  [«iceeter 
Broedt-rx'  .^siwmiation  has  wsued  four  volumos  of 
\U  tlockbook,  since  its  organization  in  1K88. 

Literalure. 
For  references,  see  page  596. 


Liacoln  Sheep.   Fig.  ij22. 

By  Darixi  .VcCVaf. 

ThiH  breed  is  of  large  size,  with  a  heavy  fleece 
of  long,  wavy  or  curly  wool  and  a  moderate  tuft 
of  wool  on  the  face. 

Description. 

For  many  year^  the  tleece  has  been  made  a 
loading  feature  of  the  Lincoln  breed.  The  wool  is 
long,  somewhat  lustrous  and  of  a  strong  and  sound 
combing  quality.  For  length  of  fiber  and  strength 
of  staple,  no  other  breed  but  the  Cotswold  can 
rival  the  Lincoln.  The  color  is  white.  The-  head  is 
large,  and  without  homn.  The  sheep  gives  the 
impression  of  miuuiivt^ne^a.  It  is  gentle,  and  a  good 
feeder,  maturing  early.  Its  grazing  qualities  are 
fair.  It  cannot  bo  said  to  bo  very  prolific. 

ScAiJt  ur  PoiHTS  poa  LiNOOiji 

SUBCr  Perfwil 

•cor* 

1.  Constitntion.— Body  ilpcp,  back  wid«  ond  «trai([hl, 

wide  Knd  full  in  thu  thiKh  .  bright  lar]^  vy«a  ; 
skin  »uft  unil  pink 25 

2.  Size. — Hatur^-d   ranitt  not    less  tban  250  pounds 

whan  in  gvod  rundition  ;   vwm  200  puunds  or 
wver 10 

3.  Appearance. —Good   carriage  and  Hyntmetry  of 

iarm 10 

-1.  Body. — Well  proportioned, (food  bone,i;ood  l«nKth; 
brood  )iind-qnArt«r« :  lejiit  xlnnding  wid«  apart: 
liivnitt  wide  and  dectp 15 

5.  Head.— Covered  with  WfHil  tn  thr  cnr^;    ttlft  on 

foruhvad ;   tyv*  ftxprvuAive,  ears    fair    IfiiiKth. 
doited  or  molllpd  in  coltir 10 

6.  Heck.— M«dium  lengUi:  good  muscle;    well  set 

on  body 5 

T.  I-egs- — BnKid  and  set  well  apart,  goai  shape ; 
rnlor  white,  but  eomo  lilai^k  epola  do  not  dis- 
qoalify ;  wooVd  to  tho  knvM 10 

8.  FImc*.— Ofevi'n  bnKth  and  quiility  over  the  body; 

net    1«ss  than    eight    inches  fur    one  yoiir's 
gniwtli It) 

9.  Quality  of  wool.— KathLT  fin«,  long  wool,  strong 

luHlrutui  lilwr ;  nu  tendency  to  cot & 

IVrfectlon 100 

Hutory. 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  England  lies  the  county 
of  Lincoln,  which  contains  a  large  tract  of  fen  or 
marsh  land,  lyirg  ex|>osed  to  the  North  sea  and 
very  little  above  it.  On  this  flat  fen  land  has 
lieen  brtiitl  a  race  of  sheep  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  county,  and  which  has  made  for  itself  a 
world-wide  reputation.  In  olden  times,  the  sheep 
raised  on  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire  were  remarka- 
ble for  large  size  and  for  length  of  wtwl.  They 
had  also  large  limbs,  big  hoofs,  hollow  flanks  and 
Hat  sides.  We  kmiw  little  atmiit  the  origin  of  the 
old  Lincoln  breed,  Ellis,  who  published  (lia  ".Shep- 
henl's  fiuidi?"  in  1749,  is  the  first  to  mention  them 
as  an  establirtV'*]  Ihrn-d  in  the  fens  of  Lincoln.  lie 
says  that  they  wt-re  "the  longest  legged  and  larg- 
est uarcased  shivp  of  all  others ;  and  although 
their  legs  and  bollies  were  f-jr  the  most  part  void 
of  wool,  yet  they  carri«^  more  wool  on  them  than 


618 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


any  sheep  whataoe^-er.''  The  mtHjem  Lincoln  is 
said  to  he  the  prridiict  of  a  I^icoator  croas  on  the 
old  Unc^ln.  U  is  a  tine  representntiveof  the  tong- 
wool  nheep,  and  yields  a  very  heavy  fleece  of  comb- 
ing wool. 

la  AmeruM.—LincfAas  vrere  first  brought  to 
New  England  almut  the  cluee  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  182S,  nn  importation  was  made  to 
Massachusetts  hy  A.  A.  Lawruncc.   In  1S24,  tht.>y 


r;r^^t^^m:s^i^ii:^:^:t^ 


.Jfe^.-^'^ri. 


■  Si.'; 


Fit.  Ut.    Usootn  ram. 

reached  Ohio.  An  importation  wha  made  to  New 
York  in  183ti  hy  1-.  I),  ("lift.  Since  thut  time  im- 
portatii)i)»  hwve  t«een  m:ide  tu  buth  t!jiHiiiln  and  the 
United  States.  The  breed  had  not  been  pupulur  in 
this  coontry. 

DUtributioR. 

Lincoln  sheep  are  stilt  largely  hred  in  their  old 
home  in  Lineoinshire  and  neiyhhoriiiji  cmintieH  in 
England.  In  Au^tnilia  and  New  Zealand  they  are 
favorite!)  for  crowsinK  purpfWfrt.  They  have  nUo 
reached  Rusaia  and  .South  Africa.  In  Snuth  .■\merica 
they  are  popular,  and  very  high  prices  have  been 
paid  for  export  rams  to  go  to  Argentina.  In  North 
America  they  have  not  gained  the  same  favor. 
There  are  a  few  roikI  Hi.Kk»  in  ranada,  mainly  in 
Ontario,  and  a  few  have  l»een  tried  on  western 
ranches  with  more  or  leas  auecesa. 

Famiiiet. 

Mention  shoaM  be  made  of  two  notable  flocks. 
One  of  the  leatling  (locks  in  England  i»  thfit  of 
Henry  Dtidding,  Riby  Gmvp,  Great  Llrimsby,  Lin- 
colnshire. It  i«  a  very  large  flock  and  haa  lieen 
bred  carefully  for  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.  Unms  fnim  this  flock  have  !Ki!d  for  $r>,tK)(> 
each.  In  1!K>7.  forty-idght  rams  averaged  $45tt. 
Another  flock  which  has  a  notable  record  is  that 
of  1.  E.  Cnsswell,  Laughtun,  Folkinghiim, 

The  Lincoln  is  bred  for  wool,  and  its  reputation 
bat)  been  made  from  the  fleece.  Lincolmihire  hax 
an  area  of  iilwnt  twenty-«evcn  hundreti  »iaare 
mil'.-^,  and  Us  annual  wool  clip  exci-eds  nine  million 
poumls  of  washt'd  wool.  For  many  centuries  this 
wool  hiLo  had  a  reputation  for  strong  tough  fiber, 
the  fen  wool  eH]>wially  having  this  marked  tough- 


ness.   It  is  said  by  many  persoM  that  the  bre«dj 
removed  from  its  native  fen  land  loses  tbe  toQgli 
strong  quality  of  fiber,  no  matter  how  rood  tt 
pasture  may  be  to  which  it  is  removed.  Eigtat 
pounds  of  wool  fur  mature  rum.•^  and  foorteM 
.sixteen  fur  mature  ewes  may  be  considered  avei 
yitflds. 

The  Lincoln  has  been  widely  used,  eapecially  ii 
New  Zealand,  for  crosh-ing  od  Merino  stock  to  gii 
a  long  combing  woil.   It  impreasee  its  loag-vt 
qualities  on  its  offspring.  This  cross  is  also  mc 
employed  in  vVrgentina  and  Australia,  tn  prodnc 
large  wool  sheep,  and  incidentally  mutton,  for  thi 
English  market.  The  pBre-bre<l  Lincoln  is  not  pop-1 
ular  for  mutton  purposes,  as  it  is  too  fat,  and  \W* 
mutton  is  of  inferior  qnatity. 

Organizatioas  and  records. 

Tile  National  Lincoln  .'^eep  nreedan'  Amocia- 
tion  of  .'America,  organized  in  1891,  looks  after  the 
interests  of  the  breed  in  this  coimlry.  It  haa 
published  two  flockbooks.  In  EngUnd  there  is  lb*! 
Lincoln  Long-Wool  Sheep  BreetJers'  Association, 
organized  in  1892.  It  iasuM  a  volume  of  its  Rock- 
book  each  year. 

Literaturt. 
For  reference,  see  page  596. 

Merino  Sheep.  Figs.  52.  53.  G23-627. 

By  Jotepk  E.  Wing. 

Of  the  Merinos  there  are  nevernl  families,  all 
which    are  characti'rized  by  the  production  of  linoj 
fleece.    The  name  "Merino"  comes  from  Spain  aii4] 
lias  l»een  varjuusly  explained. 

lk»cripf.iim. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  Uerinol 
is  its  covering,  which  ia  of  very  fine  wonl.  nsnallf  | 
delicately  rrLm)H>iJ,    This  w(H)1  is  generally  sbor 
ranging  from  an  inch  or  leiw  to  four  inches, 
sometimes  to  a  greutur  length.  It  m  dense,  Ihat  is,! 
there  are  a  great  number  of  wool  fibers  to  tbail 
s^inare  inch  of  skin.  A  Merino  will  carry  -10,000  tof 
48,0Ct0  filMirs  to  the  square  inch.    Wool  normally] 
grows  over  the  Merino  to  the  tips  of  the  eara  and  i 
to  the  hniiffl  (jf  the  feeU   In  the  Merino  is  seed  the] 
greatest  development  of  wool  in  pni|Hirti<in  to  car-; 
catu  of  any  breed.    In  .Spain,  the  heM  rams  of  tbeJ 
early  days  are  ri-'port*.'d  to  havi-  yielded  about  6  to  8 
per  cent  of  their  weight  in  wool,  while  in  America, 
in  ahout  1844.  the  yiold  had  increas^'^l  to  15  per; 
cent.   This,  of  course,  is  unwashed  wool.   The  ap-j 
pearance  of  the  Merino  is  not  very  pleasing.  The  i 
fom,  seen    when   shorn,  is  iL>iu.ilIy  .ingular.  the 
shouldera  often  narrow,  the  back  not  tntoally  !so 
straight  or  strong  as  In  some  English  breedti.  thei 
IcgA  less  straight  and  often  of  gr<'ater  length,  the  I 
neck  more  slender.  The  Merino  ram  UAually  has 
horns,  giving  the  appearance  of  masculine  Tigor.  ] 
The  appearance  of  weakness  in  the  Merino  is  banlly  j 
borne  out  by  its  behavior.   It  is  very  enduring  anai 
resi.stant,  withstands  storm  and  cold  and  "larvattoai 


L 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


619 


IwtttT  tban  most  alieop,  and  Us  vital  force  is  very 
stronjT.  [A  description  of  the  wool  type  of  sulieep, 
t'>gether  with  a  scor<-car(l  for  juciging,  will  be 
fourd  on  pages  52  and  51*.  Becaii.'W  of  th«  mul- 
tiplicity  of  score-tanls  for  Mtirinw.  no  one  of 
which  cun  }>e  cutuiderud  entirelyniprfKifntativu.no 
otht-r  score-card  for  flno-wool  «hc'<'j(  than  that 
pvcn  on  pagea  52  and  53  will  be  introduced  in 
this  volume.] 

Merino  sheep  are  native  of  Spain.  The  land  is  of 
variable  topography,  there  beinn  wide,  dry  plains, 
high,  cool  mnintains  and  table-lands  and  well- 
watorwJ  vallt-ys. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  Kerino,  little  is  known. 
ProfcMor  Lov  says  that  the  sheep  of  Spain  cami' 
originally  from  Pinenicia  and  Carthage,  iniroductfd 
by  the  Carthiiginiuns  and  the  Uoora,  iind  from 
Italy.  At  the  boKinning  of  the  Christian  era,  his- 
t4)rians  rt;lnted  that  the  iihi>ep  of  Spain  had  a  ftupe- 
rior  flovce.  When  in  the  eighth  century  the  Moors 
took  possession  of  .Spain,  they  introdacwi  the  mana- 
factare  of  tine  fabricit,  and  the  sheep  of  i>pain  fur- 
nished the  wool.  It  seems  probable  that  the  devel- 
Opm.'nt  of  the  Mfrino  as  a  bearer  of  fine  wool  wa« 
began  at  a  date  prior  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Chriatian  era. 

Sheep  in  Spain  have  long  been  nomadic,  spending 
the  aummera  in  the  high  lands  and  the  winters  on 
the  low  plains.  The  annual  movement  of  these 
millions  vi  sheep  were  notable  events.  In  this  I'.urf 
nectinn  it  is  intere^^ting  to  note  that  the  nheep 
were  divided  intn  two  great  groups  a*  related  to 
thtf*e  drives.  One  group,  known  as  Estanle.i,  was 
stationary  on  the  farms,  and  was  composed  of 
sheep  of  fairly  targe  size,  with  wool  somewhat 
coarser  than  that  of  the  other  type,  lewt  expoaed. 
perhaps,  to  the  rigors  of  climate.  The  secnnd  great 
group,  known  as  Trans  hum  antes,  wa?  made  up  of 
the  mignitory  sheep  th.it  constitnted  the  drives. 
Theite  were  sulttlivided  into  flocks  or  "squads"  of 
manageable  size  for  the  movements. 

In  .4/n«rica.— Successful  importation  of  Merinoa 
to  America  began  in  1801.  when  Seth  Adams 
brought  a  pair  to  Massachuttett^.  In  the  same 
year,  U.  [>upont  de  Nemuurs  is  said  to  have 
imported  one  Merino  ram.  which  had  considerable 
infljence  on  ci^rtain  flocks  in  New  Vork  and  other 
eastern  states.  In  1807.  Seth  Adams  remov&d  to 
Ohio,  taking  with  him  his  Merinos,  now  consider- 
ably increased.  In  1802.  Colonel  David  Humphrey 
imrwrted  from  Spain  to  Connecticut  ninety-three 
Merinos,  chiefly  ewea.  The  gtMxl  quality  of  theiw 
early  importations  attracted  conxidurable  atten- 
tion among  sheep-men,  which  resulted  in  increased 
importations.  (Jne  of  the  most  influential  of  these 
early  importers  waa  Robert  Lirtngaton,  who  made 
his  first  importation  in  1802.  By  his  writings  and 
by  his  political  influence  he  advanced  the  intereat 
in  Herinnx  very  greatly.  .-Vnotlier  prominent 
iim;Kirt.er  waa  William  Jarvts,  of  Vermont,  then 
th(>  United  States  coa.<>Ql  at  Lisbon.  Mr.  Jarvis 
sent  to  this  country  a  total  of  about  four  thousand 
head,  which  were  widely  diatriboted  through  the 


East.  All  of  those  aheep  were  of  superior  breed- 
ing, and  included  repireneulativeft  from  the  fami- 
lies iif  Piiiihir,  F^seiirial,  .\giiirre,  Kegrelte,  and 
Montarcus.  Fmm  thin  time  for  many  years  Ueri- 
nat  wi-Tv  on  the  cri-itt  of  popularity,  and  prices 
rule<i  very  high.  Plumb  states  that  "it  is  esti- 
mated that  from  April  1,  1810,  to  August  31, 
1811,  there  w,-rc  brought  to  the  United  Statee 
19,G51  Merino  shttep."  Most  of  the  shwp  imported 
from  Spain  were  of  the  gn-at  mignitory  group. 

MerintM  in  Amurica  are  now  grouped  in  three 
great  familietj,  designated  as  the  American  Merino, 
the  Delaine  and  the  itambonillet. 

Diiitrilititiiin. 

The  Merino  has  become  very  wide-spread,  and  is 
now  fciiind  in  all  civilized  countries  where  flocks 
are  kei>t,  although  tt  cannot  l>e  said  to  be  univer- 
sally popular  or  suvcesttful.  It  originated  in  a 
warm  climate.  It  has  shown  ability  t«J  withstand 
hot  weathur  and  tropical  climatic,  so  long  as  they 
are  dry.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  sheep  o'f 
Auatraiia  am  Merimxt.  It  ha.'*  alio  lK><*n  important 
in  N'ewZ«?alnnd  and  .\rgentina.  The  Merino  thrive.^ 
in  Vermont,  New  York,  Ohio,  and  other  north- 
central  states,  in  Texas  and  all  the  states  of  the 
West,  where  it  constitutes  by  far  the  majority  of 
the  range  flocks.  It  iTai^  never  lieen  popular  in 
Canada,  and  is  not  raised  in-  England. 

Familifs. 

The  principal  families  repreaentwl  in  the  Ameri- 
can importations,  and  hence  the  progt-nitors  of  our 
modt-m  American  Merinos,  were  as  follows: 

i'aular  .l/mnnji.  — The  Paulars  were  owned  by  the 
Carthusian  frian-t  of  Paular.  These  frwr.^-  had  one 
of  the  hjind.tomt-Ht  floekn  in  K)i:iin,  with  soft,  silky, 
close  and  compact  wool,  carrying  lees  surface  yolk 
than  Home  other  types.  The  Puular  lambs  wer« 
hairy  at  birth.  The  I'aular  subtype  of  the  Ameri- 
can Mi-rino  is  a  well-L^-'itnblished  strain. 

vijiitrre  .l/priniw.  — These  were  very  well-covered 
sheep,  with  much  wool  about  the  face,  and  a 
dense,  much  crimped  fleece.  The  sheep  had  round, 
bruad  bodies,  xhurt  legs,  and  much  loose  skio  ia 
folds  and  wrinkles. 

Attn-hi  Mfrinot.—Tha  famed  Atwood  family  of 
Merinos,  so  popular  the  latter  half  of  the  past  cen- 
tury, was  f'jrmed  by  mating  Infantados  with  Pau- 
lars, which  much  impn>ve<t  the  typ<*  nf  sheep  and 
the  fl«*ce.   They  were  characlerijwil  by  many  folds. 

The  Bfirariitl  Mrrxno*  were  nearly  as  tall  as  the 
Paulars  but  were  slik'hter  in  build.  Their  wool  was 
crimpi-d  and  not  so  thick  as  the  Paular  wool. 

Gy-adalupf  .Ifrrinw, —These  were  heavier  in 
bone  than  (he  Negrettes  and  were  celebrated  for 
both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  their  wool. 
Their  fleeces  wt-re  thick  and  crimped,  and  more  oily 
than  the  Negreltta:. 

i\^<jrtHf  .i^n'no*.— The  Negrette  Merinos  were 
the  largext  and  strongest  of  the  traveling  sheep 
of  Spain.  The  fieecv«  were  shorter  than  those  of 
the  Paulars.  They  were  wooled  on  the  face  and  to 
the  hoof?.  They  were  all  loose  skinned,  with  heavy 
dewlaps,  and  the  nuns  carried  large  horns. 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


Ittfantaiio  Merinon  were  brad  by  the  Buke  of 
Iiiraiitadu  and  wi-re  vory  superior  sheep.  Their 
horns  camo  close  to  the  Hides  of  their  hewis,  while 
those  of  the  Paularfi  and  Negrettes  ntood  out. 
Many  InfarttivitiR  were  brought  to  America,  notably 
by  Cokinei  Humphrey. 

Tn  thiti  connerlion,  rneation  shouli]  be  made  of 
some  of  the  faiiiiliL-s  of  Mcrinoa  that  hsvu  been 
built  up  in  Europetui  coantries  on  fouiidatino  stoclt 
import*?d  from  Spain,  Notable  aiBr>ng  these  fami- 
lies are  the  Saxon,  Silenian  or  Cierman,  Auiftralian, 
Prenph  (Rambnnillet)  and  Sweilish. 

Saxau.  XkriniK — From  the  Ertfturial  flocks  of 
Sfiain,  about  three  hundruJ  Mt-rinoa  were  sent,  in 
176H,  to  Saxony.  These  were  naturally  among  the 
finest  wooM  of  Merinos,  and  in  their  new  home 


.^E 


S^ 


■3Wf. 


m 


m 


•/^r^i^x 


m 


^*t]y. 


Tit.Ui.    Amerioaa  HntM  nm. 

more  attention  was  paid  to  thi^  quality  ;  so  much 
attention,  in  fact,  that  the  sheep  them-iielves  lost 
Btamina  and  hardiness  and  became  v+ry  delicate 
and  hard  to  raiBe.  The  wool  of  tbefw  Hhee[>,  how- 
ever, ia  of  extraordinary  finene**  and  beauty. 
They  yield  about  two  to  three  pound«  of  washed 
wool  per  head.   There  are  not  many  breeders  of 

Sure  Saxon  dheep  in  America,  althongh  they  have 
een  bred  to  somu  extent  in  western  Pennsylvania 
and  Virginia.  This  family  ia  now  almost  extinct. 
Silfsian,  or  German  Mrrino.  This  brf-od  was 
Mtablishod  in  Silesia  by  an  importation  of  Infan- 
tado  and  Negrette  Meriiios  in  ISIl,  although 
importationt!  had  be«n  made  earlier  with  some  suc- 
cess, notably  those  of  Von  Vinke  in  1768  and  1778. 
Since  that  day  they  have  boon  bred  pure,  princi- 
pally on  the  cj^late  of  Ferdinand  Pishcher  of  Wir- 
chenbiatt.  For  many  years  a  careful  record  of 
each  sheep  has  been  kept  on  thia  estate.  Silei«iui] 
6WD9  shear  eight  to  eleven  jxmtids  of  unwashed 
wool,  the  ranw  twelve  to  sixtwn  coand*.  The 
wool  is  two  to  three  inches  long,  dark  on  the  out- 
Blde.  not  gnmmv,  but  with  a  white,  clear  oil.  The 
ewes  weigh  llO  to  130  pounds  and  the  rams  145 
to  155  pounds.  There  have  been  many  .Sile.iiani* 
imported  into  America.  .Mr.  \Vm.  Chamberlin,  vf 
New  Vork,  imported  246  head  between  1851  and 


ISTifi.  It  ts  probable  that  at  this  day  most  Sile- 
Bians  in  America  have  beoome  merged  with  one  or 
the  other  of  the  larger  Merino  families. 

AuKfrniian  .Vfrian.—As  ha«  been  said,  the  Me- 
rino is  the  leading  sheep  in  Australia,  which  places 
Australia  at  the  bead  of  the  list  of  Merinn  sheep-l 
producing  conntriea  Taken  to  New  South  Walea 
in  1797,  the  sheep  found  the  hot,  dry  ranges  well 
suited  to  their  needs,  and  to  the  production  of  a 
high  grade  of  wool. 

The  tPtioL 

Merino  wool  ia  moat  esteemed  when  it  ia  fine. 
The  diameter  of  a  fiber  of  Merino  wotj]  varies  frwm 
ihitn  to  f^jyjf  of  an   inch,  while  the  filwrs  of  the 
English  breeds  vary  from  s\s  o^  »"  inch  for  an 
Oxford   Down,   to  kts  of  an   inch    for  a 
Southdown.    It  should  also  have  a  short 
crimp   throughout  its  entire  length,  and 
shaufd  be  Btmng,  silky  and  well  sapplied' 
with  white  oil.    This  ciil  protects  the  wool 
fibers,  but  at  the  outer  ends  it  collects 
dust  and  gives  the  coat  a  dark  and  unin- 
viting appearance,  which  is  dispelled  when 
the  wool  i.s  opened  and  the  heautifal  white 
and  glistening  interior  is  viewed. 

The  density  of  the  wwd  is  an  eflflential 
factor,  since  on  thiit  depends  the  weight  uf 
the  stitnired  fifece.  Sufficient  oil  to  protect 
'^  the  Heeeu  is  L-saontial,  but  a  surplus  of 
grease  is  unnecessary,  and  in  recent  years 
ha.s  been  recngniwd  a.s  undesirable.  Dur- 
ing the  Bo-t^alled  Merino  craze  that  existed 
in  America  soon  after  the  Civil  war,  thai 
aim  was  tu  get  aR  lieiuvy  a  fleece  as  possi- 
ble, and  many  breeders  nnwisely  sought  to 
attain  this  result  by  breeding  sheep  with 
very  greasy  wool.  It  was  learned,  how- 
ever,  that  this  only  enfeebled  the  sheep  without 
bringing  any  sufficient  compensation,  and  in  recent 
years  breeders  have  sought  to  produce  animals, 
b»earing  only  anflkient  oil  to  well  protect  tha' 
fleece. 

The  amount  of  oil  carried  by  Merino  SeeOM^ 
varies  with  the  dilferent  families,  the  .American  or 
Spanish  types  having  mwt  and  the  Riimlioaillel 
perhaps  the  least  oil.  Merino  fleei^s  have  hwo 
grown  so  heavy  with  oil  that  they  i^coureil  out  no 
more  thsin  12  ptr  Pent  of  clean  wool;  others  have 
made  40  pur  cunt.  Perhaps  an  average  yield  of 
clean  wool  would  be  aboot  30  per  cent  of  tb« 
weight  of  the  fleece  as  shorn,  A  good  ewe  should 
shear  fifteen  poonds  and  a  ram  twenty  t«  twenty- 
four  pounds  of  wool.  Individual  records  may  far 
exceed  this. 

i'gCJI. 

Merino  aheep  are  kept  primarily  for  their  wool.' 
It  is  true  that,  after  they  have  serve^l  their  tlra8{ 
for  this  pur]>oee,  they  are  commonly  fattened  and 
made  into  mutton,  yet  the  rlpece  w  iisoally  the  firat 
coni^tderation  with  the  Merino  floekma.ster.    Much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  quantity  ami   qaality  of 
wool  Iwrne  by  theae  shee,>.    In  some  fomiliee  of . 
Merinoo.  tbe  body  sorfsce  is  incresnd  by  foUsj 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


or  wrinkles  on  the  skin,  which  increase  the  wool- 
bearinc  surface.  These  folds  are  especially  pro- 
Doanced  about  the  neck,  and  itometime«  make  huge 
•■collars.*^ 

AuEBifAX  Mfxiko  STiKEr.  Figfi.  62;*,  624. 

The  American  Merino  was  developed  from  the 
Spanish  Merino,  the  blood  of  several  difFerert 
families  having  been  interbred,  tn  recent  years,  the 
Delaine  and  rtambouillet  types  of  Merinos  have 
become  more  popular  in  America  than  the  American 
Merino,  on-iag  to  their  better  form  and  ability  to 
fatten,  and  the  high  prices  prevailing  for  matton. 

Dfterifitiim. 

The  head  of  a  t>-pical  American  Merino  is  smalt, 
broad  and  short,  the  rams  carrying  heavy,  apirally- 
twi^iitc-d  horn^  anJ  the  ewes  being  hornlei)s.  The 
form  of  the  American  Merino  ta somewhat 'lelicate. 
Thu  skin  is  nf  thft  most  attractive  pink.  The  prt- 
Tailing  fashion  is  to  have  throe  to  five  heavy  folds 
on  the  neck,  lar^u  on  the  under  side,  but  not  on 
the  upper  aide;  two  or  three  short  folds  on  and 
immediateCy  back  of  each  elbow  or  arm  ;  fine,  thick 
wrinkles  running  down  the  sides,  but  not  extending 
over  the  lack.  Wrinkles  may  also  be  found  across 
the  hipfl,  somi^timeM  from  thi;^  tail  in  the  direction 
uf  the  stifle  and  itomiHimes  at  right  angles  with 
tht-m.  Folds  may  oc<:ur  around  the  tail  to  give  it 
a  wide  appcaranct.-.  and  also  across  the  thigh,  with 
a  deep  Aank.  The  11c«ce  covent  the  entire  f!heep, 
except  the  tip  of  the  nose  and  the  houfs.  Usually 
the  eyes  are  hidden  by  wool.  The  outride  of  the 
fieece  is  a  dirty  brown,  but  ini^ide  it  ii4  white  anfl 
gti«tenitig.  The  oni*-yi'ar-c»li]  flfere  will  nhow  a 
k-ngth  of  about  two  and  one-half  inchest.  The  niie 
of  the  American  Merino  varies  much.  Ewes  may 
Weigh  80  or  K>0  pounds,  rams  ITO  or  \1r>  pounds. 

The  American  Merino  doe«  not  reach  maturity 
ontil  betWHen  three  and  fonr  years  of  age,  and  in 
this  respect  ranks  below  other  breeds.  It  is  charac- 
teriaed,  however,  by  longevity. 

DiMtrihuiimi, 

In  America,  tho  American  Merino  is  widely  scat- 
tered, and  doea  well  nnder  very  diverse  conditions. 
It  is  hardy  and  active,  and  cjin  glean  a  living  under 
onfavorahlu  ccmditidiis.  It  has  been  largely  exported 
to  Australia  and  Africa.  In  Australia,  MerinuK  are 
bred  pore.  In  New  J^abnd.  llu-y  are  largely  inUsr- 
mixed  with  sho^p  of  mutton  type. 

fl>ruw<;/.  — American  Morinos  surpass  all  others 
In  the  production  of  fine,  strong  and  heavy  fleece. 
MatQre  ewes  frnjuently  shear  twelve  to  fift«en 
poonds,  and  rama  f^houtd  attain  to  twenty  pounds, 
Plomb.  quoting  from  a  Verni>i>iit  repurt,  says  that 
In  1812,  the  best  rams  in  Vermont  pnxinced  but  6 
per  cent  of  wool  to  weight  of  body.  In  1*1-1,  the 
wool  had  increa)»ed  to  15  i>er  cent,  in  lS6o  to  21 
per  cent  and  in  IfiSO  to  ^6  per  cent,  showing  a 
Tery  notable  increaae  in  the  production  of  wool. 
Unfortunately  wedo  not  know  what  the  increase  in 
per  cent  of  scoured  wool  has  been. 


FtJT  mM«(m.^The  American  Merino  does  not 
HHually  fatteit  bo  readily  as  other  types  of  the 
Merino :  and  when  compared  with  the  mutton 
breeds  it  le  inferior. 

For  cr»«iTij/.— In  the  West,  the  American  Merino 
was  largely  instrumental  in  transforming  the 
coarse  and  thin-wo«led  Mexican  ewe  into  one  of  far 
belter  and  heavier  fleece,  with  alw  better  form  and 
increaited  Kanline.t-i.  The  American  Merino  has 
been  much  luneii  for  cros.sing  in  this  country  and 
others,  and  the  result  is  invariably  an  improvement 


i'H  ■:A 


PJ£.A24.    AneticMa  MenDo  fwe. 

in  wool-production  in  the  grade  over  its  other 
parent.  Merino  ewt-a  are  crowed  with  various  nf 
the  middle -wool  bruuds  to  produce  a  go<H[  market 
mutton  t^huep,  yielding  a  somewhat  smaller  clip  of 
wool. 

Organizntiaiis  and  r^e&rdt. 

The  Merino  hiut  sufTered  from  an  over-abundance 
of  distinct  organizations  devoted  to  it«  interests, 
and  the  abscmce  of  one  contriilizHl  and  direct- 
ing body.  It  was  not  until  ISCfi  that  any  suc- 
cess was  attained  toward  the  formatiun  of  such  a 
national  society.  In  that  year,  the  American  and 
npliiine  Merino  Record  Association  was  formed,  by 
the  union  uf  the  International  Delaine,  Standard 
Delaine,  and  Impnived  f?|Kini.sh  Delaine  Merino 
Shoep  Hreedera' .As^rtciations.  Among  nearly  a  Br4)re 
of  asRoc-iations  giving  atlt-ntion  to  Merino  oheep 
may  be  mi-ntjoned  the  fuliowing,  which  are  con- 
cerned especially  with  the  American  Merino :  The 
Vermont  Merino  Sheep  Breeder?'  Association,  UnitiK) 
SUte.i  Merinn  Sh*ep  Hrecders'  Association,  Ameri- 
can Merinii  Sheep  Regi«U-r  Aasociatinn,  Ohio  Span- 
Lih  Merimi  Sliiw]!  llr(N>d(!rs'  .\KHCK'iation,  New  York 
Statu  .AnH^riean  Merino  ?heep  BroBdurs'  Aiuflciatiun, 
Michigan  Merino  Shtvp  Hreedera'  Asaociation,  Mis- 
souri Murino  ShiH-'p  Brecdere'  Association,  National 
-Merino  ^heop  Register  Association.  .Standard  Ameri- 
can Merinn  Sheep  Breeders'  Association.  Many  of 
these  asRociaticinB  issue  fliickbootoi,  and  employ  a 
score-card  for  judging  pnrpnoea. 


622 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


Deijiine  Meriso  SiiEF.r.   Figs.  rt2,  625. 

The  word  Delaine  meann  "nf  woml,"  anti  is  from 
the  Fnmch.  Delaine  who!  can  he  comliod  sind  spun 
with  the  (ibt-ra  of  full  lenKth,  nmkinji  a  fahriv  of 
fpraat  strviiKth  an«l  durability.  The  Dt'Iaiiit!  type, 
of  sei'orat  familii^,  ha.s  hufn  developed  from  im|K>r- 
tations  of  Spanish  Merinos,  by  sele-ctiona  from 
several  dilTerent  flocku  aa  Dot«d  in  the  following 
paraRnijihs. 

Dueription. 

Delaine  sbei'p  have  smoother  bodies  thsin  the 
American  Merinos,  with  fewer  folds  and  wrinklea. 
sometimes  with  nont'.  Thc-y  vary  considerably  in 
type,  according;  to  the  individoal  ideals  of  their 


i^*'"^?'?"''*'-*:'i-- 


"i^^^^ 


^:i:i 


^i^\ 


Tit.  Ui.    Delaine  Hcrlna  mm. 

luanj  breeders.  They  are  larger  and  heavier 
than  American  Merini«<  and  fatten  more  readily. 
The  weight  of  matnrijd  nimji  may  be  given  an  lit) 
to  200  pounds,  and  of  eveji  as  100  to  15D  poundd. 
Their  breedere  have  striven  to  combine  mutton 
qofllities,  to  some  extent,  with  the  production 
of  a  fine  fleece.  The  breeders  avail  thcmsc-lves 
rather  freely  of  whatever  Merino  blood  they 
fancy  will  improve  their  type.  Thas,  when  the 
flock  \»  liwing  in  weight  of  fleece,  they  nometimea 
resort  to  the  uite  of  .American  Merino  ratns  to 
Ihicki'n  tht*  fts-i^B  .ind  make  it  ht-avifr,  or  to  Ram- 
boiiillet  rams  to  incrf-afio  tho  size.  The  important 
item  souuhl  if.  to  kc^p  j;ood  »it0  and  mutton  quality. 
whilt!  furnisliing  flwce  of  good  lenKth  and  staple, 
grading  XX  or  better. 

Dutrihuiion. 

Among  bree<ls  of  Merinoe,  the  Delaine  \s  growing 
in  popularity.  It  is  found  in  NVw  York.  Pennsyl- 
Tunia,  Ohi(^,  Mtrhigiin,  Iowh,,  nnd  in  ad  joining 
Btatef«.  For  uw  nn  Iht-  nmgwi,  the  Di-tainn.-*  are 
6nding  inrre.nsinK  favor.  i«ipycially  where  thu  pa»- 
tarivi*e  is  good.  Tht.^  Black -tup  SpanLsh  Merino 
is  especially  niimerona  in  parts  of  lVnnitylvani& 
where  it  wa.**  developed.  They  are  less  hardy  than 
the  .\merican  Merino. 

Familit*, 

TV  DifkiHMtt  Drtainf*  wer«  developed  from 
Bheepof  the  Humphrey  importation  of  1802,  men- 


tioned above,  by  William  R.  Dicb'nwn  of  Ohio,  who 
began  his  improvement  of  Merino  nheep  in  1808. 
James  McDowell  became  possessed  of  some  of  the 
Dickinson  flock  andcreaUd  the  McDowell  atrainof 
Dickiiwons.  The  standard  of  excellence  for  Pick* 
inwQ  Delaines  says  that  the  sheep  shall  ha\-e  a 
deep,  round,  wide  and  long  body,  showing  mmion 
capacity,  carrying  heavy,  thick  flesh,  the  top-  and 
under-iines  straight,  the  skin  smooth  and  pink  ami 
well  tilled  out.  being  free  from  folds.  The  head  mar 
have  small  horns,  tint  a  polled  bead  is  preferred. 
The  fleece  should  be  three  to  five  iocbes  long,  of  4 
qaality  to  grade  XX  or  XXX  fine  Delaine  combing. 
Rams  ehoold  ahear  fifteen  to  twenty-five  ponndi 
and  ewes  ten  to  f  fteen  pounds  of  anwaahed  wool. 
Mature  rama  jshowid  weigh  200  pounda,  and  mature 
ewes  loO  pounds. 

Thf  yational  Delaines  are  descended  from  an 
importation  of  Merinos,  made  by  R.  W.  Meade,  is 
1820.  Mr.  Alex.  Reed,  of  Washington  coanty.  Pa., 
came  into  posaeesion  of  a  number  of  this  importa- 
tion the  year  following,  and  his  flock  may  be  con- 
sidered the  foundation  of  the  TJelaine  type.  Mmy 
of  the  Ue«d  flock  were  sold  to  other  breederv  il 
Pennsylvania  and  West  Virginia,  who  developed 
the  type,  perhaps  more  than  Mr.  Rcwd  bad  Aoat. 
This  type  is  not  very  different  from  the  DickiMon. 
It  has  the  smooth  body,  characteristic  of  the 
Delaine,  almost  free  from  folds.  It  does  not  seem 
to  be  desirable  to  dispentie  with  the  folds  altogether, 
as  they  appear  to  be  associated  with  density  and 
weight  of  wool.  This  family  does  not  attain  so 
largt'  sise  as  the  Dickinson,  running  perhaps  fiftj 
pounds  less  fur  both  male  and  female.  The  staple 
should  reach  three  inches  in  a  year,  and  the  fleece 
should  weigh  up  to  nine  pounds  and  be  compara- 
tively free  from  oil. 

ITie  Vidor-BtaU  strain  of  thin  family  is  Uw 
rrault  of  a  croiV  of  Spanish  and  Etlack-top  Merino 
blood,  .\bout  1R77,  a  Spanish  r.^m,  named  Victor, 
was  usetl  in  tlii-  flock  of  Black-lop  Morinoa  own«d 
by  U.  H.  Ru-tsell.  Fifteen  years  before,  a  ram  of 
.Spanish  and  Black-top  blood,  purchased  from  the 
flock  of  C.  H.  Beall,  of  We-H  Virginia,  had  been 
used  on  tiome  of  the  Reed  flock,  then  in  the  hands 
of  McClelland  Itroe*.  The  offspring  of  the  descend- 
ants of  tbe«e  two  rams  were  very  enpcrior,  and  the 
strain  came  to  Ik  known  as  VicUir*Bfemll  DelaiM 
Merino. 

The  BlaeX--hp  Spani/Jt  Merino.— In  1821,  Wil- 
liiim  Berry,  of  Washington  county.  Pa.,  porcbasrd 
soiin.'  ewes  and  a  ram  of  Mr.  Dickinson,  which  be 
bred  VL>ry  carefully.  He  was  impreRS«<l  that  th* 
sheep  having  the  darkest  apiH-arance  or  "tup"  wcr« 
tho  hardiest  and  be^t  fevdwrs.  By  selecting  along 
thest*  lines,  hif  developed  a  family  that  he  ralird 
Rlack-top.  It  ditTers  in  no  material  war  from  the 
olhor  families,  the  size  being  perhaps  a  tittle 
greater  and  the  fleece  a  little  heavier.  The  wool  ii 
not  so  much  laid  on  over  the  head  and  baa  m  darter 
appeanince  on  the  nuUiide.  The  staple  ahoatd  faacb 
a  length  of  three  to  four  inches,  and  the  nam 
Hhniitd  yield  thirteen  to  foarte<?n  pounds,  the  e«iA 
seven  to  twelve  poumta  of  brook-waslwd 
Black-top  rans  are  homed,  while  iht  «w«s 


PHEEr 


smooth  heails.    The  form  in  general  is  of  the 
mutton  tj[»t, 

ne  improt^Kd  Olaek-iop  Merino  also  had  its  oriEin 
in  Wa^hineton  county,  Pennsylvania,  in  the  hant1.« 
of  George  [{lack.  Refjifininji  aUoiit  IKn.'i,  ami  con- 
tinuing for  many  yi^mrH,  KiiliHrt  Jnlinston,  uIho  nf 
Washinjifttm  county,  uaod  only  Hiat^k-to|f  niniM  on 
hia  «wej«,  many  uf  hia  rama  coming'  from  Llic*  Herry 
flock.  His  ewc8  traced  to  the  Dickinson  Bock.  In 
1850,  Mr.  Black  camo  into  pusacjsion  of  twenty- 
flire  Blafk-top  *wes,  that  traced  to  the  Dickinson 
flock.  On  these  ho  used  rams  of  Berry  and  Johns- 
ton breeding,  and  from  this  foundation  developed 
th«  Improved  BIack-t«p  Dolaine.  the  word  "im- 
proved" bein^f  nsed  Ix^eauae  the  ndvociitwi  consid- 
ered this  family  superior  to  the  Black-tup  Spanish, 

UatM. 

For  Kwrf.— The  Delaine  Mcrinoe  bear  wool  a 
little  longer  and  coarser  in  fiherthan  the  American 
Merinos,  with  a  tittle  less  crimp  and  le^  oil,  and 
with  stronger  fibers  well  adapted  to  carding.  The 
fleece  in  a  well-kept  matured  ram  sh'ould  average 
twelve  to  ei[;ht(;tin  pL>und.t  and  in  the  matured  ew« 
about  nine  to  fift«t<n  pounds. 

For  muitoH.— Much  may  bo  said  in  praifle  of  the 
qaality  of  Delaine  mutton.  It  easily  leada  in  the 
Merino  families.  The  wethers  mature  rather 
quickly,  and  nell  at  a  good  price. 

For  croMinjr.— The  Delaine  Merino  has  been  tiaed 
to  good  advantH,ge  in  crossing  to  produce  better 
shearing  qualities  without  detriment  to  the  mutton 
qualities.  This  result  haa  frequently  been  secured 
on  the  western  ranges. 

Orgatiiiaium*  and  reeord*. 

At  present,  the  most  representatke  organization 
caring  for  the   interenta  of    these  sheep  is  the 


Sbe^  Breeders*  Association,  established  in  1B82.  in 
PconsjlTania,  a  large  numlMT  of  societies  have 
been  formed,  of  rcatricttd  membership  and  more  or 
leas  restricted  influents.  Several  of  these  have 
pulilijihed  flockhcKiki^,  and  have  established  score* 
cards  fur  judging  purpo<>eit. 


m' 


m 


n 


Fig*. 


Pl£.  bM.    bmboulUfi  ran. 


American  Delaine  Merino  Rword  Awtnciation,  men- 
tion«M]  under  the  .Amerii-an  Mfrino.  Starling  with 
che  urganization  uf  the  VicUir-Ruall  Dulainu  Merino 


Pis.  617.   Ru]bouUi«t  ewe. 

RAMBOUiLLliT    OK    FkEIN'CU    MBRINO    SHEEP. 

626,  627. 

The  Ramlxjuillet  is  a  very  large  type  of  Merino^ 
developed  in  France  from  Spanish  Merino  stock, 
and  taking  it«  name  from  the  Koyal  farm  at  the 
Tillage  of  }lambouilLet,  near  Taris. 

DfKript-wrt, 

The  most  striking  di^erenco  between  the  Ram- 
bouillet  and  the  American  Merino  is  in  size.  Rams 
at  maturity  will  average  in  weight  IT-'i  to  1^.5 
pounds,  and  ew«s  should  average  140  to  160 
poiinds.  Individuals,  both  male  and  femal'e, 
may  go  as  much  as  a  hundred  pounds  heav> 

t>mooth  and  free 

rhapfl,  one  or  two 

completely   covered 

not  bearing  too 

should  be  dense,  and 

in  length.  The 

than   in  the 

strongly  aquiline 

hair  or  ffhort, 

fine   wool.    Tlie  raros  usually  have  large. 

spirally  curvwl  horns,  although  horns  may 

1)e  <*ntirely  lacking.  The  ewes  are  hornless. 

Sometimes  the  observer  is  impreswd  by  the 

length  of  leg.   The  Rambuuillet  is  also  char< 

ac-teriwd    by   hardiness,   early  maturity, 

longevity  and  prolificacy. 

The  first  imporuition  of  sheep  from  Spjiin 
to  the  Royal  farm  at  the  village  of  Ram- 
h<HiiIli't  was  in  17SG.  Other  iniptirtati'tns  wvre 
made  at  later  dat*«.  The  improvement  was  secured 
principally  by  selection,  the  object  bi'ing  to  pro- 
duce a  large  carcaas,,  of  good  mnttun  form,  covered 


624 


SHEEP 


witli  a  Kootl  fleece.  Much  success  was  attained  in 
point  of  sizo,  although  the  fleoce  did  not  incruHsc 
in  the  same  ratin.  The  French  government  officials 
kept  cjiretul  records  of  their  breeding  nperatinnH  at 
Ramhiniillet  for  upwards  of  a  hunilnjd  yearB,  Be- 
9vim  the  ttw.k  iit  Ram houi lift,  uth^^r  lliHikH  were 
efltahli-shtid  in  Franw,  and  fn>m  th^i^e  imEiortant 
breedinji  farms  in  (iyrmany  wera  nttickei!. 

Ill  AnLtriira. — KainboQillets  wore  first  brought  to 
America  in  1S40,  under  the  name  of  French  Meri- 
nos. Many  were  importtid  during  the  tifta^n  years 
following,  and  the  breed  had  rather  wide-spread 
popularity.  Retwe*^n  the  years  185(1  and  IStW,  a 
numher  of  Kninhuuilleta,  hred  by  Mr.  .Itdin  D. 
Patterson,  iif  Nhw  York,  and  descendBd  fruin  an 
importation  of  bin  own,  Wfre  takuti  to  California 
and  t'ocarae  tho  proKfnitora  of  several  very  noted 
flocks  now  existing  in  that  state.  ]n  1851,  a  com- 
pany of  Ohio  breeders,  headed  by  A.  P.  Howard. 
maiie  an  importation. 

\t  fin^t,  RHrntiuuiilc^ta  were  welcomed,  bat  later 
they  went  into  disfavor,  owing  ]»rint:i pally  to  an 
allu;{ed  lack  of  hardim-as.  The  truth  is,  iierhaps, 
that  the  Kambouillc-ts,  btMng  larser  than  American 
Merinos,  rn^quire  more  food,  which  was  not  always 
given  them.  About  1890,  a  revival  of  interest  in 
the  breed  occurred,  and  Bince  then  it  hjis  greatly 
incrouad  in  distrihulion  and  in  ej<te^m.  The  later 
breedent  have  not  futimt  Rainbouillet,  tt)  buik  in 
liArdiness.  Much  bloud  from  the  German  iUick  of 
Baron  F.  Von  Homoyer  has  been  mingled  with  the 
bloods  of  Franct^  and  numerous  importations  from 
each  country  have  been  made,  Tho  f^mjeo-Mrri- 
no$  represent  the  blood  of  the  RambouilLet  and  the 
American  Merino. 

DutrlhutioK. 

The  demand  for  these  sheep  has  been  wide,  especi- 
ally for  the  purpose  of  improving  wool-prodnctton 
by  crossing  on  other  brecdi).  Aside  from  those 
brought  to  North  America,  importations  have  been 
made  into  many  parts  of  Europe,  notably  Germany, 
and  to  .'lostralia.  New  Ze^Llund,  and  Arirentina  in 
South  America.  In  America,  the  Itambouillet  l» 
widely  distributed,  especially  in  the  middle  state* 
and  in  Utah,  Washington  and  down  through 
California, 

U$a 

For  (Poof.— Aa  a  wool-prod ncer.  tho  Rambouillet 
ranks  below  the  other  Merinos  in  percentage  of 
fleece  to  body  weight,  and  in  fineness  and  tho 
amount  of  oil  and  crimp,  althoug^h  it  ranks  well 
when  compared  with  other  breeds  of  sheep.  The 
avera^te  yield  of  fleece  ia  about  fifteen  pounds  for 
rams  and  ten  pounds  for  ewes. 

For  multoji .  -  -  Thi!  Rambouillet  fattens  well, 
although  not  e(]ualing  the  English  breeds  in  this 
respect,  and  produces  a  fair  quality  of  mutton. 
Rambouillets  on  the  ranges  have  great  popularity, 
owing  Co  their  large  size,  hardiness  and  the  ability 
of  the  ewes  to  hold  their  wool  well  with  advanced 
atte.  RAmbooillet  ewes  are  prolitic  and  good  mothers, 
am)  their  lambs  are  usually  hardy  and  strong  at 
birth,  and  come  on  fast 


SHEEP 

Fw  rrofs-brmling,  the  Rambouillet  is  in  great 
favor,  ('routed  with  sheep  of  any  of  the  mottOQ 
breeds  it  nicks  welt,  making  a  very  fine  lamb,  large, 
quick  to  fatten,  and  having  a  good,  heavy  fleece  of 
exoelient  wool.  It  is  ahto  used  very  OTiccesefollv  on 
Ampricnn  Merinos  to  produce  a  smoother  lamb  of 
greater  size  and  hardiness. 

Organizalions  and  reeordt. 

la  1889.  the  American  Rambouillet  Sheep  Breed- 
ers' Association  was  organized  at  Pontiac,  Michigan. 
It  issues  a  fiockbook.  In  1901,  the  advocates  of  the 
sheep  imported  from  the  Von  Homeyer  flock  organ- 
ized tho  Von  Homeyer  Awociation  of  Rambooillet 
Sheep.  The  Franco-American  Merino  Association 
w,i3  organized  in  1900.  Neither  of  the  latter  two 
associations  at  anytime  has  been  very  strong  or 
ha^  had  much  influence  on  the  development  of  the 
breed. 

Literaturt. 
For  references,  see  page  5%. 


Orford  Down  Sheep.   Figs.  628,  629. 

By  H.  P.  MiUer. 

The  name  Oxford  as  applied  to  sheep  is  deriv< 
from  the  county  of  Oxford,  England,  where  the 
breed  was  developed.  The  Oxford  Down  is  atypical 
miutton  breed  of  sheep. 

Defcriptioa. 

The  Oxford  is  the  largest  of  the  Down  breeds. 
It  xtarids  very  much  higher  than  the  Shropshire 
and  h  more  rangy.  It  is  more  nearly  straight  oa 
the  underdine.  It  has  longer  and  coarser  fleece 
than  any  other  of  the  group.  Being  a  cross-bred 
sheep  of  rather  recent  origin,  the  typo  is  not  ao 


ti; 


c*' 


^ 


Pis.  «Ze.    OzMcd  DewB  tmm. 


well  established  as  with  the  other  Down  brwd^. 
Some  specimens  are  coar»e  and    rather  open    in 
fleece,  and  others  finer  and  more  eompact^   rroD 
the  Hampshire  line  of  ancestry,  it  inherits  a  tei 
ency  to  dark  or  bluish  skin,  and  black  spots 
hairs  in  the  fleece,  which  are  very  objectionabl 
However,  it  is  being  rapidly  improved  in  lbc«( 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


625 


particulars.  The  Oxford  Down  haa  a  Tery  stately 
appearance  and  is  a  very  attractive  sheep.  The 
color  of  face  and  legs  is  a  darker  brown  than  that 
of  the  Shropshire,  but  it  is  often  fleclced  with  gray, 
which  may  even  predominate  on  the  nose. 

The  ewes  are  very  prolific,  probably  more  so 
than  any  other  breed,  even  triplets  being  not 
uncommon.  They  are  heavy  milkers.  The  lambs 
grow  very  rapidly  and  are  of  good  form,  and  the 
ewea  yield  large  fleeces.  The  one  shortcoming  of 
the  breed  is  that  it  does  not  seem  hardy  under 
American  climatic  conditions.  It  succumte  easily 
to  invasions  of  internal  parasites  and  to  pulmonary 
disorders.  [A  general  discussion  of  the  mutton 
type  is  given  on  pages  51,  52.] 

The  American  Oxford  Down  Record  Association 
adopted  the  following  scale  of  points : 

Scale  op  Points  for  Oipoed  Down 

Sheep  Perteet 

More 

1.  Form. — Of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  by 

a  well-balanced  conformation,  free  from 
coarseneBS  in  any  part  and  showing  good  atyle 
at  rest  and  in  motion 15 

2.  Head. — Of  moderate  length  and  width  between 

the  earfi  and  between  the  eyes,  and  well  cov- 
ered with  wool  over  the  poll  and  down  to  the 
eyes.  Color  of  face  an  even  dark  gray  or 
brown,  with  or  witboat  gray  spot  on  noee  .  .      6 

3.  Weight,— When  fully  matured  and  in  good  con- 

dition, rams  should  weigh  250  to  350  pounds, 
ewes  180  to  275 5 

4.  Ears. — ^Medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  an  even 

brown  or  dark  gray  color 2 

5.  Legs. — Short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  even  brown 

or  dark  gray  color,  placed  squarely  under  body 
and  well  apart 2 

6.  Girtb. — Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and 

full  in  chest 10 

7.  The  movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorons  ...  5 

8.  Eyes. — Bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

9.  Skin. — Bright  pink  in  color 3 

10.  Neck. — Strong  and  mnscolar  in  rams  and  well 

set  on  in  both  sexes 3 

11.  Back. — Wide  and  straight  on  top  of  ahculders 

and  back,  loin  and  rump,  from  base  of  neck 
to  tail 15 

12.  Full  shoulders  and  thighs,  well  meated  inside 

and  out 6 

13.  Flanks.— Well  filled  and  strong,  so  as  to  make 

the  lower  line  of  the  body  as  straight  as  possi- 
ble, and  side  lines  straight  or  rather  full    .  .      4 

14.  The  whole  carcass  evenly  covered  with  good, 

well-marbled  meat 6 

15.  Fleece. — Of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even 

quality,  covering  the  whole  carcass  well,  and 
free  from  black  patches  on  the  body,  neck  or 
head 16 

Perfection 100 

History. 

About  1829,  John  T.  Twynham  conceived  the 
idea  of  developing  a  new  breed  of  sheep  combining 
the  good  qualities  of  the  long-wools  and  the  Down 
breeds,  by  mating  the  most  compact  Cotswold 
rams  obtainable  with  his  Hampshire  ewes.  A  few 
years  later,  Samuel  Druce  and  Wm.  Gillett  began 
a  similar  system  of  crossing,  although  introdnciDg 

C40 


Southdown  blood  to  some  extent.  The  Hampshire, 
however,  was  the  chief  source  of  Down  blood  used 
in  the  new  breed.  The  cross  soon  became  popular, 
and  several  other  persons  undertook  the  same  line 
of  breeding  or  used  the  cross-bred  rams  bo  that 
there  was  no  necessity  for  in-and-inbreeding ;  and 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  employed  to  the 
extent  that  it  was  in  the  case  of  the  Southdown. 
There  is  no  definite  record  as  to  how  long  the 


Fie.  629.    Oxford  Down  ewe. 

cros»-breeding  was  continued,  but,  in  1853,  Mr. 
Druce  wrote  that  be  bad  no  difficulty  in  keeping 
the  form  and  size  of  the  animal  as  it  should  be, 
and  the  wool  of  a  desirable  quality  and  not  defi- 
cient in  quantity.  Up  to  1857,  however,  it  was 
known  as  Down-Cotswold,  but  in  that  year  the 
name  "  Oxfordshire  Down"  was  adopted.  A  little 
later  it  was  changed  to  Oxford  Down,  and  these 
sheep  are  now  generally  referred  to  as  Oxfords. 
They  were  first  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society  Show  in  1851,  but  a  separate  class 
was  not  granted  them  until  186Z  That  may  be 
taken  as  the  date  when  they  became  a  recognized 
breed  with  a  fixed  type. 

In  America.— This  breed  had  gained  enough 
recognition  by  1846,  so  that  it  was  in  that  year 
imported  to  America  by  Clayton  Reybold,  of  Dela- 
ware. In  1853,  small  flocks  were  brought  to  Vir- 
finia  and  Massachusetts.  The  following  year,  J. 
.  Andrew,  of  West  Cornwall,  Conn.,  imported  a 
flock  that  spread  the  fame  of  the  breed.  In  1857, 
Andrew  sold  a  small  flock  to  Messrs.  Smith,  of  Mid- 
dlefield,  Mass.,  and  to  C.  L.  Whiting,  of  Granville, 
Ohio.  In  1859,  Andrew  sold  a  flock  to  C.  G.  For- 
shay,  of  Texas.  Interest  in  the  breed  then  sub- 
sided, and  did  not  revive  until  about  1880.  W.  A. 
Shafor,  of  Ohio,  R.  J.  Stone,  of  Illinois,  Geo. 
McKerrow,  of  Wisconsin,  and  Robert  Miller,  of 
Ontario,  in  the  next  few  years  imported  large 
numbers  and  disseminated  them  widely  through 
the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Distribution. 

This  breed  is  found  most  largely  in  the  states 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  north  of  the  Ohio 


«26 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


river,  and  !n  Canada,  appearing!  not  to  be  ttnited  to 
range  coiuLitiuiiit.  It  has  r^prvail  tram  iUt  uricinal 
territory  in  England  t(i  almost  ftvury  country 
whpro  other  Engllsli  broeds  have  Kone.  which 
includes  meet  of  the  k-adiDg  live-stock  countries. 
It  is  adapted  l<>  ^malt  farms  vbere  inteoeive 
methodu  are  practiced. 

U»es. 

Osfttnls  are  fuipecially  iiM'fu]  tu  ^roiluce  mntttin 
lamljs  to  lit!  markeU-d  in  the  early  Bummpr,  nt  f<nir 
Ui  five  miinlhs  of  ajjt?,  niider  lii^Ii  fm«!inK  Ihu 
ewiis  tif  many  fainilitNS  will  producu  l.'iO  [rt^r  ci^iit 
of  lamlia  that  ktow  rapidly.  Tho  rania  an;  well 
adapt4>d  for  mating  with  smaller  breeds  for  the 
productinn  of  lamlm  to  lie  fattened  at  eight  to  ten 
mtinths  of  agp.  There  in  a  considerable  demand 
fnr  |MJrt»-bred  rams  for  this  imrjuwe.  Oxford  ewes 
will  yield  about  10  [HTCiint  mor«  wmd  than  Shrupi- 
Khirc!  (fwts,  that  is  rather  uourKB  in  quality  and  of 
long  staple. 

OrsanizatioM  and  Tccordi. 

In  1881,  tho  .^mcriican  Oxford  Down  Record 
AiBociation  wan  organized,  with  headquarters  at 
Hamilton,  Ohio.  Ton  VQlumes  of  the  record  had 
boon  is.'^ned  up  to  \Wi.  and  35.500  animals  re- 
conled.  In  England,  the  interests  of  the  breed  are 
in  the  hands  of  the  Oxford  Down  Sheep  Breeders' 
AsDiK'taliun.  It  hati  ittsued  a  fiuckbouk  each  year 
since  itit  inception  in  18ij8. 

I.iteraturf. 
For  references,  see  page  59S. 

ShropaUre  Down  Sheep.    Figa.  &1,  630,  631. 

By  H.  P.  ifUltr. 

The  name  Shropshire,  as  applied  to  sheep,  was 
derived  from  the  county  of  that  name  in  Engl.ind 
where  the  breed  wiw  developed.  The  breed  is  fflici- 
ally  known  aa  Shropuhire  Dinvn,  but  the  name  is 
often  abbreviated  to  .Shron.  It  is  a  mutton  brc^wd, 
or  irerhaiw  v/a  may  properly  conisidur  it  a  gvneral- 
piirpuse  breed. 

DeK:ription. 

The  Shrojwhire  now  has  uniformly  dark  brown 
face  and  leg?,  is  10  to  15  per  cunt  heavier  than 
the  Southdown,  the  standani  weight  for  ramn  be* 
ing  225  pounds  and  for  ewes  175  pounds.  Many, 
however,  exceed  thene  weights  by  fifty  pounds  when 
in  Rhow  condition.  It  has  »  bmacl  head,  abort  fiu;e, 
thick,  muscular  nwk,  rloju'ly  knit  shntjlders,  Kyra- 
m'etriciil  biKty  wimewbat  biirrBl-ahH[K«i,  except  that 
it  is  Htraight  on  the  hack.  In  form  it  i»  not  so 
good  in  the  thigh  and  twist  as  the  Southdown.  In 
general  outline,  it  is  taller  and  more  rangy,  but 
tho  present  tendency  is  toward  the  Southdown  in 
form.  The  Shropshire  is  p(),iSL-a.se<l  of  great  fecund- 
ity, early  maturity  and  quick -fatten  ing  qualities. 
[Mutton  and  line-wool  )<heep  types  are  diseiiKsod  on 
pages  61-53.1 

The  American  Shropshire  Sheep  Association 
adopted  the  following  scale  of  pointH  : 


Stale  o?  Points  fob  Sbkopsbire  Sheet  p»rfKi 

•c>n> 

1.  Constitution  and  quality,  indicated  by  the  fonn 

of  body :  dtx-p  iui4  \itr^  jn  l>niiHt  and  tluoB^ 
the  hesrt ;  back  wide,  atraight  and  veil  cor- 
ered  with  ]«aa  nwal  or  miwclc ;  wide  aad  foU 
in  the  thich,  deep  in  flank :  akia  thick  hut 
soft  and  of  a  pink  color ;  promiaeat,  brilBanl 

eyeaatii]  healihy  cnuntenantw 2& 

Ob^ient:  Dftticiencyof  brisket,  light  aroosd 
the  h(iiMrt,fl«fa  baok,  [wintod  (Lhuuldcni,  lurkcd-ia 
flank,  pale  ar  Uc  dark  akin. 

2.  Sil«. — In  fair  conditioii,  wbua  fully  matared,  rana 

Bhould  weigh  not  less  than  225  poniHto  uri 

ewes  not  1«sa  than  175 10 

ObjtfthnM:  RamR  in  ful)  HmHi,  17&  pooad*  or 
under:  eHtc  in  full  flosh,  IfJUpounda  ornnder. 

3.  Genoral  appearance  and  characters-Good  oar- 

riag«,  head  well  up,  elastic  raoTeoeat,  abow- 
Ing  groat  tiymnivlr)*  v(  fonn  aad  unifonntly  of 

charactvr  ihrooghoat 10 

ObjffJiont:  Head  drooping,  low  in  DM:k,alQg- 
sifli  iii'.'ViTiiit'iil. 

4.  Body. — WhII  prop>DTtion«d;  medium  baaea:  great 

sfate  in  U-ngth;  w«11  finiiOi«d  hind-qnart»ra; 
thick  hack  and  loins :  twiat  deep  aod  fall, 
fitnnditiK  with  leg»  w«U  placed  ontidde;  breast 

wirEe,  ext^titding  well  forward 15 

Ohjfftxflns:  Too  fine  bones,  sliort  body,  defi- 
cit-lit in  twJHt,  leg»  uloite  tngelhvr,  light  in  biiakct. 

5.  Head,— Short  snd  broad;  widi'  between  the  ean 

and  Inrtween  the  nyw  ;  tthort  fruni  top  of  head 
to  tip  of  nose;  ears  abort,  of  medium  aita; 
eyes  expressive ;  head  should  be  msU  covered 
with  wool  to  a  |Kiint  even  with  the  eyea,  with- 
out aay  appearance  of  horns;  color  at  face 

dark  brown 10 

Objectiani:  Homa  disqualify ;  whitv  face  dis- 
iju<Llifje«.  held  wiUi  prcimincnt  bunea;  bare  tm 
top  of  h^ad. 

6.  Neck.—  Medium  length,  good  boae  and  rauBcalar 

<1r'V<^lapment:  nnd  Axpccially  with  the  nuna, 
heavier  toward  the  ehoulden,  set  high  ap  aad 
riaing  from  that  point  Co  back  of  head  ....      & 

7.  Legs  and  feet.—  Bn^Ad,  abort,  straight ;  well  set 

a^iHrt ;  w«-1l  HhitpHd  ;  culor  dark  brown,  and  wall 
u'(xj!t.-d  to  the  knee 10 

S.  Fleece.  -B^kdy,  hoad  and  legs  to  the  knees  weO 
•       cotrcrvd  with  fleece  of  ewo  l«ng1h  snd  <iaality ; 

Brnitum  of  rams  well  covered  with  wool    ...    10 

9.  Quality  of  wool.— Medium,  such  as  is  known  hi 
our  markeU  aa  "medium  delsiae"  and  "half 
combing,"  strong,  fine,  hutrous  fiber,  without 
tendeni^y  to  mat  or  felt;  and  at  on^-year'a 
growth  not  less  than  3k  iach«s  In  length  ,   .   .     5 

Perfection 100 

Additional  poinU:   The  Boae  of  the  ram  shootd  bt 
hrond  and  wrinkled ;  th«  fan  of  both  aexea  of  an 
d:irk  coldi.  and  neither  erect  nor  drooping ;  a  soft 
color  of  far«  and  k-gn  ut  im^ferred :  black  snd  gray 
anywhere  and  coarse  wool  on  the  hips  are  objectioDsbV. 

Hittorff. 

Itjf  frienda  claim  for  the  Shnfihira  n 
remote  origin  with  the  Sonthdowfl.  Th*  A 
applitvi  to  aheep.  is  mentioned  in  Bngllflh  1} 
as  far  back  as  1341,  there  being  nt  that  time  a 
grade  of  wool  designated  a-s  Shropshire.  The  brwd 
had  not  taken  on  many  of  it»  proist-nt  rharnrtt'ris- 
tic^,  however,  a  centdry  ago.  as  Pljmley.  in  his 


SHEKP 


SHEEP 


627 


"Aj^iculture  of  Shropshire,"  pulilished  in  1803, 
described  the  sheep  of  that  tminty  thus  :  ''There 
\s  a.  brewl  of  Rhtwii  in  Longmynd,  with  lutrnw  imii 
bIflL-k  facua,  that  svom  an  inJijitenouR  aurt.  Tlwy 
are  nimble,  harxly  and  Wi-i^h  about  ten  ixiundti  to 


■^/:' 


■■^^ 


m% 


n- 


M 


4^:^-, 


■.<^A 


■<:^s 


:m 


t^< 
m-'^. 


Pic  630.    Shropslilrv  ran. 

the  qTiart«r  when  fatted.  Their  fleeces  weigh  about 
twiiand  oiie-half  tKiunds."  Profesaor  Wilson,  in  his 
Journal  of  the  Ruyal  AcricuUural  Society,  Vol. 
XVI,  states  that  when  the  Bri.itoI  woni  awitty,  tn 
1792,  procured  all  the  information  available  re- 
garding  sheep  in  England,  it  report*;d  that  on 
Mitrfe  Common  there  wero  about  lO/HX)  Hheep  kept 
during  the  sumnjier  that  had  black,  brown  or  8[>otted 
faL'i«.  a  superior  i|uality  of  wik)1.  anil  wen*  con- 
sidered a  native  breed.  Theae  are  accepted  aa  the 
prttRcnitors  of  the  present  Shro|K4hirc.i.  .-ilthough  it 
in  A  I'omnion  iK-lief  that  the  Southdown  was  uned  to 
hasten  tho  improvement.  It  ia  thouf^ht,  also,  that 
the  LeicMter  and  ("otHwrdd  were  Ut^wl  to  increaw 
the  nmi  ami  amonnt  of  wi>id,  and  that  the  sheep 
fnim  rannwk  rhawe,  in  (he  cuunty  of  f^tafford, 
were  u«Mi  in  the  early  brewlinii  eirorta.  Samuel 
Uetse,  of  HarrinKlrm.  and  Oet»r(,'f  .\dney,  of  Harley, 
were  among  the  niiwt  aui^eeAffiil  of  the  e.irly  im- 
provers. The  J»hri>p*>hire  fintt  attraote<l  attention 
St  the  Royal  Agrictiltural  SiX'iety  Show,  in  lR.'")r>; 
and  in  i^9  it  wan  recognizeil  att  a  diittinct  breed 
anil  given  a  claBB. 

lit  America.— 7\ie  ftnrt  American  importation  on 
record  was  tmule  int«  Virj;inia,  in  IStVi.  In  1H60, 
Samuel  Suttun  intrudueed  a  number  of  ewes  and  a 
ram  into  Maryland.  In  liiij'i  and  a^rain  a  few  years 
later,  flocks  were  «»tjibli.-*hed  in  Kew  Vork.  They 
had  also  made  their  way  into  Canada,  as  they 
are  reprirted  to  ha%-e  Iwen  taken  from  Canada  tfl 
Michigan  in  thn  early  RoventieH.  There  waa  a 
p-eat  influx  in  the  early  eii;htie».  The  Aniurioao 
Record  .\A>uH;iutitin  was  ori^anised  in  1834,  at 
Lafayette.  Ind. 

Pitirihulion, 

The  aheej)  are  now  recorded  from  almn«t  every 
state  in  the  Union  and  from  Canada,  and  far  exceed 


in  numbers  any  other  En;;liah  breed  in  America. 
They  are  mora  popular  in  the  North  and  Ea,it,  not 
lieinj;  exttsnRively  found  on  the  raiif'P-'*.  They  do 
bent  on  ^chmI  piuiturett,  a^  thuir  ruHtlinj;  qualitiefi 
are  only  mwiium.  They  are  found  very  generally 
throughout  Knplaiid  and  her  colonies  and,  in  fact, 
throughout  the  civ  ilizt^Mi  world,  o>t]>ocially  in  Europe, 
Africa,  Australia  and  South  Amt-rica. 

i'tet. 

Their  good  mutton  form  and  quality  and  profit- 
able wqol  production  make  the  Shropshire-s  the 
(treat  .\mericsn  sheep  after  the  Merintw,  in  their 
Uelaine  and  Rumliouillet  forms.  They  have  a  much 
longer,  more  o|w»  and  coarser  fleect  than  the 
Southdown,  are  covered  more  cxtennively  over  the 
head  and  legs,  and  yield  purhaprf  50  per  cent  more 
wool.  Ewea  average  eight  pomida  or  more  and  rams 
twelve  pounds  of  fleece.  The  fleece  is  of  good  fiber 
and  carriej*  considerable  oil.  They  are  also  hardier 
than  the  larger  breeds,  although  yielding  to  the 
ijouthdowns  in  this  particular.  The  lambs  may  be 
profitably  marketed  at  any  time  from  five  to  twelve 
monthd  of  age,  though  usually  the  earlier  they  are 
marketed  the  greater  the  profit,  The  rams  are 
very  generally  uaed  on  Merino  and  native  ewes  for 
the  production  of  high-class  mutton  lambs. 

Organizatunu  and  rrccntn. 

In  1882,  the  English  Shropahire  Sheep  Society 
was  organized.  The  first  volume  of  itd  flockbook 
waa  iitgued  in  18^.  The  American  Shropshire  Sheep 
Association  was  orgaoixod  in  18S-1,  and  had  issued 
twenty  volumes  of  its  fiockbook  up  to  1908.  There 
is  also  a  National  Shropshire  Association  that  has 
issued  one  volume  of  its  flockbook. 

Litfmiam. 
For  references,  see  page  596. 


■■-./ 


■^  S  .    '-.  . 


fie.  ui.    SfaivpBhiit  ewe, 

SoQthdowo  Sheep.   Figs,  i^,  G32.  633. 

By  ff.  P.  MUitr. 

The  name  Southdown  as  appliod  to  aheep  arone 
from  the  use  of  the  term  in  referring  ti>  the  low 
range  of  chalk  hills  in  soQtheaatem  England,  in 
SasHcx  county,  where  the  breed  waa  developed. 
The  date  at  which  it  was  Arat  used  is  not  known. 


628 


SHBGP 


SHEEP 


but  in  1794.  Arthar  Young,  in  ar  essay,  brought 
the  breed  into  pruininence.  The  IrL^  rankA  in  tha 
first  place  for  mutton-prod  action. 

DeacriptiaH. 

It  i*  thti  RmalWt  of  the  Down  bn>edEt  that  ars 
prominent  ld  Amt-rica  at  thif  time,  but  it  in  the 
model  in  form  toward  which  all  other  briwds  are 
tendinis.  Its  compiift  form  and  short  fltujco,  how- 
ever,  >;ive  it  a  wui};ht  ^vater  than  itt«  ji[ipear:incti 
«lipgfjrtt«.  Miiturp  ewes  wei^h  up  to  150  miunda. 
anii  rams  up  to  200,  although  average  weights  are 
BDliltrwhiit  bwliiw  thi'se  wei(;hts, 

III  17S8,  Arthur  Vnimn;  wruU-:  "The  true  South- 
down, when  vury  well  bntd.  has  no  horns,  a  Iodk 
Bpeckted  face,  clean  and  thin  jaw,  a  lorif^,  but  not 
a  thin  D'eK?k,  no  tuft  of  wooi  on  the  forehead,  which 
they  call  owl-hyaileil,  nnr  any  fringe  of  wool  on  the 
cheeks,  ihiel<  in  the  nhniihlcr,  open  breasted,  and 
deep  ;  both  fure-  and  hind-leg>t  t^tand  wirle ;  reund 
and  Rtrai);hl  in  barrul ;  wide  on  t\w  luin  and  h'i]» ; 
shut  well  in  the  twist,  whit'h  In  a  projection  of  lleah 
on  the  inner  part  of  the  thi^h  thnt  gives  a  fullness 
when  viewetl  behindhand  makes  a  Southdown  leg  of 
mutton  remarkably  round  and  short,  more  bo  than 
other  bnfeilfl  ;  thin  sjieckled  legu  free  frnm  weol ; 
the  belly  ftiU  of  wool ;  the  wind  clune  and  free  from 
projecting  or  strong  fibers.  Thiwe  flocks  not  brt^J 
with  partieiilarcaro  are  apt  to  becoaree-waolud  on 
the  hack." 

The  Southdown  of  today  presents  some  contrasts 
to  this  :  It  is  characterized  by  very  short,  straight 
legs,  set  wide  apart ;  broad,  level  hack,  very  thickly 
fleshed  ;  !nng  and  broati  hips,  with  t:til  Hetting  very 
little  hehiw  U^vel  of  back  ;  sJiitrt  nerk,  very  thick 
at  Hheulder  and  sharply  tajxering  tuward  heatl ;  the 
head  ^mall,  but  coniparatividy  broad  and  fiat 
bt^tween  tbo  ears ;  fori-head  full ;  faca  short  and 
in  ewes  somewhat  dished ;  eyes  very  prominent ; 
ears  small,  carried  above  the  level  and  covered, 
the  Kngli.'th  asaociation  Bays,  with  wool,  while  the 
American  naya  with  fine  hair.  The  fare  and  lega 
are  now  a  nniform  rmhiii^b  brown,  excrept  Home 
lingering  white  hairs  about  the  nose.  The  face  has 
a  lively  iipperanee,  in  keeping  with  the  (juick  move- 
menta  of  the  Southdown.  The  hind-4]uartera  carry 
down  very  heavy  ;  the  twist  is  extremely  deep  and 
full;  the  breast  very  brond  and  prominent;  both 
fore  and  bind  flanks  very  full,  thnin  giving  an  almost 
straight  onder-line.  The  hoofs  are  often  b^ack. 
They  are  of  thin  yet  firm  horn,  making  a  goiMi  font. 
There  is  now  a  large  cap  of  wool  un  the  forehead, 
and  on  many  specimens  the  wool  ia  working  farther 
down  on  the  legs.  A  brijiht  pink  color  of  skin 
Ia  dcAired.  and  is  uniformly  found  with  healthy 
individuals.  It  may  .tafely  he  said  to  be  the 
hardiest  of  all  the  Knglish  breoda  under  American 
conditions  and  methods.  It  is  freer  from  catar- 
rhal trouble?  and  doe.')  not  ?o  quickly  succamh  to 
the  ravages  of  internal  parasites.  In  these  pur- 
ticalare  It  approaches  the  Merino.  [A  general 
dincDssion  of  the  mutton  type  is  given  on  pages 
51,  5Z] 

The  American  Keconl  .Ajsioctation  adopted  the 
following  standard  of  excellence : 


CALB   OP   POIHTS   POE  SorTHDOWX  SBBBT     perf)«^ 

iron 

1.  Hn.d.— MedJam  b  nite  and  homleiM,  Rw.rarned 

w*l!  up.  ihe  foroheftd  wr  face  well  covertnl  with 
wool,  i-r<fH'i'i.iliy  Ix-tWBrtn  iho  ^^an*  and  on  the 
chwk,  auil  in  the  «<w«  slightly  di«b(>d   ....      5 

2.  Lips  and  under  jaw.— I.i^ht  and  thin  ....      l 

3.  Eara. — ftather  small,  loleraWy  wide  Apart,  cftv- 

ered  with  dnv  Imit  and  carried  with  a  lively 
back-anil-rnrth  movement 2 

4.  Eyes.— Full  find  liriyhl 3 

R.  Face. — A  unifonn  tint  of  brown,  gray  or  moaM- 

coluT 3 

6:.  If«dc.— Short,  fine  at  head  Imt  nlcoly  tapering, 

and  bruad  and  straight  on  tup  at  shoaldier  .  .      4 

7.  Shotitdera. — Rroud  and  full,  Ami»iihl>'  joinmg  the 

n«ck  with  the  back 5 

8.  BlMSt.  — Wide,  iwp  and    projecliog  w«ll   for- 

ward, ihe  fore-le(^  standinK  wid«  apart  ...      B 

9.  Back  and  loio.— Broad  mid  atraif^lit  frvm  shoul- 

ders to  rump 7 

10.  Biba.— Well   iirchiM],   extending   far   backward, 

th<>  limt  proj«ctinj[  morf  than  th^  othen  ...      6 

11.  Ramp.— iJroad,  square  and  full,  with  tail  whU 

KOt  U[l 6 

12.  Hip3..   Wide,  with  little  apace  between  tbeia  and 

liiKt  rih 6 

13.  Thighs,     Pull  and  well  let  down  in  twi<t.  th« 

IvKti  Ktaniiiiig  wW  a(><irl 6 

1.1.  LimtiB. — ijhort  and  line  in  bcia«  and  in  color  to 

at^ree  with  iai-e 8 

lij.  Forelegs. — Wdlwonled  and  carrring  mnttoa  to 

the  knev,  but  free  from  meat  below 2 

16.  Bind-legB.— Well  flllM  with  mutton  and  wooled 

to  the  hocka,  neat  and  clean  below 2 

17.  Belly.— Strainht  and  well  coven-d  with  wool,  the 

flanks  exteodins  bo  &d  to  fonn  a  line  parallel 
witb  the  bark  U'r  to|>-]inu R 

18.  Fleew.— Compact,  the  whole  body  well  co»«»d 

with  moderately  lunj^  and  cIimu  wiwl,  white  ia 
cnlor  and  oanTinK  extme  yolk    ...  .  .    12 

I'J.  Form.  —  Thrunghout  amtxjth   and  symmetrical, 

»-ith  ro  coarsfn^aa  in  any  jiart 9 

ia).  General  appearance.— Spir]te.d  and  attr«:ive 
wtrh  A  di>tcrinint>d  look,  a  proud  and  flnn  step, 
indicating  constitutional  vigor  aad  tborovgh 
bnedlng 8 

Perfection 100 

ffUlortf. 

The  Southdown  breed  was  developed  tbroagh 
selection  from  the  native  Sussex  sheep  on  the 
chalky  downs  of  southeastern  England.  The  native 
sheep  were  small,  ill-sha|>ed  nnd  coar!*e-wool«L 
About  17H0  or  earlier,  John  Rllman,  doublleas  tak- 
ing inspiration  from  the  aaccess  of  Bakewell  -with 
the  34!icet<t«r,  Itegan  the  development  of  the  brv«d. 
iitriving  for  better  mutton  form  and  const itutioo, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  improve  tbe  flwoe.  B» 
made  rapid  progress  in  tiiiing  the  pr«wnt  fe-atorM 
of  the  Southdown.  Abont  1820,  Jon3,s  Webb  Wgan 
breeding  Snuthdowns  with  a  .-(election  from  the 
Ellman  and  other  flocks,  and  he  proved  to  be  the 
genins  among  the  breeders.  He  built  un  Kilman's 
foundation,  and  produced  thi^  superior  mutton 
Hheep.  of  larger  size  and  better  feetling  qoality. 
The  Southdown  was  thus  the  first  of  the  Itown  or 
middle-wool  breeds  to  be  improved,  and  baa  been 
employed  in  th«  development  of  the  irfher  Ituwn 
breeda,  more  particularly  the  Shropshire.  Oxford 


SHREP 


SHEEP 


629 


and  Hampshire.  It  early  became  the  breed  of  the 
Eaiflub  rnyalty  and  arititocracy,  und  remainit  ao  to 
the  present  time. 

In  AmtrUa. — The  firat  authentic  importation 
into  America  waa  by  Dr.  Rose,  of  Seneca  county, 
N.  v..  in  1803.  The  sheep  of  this  importation, 
however,  were  crossed  with  Merinoa  in  1813.  In 
1823,  Sidney  Hawes,  of  New  York,  made  another 
importation  and  sold  thirty-eix  ewes  and  two  rams 
to  C.  N.  Bement  of  Albany.  In  1S3-1,  Francis  Rotch, 
of  Otecjio  county.  N.  V..  imported  six  ewes  and  a 
ram  from  the  Ellman  Hock.  In  the  same  year,  laaac 
Msynard.  of  CotihoctoD  county,  Ohio,  made  an  im- 
portation. During  the  forties  and  fifties  of  the 
same  century,  while  wool  was  very  low  and 
Merinoe  falling  into  dicfavor,  SouthdowtiH  became 
disserainated  very  witlely.  With  the  revival  in 
interest  in  Merinoo  from  the  hijth  priceii  for  wool 
following  the  Civil  war.  Southdowns  fell  into  dis- 
favor, and  l>ecau9e  of  their  low  wool-yield  and  the 
relative  importance  of  wool  in  this  coantry,  they 
have  not  rej^ained  wide  popularity  in  the  North  or 
on  the  ranffes.  South  of  the  Ohio  river,  however, 
especially  in  Kentucky  and  Tenncesee,  they  were 
for  many  years  the  prevailing  breed,  and  are  etill 
popular. 

DiKtribatioa. 

The  general  adaptability  and  t^ood  ^azinF{<:iua1l- 
ties  of  the  Southdown,  together  with  its  superior 
mutton,  have  led  to  its  wide  diwemination.  In 
America  it  haa  been  especially  p0[>ular  in  the  Cen- 
tral-East and  South,  although  it  h  found  in  practi- 
cally every  statfi  and  territory  in  the  Union  and  in 
Canada.  In  South  America  it  is  foand  in  Argentina, 


pic.  632.    SeniUiilown  tun. 

Chili  and  other  countrien.  It  has  been  introdaced 
throughout  Kuro[H!,  Aaia,  Japan,  Africa  and  Aus- 
tralia. 

Dm$. 

Southdown  rams  prove  highly  aatiafactory  for 
mating  with  the  long-legged  mountain  ewes  for  the 
production  of  mutton  lamhK.  Piire-breds  are  al»o 
in  favor  for  pnxlnctiiirt  of  lamb»  to  he  nold  at 
weaning  time.    The  rams   bred   tu   M(>rinn  ewes 


produce  highly  aatiafactory  lambs  for  feeding  off 
at  eight  to -ten  months  of  age.  They  produce 
a  high  quality  of  mature  mutton,  as  they  do  not 
develop  fat  in  bunches.  The  ewes  are  not  suited 


Fis. 'tis.    StniUidawa  cws. 

for  growing  winter  lambs,  as  they  will  not  breed 
at  the  right  seaaon,  but  the  rams  are  very  satiiifac- 
tory  for  siring  such  lambs.  The  lambs  are  good 
feeders  and  mature  rapidly.  Single  tamb«  are  tho 
rale,  but  a  flock  of  ewea  usually  produces  125  per 
cent  of  lambs.  Southdowns  have  rarely  been  known 
to  produce  triplets. 

The  Southdown  has  the  shortest  and  fineat  wool 
of  any  of  the  Down  or  middle-wool  breeds.  The 
attempt  has  been  to  develop  a  fle«ce  with  a  com* 
pact,  smooth  surface,  that  is  without  spiral  tip« 
on  the  locks  of  wool.  The  average  weight  of  the 
fleece  for  ewea  is  about  six  pounds,  and  for  rams 
about  eight  pounds.  The  wool  gradea  as  one-half 
and  three-eighths. 

Orgajiizaium*  ami  recordu, 

English  and  American  record  aasoctations  were 
organized  in  1882.  The  Southdown  Sheep  Society, 
with  huadqiiiirlvrs  in  London,  had  iasued  sixteen 
volumes  of  its  flockbook  up  to  1008,  and  the 
American  Southdown  Breeders'  Association,  with 
headquarters  at  Springlicld,  III.,  had  EsKued  sixteen 
volumes  of  its  ffockbvok.  The  latter  has  registered 
sheep  from  nearly  every  statu  In  the  Union 

Literalurr. 
For  references,  see  page  596. 

Suffolk  Down  Sheep.   Fig.  634. 

By  David  McCrat. 

Suffolk  fihpep  get  their  name  from  the  countjr 
of  SuETotk,  England.  wht^Tx  the  bniHd  was  origi- 
nally developefl.  They  are  a  short-wooled  mutton 
breed. 

DaeripfMn. 

The  Suffolk  is  a  large,  rangy  sheep,  black-faced, 
hornless,  with  long,  clean,  black  legs.  It  rosembluA 
the  Southdown  in  character  and  wool,  but  is  about 
one-third  larger  in  body  and  much  longer  in  the 
leg.  The  wool  is  of  good  quality,  of  the  clothing 


630 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


type,  and  tbo  mutton  is  excellent.    It  is  a  good  Sepant«  c1asa«s  were  ilnt  made  for  tbis  breed 

feeder,  and  is  reputed  to  ]»>  very  prolific,  yielding  the  Suffolk  tihow   in    1859.  but    it   was    not  reo- 

tvins  am)  triplebi  frequently.  ognized   by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  nntil 

1886. 

SriLK  OF  pniNTs  FOB  SurFGi^K  Shbbp    perfwi  III  .4mmca.— The  SofTolk  may  be  couidered  a 

1.  Gener.l  .ppe«r«ce.-Ple«,ag  outline, good  car"'""  «««"^  introduction  to  America.   In  1888.  sheep  of 

riaco,  and  nynnnelry  «f  (iev(iloptn«tit 7 

2.  General  form.— Large  in  siie,  inctini'ij  tn  hn  long 

in  body,  mudliim  streniiith  of  hone,  somewKat 

oyUadricftMn  Bbape,  and  atraight  abovo,  Imluw  j^-i'^''':~.  ;.-■      -         ■   .     >i,-'"i 

nnd  in  Uie  rcnr 15  ^       ■'"•'-'■    "■    ■'■:■     — 

3.  Head.  -Medium  in  size,  inclining  to  tx-  luog,  and  '                                 , 

ctiverred  with  fin*.',  short.  Klossy.  black  hair  to  "■  Vi^to>'i'igat'''ltl[ii'lfJ  i41'iMA 

the  jQDcticn  with  the  muck:  a  HmiiH  quiintity  Vi V^KallSMlm l^ritw 

of  clean  white  wool  on  the  foreheiid  is  not  iiIk  ^^^ff^^S^'^i^' \^flf^\^  ' 

jc(rt*d  to;  miualc  moder.iti^ly  floii,  o»pi.'<.'iatly  in  '-.jr;    ':           ,       'i :     '  " 
the  ewfia;  eyes  IiriRht  and  fnl] ;  ean,  of  medJuni 

ionj^h  'tnil  linnnitHA 10 

•l.  IVeclc.-  M-xlcruLely  liine  and  well  not,  and  bU-nd* 
ing  well  with  the  hmiy,  with  aotne  creat  in  the 

rams 5  ^^W^t''^i/kM'^iti^^'^^-f^X^MC^'.  \ 

5.  Fore-nuarters,  -WkII  rJ'_-vdopi-d.breiU!tt  wide,  deep  \.\!^3^3mWr^V^^Sl^^twKnSw^^Sil^f* 

and  foil,  hriHk^it  broad  ^  ch^wt  i;:ii)tii;ioiw,  with 

f^ood  heart  ^irth  ;  Bhoulderi*  brood,  ahlique,  and  pf^.  034.    Sufbdk  Down  nm. 

well  lulled  In  the  neck  and  In  the  crops :  wltlieni 

ft  H.™i'''' 't/^  *''VT'?i  t,/  i'  A    'a    '  »    ^^  this  breed  wore  brtjQKht  both  to  Canada  Md  10  tbe 

6.  Barrel.— itoiifny.    Back  RtraJent,  broiid  and  wi>  .,   ..    .....       n.     ■  .   .■        .     r-.       j     1 1 

(leBhed  throihout  itae^  length :  rit«  w.ll  ^Dited  I'tate.s  the  lynportation  to  Canada  hiffaK 

nr-mnp  and  modt^rnt^^ly  dwp ;  fore  wi.i  hind  Wn  made  by  B.  D..SewcIl,  of  New  nniiwwielt.  and 

llmiks  full  jind  dwip 15  that  to   the   \  nitwl  StateB   by  M,  II.  Slreettir    of 

7.  Hittd-qaarteiB. — Lfjnji,  clut-p  and  full ;  tail  broad  BriHiklyn,  New  York.   They  wen?  taken  to  Iowa  ift 

and  wttll  net  up  ;  huttock  bruiid  ;  twiait  fall ;  1S92,  und  have  flinco  been  esta)ili»htid  tjlsowhere. 

thighs  broad  and  full 1&  Thu  fuIlowinK  is  the  scale  of  pointa  adopted  by 

8.  Feetandlrga.-StriiiKlit,  of  mwliuni  lenplh,  with  the  Hoard  of  Directora  of  the  American  Suffolk 

fldt    bone ;    hare  of  wool  below  the  knee  and  SheeD  ilecord 

hock ;  fiiftsay  black  In  color  and  eot  wijII  apart  .     8  '"       '^ 

9.  Fleece  -   Moderatelyshort,  with  c.lnii^.finn.lBstrmiH  _.      .,     . 

fiber,  and  without  t^-ndmicy  to  mat  or  felt  to-  Ihslnhitlion. 

gether  nr  to  ahnde  i>tF  into  dnrk  or  gray  wool  or  \n  Kn^'land,  the  brood  abounds  in  the  conntiee  of 

hair,  (wprcially  nhout  Ih.  nw^t  And  tail.  The  Sulfulk,  Norfolk  and  Cambridge.    It  haa  been  ex- 

a«ece  «hc.uldj.-^veTth«wJ^l«  body.  «..i>t  tie  ^^^    ^  ^^^     continent  of  Knrop^.   to  Holland. 

hetid  and  the  Icin  bvlow  the  kneu  and  huck.  una  f,                  r<              «     -       o                    1     >        1 

the  «kLn  underneath  it  Bhould  befair.aoft  and  G«rmany.  France,  Spam.  Saxony,  and  eWwhera. 

of  u  pink  coltir 10  Where  the  rams  are  in  dt*roand  to  jjivo  a  aupenor 

* quality  of  mutton  in  their  produce.    It  has  been 

PerfectioQ ICX)  taken  to  Sooth  Africa,  and  Au.itralia  and  New  ZeA- 

land.    It  has  been  tried  with  succesa  both  in  tlit 

Bistary.  Unitml  States  ami  in  Canada,  but  it  is  aa  yet  reU- 

The  Suffolk  in  the  modern  representative  of  the  lively  unimportant  here. 
old   Norfolk    breed,  crossed  with  tbt*  Sinithditwn. 

In  some  respects,  the  old  Norfolk  breLnl  rusemMBil  ^*^'- 

the  Itlack-facied  Highland,  having  thu  same  colored  The  ^!ufTotk  has  a  place  an  a  muttOB  nTino|l.  |d|^ 
face  and  logs,  with  full  bono,  long  spiral  horn«,  ing  a  largi*  juTcentago  of  luan  meat  with  a  niA 
long  body,  flat  rih:«.  rather  narrow  loins.  It  differed  flavor.  It  is  valuable  for  crossin);  purpotk«.  to 
from  the  latter  in  hiiving  very  fine  short  wool,  produce  a  quick -gr''*'"'g  is^mh  of  good  quality. 
The  mutti'in  vfsii<  of  that  fine,  rich  flavor  that  is  popular  both  with  tha  butcher  and  with  the  con- 
found in  many  tieini-wild  animali^  The  gtvat  value  Kumer.  Tbtt  w<x>l  ia  well  adapted  for  hoaiery  par> 
of  the  old  breed  wa»  it.s  muUon,  which,  when  lont;  poses,  but  is  rather  small  in  quantity. 
kept,  more  closely  resembltid  venison  than  that  of  _  ... 
any  othisr  l.n^'d.  OrganualwnM  aW  vK^rdt. 

the  Suffolk  is  the  roanlt  of  across  between  this  The  first   English   flockbook  was  publiahcd  in 

old  Norfolk  breed  and  the  Southdown,  and  shows  ISSti.  by  the  Suffolk  Down  Shoep  Society  organised 

what  yeT^  important  results  may  be  achieved  by  in  that    year.    Some  twenty  volumes    have   been 

able  iind  enterprising  brewlera.    Thu  niolern  .Siif-  issued  since.    In   .\meni,'a.  the  .\merican   Suffolk 

folk  \*  a  conspicuous  ex;impte  of  n-niarkable  sue-  Pkx'.k  H4*gistry  As^tiH^tation,  organized  in  1892,  hsA 

ceaa  in  iTusD-breiMiin^.    Hy  careful  Helw^tion  and  Issued  the  third  rolnme  of  ita  flockbook. 
management,   the  hornM  havu  disappeared.    The 

Suffolk  possesses  excellent  grazing  qualities,  and  Lu^atvrf. 

fields  a  carcaaa  of    lean,  well-flavored  mntton.  For  references,  see  page  G96. 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


MiscelUneouB  Breeds  of  Sheep. 

Ther«  are  a  great  miiny  little-known  fin 
America)  breeds  of  sheep  that  are  worthy  of  men- 
tion, as  aorae  ot  th*m  have  met  apecial  needs  in 
flpecinl  tvpiorijt,  and  have  qualitioi*  to  recommend 
thL-m.  There  are  still  others,  such  us  the  Welsh 
Mountain,  the  Loiik  and  the  Stititlaml,  that  aro  of 
so  tittle  intereHt  to  farmers  in  America,  that  thoy 
may  safely  be  ignored. 

Barbados  nn  "Woot-mss"  Siitat?.  Fig.  635. 

By  E.  L.  Shnw. 

Thi«  l)rv«d  of  sheep  was  imported  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  .\gricalttire  from  the  inland 
of  Barbados.  West  Indi&s.  in  1^04.  It  is  thought 
to  be  of  .\frican  origin.  It  h  haniy  and  very  pro- 
lific. The  ewea  breed  at  any  season  of  the  year, 
and  produea  one  ta  ]iv«  lambs  at  a  time.  The 
yoang  Iambs  are  very  attractive.   The  breed  is  of 


n&os. 


medium  size  and  has  somewhat  of  a  deer-like 
appearance.  The  color  varies  from  a  lif^ht  fawn  to 
a  dark  brown.  The  under  part  of  the  body  and  the 
Ivgtt  are  very  dark  in  color,  almoat  black.  The 
ew^s  are  hornless  and  the  bucks  are  usually  so, 
but  in  some  cases  tht?  bucks  hare  small  horns 
cnrvirig  backward  and  downward.  The  rump  is 
steep,  the  tail  set  low,  reaching  the  hocks.  The 
breed  in  practically  without  wool,  the  body  being 
covered  with  coarse  hair.  The  .tmall  quantity  of 
wool  is  of  very  fine  fiber.  The  hair  ban  a  decided 
crimp.  The  bucks  have  a  very  decided  beard,  which 
exte^ndi"  from  the  angle  of  .the  jaw  almost  to  the 
brisket.  This  breed  is  considered  to  be  valuable  in 
warm  climates  for  its  mutton. 

BlACK-FaCi:  HiriHLANU  Shebp.     Pig.  X 

By  Jokn  A.  Cniff. 

This  mountain  breed  of  sheep  in  most  commonty 
called  "  Black-Face,"  althouKh  in  tlie  eflurt  to  In? 
more  specific  it  is  frequantlv  referred  to  as  the 
"Scotch  Black -Face"  or  the  Black -Face  High- 
land. It  is  of  medium  siie,  with  a  bold,  commanding 


appearance,  added  to  somewhat  by  the  fact  that 
both  the  ewes  and  the  rams  have  horns.  The  face 
is  mottled  or  sp&ckled,  the  rieece  long  in  fiber  and 
somewhat  coarse.  The  chief  point  of  merit  is  ita 
thriftinoss  under  conditions  that  wonld  resalt  in 
the  extinction  of  almost  any  other  breed  of  i*heep. 
The  mature  dheep  of  thta  br^  are  very  hardy  and 
easily  suHtained.  They  sabsist  l&rgely  on  heather 
and  on  the  roughest  kind  of  land,  and  withiitnnd 
extreme  exposure  during  severe  storms.  The 
newly  bom  lambs  share  in  this  strength  of  consti- 
tution, and  they  are  singularly  equipped  to  on* 
dergo  exposure  by  having  a  .short,  tight  fleece  cover 
them  from  heel  to  ear  as  soon  as  bom. 

The  Black-Face  may  justly  claim  to  be  one  of 
the  oldest  breeds  of  Great  Britain ;  and  being  so, 
their  early  history  is  little  known.  It  is  commonly 
thought  that  they  are  the  original  stock  of  the 
country.  The  very  earliest  mentinn  of  these  sheep 
is  by  a  writer.  Hector  Boethias  bom  in  1470.  who 
says  that  until  the  introduction  of  the  Cheviot  shee]*, 
the  rough-wooiled  Black-Face  wa.5  the  only  kind 
known  in  the  vale  of  Esk.  The  breed  ut  the  pres- 
ent time  baa  been  estimated  to  comprti^e  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  sheep  stock  of  Scotland,  and  one-third 
of  the  total  sheep  stock  of  the  north  of  England. 

They  are  mainly  confined  to  this  territory,  for 
their  importation  to  other  countries  or  localities 
has  not  been  very  successful.  Some  have  come  to 
America,  being  first  imported  into  New  York  state 
in  1861 :  but  they  have  oot  been  popular  here. 

Ulack-Face  sheep  are  much  used  for  cniss-breed- 
ing.  hut  no  infusion  of  outside  blood  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  improving  them  for  their  native  condi- 
tions. In  addition  to  their  hardine»t,  they  have 
other  characteristics  which  adapt  them  peculiarly 
for  the  Highlands.  They  are  not  only  capable  of 
traveling  long  distances  on  rough  ground  in  search 
of  food,  but  they  also  have  a  peculiar  "homing" 
instinct,  based  presumably  ou  their  strong  attach- 
ments to  certain  parts  of  their  grazing. 

Hkrhwick  Sheep.  Fig.  63G. 
By  John  A.  Cnig. 

This  is  one  of  the  smaller  mountain  breeds,  with 
thft  instincts  and  tj'pe  of  mountain  sheep  strongly 
dL'velo[jed.  It  has  a  heavy  fleece  of  strong  wool ; 
head  broad,  nose  arched  or  Roman,  eye  prominent 
and  lively.  Horn.s  in  the  rams  are  desirable. 

The  tradition  of  the  origin  of  these  sheep  is  that 
they  came  from  forty  small  sheep  that  escaped  from 
the  galleons  of  the  Spanish  Armada  that  wen 
wrecked  on  the  coast  of  (Cumberland,  making  the 
ancestry  Spanish.  Uacdonald  says  that  in  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century  a  ship  was  stranded 
on  the  coast  of  Cumberland  that  had  on  board  some 
Scotch  sheep,  which  st*m  to  have  been  unknown 
in  that  country.  The  sheep  were  landed  and  turned 
on  the  neighlwring  hilts.  Their  excellent  qualities 
and  adaptation  to  their  new  situation  became 
speedily  evident.  Their  fleece  was  considerably 
finer  than  that  of  the  common  black  sheep,  and  the 
matted  quality  of  the  wool  enabled  them  to  endure 
any  severity  of  weather,  and  even  to  pass  the  whole 


632 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


of  the  winter  without  the  smallest  qaatitity  of  hay 
boing  expended  npon  them.  Hy  their  cea«elesa 
activity  they  scraped  away  the  snow,  however 
deeply  tb«  herba^  mi^rht  be  buried  under  it. 


'i^;}^ 


WUl.  <H.    Eatdwlcfc  run. 

THuM  sheep  are  enMlit*d  with  living  to  a  very 
old  aee,  Macdonald  stating  that  the  ewes  wij] 
breed  for  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 

In  the  Engliih  I,rilte  cnantry,  the  mountains  of 
Cumberland  and  Weslmoreland,  in  the  north  of 
England,  thet>e  Hinall  ^heep  htild  their  own  st;ainst 
the  encroachments  of  ail  other  breeds. 

PERSIACOT  AXD  PEBStARINQ  SHEEP 

By  E.  L.  Shaic. 

The  Persiacot  is  a  cross  between  the  Persian  and 
the  Cotawold  breeds.  This  croM  ie  said  to  be  very 
hardy,  and  prodacea  an  excellent  quality  of  mut- 
ton. The  lambs  make  very  rapid  gains,  and  are  in 
demand  at  good  prices.  The  Peraiarino  is  a  crog*i 
between  the  IVrsian  and  the  Merino  breeds.  Thia 
crojw  is  staid  to  produce  a  very  hardy  aheep  and  an 
excellent  quality  of  mutton.  .-\ll  grades  of  these 
cro8s.i9  are  !?aid  to  be  fertile.  The  Persian  (Fig.  3) 
resembles  the  Tuni«.  hatt  a  fut  tail,  and  tUrk.  hair- 
like wool.  It  hat)  been  u»ed  in  a  small  way  in  the 
West  for  crossing. 

RoMMKY  Mail-*!!  Suee?. 
By  Jokn  A.  Craig. 

This  breed  take!>  it^  name  from  the  district  known 
SB  Romney  Marsh  la  tht>  counties  of  Kent  and  Sua- 
Bex,  in  the  south  of  England,  which  has  led  also  to 
its  being  spoken  of  m  the  Kent  breed. 

The  Romotfy  Marsh  may  be  said  to  be  one  of  the 
largest  of  the  lowland  breeds,  likely  being  surpasced 
in  weight  only  by  the  Lincoln.  It  has  a  white, 
broad  face,  and  moat  frequently  a  tuft  of  wool  on 
the  forehead.  It  does  not  have  honui.  The  native 
or  original  stock  of  the  breed  was  large  and 
eoonie,  hot  it  is  likely  that  the  infusions  of  Ijeicester 
and  Lincoln  blood  added  both  to  itM  weight  and 
improvement  of  appearance.  The  type  is  long  and 
low,  with  comparatively  thick  legs  and  feet,  and  a 
Btrong-boned  frame.  The  wool  is  long,  compara- 
tively fine,  and  the  weight  of  the  fleece  from  «ix 
and  one-half  pounds  upward. 


The  special  utility  of  the  breed  la  it«  adapubility 
to  low-lying  lands  which  produce  luxuriant  fewl, 
and  will  stand  heavy  stocking.  The  Komaey  Marsh 
may  be  run  more  thickly  on  such  ground  than  any 
other  breed,  ami  continue  thrifty.    Under  such  eou- 
ditiuns,  it  attains  a  large  size  and  heavy  weight, 
and  the  records  of  Smithlield  and   other  British., 
shows  bear  ont  the  statement  that  it  is  rarely  sni 
passed  in  the  latter  by  any  breed  excepting  ths^ 
Lincoln. 

,\^        Ryeland  SnEBP.   Fig.  637. 
^*  By  ir.  L.  Carlyle. 

The  Eyeland  breed  of  sheep  originated  many 
years  ago  in  the  midland  counties  of  England.  Its 
name  comes  from  the  Ryelands  of  Hereford,  s  [xwr 
upland  district.  The  breed  originated  by  crossing 
Southdown  and  Leicester  rams  on  the  old  Uorfe 
Common  typo  of  sheep,  from  which  the  Shropshire 
breed  originated.  In  its  blood  lines  it  \a  similar  to 
the  Shropshire  and  the  Morfe  Common  lyrw  of 
sheep,  being  leggy,  with  light  fleece  of  wool  and 
with  a  8)>eckled  black  and  white  face.  The  Ry^ 
land  breeder  ftelects  the  lambs  with  the  white  face* 
and  liiga,  and  the  .Shropshire  breeder  takes  those 
with  the  dark  faces  and  legs.  The  Ryeland  ie  a 
very  compact  and  hardy  breed,  and  fattens  very 
readily.  In  form,  it  is  thick  and  heavy  in  the 
hind-quarters,  with  broad,  level  back,  fait  roand 
body,  a  little  inclined  to  be  coarse  in  the  shool- 
ders ;  short,  well-set  neck,  and  bmad  head,  with 
some  little  wool  covering  on  the  head,  li  is  eel  oo 
fihurt,  straight  Icigs.  It  is  an  active,  vigorous 
type,  filling  the  place  in  the  sheep  world  midwajr 
lietween  the  Southdown  and  the  Shropshire.  Both 
tho  lambs  and  the  ewes  of  the  Kyeland  breed  are 
hornle-M.  and  the  wool  is  finer  in  character,  per- 
hajw,  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  medium-wwl 
breeilR. 

The  first  importation  of  the  Ryeland  sheep  into 
America  was  made  by  Mr.  George  McKerrow,  of 
Pc'W.iulcec  Wi.'iconsin.  early  in  the  summer  of  1907. 


ti'-''^. 


fig.  637.     RydAttd  tua. 


for  the  Colorado  .\gricnltnral  College.  The  breed 
hat)  been  but  a  short  time  in  this  country,  but  it 
is  excellently  adapted  for  the  motton-^^ocinc 
sections  of  America.  The  lambs  are  dropped  very 


SHEEP 


SHEEP 


633 


fat,  and  the  ewes  are  wonderfully  good  mothers. 
They  seem  to  cross  well  with  both  the  Southdown 
and  Shropshire  types.  The  fleece  of  the  Ryeland  is 
not  so  heavy  nor  so  dense  as  that  of  the  Shrop- 
shire, but  it  is  longer  and  finer  in  the  staple. 

Tunis  Sheep. 

By  David  MeCrae. 

Tunis  is  a  province  of  North  Africa,  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Much  of  the  land  is 
hilly.  The  fat-tailed  sheep  living  in  the  upland 
region  of  the  province  are  called  Tunis  sheep. 

They  are  generally  hornless  ;  face  and  legs  of  a 
yellow-brown  or  tawny  color ;  a  few  are  brown  or 
mottled  brown  and  white.  The  tail  is  broad,  being 
five  to  ten  inches  wide,  and  is  usually  docked  to 
about  six  inches.  The  ears  are  large,  broad,  pen- 
dulous,  and  covered  with  fine  hair.  The  fleece  is 
soft,  fine  and  fairly  compact,  about  three  inches 
long,  and  varies  in  color.  One  may  have  a  fleece 
almost  white,  another  reddish,  and  another  mot- 
tled.  Mature  specimens  weigh  120  to  150  pounds. 

The  origin  of  the  Tunis  breed  is  unknown.  The 
type  has  no  doubt  existed  in  Tunis  for  centu- 
ries, and  also  in  the  adjoining  sections  of  North 
Africa.  Similar  fat-tailed  sheep  are  found  in  Syria 
and  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  a  variety 
of  the  primitive  race  bred  by  the  patriarchs 
and  the  early  shepherds  of  Palestine  and  adjacent 
lands. 

In  America. — The  introduction  of  Tunis  sheep  to 
America  is  said  to  date  back  to  1779,  when  the 
Bey  of  Tunis  allowed  General  Wm.  Eaton,  then 
United  States  Consul  at  Tunis,  to  ship  to  America 
several  "  broad-tailed  Barbary  or  Mountain  Tunis 
sheep."  Only  one  pair  reached  the  United  States. 
These  were  placed  in  the  care  of  Judge  Richard 
Peters,  on  his  farm  near  Philadelphia,  where  they 
did  well  and  increased  in  numbers.  The  original 
ram  was  afterwards  used  on  the  farm  of  General 
Hand,  in  Lancaster  county.  Pa.  In  1807  or  1808, 
another  importation  was  made  by  Commodore  Bar- 
ron of  the  United  States  navy.  These  were  bred 
in  Virginia  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  In  1825, 
another  importation  was  made,  some  of  which 
went  to  near  Albany,  N.  Y.  From  the  early  Peters 
flock,  these  sheep  spread  into  Georgia  and  South 
Carolina,  and  were  common  in  the  South  before 
the  Civil  war,  which  nearly  exterminated  them. 
More  recently  Mr.  Roundtree,  of  Indiana,  has 
been  a  leading  promoter  of  the  breed.  There  are 
several  flocks  in  Indiana  and  Ohio.  In  1876,  an 
American  Tunis  Sheep  Breeders'  Association  was 
organized. 

The  Tunis  as  a  mutton  sheep  has  met  with  much 
favor.  The  lambs  fatten  early,  and  as  the  ewes 
will  breed  at  various  seasons  they  have  been  used 
to  raise  lambs  for  the  Christmas  market.  Cross- 
bred lambs  are  popular,  as  they  are  easily  and 
quickly  fattened  and  yield  mutton  of  an  excel- 
lent quality.  As  a  wool-producer,  the  Tunis  does 
not  rank  high.  The  color  is  objectionable,  and 
the  weight  of  the  fleece  is  only  six  to  eight 
pounds. 


Wensleydale  Sheep.  Pig.  638. 

By  John  A.  Craig. 

Being  included  among  the  lowland  breeds,  these 
sheep  have  the  characteristics  most  common  to 
sheep  of  that  class,  namely,  large  size,  with  long 
wool,  thereby  attaining  heavy  weights  of  both  car- 
cass and  fleece.  The  Wensleydale  is  an  npstanding 
sheep,  similar  to  the  Leicester  in  some  respects, 
but  with  more  style.  The  face  and  skin  is  of  a 
bluish  tinge,  and  this  characteristic  is  enconraged, 
while  in  nearly  all  the  other  breeds  a  pink  skin  is 
sought,  and  the  bluish  tinge  considered  undesirable. 
The  wool  of  these  sheep  is  peculiar  in  that  it  is 
unusually  lustrous,  and  is  very  wavy  or  full  of 
"pirls,"  as  they  are  called.  It  is  long,  strong,  and 
comparatively  fine,  considering  its  length. 


l^feife^i.^M^ 


FiK.  638.    Wenalajrdak  run. 

The  original  stock  of  this  breed  seems  to  have 
been  most  prevalent  in  Yorkshire,  and  at  an  early 
day  it  was  known  as  the  Teeswater.  The  new  name 
of  Wensleydale  Longwool  was  attached  to  it  about 
the  time  the  Yorkshire  Agricultural  Society  began 
giving  prizes  for  it,  it  being  more  common  in 
Wensleydale  than  in  any  other  district.  Its  origin 
seems  to  be  akin  to  that  of  the  old  Leicester  breed, 
and  later  infusions  of  Leicester  blood  undoubtedly 
have  been  made.  The  present  type  and  character- 
istics have  long  been  fixed,  however. 

The  rams  are  used  to  cross  on  Black-Faced  ewes, 
as  it  has  been  found  that  the  cross-bred  product 
makes  a  good  feeding  -  lamb,  and  they  have  the 
additional  desirable  qualification  of  throwing  dark- 
faced  lambs. 

The  breed  is  confined  closely  to  its  native  dis- 
trict, few  having  been  exported  to  other  countries. 
The  most  notable  introduction  of  Wensleydale 
sheep  to  America  was  the  importation  made  by  the 
Wyoming  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  which  is 
said  to  be  giving  promise  of  valuable  results.  Aside 
from  this,  little  attention  has  been  given  the  breed 
in  this  couBtry. 

The  Wensleydale  has  two  societies  and  flockbooks 
devoted  to  it — the  Pure  Select  Wensleydale  Sheep 
Breeders'  Association,  with  headquarters  at  Car- 
perby,  Bedale,  England,  and  the  Wensleydale  Long- 
wool  Sheep  Breeders'  Association  and  Flock  Book 
Society,  with  headquarters  at  Howgrave,  Ripen, 
England. 


634 


SHELL-FLSH 


SHELL-FIBB 


SHEU^PISH.   Figs.  G39-G44. 

A  nhi'll-flsh  ut  (Iplined  aa  an  aquatic  animal,  not 
a  (li'h,  having  a  nltfll,  and  eapecialty  nnu  which 
anaea  under  p<i|itilar  notire  as  Oflvd  fur  food  ur  for 
ornaineot.  S[ii.-cirieally,  llie  ti'rrn  tt  appli»I  tu  the 
mollDske,  n^pn-'tu^nttMl  by  the  oystora.  clamg,  BiiaiU, 
alagi,  H|ui[|  nni]  cuttlefinh,  and  in  the  cmgtaccans, 
repTpnenlwl  hy  thu  loharter,  crayfish,  shrimp,  crah. 
anil  hiirnacle.  The  mtire  nimniim  fnixl  ftht^-ll-fiith  of 
the  Mnllaaca  are  the  uyiiU^r  nnil  the  clam,  niiil  of 
the  CruatiiceA,  the  cn.\),  the  crayfiHh,  the  lobster 
and  the  iilirimp.  Thuno  are  fiivt-n  notice  in  this 
plarc.  The  si-ni-rul  Hulijort  of  tuih-culturc  or  aqui- 
culture  iH  tresttnl  on  [lacfa  3iH>-C'iy4.  Turtle*, 
froKl  and  sponK^  olhi<r  .iqunlic  animnbt,  are  dis- 
cniwid  Beparntely  in  thvir  [ini]>«r  placca. 

The  lit<.Tsture  iif  Hhfll-fi«h  iu  largely  in  InillRtin 
form.  The  puliliirjiliuiiri  of  the  naLiunul  Bureuu  of 
FialiBriL-j*  iind  of  tho  sUitv  dL-iiartrnenl*  of  fisheriiw 
ahould  \n>  coDfiultcd.  A  few  puhlicatitmti  &rv  inen- 
tioni-d  hore.  Frank  K.  Wood,  The  .Sht;ll-fi»h*;ric8  of 
Now  Ynrk  Slate.  FnreKt,  Kinh  ami  ii:ime  Commift- 
Bion.  Albany,  New  York  {\*.m);  Rame,  Sh*'II-fish 
Culture  in  New  York  (l9C)fi);  Elc'port  of  the  Rurt^u 
of  Shtftl-fltthi'riiM,  Stale  of  New  Jersey,  Tri'ntnn, 
N.  .1.  (liMir>);  Annuiil  Rtfporla  of  the  Biological 
Dwpartmvtit  of  tho  Nuw  Jum-y  AKricKlturaJ  FiSix-ri- 
niunt  Station.  New  Bninjiwkk.  New  Jersoy.  In  thia 
connw!tion,  the  reader  nhoiild  cnnxult,  esjk^eially, 
the  Reporta  of  the  Unite<l  State-i  Bureau  of  Fifih- 
eriea  for  1893,  1897.  1S90,  IW3  and  liiOt.  and 
hulletitis  of  thtj  sjimt*  for  18R4,  1889.  1897,  1898 
and  I90>1.  On  the  Uiant  Scallop  (Uhery,  see  the 
bulletin  of  1889. 

ClAin.   Moilutoa. 

By  Julius  Ntinan., 

Of  the  various  edible  blTsJres  f>f  oar  coaat, 
inclnding  the  nrnllops,  the  mnwel  {M}ftihf\,  the 
hiinl-alnjlkxl  clam  {Vcnu»  mfjwtflno).  iirJ  theaoft- 
flhelle-J  cinm  {Mi/a  artnarm),  the  last  two,  and  par- 
ticularly the  la.-'t  one,  have  been  tho  anbject  of 
expefimc-ntiition.  with  the  objoct  of  It-arnitip  the 
principlea  nf  Ihieir  cullivation.  ,Vs  yet.  tho  only 
proijroHa  haa  been  to  imitatw  primitive  oy»ter-ciiI- 
ture.  vii!,.  to  secure  thi*  younc  as  "deed,"  and  to 
plant  them  in  favorable  localities  not  already 
stocked. 

The  spawniiijr  period,  the  reproductive-  products, 
and  the  development  of  the  epjr  arc  ninch  w  in 
the  oyMer  (which  aeol.  The  younsr  clam8  resemble 
the  yonnK  oyaters  in  becoming  fastened  to  objecta, 
but  instead  of  cemontinu  thomaelvea  fast  by  one 
of  the  Khtdl-valven,  they  develop  a  sticky,  tough 
thread,  called  a  bys^Uji,  like  that  which  anchors 
the  masaela.  They  aUo  develop  a  plow-fihaped, 
moMolar  projeotioo  back  of  th«  month,  known  as 
a  "foot."  by  means  of  which  the;  burrow  int«  the 
soil  at  tho  bottom  of  shallow  areas,  generally 
between  tide  markfi  on  the  heach.  They  require  a 
tenacioujt  bottom  or  vW  they  will  l>e  mmothered. 
At  th*  poeteo-ior  end.  the  mantle  Krows  out  aa  two 
tabM  (niovn  as  "igiphon^"),  called  the  "aeck"  of 


the  clam.  The  ventral  tobu  is  for  tli«  iahalatloa  of 
water  contatnint;  the  air  Dt'eded  for  rvqiintiaa, 
and  the  microscopic  food  needed  for  growth ;  the 
dorsal  Inhe  exhales  the  water,  aft^r  it  has  tra- 
versed the  pnrettof  the  j^llt*.  TheBRBipbuns  project 
upwani  through  the  itoil  tuw&nl  the  water.  If  the 
younj;  clam  tlndH  a  ttuJtahle  place,  it  lymaJBH 
permanently.  Often  the  young  are  rtrj  mi 
crowded  and  many  starve  to  death  :  then  othe 
die  from  thv  decay  of  their  neighbors.  Tfamt  tb^re 
in  an  advantage  in  tran.tplanting.  In  a  year  or 
two  a  marketable  aize  will  )>e  reached  oa  good 
gniand. 

The  New  England  coast  is  the  principal  home  of 
the  soft  clam,  while  the  middle  Atlantic  slat<4 
prodaco  the  hard  cUm.  The  total  catch  marketifd 
in  1904  exceeded  one  and  a  half  million  dollam  is 
value. 

Crab.    CruKlaem. 

By  Junius  Sd$on. 

In  1904,  over  40.000.000  crabs  wer«  marketed 
In  the  United  StateJi.  The  chief  cent«r  of  the  crab 
fishery  is  in  the  Chesapeake  bay,  near  (.'ristield. 
Maryland.  The  lishery  began  in  1875,  and  at  first 
was  confined  to  the  capture  of  soft-ahell  crabs,  i.  e, 
those  that  have  juat  tiJiL-d  their  nhell ;  but  later  the 
taking  of  hani-shell  crabs  ileveloped.  The  lalt«r 
are  eithi^r  Dold  alive,  or  boiled,  the  meat  extracted 
and  put  up  in  sealed  cans  or  in  buckets  aurroooM 
by  ice.  In  the  latt*;r  ca-se,  the  ehclls  are  cleand 
and  uhippod  in  the  same  crate  with  the  meat,  t^i  be 
used  in  serving  "deviled "  crabs.  The  aoft-sbell 
craha  are  iihipped  alive,  cliisely  packed.  The  tisber- 
men  get  two  cents  each,  and  the  nhippery  aboat 
four  cents.  Hard  crabs  are  worth  leas  than  ■  Bfih 
as  much. 

Soft  crabs  are  taken  either  by  hand  nets  from 
small  boats,  or  by  dredging  from  larger  bonl*. 
usually  carrying  a  dredge  on  each  side.  Hard  crab 
are  taken  on  baited  lines.  Crabs  that  have  not  ysi 
shed,  btit  "ji^hriw  signs,"  are  put  into  floats,  where 
the  shedding  is  complete;  and  this  is  really  all 
that  can  properly  be  termed  "culture"  in  cobikc- 
tion  with  th««e  shell-fish.  l^racticaDy.  only  the  bias 
crab  {CalUntciet  kagtatui)  is  involved. 

The  females  are  mature  at  three  or  four  yean  of 
age.  and  are  said  to  spawn  but  once  and  then  die. 
while  the  males  sarvive  several  years.  The  m^jor* 
ity  spawn  in  the  early  spring,  and  their  young  an 
hatched  the  same  summer;  those  spawning  in  thr 
late  autumn  carry  the  eggs  over  wintor,  going  into 
deep  water.  The  female  molts  before  qawninic  and 
as  the  miiltin^'  time  approaches,  she  is  seized  by  the 
male  and  carried  about  Aftersbeddii^  uid  whilr 
the  shell  is  still  soft,  copulation  is  elfect«d.  tasting 
a  day  or  two.  Then  the  female  »e«ks  deeper  W8t«a- 
and  produces  about  three  million  eggs,  neb  a 
bondredthof  an  inch  in  diameter.  TbeyooBflutd 
in  the  form  of  loeas  that  molt  several  time*,  beeooH 
iog  transformed  to  a  stage  called  mesftlon.  vWcft 
in  turn  become  transformed  into  tbe  adnlt  f«r« 
after  six  molts.  Then  tbe  joong  mtgrst«  toward 
the  shallow  shoru  waters. 


SHELL-PISH 


SHELL-PISH 


635 


Crayfish.  Crustacea.  Crawfish.    Figs.  639,  640. 

By  E.  A.  Andrews. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  sales  of  cray- 
fish in  the  United  States  amoant  to  more  than 
$25,000  annually,  so  extensively  are  they  used  as 
food  and  garnish,  as  bait  and  as  subjects  for  stady. 


FlK-  639.    Crayfish  bsuinc  eua- 

While  the  supply  of  wild  crayfish  seems  at  present 
adequate  to  meet  the  demand,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  from  the  increase  in  our  population  and  the 
over-fishing  of  crayfish  haunts,  the  demand  will 
come  to  exceed  the  supply,  as  has  been  the  case  in 
so  many  departments  of  natural  food  supply. 

In  France  and  in  some  other  European  countries, 
crayfish-farms  for  batching,  feeding  and  rearing 
crayfish  for  market  have  long  been  conducted  in 
successful  competition  with  the  natural  supply. 
The  crayfish  in  America  are  so  much  like  those  of 
France  that  the  same  general  methods  of  culture 
will  apply,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  experiment 
at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

Of  importance  for  experimental  culture  of  cray- 
fish in  this  country  is  the  fact  that  America  pos- 
sesses a  very  large  number  of  kinds  of  crayfish  of 
different  market  values,  and  that  some  are  very 
large  so  that  they  might  fill  the  place  left  by  the 
fast-disappearing  lobster.  A  fundamental  fact  of 
importance  in  crayfish-cnlture  is  that  these  ani- 
mals are  easily  fed,  at  all  periods  of  their  lives, 
on  cheap  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  Where 
there  is  easy  access  to  large  cities  having  a  good 
market  for  crayfish  as  food,  experiments  on  the 
introduction  and  culture  of  large  and  attractive 
kinds,  such  as  the  crayfish  of  Oregon,  would  seem 
to  be  well  worth  trying,  with  the  expectation  of 
adding  to  the  revenue  from 
cheap  pond  and  marsh  land. 

Points  to  be  observed  in  eray- 
jUh-culture. 

To  rear  crayfish  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  shallow  ponds  that 
may  be  easily  drained  and  pro- 
tected  from  large  fish  and  other 
enemies  of  crayfish.  The  com- 
mon crayfish  breeds  in  the 
spring,  and  when  found  carry- 
ing eggs,  or  "in    berry,"  as 
shown  in  Fig.  639,  it  may  be 
removed    to  a  special  pond 
where  the  young  will  hatch,  and  as  minute  crawl- 
ing larvae  receive  special  care  and  food  during  their 
first  summer.   In  the  first  autumn  the  young  shonld 
be  two  inches  long.    In  the  winter  the  crayfish 
require  little  attention,  as  they  are  inactive  and  do 
not  grow.    But  in  the  summer  the    growth  is 


accompanied  by  shedding  of  the  shell,  and  good 
feeding  will  induce  rapid  growth.  In  large  enclo- 
sures the  natural  vegetable  and  insect  food  will 
support  many  crayfish,  but  in  smaller  ponds  and 
rivers,  soft  vegetable  and  animal  food  must  be 
given. 

Too  great  crowding  is  to  be  avoided,  as  parasites 
and  disease  may  destroy  large  numbers.   In  fact, 
FiUrope,  epidemics  caused  by  certain  bacteria 
ave  destroyed  the  crayfish  in  large  river  areas, 
attempts  are   in   progress  to  restock  with 
American  crayfish. 

Since  each  female  crayfish  lays  several  hun- 
dred eggs  each  year  for  several  years,  and 
may  begin  to  breed  when  less  than  one  year 
old,  a  rapid  increase  in  stock  may  be  secured 
simply  by  protecting  the  mothers  with  eggs,  and 
lessening  the  naturally  large  death  rate  among  the 
young  by  keeping  away  enemies  and  giving  plenty 
of  food. 

Lobster^  Crustaeea. 
By  Julius  Nelson. 

Experiments  in  the  artificial  propagation  of  lob- 
sters have  been  conducted  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Fisheries  since  18^,  and  more  particu- 
larly since  1894.  In  1900,  along  the  coast  of  the  New 
England  states,  there  were  employed  in  the  lobster 
fishery  4,348  persons,  191  vessels,  3,960  boats, 
208,563  lobster  pots  or  traps,  involving  a  total  in- 
vestment of  $1,668,000.  There  were  taken  15,767, 
741  pounds  of  lobsters,  which  sold  for  $1,390,579. 
[United  States  Fish  Commission  Report  for  1903.] 
This  shows  a  decline  in  the  production,  the  yield 
eleven  years  earlier  having  been  twice  as  great, 
of  which  25,000,000  pounds  were  producal  by 
Maine  alone.  Outside  of  New  England  waters,  the 
lobster  production  of  our  coast  is  unimportant. 
With  decrease  in  production,  the  price  has  trebled. 

The  lobster  spawns  not  oftener  than  once  in  two 
years,  and  carries  its  eggs  attached  under  its  abdo- 
men, popularly  called  the  tail.  Such  females  are 
then  said  to  be  "in  berry."  The  eggs  are  carried 


FIk.  mo.    Crajflili  TMied  fiDm  eCK*  In  ea^Tlty.    Twenty-flre  monthi  old. 

through  the  winter,  the  lobsters  going  into  deep 
water,  and  are  hatched  the  next  spring.  As  with 
the  crab,  the  adult  probably  casts  its  skin,  a  pro- 
cess called  "  molting,"  before  it  lays  the  next  crop 
of  eggs.  The  young,  when  hatched,  are  a  third  of 
an  inch  in  length,  and  they  seek  the  surface.  They 


6S6 


SHBLL-FISH 


SHELL-PISH 


grow,  with  frequent  molta,  nntil  nearly  an  inch  in 
Itfnyth ;  thon  thisy  seek  the  tyttom.  Id  approxi- 
mately four  years  they  are  eight  inches  lony  and 
produce  their  first  bat^rh  of  egga,  about  five  thou- 
sand in  number. 

For  artificial  rearing,  the  eiiRS  are  removed  in 
the  early  iiHmmer  fnim  "borried"  females  and 
hatched  in  floating  crates,  civered  with  cr>tt{>n 
Hcrim.  Hatching  beginit  in  June,  and  th«  larval 
moltinjis.  six  in  number,  consume  nine  to  twenty- 
five  days,  accordinR  to  thu  temperature  (70'^  to 
60°  Fahr.),  There  i»  great  mortality  among  the 
yoang,  principally  from  a  fungus,  the  growth  of 
which  can  be  reatrainwi  by  the  use  of  copper  net- 
ting. Tbe  larva;  eat  lobi^ter  and  crab  liver  and 
crushed  menhaden,  but  nut  the  tlesh  of  herring  or 
beef.  The  h««t  renulta  come  from  feeding  natural 
plankton  (ace  page  ;J93>,  but  the  mortality  is  very 
great.  It  is  still  a  question  whether  the  mortality 
under  nature  is  greater  or  smaller  than  under 
artificial  conditions.  But  if  the  egga  of  lobsters 
that  are  caught  can  be  saved,  evidently  natural 
methods  will  be  sup] elemented.  Laws  prohibiting 
the  taking  of  "berrie<P  lobsters  should  prove  the 
mo;jt  efiicieat  means  uf  preventing  depletion.  At 
the  end  of  the  larval  period  the  young  lobsters  are 
turned  into  the  sea  to  shift  for  thtrmaelves.  They 
do  rot  wander  far,  and  so  particular  regions  can  be 
stocked. 

Oyiter.    Ostrea  spp.    MoUiuea,    Figs.  641-644. 

By  Juluifi  Xrlitoti. 

The  oyster  industry  hat)  been  conttidered  a  ^fh- 
ery,  but  it  attains  its  be^t  devi^lopment  through 
the  application  of  aqnicnlturat  methods.  Its  inter- 
ests are  in  charge  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Fisheries,  state  finh  commissions,  or  of  special 
oyst«r  and  ahell-tish  commissions.  In  1902,  the 
u  M  United  States  produced 

nearly  twenty-six  million 
*■•'  '^^  bushels  of  market  oys- 

ters, about  five-sixths 
of  the  world's  product, 
worth  at  first  cost  $15,- 
5ri6,f*05.  More  than  a 
third  of  the  product  ciune 
from  the  Cheitapeake  bay. 


V 


'// 


Sptrie*. 

The  following  species 
are  commonly  cultivated: 
Of^na  lurida,  native  of 
the  Pacific  coast  from 
British  ri)lumhia  to  Cali- 
fornia ;  0.  aiculata  of 
,Iapan ;  O.  rJuHs  of  Eu- 
rope, from  the  N'orth  sea 
to  Italy;  0.  Adriatiea  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean^ 
O.  drifuidfa  of  Portugal  and  southern  France ;  0. 
Virginiana,  the  common  oystur  from  the  gulf  of 
St.  I^wrence  to  Texas,  but  now  exterminated 
betwi-en  Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Cod  ;  the  native 
oyster  north  of  the  Chea^peake  is  variety  harealis. 
Other  species  are  fauod  on  the  coasts  of  Mexico 


Uf.  641.  I^ri:  OyiUrthM! 
vIvKVd  from  iK-rcitl  ivl|i<>: 
B,  blnffit  mil  (Antiirli>rh 
P.  "nlU' '  •nd  i  poiiahiir  I ; 
L,  loft  «alv«i  B.  rUlil 
T»lv«.  Ritilil:  Ojtmler 
•hell  vlnweii  from  a'pl>^r 
<Tlsllt  *«!«<<)  ttde;  /),  ilmr- 
ul   mIs«;    /.   I,   llnv*   of 

CTOWttL 


and  the  Antilles.  O,  edutU  is  hermaphroditic  sad 
viviparous.  O.  Vtrffiniana  and  O.  artyulata  are 
diwciouH,  each  individual  being  either  a  female, 
producing  "'roe"  (ova),  or  a  male,  producing  "milt" 
Isperms).    They 

are  oviparous,  the     ^.^g^^^^^^v  ft 
reproductive  celU 
being  emitted    to 
conjugato    while 

floating  in  the  sor-  -...v.^         —  ,     »  _. 

rounding  water,  ^^  •        •-  -         ■■ 

where  tho  entire 
development  pro- 
ceeds. 

Reproduction. 

The  eggs  of  O. 
Virgiviana,  the 
common  eastern 
oyster,  ar«  one 
five-hundredth  of 
an  inch  in  diame- 
ter, which  is  thou- 
sands of  times 
larger  than  the 
sperms.  The  roe 
and  milt,  about 
f^tnal  in  amount 
in  the  two  sexes. 
are  indistinguish- 
able to  the  naked 
eye,  appearing, 
when  mature,  as  a 
creamy  layer  be- 
neath the  skin  in 


■Tiuclaic  al  the  oyilrt'  It't"'- 
l(iiicituiUn»]  ■crlliiD  uf  bIicU  aad 
0ODi«iiita:  lowpr.  tIvw  from  ibe  Mt 
^Mv,  Ui*«4ttip«ii»ljlEiconll»«rl<l)t 
"biif  ■hrll.''^  A.  HIviK*  lleuMDl: 
7n,  pnttiunf  Mtiwhmpnt  nf  Ihvtim*' 
e]»  III  pit'i'iiiiu  u>a*oiik,  I.  fdc**  ot 
Iho  »lirn  of  pmiiuni  tntoat  [UnM 
of  (troirth  f:  .V,  "Bilf,'"  or  pMlwtaT 
I'tiO:  ifr.  HljcNKif  manlh).  B.(lllli 
V.  rloncul  I'liniulirr  j  il,  MUndor 
miuclr:  J.  RaHrl»  of  hp*rt:  T, 
ventricle,  U.  rri>r<Hlnni**11>*iir:  /. 
iuuvlluei  5.  MvuiBrhi  L,  Ml 
ri«w«T)  thItpi  it.  ngM  nr  nPMr 
vnl»e;  .(n.  KTitvrlnr  *iiil:  £>•,  l)*wri 
Dr,  dorwl  «!«•:  Pa.  [KMtnior«n4: 
(),  op«nln£forlhr  rttt  at  "■p«w«"i 
Vt.  vcnlral  mI<b;  /*,  Mp>i  ■■■, 
innnili:  ti.  llnl  pari  <>f  Inlnrtto*! 
a  Tciit  of  Inlrxllue;  W.  waMT 
[nbtin.  Dpvulng  frum  jflll*  IntocJoft' 
Pal  cbainbtr. 


front  of  the  heart. 
The  ejection  of  the  milky  fluid  is  called  spawning, 
and  the  reproductive  Huid  ii  called  spawn.  The 
height  of  the  spawning  svason  is  reached  by  the  liwl 
week  in  June.  The  ten[;th  of  the  season  depends 
on  the  temperature  of  the  water.  The  optimum  tem- 
perature for  spawning  is  about  80"  Pabr.  In  Loi 
island  Sound,  spawn  is  not  visible  in  oysters  bof 
May  or  June,  nor  after  .\ugust  or  September,  hot 
in  Florida  waters  oysters  may  also  spawn  at 
Christmas  time,  and  have  been  known  to  reprod' 
in  February.  4iyst4.'r8  probably  repeal  the  spa 
ing  act  several  times  during  the  seasoo,  especisllj 
in  the  South. 

The  reproductive  cells  grow  at  the  expense 
nutriment  stored  in  the  connective  ttssue. 
hence  oysterii  are  vt-ry  lean  just  after  spawning. 
If  food '  is  abundant,  they  soon  recuperate,  ffhea 
the  cooler  weather  of  .\Tigu.'»t  and  Septt-mber  con. 
they  stora  up  fat  to  be  used  for  reprodocli 
pnrpoeos  the  following  summer.  Henw  Jt  is  thnt 
oysters  are  most  relished  in  the  months  with  an 
"r,"  which  constitute  preeminently  the  oyster 
son.  Oysters  also  spoil  readily  in  warm  weathefc^ 
.\n  oyster  tilled  with  spawn  contains  as  much  nutri- 
mentas  ever  ;  it  has  a  poor  flavor  when  eaten  ran, 
but  is  greatly  improved  by  cooking.  There  is 
limittKl  summer  trade  in  such  oysters  at 
resorts,  and  in  nearby  cities. 

Devd0pmcnt.—lhe  eggs  of  the  oyster  an  (ertil- 


SHELL-PBH 


SHELL-PBH 


esT 


ized  within  a  few  minuU-s  after  reaching  the  aporm- 
atized  water,  ant!  development  follows  rapidly  aiid 
normally  at  ttmperatHrva  l>etween  60"  and  85,*' 
the  o[jtin]uni  lying  between  GS'  and  78',  Tn  live  to 
seren  hourK  thu  egf;  hais  cocnpleted  its  H&^meDtatJon 
and  bBC<'>miK4  aciliaLeil,  fn^-swimmioi^  larva  ia  the 
i;aatrula  staKo.  It  i«  scarciily  larcer  than  tho  oRg, 
and  hail  a  ciliated  fitoniach  cavity  less  than  oue 
two-th>uti!)andth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  so  the  food 
cunsiHlt)  vt  only  the  minutest  uf  alps  »pores  and 
tnicrnhe-H.  Crttwth  is  slciw  at  first,  but  the  mnntlt*- 
fiildA  are  formtnl,  and  thf>  primitive  Hhell  ttecreted 
by  the  end  nf  the  first  day.  The  valves  «re  alike, 
ruHembliiii!  ihuae  of  a  clum.  Tint  embryos  may  ni>w 
be  callwl  uyster  "fry,"  They  swim  awkwardly  by 
m'L'ans  uf  a  ciliaU-d  velar  dii^k  pmtruilin^  between 
tho  valves.  ThL'V  aro  distrihutiMl  by  mtians  of  tidal 
currents,  their  limiterl  swimming  powers  btiinji 
aited  at  lirKt  Ut  chani^e  their  vertical  difltribiitinn 
while  ttoatinj;,  and  finally  Ui  Kertire  a  Wation  nn 
an  ubjeKt  suitable  fur  their  attachment,  Su(!h 
uhjwcls  are  called  clutch  or  iinlieetors,  and  cunMist 
of  the  ahells  uf  oysters  and  other  shell- fish,  dead  or 
living;  but  grass,  bushes,  trees,  posts,  rocks,  peb- 
bles, pieces  of  crockery,  glass,  bricks,  boats,  leather 
and  rubber  b«K>ts  are  readily  titibzed.  The  chitcJi 
must  1»B  clean,  not  coalwl  with  slime,  for  the  fry 
at  Ihia  time  art)  eacOi  lenn  than  une  ime-hundrwlLh 
of  un  inch  in  diameter.  After  fixaliitti,  the  baby 
oyster  in  called  spat.  The  length  of  time  the  fry 
swims  free  ha.s  bwn  variously  stated  as  being  from 
one  to  seven  days,  dejiending  on  temperature  and 
food  cnndititms,  but  it  is  pertninly  not  shorter  than 
five  days,  and  nften  m<in;  than  seven. 

Attachment  }»  made  by  the  left  mantle  edge,  and 
growth  is  a(j  rapid  that  the  spat  becomes  visible  Ui 
the  naked  eye  within  three  ilaya,  Yuung  uysters 
rejich  an  inch  in  diameter  in  two  months,  and  then, 
as  cold  weather  cnmes.  the  growth  is  arrested. 
When  a  year  (d<l  they  average  two  an4l  one-half 
inches.  A  fWM!und  year  lulds  little  mere  than  an 
inch,  as  the  increase  leasena  with  age. 

The  fued  ef  the  oyster  consists  of  microtwupic 
organisms  iloating  in  the  water,  belonging  mainly 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  algie,  called  dia- 
toms, constitute  nine-tenths  of  this  food. 

Natural  oytter  bedf. 

Under  natural  conditions,  the  Hnece-wiro  genera> 
tions  st^ttle  ua  the  shells  of  their  aneestttrs.  Even- 
tually the  oldest  gi-neralions  liecumL-  buried  and 
•DWthered  in  the  accumulating  mud.  and  finally  a 
reef  ia  formed  whose  surface  reaches  tho  average 
iHVel  of  low  waUT.  Km-h  reefs  lie  near  the  shore, 
with  a  det^p  channel  Wyonii.  Natural  beds  may 
alsti  form  in  detijij-r  water.  The  living  ny.'iters  on 
the  top  of  reefs  ore  so  crowded  that  an  acre  rany 
yield  eight  thousand  bushelx.  ttut  they  ore  mostly 
poor  oysters  of  all  sizes,  and  are  lean  through  com- 
petition for  food,  and  few  are  fit  for  market.  Near 
th«  n»ef  and  in  adjacent  coves  are  isolated  Bpeci- 
men*  in  goinl  condition.  Reef  oysters  transplanted 
to  certain  grounds,  not  natnrulfy  oysler-prndDcing, 
£row  and  fatten  rapidly. 

There  are    nearly  (j(J0,01>U    acres  of    ao-called 


natural  oyster  ground  in  the  United  States,  dis- 
tnbut«d  principally  aa  follows :  Connecticut  and 
New  Yorlt.  :t.*.,(XX) ;  New  Jersev.  90.000;  Del** 
ware,  70,00l»;  Maryland,  3  2:1,006;  Virginia,  ^0,- 
IXJO  ;  North  Carolina,  10,000 ;  South  Carolina  and 
frtorgia,  2,(>0(M  Florida,  li:,000  :  Alabama,  2,200 ; 
Ixiuisiana,  32,f)00.  Only  a  tenth  of  these  areas  is 
actually  productive  In  some  of  the  ittates,  but 
these  grounds  at  present  yield  over  half  of  our 
supply.  They  will  require  special  attention  to  pre- 
vent their  disappearance. 

Oj/ttcr-fttking. 

OyaterH  are  taken  by  ti>ng8  and  by  dredgos.  (Pig. 
(US.)  The  right  to  take  oysters  ia  usually  permitted 
only  to  residenta  who  pay  a  yearly  license.  Dredges 
operated  by  steam  may  not  be  used,  and  dredging 
in  water  so  shallow  as  to  alliiw  the  use  of  tongs  is 
prohibited.  Operations  are  forbidden  at  night,  on 
Sundays  and  during  the  spawning  season.  The 
duration  of  the  closed  season  is  generally  from 
April  or  May  to  Septeml>er  or  October.  aUliough 
it  varies. 

Tongs  and  dredges  gather  indiscriminately 
empty  shells,  oj'sters  of  all  sizes,  and  clusters  that 
most  be  knocked  apart.  Sorting  out  the  marketa- 
ble oysters  is  called  cnlling.  The  ifhells  and  small 
oysters  remaining,  formerly  were  sold  at  two  to 
four  cents  a  bushel  fur  burning  into  lime.   They 


Pig.  MJ.  Oritdt  forOTStn-CJilfanliiE.  a.  Tonc^  for  wkttr  tm 
Diuti  Iwoniy  IVvp  tMil  dMp:  b,  '  tknek*.'  to  t>r  drnwti  OT«r 
■)j>tpi-li^l*  !■>  *iiliitiiil»  ■larflsli  In  Ih*  mi>|w;  r.  kiilfp  tvr 
otwulnit  (>)'htfT  nhclliii  4.  d»»t>M-nl»r  toniai  r.  <lr»tl||«  (ur 
•rrapliiC  oyntnn  fTiHii  bnii  tn  iWji  w»t«r, 

have  a!«o  been  used  extensively  for  filling  and 
road-making.  Kxcettsi%'e  fishing  leads  to  denuda- 
tion of  the  reefs  and  a  decrease  in  the  site  of  the 
oysters,  until  at  last  only  the  crop  spawned  the 
previous  season  is  pre-sent.  Then  the  k-d  is  said  to 
be  depleted,  and  produces  only  seed  for  the  plant- 
ing grounds.  Finally,  all  the  clutch  is  remo%'ed 
and  the  l)ed  w  destroyed.  To  protect  the  natural 
oyster  beds,  various  regulations  are  in  force. 

Planting  ground. 

Outside  the  limits  of  nataral  oyster  c^^jorAw. 
opportunity  has  been  given  for  the  deviilov***^**^**  **■ 


fiUELL-PISH 


SHKIiL-FISH 


prirato  oyBlwrixIuting.  Such  groundB  are  some- 
noMMcnrad  DDd«r  a  title  that  permits  their  g-An 
and  traiiBfer  bv  inheritance.  The  market  value  of 
the  be^t  groand  is  above  a  thoosanil  dollars  an 
acre,  although  the  average  is  thirty  dollars.  The 
Rrouniid  are  taxe*!.  or  a  rental  may  be  chained  for 
land  leased  from  the  gtnte. 

The  area  of  teased  land  in  the  United  States  is 
about  3GO,000  acreit.  Ten  times  thi«  area  is  avail- 
able for  future  expaoaion,  aside  frojn  th<!  uutural 
ground,  which,  if  it  came  Tinder  cultivation,  would 
jleld  thirty  times  its  present  product.  Only  a 
third  of  the  leased  area  13  actually  under  cultiv.v 


Pl£.  e4<l.    TonglTis  «ysttt»  Into  a  teaw. 

tion.  The  amount  oni>  person  may  hold  is  some- 
timee  limitod.  The  targusL  oyster  farm  (7,000 
acres)  is  owned  by  a  firm  in  Connitcticut. 

Tt  is  advantageous  U>  shift  nysters  to  now 
jfround  in  the  spring  or  autHmn,  and  it  is  gocid 
policy  to  let  a  plot  lie  fallow  fcir  a  year  after  the 
crop  ia  removed,  in  ord^-r  LodishersL*  enemies  that 
have  gathered.  As  it  rciiuin-s  tnroc  or  four  years 
for  Seed  to  grow  to  market  size-,  tho  annnal  crop  \g 
produced  from  only  a  fourth  of  the  ground  occu- 
pied. 

About  three  hundred  hnshels  of  average  yonng 
seed,  costing  twenty  to  forty  cenls  a  buKhel,  may 
\k  planted  par  acre.  Under  fjivumble  i-onditiona, 
tht.s  will  have  increased  threefold  when  ready  for 
market.  Usually  the  planter  is  content  to  gather 
nearly  the  same  quantity  as  was  planted,  the 
oysters  having  become  enhanced  three  tn  four 
times  in  value.  Ynung  seed  doublen  in  growth  the 
first  season,  the  hKUses  liiirin;;  the  next  balance  the 
increase,  ami  thereafter  thu  death  loMSi-ft  overbal- 
ance tho  growth.  The  average  annual  net  profit  is 
about  10  per  cent  on  the  investment. 

Oyttter-ciilture  has  developed  through  several 
stagtiS  of  ;>riigress  by  thp  presirture  iif  circnm- 
staneea.  So  lung  as  thu  natural  ImmIs  yielded  a  Hufli- 
cient  supply  of  choice  oysters,  there  was  no  eol- 
tnre.  The  first  step  was  to  transplant  fuiult  oysters 
for  the  pnrpose  of  improving  their  flavor  and  fat- 
ness. .\s  demand  increased,  the  supply  iif  natural 
adult  ovstent  gavts  out,  and  it  iKeame  necetuary  to 
take  the  second  step,  i.  e.,  to  cultivate  small 
oysters.  The  an-as  furnishing  this  «e«>d  in  the 
vicinity  of  planting  groumls  in  turn  lieciLmc  over- 
taxed. The  northern  planter  was  forced  to  seek 
seed  in  Chesapeake  bay.  where,  at  lirst.  it  could  ho 
securerl  in  unlimited  quantities  at  ten  to  twenty 
cents  a  bushel.    In  the  spring  of  IK80,  a  fleet  of 


fift?  TMselfl  was  carrying  nearly  tvo  mntlon 
busneU  of  seed  from  Maryland  to  be  planced  in 
northern  waters.  Finally,  the  affected  southern 
states,  to  prot«:t  their  own  supplies,  prohibited! 
the  export  of  seed  oj-sters.  This  would  have 
a  seriouR  blow  to  the  planting  indDstnr  hid  oc 
another  step  in  the  progress  of  oyster-cuftcre  been 
taken,  vix.,  the  raising  of  seed  on  private  grounds. 

Artyie!fil!y  prmfuoM  tied.— In  1868.  Capt.  Chu.^ 
11.  Townsend  of  New  Haven.  Conn.,  following 
suggestion  from  European  methods,  spread  oyit 
shells  on  his  own  grounds  and  secured  a  good  "se^l 
of  spat.  This  pnictice  ^adually  developed  into  a] 
great  and  successful  industry.   A  single  firm  anni 
iilly  planted  a  quarter  million  bushels  of  ohells. 
This  seed  is  either  raised  to  adult  size  by  the  pro 
ducer  or  is  sold  to  other  planters.   Of  the  (J.HT9.405 
bushels  of  seed  oysters  f^old  in  the  United  State.^  in 
t9()2.   one-fourth   t.m?  raised  on   private  beds  in 
Long  Island  Sound. 

'IV  amount  of  clutch  used  per  acre  is  about  fiv« 
hundred  hnsbels,  but  if  the  bottom  is  soft,  as  much 
nsi  two  thi>usand  bnshels  may  be  necossary.  Th« 
cLuteh  rapidly  becomes  slimy  in  the  watur,  and  Ml 
is  gt-nerally  mit  planted  until  the  last  week  in  Jon«l 
or  the  first  week  in  July,  when  there  are  the  great- 
est number  of  fry  ready  to  "set."  If  the  "shelled* 
ground   is  not  n^ached   by  currents  flowing  over 
oyster-beds  containing  suitable  spawners,  about 
tibirty  bushels  of  adult  oysters  should  be  planted ' 
per  acre,  at  least  several  months  before  the  sbelli] 
arii  sprtfai:!,  as  handling  oysters  during  the  spaWD-] 
ing  season  interferes  with  the  proper  formation  of 
their  spawn. 

Arti^cial  propagation.— \i  was  (rapponei!  that  the 
reproduction  of  the  American  oyster,  O.  Uirffia^] 
itiiA,  resembled  that  of  the  European  oyster,  O.  nfa- j 
lis,  until  1S79.  wlien  Dr.  W.  K.  Brooks,  of  Johna ' 
Hopkins   University,  succeeded   in  raising  o\'eterj 
fry  by  artificial  fecundation.   This  discovery  gavoj 
ho|X!  that  we  would  be  able  to  devwe  a  method  of 
multiplying    oyster   seed    ai    will    in    unlimited 
quanlitie-s.    The  next    dozt-n    years  witnessed  ex- 
t«ndL«d  exjM'rimeiital  studii-'S  of   the    problem  by 
many  eminent  lish-cultnrists.  The  general  method 
nsod  by  these  investigators  is  as  follows :  Par- 
ing the  spawning  season,  oysters  are  opened  aod 
those  filled  with  sp.iwn  ar»  chosen.    Their  spam] 
is  examined  microscopically,  until  two  or  thres; 
"ripe"  specimens  of   each  sex    are  secnrvd.  A 
vory  small  amount  of  spermatic  fluid  is  added  ta 
clean  sea-water,  and  to  this  the  carefully  washed  | 
eggs  of  the  fumale  are  added.  Development  readflf 
follows,  and  after  a  few  hoars  the  surface  of  the 
exi»erimental  dish  is  crowded  with  awimming  em- 
bryos. These  are  now  poared  Into  new  seo-wataCi 
and  can  l>e  kept  sevurTi]  days,  but  are  best  plantadl 
when  their  shell  is  perfectly  formed  on  the  second ' 
day.    Development  is  frequently  abortive,  due  taj 
errors  of  manipulation,   faulty  conditions  or  evil 
influence    affecting    the   mother  oyster.    OyrtOl] 
tnhould  be  opened  immi'^itately  after  they  ari>  iaki 
from  their  beds.  The  fry  )k  planted  in  an  eocIoMtnj 
suited  t^)  prevent  its  floating  away:  and  by 
of  introduced  clutch,  observations  are  mad*  on  9^{ 


SHELL-FISH 


SHELL-FISH 


639 


fixation.  Certain  essential  principles  governing 
spat  fixation  are  still  to  be  discovered. 

European  metkods.^Ti  Europe,  the  natnral  beds 
are  specially  protected  by  the  government.  Their 
main  use  is  to  furnish  spat  for  artificial  collectors 
placed  on  adjacent  groands.  These  collectors  are 
curved  tiles.  They  are  coated  with  plaster  and  ce- 
ment and  are  put  into  position  as  soon  as  inspection 
shows  that  spawning  has  begun.  This  industry  (of 
securing  spat  in  this  way)  is  in  the  hands  of  private 
parties,  who  pay  rental  to  the  government.  Many 
of  these  tiles  are  on  ground  exposed  at  low  water. 
They  are  frequently  inspected  and  rinsed  from  sedi- 
ment. In  autumn,  when  the  attached  spat  has 
reached  the  size  of  a  finger-nail,  the  tiles  are 
removed  from  the  producing  ground  to  the  rearing 
ground.  In  Holland,  they  are  submerged  in  diked 
ponds  to  keep  them  from  freezing;  toward  spring, 
the  young  oysters  are  carefully  detached  by  thrust- 
ing a  thin  knife  beneath  the  cement.  The  young 
plants  are  then  placed  on  special  growing  grounds. 

In  France,  a  more  complex  method  is  employed. 
The  spat  are  collected  by  specialists  who  sell  the 
tiles  in  October  to  others,  whose  special  work  is  to 
continue  the  cultivation.  The  spat  are  detached  at 
once  and  put  into  "  elevage  "  boxes,  provided  with 
wire  screens  to  keep  out  enemies.  The  boxes  are 
placed  in  ponds  or  pares,  in  which  they  are  daily 
submerged  by  the  tides.  The  largest  oysters  are 
sorted  out  from  time  to  time  and  transplanted  to 
other  ponds.  Special  fattening  ponds,  called  dairea, 
are  so  constmcted  that  only  the  highest  or  spring 
tideB  can  enter  when  permitted  by  the  opening  of 
a  gate. 

In  early  summer  these  ponds  are  allowed  to 
become  dry ;  the  bottom  is  carefally  tilled,  and  a 
small  amount  of  water,  both  from  the  sea  and  from 
fresh-water  streams,  is  allowed  to  enter.  Under 
the  hot  sun,  the  algoid  organisms  present  multiply 
greatly.  Then  the  pond  is  allowed  to  fill,  and  the 
water  to  stand  stagnant.  In  this  the  oysters  are 
placed  in  September  for  two  or  three  weeks.  They 
fatten  rapidly,  bat  through  want  of  sufficient  air, 
many  die.  The  elaires  of  Marennes  are  noted  as 
giving  a  green  hue  to  the  oysters  placed  therein. 
The  oysters  are  removed  from  the  fattening  c/aire 
into  clear,  well-aerated  sea-water  for  a  few  days  for 
the  purpose  of  cleansing.  Finally  they  are  pre- 
pared for  market  by  being  placed  in  ponds,  where 
they  are  exposed  the  greater  part  of  each  low  tide. 
This  accustoms  them  to  hold  their  shells  shut  dnr- 
■  ing  transport. 

At  Tarente,  Italy,  twigs  entwined  in  grass  ropes 
suspended  from  posts  are  used  as  collectors.  In 
Japan,  bamboo  branches  or  shibi  are  set  on  the 
bottom  in  rows  or  in  clusters  ;  and  when  the  tide 
is  out,  an  oyster-garden  resembles  a  vineyard. 
The  skibi,  loaded  with  oyster  fruit,  are  themselves 
transplanted  into  culture  plots  in  deeper  water. 
By  this  mean.^  the  growth  of  three  years  equals 
that  of  four  when  the  oysters  lie  on  the  bottom. 

In  America,  the  cost  of  labor  prevents  our 
giving  the  oysters  the  individual  attention  they 
receive  in  foreign  lands.  Oysters  grow  rapidly  in 
natural  or  artificial    tidal    ditches    in    our  salt 


marshes,  so  that  we  may  expect  soon  to  see  these 
vast  areas  made  productive  through  proper  ditch- 
ing. It  is  8  general  practice  among  American 
oyster-producers  to  prepare  their  crop  for  market 
by  a  process  called  plumping,  freshening  or  fat- 
tening. The  laden  boats  returning  from  the  plant- 
ing grounds  are  unloaded  at  high  water  in  a  fresh- 
water creek.  As  the  tide  runs  out,  the  oysters 
absorb  water  of  decreased  saltness,  and  swell 
about  twenty-five  per  cent  in  volume.  The  oysters 
are  removed  at  low  water  and  prepared  for  ship- 
ment. After  they  are  opened  most  of  this  extra 
water  becomes  squeezed  out  as  "  liquor." 

Marketing. 

Oysters  are  shipped  in  the  shell,  to  be  opened 
elsewhere,  in  sacks  or  in  barrels  holding  two  and  a 
half  to  three  bushels.  They  are  sold  by  the  thou- 
sand. Small  oysters,  not  over  three  years  old,  are 
called  culls.  They  mn  from  1,000  to  1,500  per 
barrel,  and  are  worth  to  the  producer  about  $2.50 
per  thousand.  Oysters  running  650  to  1,100  per 
barrel  are  "  box  sizes,"  worth  $5  per  thousand  ; 
larger  sizes  are  "primes,"  and  the  largest  are 
"extras."  These  prices  should  be  doubled  for 
"  eastern  "  oysters  cultivated  in  California.  Since 
1894,  about  9,000  barrels  of  seed  from  Newark 
and  Raritanbays  have  been  sent  annually  to  be 
planted  in  San  Francisco  bay,  where  it  competes 
with  native  oysters  (0.  Ittvida)  imported  from 
Washington  state.  Over  a  hundred  thousand  bar- 
rels of  oysters  in  the  shell  are  annually  sent  from 
Long  Island  Sound  waters  to  Europe. 

Shucked  oysters. — As  the  shells  are  dead  weight, 
there  arose  the  practice  of  opening  oysters  near 
the  locality  of  production  and  shipping  the  meats 
packed  in  "preservalene"  or  ice  in  tubs.  This  began 
in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1836.  At  first,  oysters 
were  transferred  from  the  South  to  be  opened  in 
the  North,  but  shucking  houses  were  started  in 
1850  in  Baltimore,  and  later  at  Crisfield  and  other 
Maryland  points,  Norfolk,  Virginia,  and  Seaford, 
Delaware.  In  1880  nearly  four  million  bushels 
were  opened  in  Baltimore.  In  1897,  all  Maryland 
houses  together  opened  less  than  five  million  gal- 
lons. Lately  there  has  been  more  rapid  decline, 
while  packing-houses  have  started  on  the  golf 
coast. 

Canning. 

In  1846,  the  industry  of  oyster-canning  was 
initiated.  Small  oysters  are  used.  They  are  first 
killed  by  steaming  so  that  they  can  be  rapidly 
opened,  .\fter  packing,  the  can  is  sterilized.  In 
1880,  three  million  bushels  were  steamed  in  Balti- 
more, which  still  held  a  monopoly  of  this  trade. 
In  1897,  over  twenty-five  million  pounds  were 
canned  in  Maryland,  but,  owing  to  scarcity  of 
oysters,  this  trade  has  now  passed  to  the  states 
farther  south.  In  1900,  Maryland  produced  only  a 
third  of  the  thirty-three  million  pounds  of  oysters 
canned  in  the  United  States  ;  Mississippi  produced 
another  third,  and  the  other  southern  states  the 
remainder.  The  canning-houses  are  engaged  in 
canning  fruit  in  the  summer.   According  to  the 


640 


SHELL-riSH 


SILKWORM 


census  of   1900,  there  were    thirty-Dine  0}-8t«r> 
canning  houses  in  the  United  States. 

Literature. 

Brneat  Ingersotl's  memoir  on  the  "Ojrster  Indus- 
try,'' written  for  the  Censuti  of  1880,  fs  classic. 
United  States  Kiah  Commisaion  Report  for  1892 
Rivea  a.  bibliojrraphy  of  oyster  publications  in 
English,  including  546  papers  by  278  anthora. 

8hrimp.   Crangim  vttlgarii.   Cruelaeea. 

By  Juliut  iVdMon. 

Practically  no  effort  has  twen  Tnadcf  to  assist 
nature  in  the  production  of  shrimp.  Tht-  chief 
shrimp  fiflheries  are  on  the  Gulf  and  Pacific  coasts 
of  America.  The  annual  catch  in  about  four  hun- 
dred thocaand  doUara'  worth,  a  fonrth  of  which 
may  be  creditt-d  to  San  Franciaco  bay.  The*e 
shrimps  or  prawn.'t  are  canned,  An  unknown  nam* 
bcr  are  a.«od  for  bait  all  along  the  co.i£t, 

SILKWORM.    Bomhifx   mori,   Linn.    Bombycidce. 
Fig9.  (i45-<49. 

By  L.  0.  Howard. 

The  cultivation  of  the  dnmeatic  sitkwnrm  for  the 
production  of  raw  silk,  subaetinently  to  he  made 
into  cloth,  seems  to  have  originated  in  China,  and 
&R  an  agricultural  industry  is.  of  very  grwat  anti- 
(]uily  both  in  China  and  in  India.  The  ancestral 
form  of  the  Kilkwurm  itf  commerce  was  probably  a 
native  of  the  northarn  urovinct-s  t>t  China  or  of 
Bengal.  It  was,  as  a  wild  ajueciies,  [in)bably  a  full- 
wJngud,  flying  nnotb,  whoaw  larva  was  of  a  dark 
color,  and  spun  a  much  smnlltir  and  k-ss  dense 
cocoon  than  does  the  silkworm  of  today,  .\fter 
countlejw  generations  of  confinement,  cultivation 
and  breeding,  however,  the  insect  has  become  a 
trite  doniKHlicatei)  animiil ;  the  mnth  ha>i  priictically 
lost  the  power  uf  flight ;  the  larva  or  caterpillar 

has  become  for  the 
most  part  nearly 
'  -1  ,t  J  white  in  color,  except 
1^7  X/  in  certain  rather 
aberrant  races ;  the 
silk  glands  have  he- 
come  very  targe,  and 
the  silk  has  become 
in  oHt  uxuellent  in 
quality  and  very 
abundant. 

Lifeh  igtory  of  the  tHk- 
worm.  (Figs. 645- 
&17.) 
The  silkworm  of 
commerce  pas^ex  the 
winter  in  the  egjt 
utttga.  and  with  mrmt  of  the  races  there  is  but  one 
generation  each  year.  With  certain  other  race.i 
there  may  be  two  or  more  generatinns,  hut  in 
noet  silk-growing  countrie.s  the-se  nre  not  exten- 
sively cultivated  hecause  of  the  difficulty  of  secur- 
ing food  of  th^  right  quality  at  other  Reasons  than 


Kl.   545.    Tte  moU.    «,   tha 
male;  fr,  llie  hn»l». 


late  in  the  spring  and  the  beginning  of  summer,  Ib  , 
Japan,  however,  the  great  increaae  in  the  silk  indt 
try  during  the  pa^t  thirty  years  a  said  to  be  daa^ 
to  improved  methods  of  feeding,  so  that  three  crop6 
of  worms  may  be  fed  annually.  This,  howerer,  is 
not  done  by  the  ose  of  the  varieties  having  aeveral 


Ot. 


<^. 


FIs.  frU.  Tbw  chrysalli:  o.  lUkwonu  eoraplvtlna  lU  wooai 
t,  i-oenoB  Ai><]  rlir>"«Iit— (••«l  of  akin  of  l«rr>  twnMUbi 
t.  liiLi'k  olv  III  I-)! rymltx;  d,  sUl*  TMW  i>f  ctiryWIa. 
(Kixlrmwii  from  MnlUot.) 

generations  (bivollins,  trivoltins  or  polyvoltinsX 
but  by  the  u«e  of  an  annual  race,  and  the  col" 
storage  of  the  oggs,  part  of  which  are  removed 
inter^-als  and  the  worms  reared.  Under  ordinary 
conditions,  such  as  exist  tn  America  and  in  South 
EurojH),  the  eggs  hntch  naturally  in  April ; 
larva*  moll  four  times,  feed  for  about  four  we* 
and  then  spin  the  cocoon,  taking  about  three  daji 
for  the  process.  About  eighteen  days  elapM  in 
chrysalis  stage  within  the  cocoon,  and  thea 
adult  insnict  emerges.  The  moths  will  lay  their  <  _ 
about  the  end  of  June,  and  in  this  condition  t( 
insect  remains  until  hatching  time  the  follovin^ 
spring. 

Can  of  thr  silkworm. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  giro  a  fall  aoconnt 
of  the  care  of  the  silkworm.   It  is  a  more  or  It 
complicated  process,  and  involves  a  full  consi 
ation  of  temperature,  ventilation,  certain  etMntU 
implements,  charact«r  of   the  trays  and   tiers 
trays,   th«  picking  of  the    mulberry    leaves, 
absence  of  moistnre  on  the  leaves,  and  many  : 
lar  fsuiU,  togwther  with  the  preparation  for  spil 
ning,  and  the  care  and  harvesting  of  the  cocoouk] 
Tho  operations,  however,  are  not  such  as  requlral 
necessarily  any  high  degree  of  intelligence.    Chil-^ 
dron  may  iiecome  accBKti>med  to  the  culture  of  silk* 
worms,  and    may   practice    it   with  succeca.   Th« 
labnr  of  (vnring  for  a  comparatively  small  numl 
lit  worms  (say  four  or  five  thousand!,  is  not  KrG•^] 
except  in  the    later  stages  of  growth.    Then, 
keep  them  full-fed  will  occupy  the  temjx'irary  sei 
vices  of  an  adult  in  the  collection  and  distribatioaj 
of  the  large  smmint  nf  leaven  required   for  food.] 
All  nf  these  details  an*  displayed  in  publicatiooi 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
which  will  Ih*  »ent  Ui  all  persons  on  applicatkm ; 
these   publications  also  consider   the  care  of  the 
mulberry  tree,  together  with  the  important  nutter^ 
of  the  diseases  of  the  silkworm. 

Hiitory  of  the  industr}/. 

For  many  hundreds  of  years  the  cnltiratioa  ot. 
tht*  silkworm  was  confined  to  Asiatic  countries.   tk| 
seems  l»  have  lieen  an  industry  in  China  as  earl, 
as  2600  B.  C,  and  was  not  introduce  into  F.aroi 


SILKWORU 


SILKWORM 


641 


Qtitil  580  A.  D.  After  the  lattur  date  th«  culture 
ra[»idly  incruiaswJ,  and  soon  became  proniitent  in 
Turkey,  Ittily  and  Groecti,  and  haa  held  its  own  in 
those  cciuntries,  becoming  of  great  importance  in 
Italy,  and  achieving  aconstdeniMe  rank  an  an  agri- 
cnltural  tnduHtry  in  Frrtnce,  and  Ivhh  »ci  In  S]>ain 
and  Portugal.  Silk-culture  haaalttn  bt%u  practiced 
til  Bume  extent,  but  with  slight  compamtiV'O  buccbss, 
in  imrfcs  of  (Iwrinany,  and  recently  with  rather 
favorable  resulta  in  Hungary.  Attempts  to  estab- 
liah  the  industry  in  England,  althntigb  made  from 
time  to  time,  have  failed.  Silk-ctilture  haa  held  its 
own  in  China,  is  Rtil]  in  vogue  in  India,  and  in 
Japan  hna  made  great  atridea.  The  latter  country 
today  produces  a  very  conKideralile  proportion  of 
the  world's  supply  of  raw  wUk.  Thus,  of  the  forty- 
ono  milliona  of  dollara  spent  by  the  United  States 
in  iWi  for  raw  silk,  more  than  twenty  millions 
went  to  Japan,    [.^'e  page  643.] 

In  AiruTira. —  With  the  colonizing  of  North 
America,  attemptH  were  made  at  an  early  date  to 
practice  a  ilk-culture,  and  tim  coloni^te  of  Virginia, 


pit.  W.  FuJl-Eraini  •Ukworm:  I,  hi^iitt  I,  Ihoni;  3-II},  13. 
AbdciEnlnal  iireiii>iai«i  11,  horn:  13,  into  )«<»;  14.  pr»-Ieci; 
IS,  an ■  I  proO^jp. 

South  Canilina  and  Georgia  engaged  in  the  indns- 
try  to  a  certain  degrp<^.  Some  rwding  was  done  on 
hand-rtjela,  and  both  uocuuna  and  reeled  oilk  were 
sent  to  KurojKt.  In  IT.'iS,  (J&orgia  producinj  10,000 
ponnds  of  cocoons,  and,  rwlud  in  the  colony  on 
hand-reels,  the  re.^ulting  silk  commanded  a  higher 
price  in  the  I^ndon  market  than  that  from  tha 
old  Kulk-priKlucing  roiintriett.  The  i-uHure  was  in- 
trodDCod  into  N'ew  Rngland  ahcnit  IfitlO,  in  parts  of 
Connecticut  and  alno  on  Long  IhIhihI.  Punnnylvania 
and  New  Jersey  started  the  industry  in  1771.  but 
aEI  work  in  the  northern  atatea  waa  interrupted  by 
the  Revolutionary  war.  In  I82S,  an  attempt  waa 
made  to  revive  the  industry  and  a  treatise  on  the 
raising  of  silkwormD  was  piildished  by  order  of  tbo 
national  Cojigreiw,  which  waa  fulluweil  by  a  deter- 
mined elTort  to  ustaliliHh  the  culture  on  a  firm 
basis.  In  183.'!,  it  was  estimated  that  four  toas  of 
cocoons  were  produced  in  the  county  of  Windham, 
Cunn.  The  interest  in  the  indiistry  soon  passi'd  be- 
yond l>oundi4,  and  what  wa.H  known  a.H  the  "  Morut 
multieaulis  craze"  originated.  Thounandtt  of  indi- 
viduals purchased  mutlierry  cuttings  and  planted 
many  acrcit  of  valuable  land ;  investmenta  far 
exceeded  possible  returns  ;  heavy  freews  destroyed 
the  ptantation.i,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
the  many  failnres  caused  so  complete  a  revulsion 
of  fueling  that  not  only  was  silk-culture  practically 

C41 


Pll.  64B. 
SUkftaodJofsmt- 

tute  wono:  P, 
pan    i'>f   Elands 

tlint  )4wrrli-«  th« 
%il\j  nmttiT;  8, 
fpnervnir;    0, 

tinU  P.  kpin* 
n^Tpt;  (i.  aeNm- 
»nry  itlai'li. 
(itedrawn  froin 
V«r*i)n  mud 
WiiiiJ'i.l 


abandoned  in  tha  United  States,  but  the  very  name 
became  a  byword. 

Since  the  bumting  of  the  malticaulis  bubble, 
sporadic  attempts  to  revive  the  industry  have  been 
started  in  (!alifornia,  Utah,  Ijou- 
ifliana,  Alabama  and  Oi^orgia. 
Moreover,  in  1884,  Congress  be- 
gan making  appropriations  for 
the  encouragement  of  sUk-cuI- 
tare  in  the  United  States,  under 
the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture.  These  appropria- 
tions were  continued  until  1890 
and  tbu^n  lausvd.  During  the 
progress  of  this  work,  under  tha 
Department  of  Agriciilture.  mul- 
berry treea  and  eggs  of  the  silk- 
worm moth  were  sent  Ui  corre- 
siwndent*  throughout  the  country, 
a  manual  of  instructions  was  pub- 
lidhed  and  distributed,  and  silk 
reels  were  operated  in  New  Or- 
leans and  in  Washington.  The 
work  ceaRed  June  30,  18S3. 

The  national  work,  under  the 
Department  of  Agritulture,  waa 
rt«uinod  in  July.  1902.  The  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  Hon.  Jamos 
Wilson,  had  come  to  the  concta- 
sion  that  every  posgible  effort 
should  be  ma<le  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  extremely  p(K»r 
])eople  of  the  ^uthern  states,  and 
particularly  of  the  colored  race.  Among  the  many 
ideas  that  suggested  themselves  to  him  was  that  of 
silk-cnlture,  which,  as  a  household  industry,  adds 
to  the  wealth  and  prosperity  of  other  conntriea 
and  to  the  family  incomes  of  the  extremely  poor, 
('.ongrest)  maile  a  special  appropriation,  and  the 
work  has  boen  continued  a|>  to  the  prosunt  time. 
Silk  reels  have  boon  imported  from  b^uropo ;  opera- 
tors were  also  imported  as  teachers,  and  American 
girls  have  been  shown  the  process  of  reeling 
cocoons.  Well-tested  di.sea»e-free  eggs  have  been 
imported  from  Knrnpe,  and  mulberry  seed  of  desir- 
able varieties  has  also  been  brought  over.  ExjierJ- 
mental  nurseries  have  been  started  ;  experimental 

rearings  have  been 
made;  eggs  hare 
l)een  sent  to  all  ap- 
plicants who  could 
guamntee  a  supply 
of  food  for  the 
worms,  and  mul- 
berry cuttings  have 
be^n  sent  to  thoae 
not  similarly  Bita- 
ated.  The  coooons 
raised  by  the  corres- 
pondents of  the  De- 
partment hare  been 
purchaned  at  the  European  market  price,  and  have 
been  reeled  at  the  reeling  establishment  in  Wash- 
ington. The  resulting  raw  silk  has  proviod  to  be  of 
good  and  salable  (juality. 


P1)t.  ew.  ArruEKBeiLt  at  sp(&- 
sloc  tUew.  IK«<!lrawii  fmn 
I'mlMir.} 


642 


SILKWORM 


SILKWORM 


So  long  as  Congress  continues  ita  rapport,  there 
19.  thert'fore.  at  least  a  temponirjp  market  for 
cocootis  in  America.  The  pwfit  t*)  niiaere  is 
extremely  smat],  liut  a  tarife  numtN^r  nf  corred- 
ponilenU  thnmRhout  the  country  have  cun»idered 
it  worth  whik-  tu  continue  thu  culture,  and  twn- 
tually  it  13  hoptd  by  the  Department  that  a  more 
rntural  market  for  cocoons  will  he  cstal)li.4hed. 
The  prerequisite  fnr  such  a  market,  however,  is  a 
jfiiaranteed  crnp  of  cococins,  and  it  i»  to  estiiliHsh  a 
dOiKl  sup|)l,v  of  miiHierry  ir^^a  in  different  parta  of 
the  country  and  a  larj^  number  of  skiltc-il  silk- 
worm-rairters  that  the  efforts  of  Ihv  Department 
nn;  devoted. 

It  hai4  been  very  difficult  to  prevent  fattto  hopes 
from  being  aroused.  In  spite  of  the  greatest  care 
in  the  wording  of  circulars  and  other  publications 
and  of  c«rrea[>on(lpnce,  very  many  pprsims  have 
taken  up  silk-culture  ia  the  h^pe  of  being  able 
to  make  a  livini^  exdunively  frtim  thia  induatry. 
Pathetic  letterii  have  In^vn  n-ceivt^d  by  tha  writer 
and  others  from  widow."?  who  hivped  to  support 
dependent  families  in  this  way.  and  other  indi^'id- 
uaU  have  expected  to  become  wealthy  in  a  short 
time  by  the  rawing  of  .^ilk.  Such  per8on.i  havt'  soon 
abnmloned  the  attempt,  bitt  there  n.-main.s  a  fairly 
goad  rumluT  of  well-trained  silk-culturiala  in 
America  as  a  result  of  the  etforta  of  the  Uepart- 
ment  of  Agriculture. 

Limitation*  of  tM  indtulrif. 

In  considering  the  raising  of  silkworms  as  an 
agricultural  industry,  it  iru.'jt  be  noted  that  the 
countriea  where  it  has  been  most  nacceissful  are 
the  countries  where  labor  is  cheaiiest.  The  profits 
from  the  raising  of  worms  are  nowhere  large,  and. 
owing  to  various  condition.*,  can  never  lie  large. 
It  has  been  shown  to  be  practically  impns.*ible  to 
raiite  cocoonif  on  a  large  scale  in  a  single  establish* 
ment.  At  all  event!*,  experimental  work  in  this 
direction  has  almost  invariably  failed.  The  silk- 
worm thriveti  best  in  smalt  culturi'S,  and  for 
that  reason  in  silk-raising  countries  the  industry 
has  become  a  household  industry.  A  given  family 
of  pea-tanU — nearly  alway.-*  agriculturii^ts  will 
raiae  a  certain  number  of  worms  annually,  and  the 
money  resulting  from  the  sale  of  the  enccHins 
furnishee  only  a  port  of  the-  annual  income  of  the 
household.  In  other  words,  it  is  a  side  industry, 
as  is  the  household  raising  of  bees  and  chick(>as  in 
other  countries. 

Then  tfMj,  the  succe.-wful  operation  of  an  e.<^tah- 
liithment  for  the  reeling  of  coc^iomi  with  the  reel- 
ing machini'S  devised  up  to  a  comparatively  recent 
date  has  also  depcndL-d  w  a  very  largo  extent  on 
cheap  labor.  There  is  a  prospect  that  this  diffi- 
culty may  be  overcome  to  a  certain  degree  by  the 
operation  of  a  machine  n^cently  invented  and  intro- 
duced into  Italy,  whereby  the  earning  capacities 
of  tlie  mncliine  itself  are  very  greatly  improveil. 
Bat,  even  with  improved  machinery,  the  country 
where  labor  is  cheape-nt  will  always  be  able  to  pro- 
dnce  the  cheapest  raw  silk. 

In  the  llnited  States,  therefore,  as  in  other  coun- 
tries,  silk-culture  must    always   be  a    household 


industry  of  little  profit,  and  therefore  one  t^  h« 
undertaken  largely  by  those  who  have  no  other 
mejin^  of  occupation,  such  as  the  noti-pmluctivc 
rnemlierH  of  a  large  family,  .-dimply  as  a  help 
toward  the  paying  of  the  expetuiieti  of  the  family. 

Posfiibiiitiei  of  the  industrjt. 

Cottditions  in  China,  India.  Persia,  and  olt 
Astatic  countries,  including  Syria,  are  not  to 
compurwl  with  tboiie  in  Soiith  European  conntriM, 
or  scarcely  even  with  thate  in  Japan,  and  it  ts  with 
Italy  and  »ance  that  the  putwiblHttea  of  ailk-cal- 
turu  in  the  United  States  rnunt  be  compared. 

France  has  long  been  able  to  raise  exoellent 
cocoons,  and  as  a  manufacturer  of  silk  goods  abe 
is  a  steady  rival  of  the  United  States,  even  when 
we  consider  that  the  manufacture  of  silk  ia 
Ameirica  is  aided  greatly  by  the  protective  tariff, 
and  luwisled  further  by  the  absence  of  an  import 
duty  on  raw  silk.  Kut  France  h:ui  been  unabk  of 
late  years  profitably  to  operate  large  reeling  estab- 
lishments without  government  aid,  and  this  aid 
has  Ueen  furnished  in  the  natare  of  a  government 
Hiil)nidy  of  a  cert-iin  number  of  francs  annually 
per  baiiin  oi><!rated  in  all  of  the  filatures  of  France. 
In  Italy,  there  is  no  such  governmental  sobven- 
tion,— the  reeling  establLshmentti  stand  on  their 
own  bases. — and  therefore  Italy,  with  its  varjing 
climate,  with  the  scientific  and  practical  qualifica- 
tions of  its  people  and  its  intelligent  peasantry, 
alforrlf!  the  best  example  of  what  can  be  done  with 
Hi1k-<-.ulture  :ls  an  agricultural  industry  among  a 
civilized  modern  race. 

A  concrete  example  of  what  silk-culture  meaM 
to  a  poor  family  of  Italian  ugrictilturirts  may  b« 
cited,  perhaps,  au  an  overage  example.  Tbc  writ 
studieil  the  cocoon  harvest  in  northern  Italy  in  i  _ 
Slimmer  of  lOfl.'i.  Owing  to  a  rather  small  cmp 
throughout  the  kingdom,  the  price  wss  fiomewhat 
higher  than  normal,  reaching  3.6S  lire,  or  71  cents 
per  kilogram  of  2,205  pounds  of  green  cocoont 
The  question  of  compensation  of  families 
cocoons   roared    was  observed.    The   best  _ 

noted  was  in  the  case  of  one  small,  hard-working 
family  consisting  of  a  hu.>)l)iuid  and  wife,  a  half- 
grown  boy  and  two  little  girls.  This  famili 
bntuglit  in  ST.-Ml  kibigraros,  or  192j  pounds,  fw 
which  they  were  paid  32l.(JH  lire,  or  about  aixlT- 
two  dollars.  The  average  amount  earned  per  fam- 
ily on  the  large  estate  where  observations  were 
msiile  w-os  twenty-five  to  thirty  dollars,  a  very  wel- 
come ;uidition  to  the  income  of  a  hard-working 
[leiLsant  family. 

Supp<:>fling  the  eventual  establishment  of  com- 
mercially paying  filatures  in  America,  on  a  i#cal« 
commensurate  with  those  of  Italy,  the  example 
cite<l  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  what  mar 
W  expected  of  the  raising  of  silkworms  as  sn  ign- 
cultural  industry  in  this  country.  The  qoestioo  of 
the  establisbraent  of  such  commercial  filat 
however,  is  one  that  has  not  yet  b«en  toh 
Could  America  produce  her  own  raw  silk. 
money  saving  to  the  nation  could  be  approximatel;r 
estimated  from  the  following  table  of  the  ini 
tions  of  raw  silk  during  the  years  1898  to  1902: 


SILKWORM 

IMTOKTATIOH   OF  RaW  SBX    (AS  BBW  mW 


SPONGE 
Ooodoh).  1898-1902 


643 


Omnittos  tuna  whirii  ImtKtrt^d 


Pnuic*  - 

Gvrinaair 
Ittily  .    . 


Switierland  .  .  .  . 
Turkey  in  Europi* 
Unileii  Kinc^om  .  . 
DomiDKin  of  CuniuU 
QrineM  Empire  .  . 
East  Indies — Etritwh 
HnniclioiiK      .   .    .   . 

Jspan    

Turkey  in  Asia  .   .    . 


Total 


vm 


fl,i82,0&8 


6fiZI.fXA 

9,194 


1.762 

60,468 

7.B06.409 

S89 

lao 

16.463,406 


$31,-146300 


fl,248,DS7 
1,101 

8,929,776 

4.m 


966 

IR.296 

G,4U".'.SKS 

476 

20f.,F.l6 

14,920.787 


f], 607,560 

19.480 

10.816,084 

40,960 


7.301 

167.161 

12,171.309 

24.659 

17,«27 

19,686.132 


$31,827,061     $44,649,672 


tiwi 


|l,:i20.874 

2;)86 

7,151.438 

681 


9.768 

tiO.109 

6,303.523 

S3.4G6 

Ui7ii47 


$29,353,7Ti 


1903 


$1366,202 

29.106 

9,9f).t.5Cl 

17,422 

38 

1.421 

807.706 

8.308.883 

27.190 

20,702.101 
S6I 


$41,714,381 


Literature. 

Enrico  Veraon,  II  filugelio  e  I'arte  sericola,  Trat- 
tato  t«orici>-praticn,  Paddvn,  Vt;riiniL  (1896);  Gio- 
vanni BoEW,  Der  seidenbau  in  Japan.  Kud»{>est 
(1898);  Henrietta  Aiken  Kelly,  The  I'ulture  of 
the  Mnlbt-rry  Silkworm,  llulletin  No.  S'J,  new 
aeries.  l)ivisi«n  of  KntoTnoIogy,  United  States 
Deptutment  of  Acriculture  (19031;  Henrietta 
Aiken  Kelly,  Silkworm  ("ultarp.  Farmers'  Pulletin 
No.  165,  Uniteii  States  Department  of  Aji^iculture 
(1903);  Gwr(fe  W.  Oliver.  Silkworm  FchjmI  Plants, 
Bulletin  No.  'M,  Rurcau  of  Plant  Indurtry.  United 
States  Department  of  Affricnlture  (ItH>3):  L.  0. 
Howard.  The  Unitod  Statt-s  Hepartinent  of  Agrirul- 
ture  and  Silk  Culture,  Yearh<>ok  of  Tnited  States 
Department  of  As:ricultiire    for  IIWS ;  H.  L.  Al- 

Phon»e  Blanch^in.  Manuel  pratique  du  sCrioulteur, 
aris  (19*15);  Pierri'  Vicil,  Sifricieolture.  Pane 
(1905);  Maillot  &  Lambert,  Traitfi  sur  le  rer  i 
eoie.  Paris  (1!M>6). 

SPONGES.    Parifera. 
Uy  Juliug  NelMtn. 

Tlie  Bponge  fiiihery  in  the  United  States  began  in 
1852.  It  ia  confined  to  Florida,  particnlarly  in  the 
region  of  the  coral  "Keys."*  The  mo3t  valuable 
form  commercially.  i»  the  flhtepawool  (S/ionfiia 
goffipina),  which  brings  two  to  five  dollars  a  pounrJ- 
The  yellow  epwnge  and  grass  sponge,  of  stiffer  tex- 
ture, bring  only  twenty-live  to  lifly  cents  a  pound. 
The  Florida  vpotige  induMry  employs  2,'J4b  peraoiw, 
on  156  veaseb,  which,  with  other  apparatos,  Bre 
worth  nearly  $600,000.  The  annual  catch  was 
valued  at  abont  $400,000  in  1004.  Key  Went  and 
Tarpin  Springs  are  the  main  centers  of  the  sponge 
trade. 

The  sponge,  as  Been  on  the  market,  is  only  the 
horny,  fibrourf  skeleton,  which  in  natnre  U  clothed 
with  cells  (fteah).  The  pored  and  channels  fleen  in 
the  8k^Iet<tn  are  present  also  in  the  livin^g:  animal. 
Water  laden  with  microscopic  organiBmii  is  drawn 
in  through  the  small  porea,  and  emitted  by  the 
larger  channels,  being  propelled  by  cilia  that 
clothe  ntimerous  small  chambers,  which  are  inter- 
posed between  the  tohalent  and  exhaient  channels. 


Sponges  reproduce  by  fertilired  eggs,  scattered 
through  the  fleuh.  The  yonng  develop  into  riiiated 
lan'ffi,  and  are  diaclftirgwi  by  the  exhaient  chan- 
nels. They  very  soon  settle  and  bt^'ome  uttaclied  to 
the  bottom  ;  and.  in  case  of  the  wool  sponge,  they 
grow  in  lui  a  weight  of  (ine-tenth  of  a  pound  in  six 
months,  attaining  a  minimum  murketable  size  within 
a  year, 

Sponge-^ihiaff. 

The  «pong4«  are  observed  from  the  email  boats 
by  means  of  a  water-gtaiw.  This  is  a  box  or  bucket 
with  a  glass  bottom,  placed  on  the  surface  of  the 
i»ca.  The  sponges  are  torn  liKise  by  means  of  a  p<jle 
armed  with  long,  hook-like  t<'eth,  or  by  means  of 
tongs,  not  unlike  oyster  tongs.  Placed  on  the  deck, 
they  soon  die  of  suffocation  and  undergo  decay. 
.\rter  a  few  days,  when  the  larger  boat  has  become 
loaded,  it  proceeds  to  the  "kraals."  which  are  pens 
Tna<le  of  saplings,  and  having  interspaces  small 
enough  to  prevent  the  sponge-i  floating  out.  whilp 
IwrmiLling  free  circulation  of  water.  Yhus,  the 
decayed  flesh  is  macerated  away,  and  then  the 
spongeii  are  washed  and  beaten  to  clean  them,  and 
finally  are  driwt  in  the  sun.  This  is  known  as 
natural  bleaching.  The  very  white  sponges  on  the 
market  have  been  bleached  by  means  of  acids  and 
alkalieii,  which  greatly  weaken  the  ftlxr  Wa.shing 
in  simpsnds  also  bleaches,  but  without  weakening 
the  filler. 

AHificiat  propagalion. 

Profeaftor  Wilson,  o£  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  ascertained  the  feasibility  of  raising 
sponges  from  the  egg.  It  is  necessary  in  July  and 
August  to  transfer  the  sponges  to  twbs  of  sea- 
water,  without  expot^ing  them  to  the  atmosphere. 
Then  the  embryos  will  be  prematurely  discharged 
through  the  stimulus  of  the  unnaturnl  environment, 
and  they  can  be  transferred  to  live  boxes  of  cloth 
floated  in  the  sea,  where  they  will  fasten  and  start 
growth.  Profejwor  Wilson  also  found  that  when 
sponges  in  aquaria  or  tuba  undergo  partial  decay 
and  degeneratiun,  along  the  canals,  on  the  surface 
and  about  the  central  chambers  are  formed  clusters 
of  cella  that  revert  to  u  plasmodiaS  condition.  Each 


644 


SWINE 


Huch  cluster  is  capable  of  ri<))rofIiiclnj!  the  sponge, 
Bioiilar  to  the  natural  "Kfinniuk's"  of  the.  frush 
watiir  apoitj/iUa, 

(JuickiT  results  id  propaRation  are  secured  by 
meaos  of  cuttings  and  grafts.  Sai;c«*»ful  experi- 
mentiS  in  raising  simnges  from  cuttings  wer«  con- 
ducted in  K*OX,  Ijy  J.  Percy  Moore,  uiitler  the 
ilirectiun  iif  the  Uniletl  Stated  FJMh  Cc)mmL»Hii)n. 
Thia  methwl  in,  commercially,  more  practicable 
than  arc  tho  other  methods. 

Liieralurv. 

Rulletinn  of  United  States  Fish  Commissfon  : 
IS97,  p.  2-»l  ;  ISSi*.  p.  149 ;  1900.  Vnl.  2,  p.  375  ; 
1902,  p.  IGl  ;  Science.  Vol.  XXV,  j..  912. 


SWINE.    .?M  wr^ffl,  Lira. 
290.  GGO-679. 


Saida,    FiRa.  55-57, 


In  North  America  the  h(tg  htiH  undergone  a  Bpo- 
cial  development,  due  in  part  to  the  existence  of 
uhunduntM)  uf  maiz«  and  in  part  to  the  de.<<ire  of 
the  people  for  fat  pork.  The  English  hog  Ih  likely 
iv  be  larHtt-boncd.  lung-bodii'd,  flut-sitlud  and  ranjiy. 
The  .American  hog.  in  ita  typical  development,  is 
Bmail-bon»d,  short,  cylindrical  and  compact  in 
body,  with  ahort  legs  and  flat  or  hroad  hack,  and 
it  ia  CHpalde  of  maturing  early  and  Inying  on  an 
enormous  load  of  fat.  The  .^murtcan  hog  is  less  a 
qneHtton  of  bnxKl  than  of  feeding  and  raaniigt^ 
ment.  The  Toland-C'liina  is  an  American  breed, 
however,  embodying  the  American  ideas  of  a  well- 
shaped  fat-prod  tic  ing  or  lard  hog.  There  art'  sev- 
eral other  American  breeds,  as  described  in  the 
subsequent  pagea.  The  Canadians  have  given  much 
attention  to  bacon-producing  hogs,  hut  .iwine-raisprfl 
in  the  United  ataleH  have  givi'n  comparatively  lit- 
t!e  conaideration  to  thia  type.  [For  a  comparison  of 
the  two  types,  soo  the  acorocard  discussion  on 
pagi-s  54,  55.] 

Throughout  the  corn-belt,  the  fat  or  lard  hog 
attains  the  greatest  perfectiim,  and  there  it  is 
bred  in  enormous  numbers.  The  practice  ha-«  devel- 
oped of  producing  hogs  to  "follow  the  cattle," 
which  is  to  turn  hogs  in  withcattle  that  are  b«ing 
fed  for  beef  in  order  that  they  may  secure  the 
waited  and  voided  grain.  Wherever  beef  animals 
ire  corn-fed,  therefore,  hogs  have  come  to  be  nat- 
ural accompaniments. 

Much  ha.i  been  nnid  about  the  ndatlon  of  breed 
to  wronomy  of  meat-production,  and  it  may  be  well 
to  examine  the  subject.  Probably  the  most  exten- 
sive experimenta  with  breeds  of  swine  havo  been 
conducted  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
and  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Kxperiment  Station. 
At  the  Ontario  Agriculttira]  College,  five  experi- 
ments were  conducted  in  which  six  breeds  of  swine 
were  compared  as  to  the  cost  of  producing  100 
pound;*  of  gain  in  live  weight.  The  average  amoant 
of  meal  consumed  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  live 
weight,  in  the  five  experiments  is  given  in  the 
table,  onlv  the  meal  being  considered.  Such  foods 
as  dairy  by-producta  and  green  feed,  ••hich  were 
fed  sometimes,  were  the  same  for  alt  breeds,  and 
have  been  omitted  to  simplify  the  comparison : 


Mkal  Coksdmed  pok  Q^e  lli-KtmED  PotTNM  Gaw, 

Lnre  WpuuT 

iAv«raee  of  five  ex|i«Tiii>ents> 

Berkghire 3t>L.-15  pounds 

Yorkshire 361t.(il  pauds 

Tiunworth S80.-I7  pouads 

Doroc-Jeniey 384.23  pouuU 

CbMit«r-White 387it9  ponds 

Poland'Chins 39I.4S  pouds 

Averages,  however,  are  freqaently  mtsleadiBf 

For  example,  in  a  certain  experiment  one 
may  suffer  from  some  unfavorabki  circumtil 
which  is  in  no  way  related  to,  or  jntlaenced  by.  thai 
breedingof  the  animals,  yet  this  circumstance  TOMfl 
seriously  affect  the  records  of  the  breed  in  que 
tion.    It  i^  much  more  satisfactory,  therefore, 
examine  each   ex|ieriment    individually,   and 
whether  there  is  any  con^tiancy  In   the  siiuuling;^ 
of  the  breeds.    Thu  tablo  given  below  abows  the 
breeds  ranked    in  order  of  economy  of  gala  fur 
»ach  experiment : 

Ontario  Experiubnts 

Breeds  arranged  in  order  of  economy  of  produc- 
tion. 


pint  eiporliuciil    Second  exveiiaMnt 


1.  Berltuhire 

2.  Tu.iiiM'orlb 

3.  Pul&nd -China 

-1.  Duroi;- Jersey 

5.  CbMt«r-W})tt« 
&  Yorkahire 


1.  B«rkflh)r« 

2.  Tihm worth 

3.  Polaiid.Ohiaa 

4.  Cheater- White 

5.  Yorkfthir« 

6.  DurDe-Jenajr 


Third  •qMHntml 


1.  Yorkshir* 

2.  Berkshire 
&.  DnreoJemy 
-    (  TsnwOTth 

*•  lChMt«r.*1dt* 

tt-'pouiid^Uu  * 


Foarlti  WipeiiiiMllt 

"  ■                              '■ 

Fifth  «sp«rt)M<il 

1.  BorkBhire 

2.  Tamworlh 

3.  Ynrkrthim 

4.  ChwiUT-White 

5.  Dumc-Jerwy 

6.  Poland-China 

1.  Berkshire 
Z.  Yorksbtrv 
li.  Duroc^erMr 

4.  CI»Mt«r-Whit« 

5.  Tsmworth 

6.  Polasil-Ckin* 

Before  any  comment  is  made  on  theae  resolts,  it] 
will  be  better  to  examine  the  Iowa  expertrocnti^i 
where  three  tests  were  made  with  the  aane  m\ 
breeds. 

lOVA  EXPKRIMRNTS 

Breeds  arranged  in  order  of  economy  of  pradot^j 
lion. 


Pint  axpartiiMiit 

SoMiMl  eipertmsni 

TMH  iiiiiilBiil 

1.  DuToo-Jen^ 

2.  Torksbbt 

3.  Tanwflrth 

4.  PoIaad-CUnt 

5.  Chester- Whit* 

6.  Berkshire 

1.  Duro&JeiM? 

2.  Yorkshire 

3.  Berkshire 

4.  Polsnd^^kina 
&.  CfaeBt«r-Whh« 
6.  Tamworth 

1.  Yorkshb* 

2.  Pohud4^ina 

3.  BerkaUr* 

4.  l>urge-J«rwj 
b.  ChifltM^Vtill* 
6.  Taoiwortk 

SWINE 


645 


The  resaltii  nf  thene  eight  experiment  make  an 
interesting  contribution.  A  cai^fu]  study  of  the 
case  can  result  in  but  one  conclusion,  -  that  econ- 
omy of  production  is  not  a  titucstion  of  breed,  hut  in 
a  matter  of  individuiiiJtj'.  The  hcig  that  hascoruiti- 
tution  Euid  quality  will  make  economical  ue^  of  the 
fooditconfi^imf*,  no  matter  to  what  brt-ed  it  bt^IonEs. 

To  illufttrate  the  fallacy  of  judRinji  th«  nilative 
merit*  of  different  breedji  as  fwders,  from  the 
ruRu]Ut  of  experimi^nts  with  breudet,  attention  may 
bo  csIIcmI  to  Iho  fa<vt  that,  if  a  man  t>a,ied  his  judg- 
ment of  the  brued?  on  the  results  of  the  Ontario 
experiments,  he  would  arrive  at  an  entirely  differ- 
ent conclunion  from  the  man  who  dr^w  hlR  conclu- 
sions from  the  luwa  exjHTimvntti ;  and  thu  man 
who  averaKed  tiLe  Ontario  and  the  Iowa  results 
would  make  a  atill  dJIferent  arran^jement  of  the 
brL><.*dft.  Or,  if  another  person  judged  the  rela- 
tive fewling  qualities  of  YorkshireR.  Tamworths, 
and  Poland -rhinaa  from  the  averafre  results  of 
Shaw'fl  two  experiments  with  thf-ae  breeds  in  Min- 
nescita.  he  would  revurse  the  Ktandin^  of  the  Tam- 
worthn  and  Poland -Chinas  as  Riven  in  the  Iowa 
exjKirimi'ntfl.  It  may  bo  poasible  that  some  breeds 
contain,  more  animalit  of  high  merit  as  feeders  than 
do  others,  but  experimental  work  has  n<}t  yet  dem- 
oniitrated  which  breeds  these  are.  A  breed  that 
might  be  best  in  one  place  or  under  one  net  of 
conditionj*.  might  not  be  ko  good  andir  other  con- 
ditiunK.  Therefor*",  bo  far  no  exi»erimHnt»  go,  it 
has  never  bwn  deraonKtrated  that  any  one  breeil 
excels  all  otliLirs  in  point  of  economical  usu  of  food. 
lireied  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  ho^e  of 
bacon  type  are  capable  of  making  as  cheap  gains 
aH  hogs  of  the  fat  or  lard  type.  This  fact  has  been 
a  surprise,  since  it  is  contrary  to  estiiblisherl  lieliefs 
and  prejudirca ;  but  it  stands  out  more  promi- 
m^ntty  than  any  other  point  in  thu  oomparisons 
that  have  been  made. 


The  best  hog-raiBcr  is  the  one  who  most  critically 
chooses  a  breed  as  a  starting-point,  and  then  feedfl 
and  manages  a  drove  most  consistently. 

The  Yearbook  of  the  United  Stat«a  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  lyOG.  givea  the  number  and 
farm-value  of  swine  in  the  United  States  and  in  the 
se\-en  leading  states  (all  with  a  farm-value  abo\-e 
$20,000,000),  or  January  1.  1907,  as  follows  : 

NnmbpT  Farm  *>lti» 

VblUtd  SUt«H     .   .  GL794,4:»  $417,791,321 

Iowa 8,C84.500  81,562,750 

lllinuia 4,449.705  37,377,622 

Nebriuka 4,080.000  35,496,000 

Miflsouri 3,454  950  24,530,146 

Indiana 2,924379  23,399,032 

KanBM 2,561,200  21,0(U34O 

Ohio 2,436,797  a0,103,67f> 

The  same  yearbook  gives  the  number  exported 
for  the  year  ended  June  30,  18H7,  as  3,577,  with  a 
value  of  $40,092  ;  for  the  year  ended  June  30, 1906, 
n9.170,  with  a  value  of  *t;.^0,SK)a. 

Again,  the  number  of  8wtnH  in  Canada  m  given 
in  the  same  yoarbouk  as  fulluwa  : 

Caradn 2,875,692 

New  Brunswick    ....  1905  55,000 

Ontario 1906  1,819.778 

Mnnitftba 1906  200,^09 

gwkaLchewan 190Q  123,916 

AltwTta 1906  114.623 

Other 1901  5613^6 

The  Canada  Yearbook  for  1905,  gives  the  num- 
ber of  swine  kilM  or  sold  in  1901.  as  2Xwi,M13. 
It  gives  the  value  of  Bwine  in  Canada,  for  the  same 
year,  as  $16,445,702,  and  the  total  number  as 
17,922,6S8. 

in  regard  to  the  exports  of  bog  products,  the 
1906  Yeiirbook  of  thu  United  i^tatea  Department 
of  Agriculture,  gives  the  following  figurefl  : 


Uri 

Lard  compounds     .   .    .   . 
fork 

i'teBh 

Currd 

BkCDD  

Ban« 

Salted  or  pickled    .   .    . 

Tot«l  cured     .  .   . 

CiBDed    

Toul  pork  .  .  .  . 
Suaige  ud  HKOuge  meat 


!»; 


gwstiir. 

po«ui4a 


&S6.840,222 

36,201,744 

44,171.674 

38:<,  150.624 

227,f>r.3,232 

.liri,896,275 

726,700,181 

9.603.882 

780,475.687 
7,187.297 


ValB* 


$&2.3T63M 
2.687.653 

3,662,464 

35,449,797 
2.i.222.744 
10.1I7,&62 
70,790.103 
832.910 

76.275.477 

736,437 


im 


Qiwntttr, 

pVUIHtl 


741,516386 
67.621310 

13,444,488 

361,210,563 
194.367.949 
M1.H20,720 
697.299,232 
12,699300 

723.443.470 
7,926,786 


V»iw 


»60.132/»91 
4.154.183 

i;i61.412 

35345,793 
2n.07r./.ll 
11,681.634 
67,602.(W8 
1.215,857 

TO.080,207 
881.686 


These  various  figures  seem  to  confirm  the  general 
American  experience  to  the  effect  that  the  empha- 
sis on  fewling.  to  which  so  much  attention  is  given, 
is  not  miflplared.  It  is  not  wise  for  the  hog-raisor 
to  ignore  Itrwds.  but  h«  must  not  depend  wholly  on 
the  breed  for  the  production  of  desirvd  resulU*. 


Further  st-atistics  may  be  found  in  the  Twelfth 
Census  Reports,  but  these  animals  breed  so  rapidly 
and  are  likely  to  fluctuate  so  much  that  figures 
eight  or  nine  yearw  old  may  not  express  the  preaent 
factfl.  The  Canada  Yearbook  for  1905.  gives  tb« 
following  fignreo  on  exports  of  hug  products  : 


GIG 


SftXNB 


SWIXE 


Bacon 
Huim 
Perk 


240^0 

22.186 


IBM 


$12,l{H,4r.8 

1S8.194 
110^40 


hUtraivre. 

The  following  books  may  be  coiutaltod  for  addi- 
tional informatiiin  fin  nwine:  F,  P.  Cobnum.  Swine 
>!iiHlian([ry,  Ntw  Yurk  (I8k8);  John  Cii)«man,  Tat- 
tk',  .Sh(*ijarni  E'iK.iuf  Crt-at  llriLain,  I,«jnil«n(l887); 
Juhn  A.  ('rai^.  Juil^ing  Livi.'-t!toc!k,  Culletcu  Stalinn, 
Tt!xas  (1904);  George  W.  Cnrtis,  Horaus,  ('allle, 
Shi-ep  and  Swine,  l^olleee  Station,  Texas  (I8H8); 
Oeorge  E.  hny. Swine,  AKrit'iiltnnil  College,  (Juelph, 
Canadu  (HK>ri);  ,|fiBe|ih  Hiirria,  Harria  on  the  Pig, 
New  York  (IH70>;  Jam^a  \.an^,  The  Hwk  (if  the  Pig, 
Ijiinilim ;  David  I/iw,  On  the  I)oiKiwttci!t*Ml  Animik 
)jf  Uie  British  [rtlanda,  Lotiiluii  (IK-l^l;  Charles  S. 
Plumb,  Types  an  Kretds  of  Farm  Atiinmla,  Qilli^ije 
of  Ajfrieuiture,  Oilnmhim,  Ohio  (1WM>);  J,  H.  San- 
dent,  Thf!  HreeJs  of  l,ive  Sttn-k,  Chicajrn  (l8S7f; 
Thomas  Shaw,  The  Study  of  Hreeds  in  America, 
New  York  (liKXJ);  S.  M.  Shej>!u-d,  Th*?  Hog  in 
Arnericii,  Indianajiolis  {1S9G);  Samuel  Sidney,  The 
PiK.  liOiidon  (IR71);  S:iniler8  SiM?nci?r,  V\]gA :  Briieds 
unrj  MunuKemi'nt,  Lrindun  (IWT);  Robert  Watlacv. 
Farm  Livv- Stock  of  Crt-'at  lirilain,  Kdinbutijh 
(I907»;  Various  Writtrs,  The;  Best  Hrewls  of  Brit- 
ish Stock.  London  {1KU8);  William  Youatt.  and 
W.  C.  L.  Martin.  The  Hriy.  New  York  (1863);  F.  D. 
Cuburn,  Swint-  in  America. 


Index  to  Swiss  Akticles 

'PlIBB 

Oriiiin  of  Dommtic  Swin« (>46 

LiLrd-  find  Bacon -[tnKluct ion 647 

The  Fe.>ilin(:  of  Swine 649 

IMermining  thi>  Akl>  of  Swino CS^t 

Common  AilmxnU  of  Swine 653 

Kerlishire  Sn-iii« 65H 

Ch-'-flhirp  Swtne 6fiO 

ChMU-r-Whit«  Swine GGl 

Ilunx-Ji-reoy  Swine 663 

Bkhax  Swtn« W>6 

HttRipahire  or  Thin  Rind  Swine 667 

Liifiri'  York*hirv  vr  I.wrk'e  Whits  Swia« 6G9 

Polanit-C'hina  Swine B71 

Small  Ynrkiihlr*  or  gmkll  While  f^wlne 674 

SnlTolk  S«ine      675 

Taraworth  Swine 676 

Vict'inii  Switio 67S 

MiAc^^lUneoiu  Br«ed»  of  Swine 679 

Origin  of  Domestic  Swine.    Figft.  65(V6>S2. 

Swin*,'  U-doni;  to  the  natural  family  Sutdce, 
mostly  of  tropitu,l  countries,  which  is  represented 
by  several  R¥n&ra.  *>f  which  the  chief  is  !>ut.  The 
exact  zoolojjical  origin  of  the  dom«itic  hog  is*  "ot 
clvarly  made  nut.  It  is  cent-rally  coniiidereKl  to 
have  descended  from  the  wild  boar,  .'^kj  «Ti>fa  IFic- 
fir>0).  of  Europe,  North  Africa  and  Asia.  It  is 
likvly,  however,  that  an  Indian  itijecii-^  (probably 


Sm  erutatiu  or  S>  Iwikut)  has  entered  into  the 
evolution  of  the  domestic  rortn& 

Ilug-llke  animals  of  other  genera  inhabit  man; 
partM  of  the  world,  as  the  babinitwi  of  East  India 
(Fit;.  ^'>1),  the  liltlo  jieccarint  (Fig.  H52)  of  Snotb 
Ami!rica  (rani;in^  also  as  far  North  ait  iWDthrni 
Arizona  and  Texan)  and  th«  only  cloee  relativM  of 
swine  indiKL-nous  to  the  American  contioent,  the 
warthoR  of  South  Africa.  None  of  thesv  swine-like 
animals  appear  to  hare  been  domeetiCAt^d*  althoach 
tnmability  and  fecundity  in  conliDement  seen  to  be 
charact«ristic  of  mut  of  the  groap. 


Fix.  UO.    wild  bMi  (J>'uj  Kr<'ht\. 

The  hog  tieema  to  have  come  into  domesticatiuD 
in  the  Orient,  but  the  animal  is  now  widespread, 
with  many  varialiona  that  adapt  it  ruadily  to  very 
variouti  conditions.  It  tends  to  run  wild  in  tnild 
climatt«.  ail  exhibited  in  the  razorhacks  of  oor 
Bouthtm  statL-s.  Allhough  very  widely  doineeti- 
cated  from  earliest  times,  the  h«g  is  not  eaten  hjr 
some  important  races  or  religioim  of  |»w)ple,  as  tbtr 
Jew.s,  Rgyptiiins  and  Mohammwlans,  The  hog  yi«ld> 
hidea  that  prwluce  very  tough  and  rvsistant  leather, 
but  it  is  grown  only  for  its  flesh,  in  this  respect 
ditfering  from  all  other  domestic  anintals. 

The  wild  bi>ar  iSvs  lernfa)  stilt  exists  in  centnii 
and  southern  Eurojte  and  in  Asia  ;  it  is  extinct  in 
Great  Britain.  Frnm  the  earliest  times  it  has  been 
a  much-sought  game  animal,  the  Iwar  hunt  being 
one  of  the  lewlingdivfrsioim  of  royalty  and  nobility. 
It  is  a  fierce  ami  swift  animal,  larger  than  the  do- 
mestic swine.  It  somotiraea  stands  over  tbres  feet 
high,  and  will  weigh  2r»0  pounds,  which  is  heavy 
weight  for  a  swine-like  animal  that  is  not  fat.  The 
wild  boar  is  grayish  black  ur  iron-gray  or  broWnWi, 
when  mature-,  but  8|K)tte<i  and  striped  when  yoong. 
The  male  becom^Mi  ahacey.  with  a  heavy  creet  or 
mane  along  the  forwanl  part.  When  yonng,  th« 
male  follows  the  now  and  the  litter,  bnt  aflar  thr«* 
or  four  years  roams  alone,  developing  in  ferocity, 
and  attacking  dogs  and  men  when  purnoed.  The 
great  tuskg  are  formidable  weapona.  The  boar  in- 
habits mostly  low  forests,  where  it  roota  ap  the 
ground  in  fumsws. 

Domestication  has  greatly  modified  the  hog.  u 
has  become  docile,  although  old  bonre  may  be  vic- 
ious when  aroused.  Tbc  most  marked  dev^IopmeDt 
has  been  in  the  great  ability  to  lay  on  flesh.  So 
far  has  this  gone.  that,  in  some  caaes,  tbe  legs  will 
barely  support  the  animal  and  it  is  practically 
incapable  of  locomotion  to  any  entent.  The  head 
and  sDOtit  have  become  refined  and  modified  and 


SWINE 


BwmE 


e«r 


changed  in  eha\te  \  the  color  vark-a  frnm  wliit^i  to 
brown-red  and  black  ;  thu  size  from  liJO  poundfi  to 
as  mnch  as  WHI  pounds  when  mature  and  fat.  Hog« 
are  nnw  Filaugtiterpd  liefore  they  have  rcncht^it  full 
age,  and  th«  demand  haa  chanf^  tHimewhat  frum 
fat  ]H>rk  to  li^an  bat^un  and  hums. 

Thv  liug  ia  a  nun-pt-THjiirin;!  animal  (in  the  aenne 
in  which  horsL-a  and  mL-n  piL-rspire).  It  wallows  in 
water  and  mud  to  keep  itsi-lf  cool.  In  the  hot  mid- 
continentnl  hog  legions  it  is  generally  connidered 
that  wallows  for  hoga  are  nwe.'wary,  hot  in  other 
regions  th«y  ri>ed  not  lie  proridf^l,  purticiilarly  if 
gruviwor  w<«»ds  art-  ai'cessildf.  Thn  htij^  h  uKually 
conKKttTMl  to  bt!  a  dirty  i>r  unrlL'an  animal  in  itii 
habits,  liut  thi*  hubit  in  dua  mo«tiy  to  thu  way  in 
whiL'^h  tho  animals  are  ktpt.  Hogs  would  he  elean 
if  given  an  opportnnity.  The  modem  hoghouse 
plans  for  thoroughly  cleanly  and  .tanitary  quarters 
{Vol.  1,  p.  260). 

The  mn\e  of  the  awine  U  knnwn  as  a  boar ;  the 
female,  a»  a  bow.  A  young  pig,  particularly  after 
weaning,  is  a  slioat  ur  ahotu :  a  euHtruled  animal 
i»  a  barrow.  A  young  sow  is  ar.melimea  known 
■s  a  gilt.  In  North  America  the  common  gon- 
eric  term  for  all  the»e  animals  ik  hig :  in  England 
pig  seems  to  be  preferred!.  In  America,  pig  ia 
generally  useil  for  n  young  htig. 

Swine  are  variously  chLwilled,  according  to  color, 
sxK  or  utility.  The  claMification  by  color  haa  not 
been  popular,  bnt  either  of  the  other  two  may  bo 
said  to  be  accepted.  A  cla-seification  ha««d  on 
utility— the  prwinction  of  lard  or  bacon —would 
.seem  to  be  tho  more  rational :  but  even  this  clas- 
sification i-s  nn.'uiti.tfactory,  a.?  some  breeds  ari; 
naeful  for  both  jturpottea.  On  thi.s  utility  briHis  we 
have  the  American  fat- or  lard-hog  tyi*.  embrac- 
ing the  Ber!ti«hir©,  Chester- White,  Cheshire,  Duroc- 
Jersey,  Eawx,  I'oland-China,  Smalt  Yorkshire. 
Suffolk  and  Victoria :  and  the  bacon  type,  tm- 
linwing  the  Lsirge  Yorkshire  and  Tamworth.  If 
we  clasaify  the  breeiis  according  to  ftiw,  we 
would  buve :   (1)  liiirge   breeds:   Chester- Whit<, 


Plt.Ul.    Tta«  BaUnHH  (SaMrMM  oUunti). 

troto  llrvha, 


Ada  pud 


Large  Yorkshire.  Tamworth.  (2)  Medium  breeds  : 
Bi^rksbire-,  Cheshire,  Duroc-Jenwy,  Hampshir*.  I'o- 
laod-rhina,  Victoria.  (3)  Small  breeds :  Ksaex, 
Sraalt  Yorkshire.  Suffolk. 

Lileratun. 
For  refereacce,  m«  page  646. 


Lard-  and  Bacon-production. 

Ry  M.  ir.  Harper. 

Of  late  yennt,  pork-pruductinn  has  t>ecome  some- 
what d)VHr»ilJud,  and,  as  a  reKult,  we  have  two 
kiuda  uf  hogx,  the  lard  hog  and  the  bacon  hog,  the 
former  not*^^!  for  its  natural  heavy  fat-production, 
the  latter  for  ita  liberal  admixture  of  lean  with 
fat.    In  general  ajipearance,  the  lard  hog  ahuuLd  be 


S-^ 


y  -::■= 


'*%. 


5fiy^- 


Tit.  Hi.    TIh  Collared  pecG*rT<i>milvlM  (ergutUut).    Thre* 
Kperlft  >rF  nAtivo  In  tjouth  Anwn'ka, 

compact,  with  a  thick,  deep  body,  short  head,  broad 
back,  Btrong  hams,  short  legs,  and  plenty  of  quality 
a.4  shown  in  abundance  and  linenetw  of  hair,  strong 
bone  and  jointu.  The  temix-rament  shuuid  be  mild, 
yet  active,  for  the  disposition  ha«  much  to  do  with 
determining  whether  the  animal  ia  a  desirable 
breeder  or  feeder,  ijize  and  weight  have  a  bearing 
on  the  market  price  for  pigs  of  this  type,  and  at 
the  present  time  the  average  weight  of  pigs  sold 
on  the  market  rangets  about  two  hundred  biuI 
twenty-five  pounds.  With  the  bacon  hog,  the  back 
Is  not  so  broiul,  the  sidea  are  longer,  the  shoulder 
smoother,  the  ham  lighter  and  tho  leg  somewhat 
longer.  The  general  flesh  covering  is  much  lesa 
fat  than  with  the  lard  type.  The  weight  of  the 
biicon  hog  most  acceptable  in  the  market  is  1!^0  to 
1!)0  pounds  live  weight,  although  '200  pounds  is  not 
exce»Bive.  The  larger  hog  is  not  ap[>rove«]  In  the 
t»acon-pr<Mlucing  sections  of  this  country,  the 
smaller  Iwing  preferred.  Denmark.  Ireland  and 
Canada  furnish  much  of  the  bacon  of  to<lay.  In 
describing  the  type  moetdesire"!.  the  Ingersoll  Tack- 
ing Company  of  Canada  says  that  the  |>«c)cer  calW 
for  the  long,  lean  pig,  as  it  is  the  one  that  suits  besL 
It  is  the  moist  difficult  to  procua',  but  ia  the  only 
kind  that  will  furnish  the  desired  "Wiltehire  sides;" 
and  it  will  also  make  any  of  the  other  cuts  the 
market  calls  for.   [See  page  h\,  55.] 

Factors  ire  lard- and  bacon-production. 

The  differences  in  type  have  been  broaght  abont 
in  part  by  climatic  conditions,  which  control  the 
kind  of  food  with  which  the  pork  has  l)een  pro- 
duced, and  in  part  by  market  requirementa. 
Throaghout  the  dairy  districts  of  northeastern 
United  Stated  and  In  Canada,  the  bacon  type  can 
be  produc^i  at  a  handsome  profit,  due  in  part  to 
the  fact  that  bacon -producing  foods  can  be  grown 
moru  cheaply  than  lard-prwlucing  foods,  and  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  better  market  for 
the  bacon  typ«  than  for  the  lard  type.   This  ii 


648 


SWINE 


gWIXE 


MpMiaHy  tme  of  Canadian  bacon,  which  is  ex- 
ported t«  England  in  laff^e  qoantilieti.  The  qnes- 
tltm  of  a  better  market  iii  vory  Important,  for  hogs 
f«d  to  prodace  a  Urge  mreentag«  of  tean  m^at,  to 
be  prolttable,  must  wll  for  at  Wast  t^n  per  cent 
m'tre  than  the  carrent  prices.  The  eaatem  and  the 
Engtijih  marketJ4,  which  an  very  diecriminatinK, 
recogDl»  this  and  pay  the-  dilFerenc«  for  a  good 

Erodtict.  On  the  othiar  hand,  throughout  the  corn- 
alt  we  hftvo  every  condilton  favurable  to  the  pro- 
duction of  the  lard  bog:.  Aa  long  ait  com  can  be 
produced  as  cheaply,  compared  with  other  c^op^  aa 
at  pfusent,  it  mnfit  roniain  the  (^eat  pork-producing; 
fciod.  Com  makktM  pork  of  fine  'rguulity  and  i^eat 
firmaeaa  if  prwerly  fed.  Siace  it  is  a  highly  car- 
,  bonacaoiu  f'>od.   it  muat  be  iapi>lem.ented  with 

<\^'  iome  food  rich  in  protein  if  the  bvnt  ref<u!ti  are  to 

^  be  obtained.    It  la  Bffaimit  the  abuse  of  com  and 

not  the  tue  of  com,  that  we  nhoutd  contend,  f^^r  if 
porlt-prodoction  is  to  continue  one  of  the  leading 
induatrlea,  a  larffe  part  of  th«-  [irtKtuct  mUHt  con- 
tinue to  be  the  result  of  fuudLn^  cum.  Since  corn 
in  the  great  fat-  or  lard-productT,  we  have  the  lard- 
bitlt  almost  L-o-extenHive  with  the  corn-biOt.  It  is 
wi'tl  to  bvar  in  mind,  alao,  that  many  packers 
in  the  West  pay  more  for  tht*  fat  or  lard  hog  tlian 
for  the  bacon  hog.  This  h  not  becjtuBi'  theyo.xpt«t 
higher  priciB«  for  liird,  but  hi'caiiw  ;i  high  price  for 
Rait  pork  in  paid  fnr  that  which  Ik  thick,  heavy 
and  ncitrly  free  from  loan  mi'at. 

AmotLg  UiH  i)i)HLiLiHK  niHTHsary  for  Rmt-class 
bjwon,  n<fne  i*  of  greaUir  im[Hjrtain:B  than  firmntow. 
A  tendency  to  nof tnL'ae.  or  ti-ndtuni^wa  ia  quit*?  snfli- 
clent  Lo  ratu  bacon  at  Hucond-cta-ss  pni;-e»«,  and  if 
thiH  Moftnotw  iH  at  all  pronounced,  to  make  it  alto- 
getbnr  unmilablt^  at  a  profit. 

Hi'fore  we  can  diHcuflB  intelligently  the  prorluction 
of  "firm"  and  "stift"  Itaciin  or  jjork,  it  in  neceuEiary 
to  iwci'rtjiin  tht)  diffurunco  in  compOHitinn  between 
Uiem.  Wi!  flind  that  the  fata  of  mL-at  are  made  up 
enentially  of  olein,--n  fluid  fat  at  ordinary  tom- 
p<iratiin:'8,  -and  palmntin  and  utearin, —solid  fata 
at  cmiinjiry  tempt' rata rf 8.  HtTHt*.  we  conjecture 
that  the  p4'rc^entngt>  itf  olein  would  lie  greater  in 
the  fal  of  soft  than  of  firm  [Hirk.  The  Central  Ex- 
jwrimental  Farni  of  Canada  made  KomHcsjHTinientH 
t«  delemiino  this  uiHttt-T,  and  found  such  to  bL*  the 
CUM5— the  9oft  fat  cnntJiining  a  rvlalively  higher 
percentage  of  olein  and  the  firm  fat  a  relatively 
higher  percentage  of  palmatin  and  stearin.  These 
experimentfl  indicate  that  not  only  is  there  a  close 
retalion^hip  t>etween  the  consistency  of  a  fat  and 
ita  compiK<ition,  but  altio  that  the  food  has  a  marked 
•ffsct  on  the  c»mpiviition  and  hi>nce  on  theconsiat- 
•Boy  or  relative  linnne.-w.  The  oil  of  certain  foods 
paMiBW  more  of  the  fluid  fnU.  while  the  oil  of 
other  foods  pc3«uri«:)c>:i  moro  of  the  solid  fatu,  which 
find  their  wiiy  in  part  through  the  nnimal  economy 
into  tht!  body  fat*.  Again,  the  fat  of  very  young 
pigs,  of  pigs  that  have  made  a  rapid  growth,  and 
of  pig»  that  have  made  an  unhealthy  growth,  is 
•oftor  than  of  finished  pigs  that  have  increased 
•taftdily  in  weight.  .As  yet  no  exact  standard  of 
flrmiMH  has  been  entablistwd :  that  U,  it  cannot  Im 
wM  exMtly  what  percontago  of  olein  is  lo  be  con- 


sidered a£  the  limit  for  poric  tbat  may  be  said 
to  be  firm. 

Markrt  rating  of  Amrrieati  hima. 

Since  our  lard  pork  has  a  world-wide  market,  it 
need  receive  no  comment  here  :  but  since  mo«t  of 
the  bacon  finds  it«  way  to  England,  it  might  be 
well  to  point  out  some  of  the  pM-uliarities  of  the 
English  market.  England  is  lh«  great  bacon 
market,  and  procures  moet  of  this  product  from 
Denmark,  Ireland,  Canada  and  the  United  StaUa. 
One  fact  worthy  of  consideration  is  that  of  theM 
fanrconntrie-H,  the  bacon  from  the  United  ^aiesaella  - 
for  leiui  per  pound  than  that  from  the  oTtfr  till W J 
countrieti.  During  the  seventeen  yean  for  whicll  ■ 
we  have  figures  regarding  Dani«h  bacon,  tbe  valu- 
ation per  hundriMi  pounds  ho^  biKin  leas  than  eleven 
dollars  in  only  three  yt^ars.  In  the  years  1893  and 
I1K)1,  it  vas  more  than  thirtot^n  dollars.  On  tbe 
other  hand,  during  the  aame  i>eriod,  in  only  three 
yearn  bus  the  bucon  from  tbe  United  Statee  had  a 
valuation  of  more  than  nine  dollant  p«r  hundred 
pounJii.  In  no  yt^ar  has  it  sold  up  to  the  average 
vuluutioM  pf  r  hundred  pounds  for  the  total  importa  ■ 
of  bacon  to  the  United  KinRdom.  " 

There  are,  perhaps,  three  general  causes  of  this 
condition.  First,  ae  thoae  figures  would  seem  to 
indicate,  the  Daniifh  bacon  ia  no  doubt  a  finer 
pnMlnirt  than  that  pnnlnced  in  the  United  8tale«. 
Sbcihii],  thi-re  is  a  more  constant  demand  for  the  J 
lianiwU  baciin  in  the  English  markets.  Thirl,  be-  " 
cauKu  the  Dantss  do  furnish  regularly  the  better 
bacon,  they  supply  the  liner  trade.  It  is  evident 
that  the  KngLish  people  buy  American  bafon  be- 
cause it  ]h  in  abundance  and  cheap  in  price,  and 
they  pay  for  it  only  when  forced  to  do  so  by  the 
small  amount  and  the  high  price  of  the  Danidl 
bacun. 


An  tjrample. 

The  methods  of  producing  Danish  bacon  may  be 
of  interest.  Mr.  J.  H.  (Jingo,  manager  of  tbe  Cana- 
dian Packing  Company,  of  l^ondon,  Ontario,  aod 
others  who  have  made  a  study  of  Danish  metfaodi^ 
report  that  the  Danish  farmers  select  long,  leu 
80W.S  from  the  best  mothers,  more  especially  of 
whit*  color.  Pork-packing  corporations  briag  in 
the  right  sort  of  boars,  which  are  often  of  tbe 
Middle  or  l^rge  English  Yorkshire  breed,  a6  tbcee 
produce  the  best  English  bacon.  The  finest  t>aaidi 
h;u;on  is  made  by  feeding  the  right  aort  of  pigs  oB 
barley  and  rye,  with  buile<l  potatoes,  raw  tumipi 
cut  fine,  fikimmed  milk,  buttermilk  and  grass  in 
summer  and  roots  in  winter.  Tbe  jrooog  figt  are 
allowed  to  run  about  and  grow  without  pottuw 
on  much  fat  from  the  time  they  are  weaned  lul 
within  six  or  eight  weeks  of  the  time  they  are 
to  go  to  market.  A  fioisbed  Danish  bacon  pig 
ranges  from  180  to  225  pounds  in  wt-ighL  It  is  a 
long,  lean  hog  with  ptumiv,  well-develi^ed  haaa» 
thick,  straight  belly,  and  fat  on  hack  not  exceed- 
ing one  and  ooe-balf  inches  in  thicknMs.  Th«  Ite- 
ixh  hog  is  raised  largely  on  dairy-famw,  bst  BHiy 
small  tots  ore  raised  and  fed  by  peaaants  ar  laber 

in  fed  is  crasod  sad 


I 


ing  meo.   Aa  a  rule,  tbe  grsin 


J 


SWINE 


aodkod  OV<!r  night,  mixe<l  with  other  titnln  anil 
given  to  the  Ho^h  when  uii  the  [Hiint  uf  tuminj; 
sour.  The  hogs  art?  ruivur  fed  more  than  u  eaten 
Qp  clean  at  each  meal. 

Liieraiurt, 
For  referencefi,  see  p&ge  646. 

The  Feeding  of  Swine.   Figs.  6rj3-657. 

By  H'.  J.  Kennedy,  IVayne  Dhumore  and  J.  A. 
UeLeon. 

The  qneation  of  swine- feeding  engagea  the  atten- 
tioTJ  of  persons  in  practically  alt  piart-a  of  the 
civilized  world.  In  some  ptacea  farmera  engsijjo  in 
the  indnstry  an  a  spwialty  ;  in  others,  only  i-nough 
pig»  are  rfiimi  tn  utilise  the  wuHteo  of  the  farm  ; 
while  in  the  American  corn-Wit,  th«;  hog  h  uHod  to 
utilize  that  part  of  the  grain  ration  which  escapes 
the  digcittive  organs  of  tfic  cattle,  tn  many  coiin- 
triea  in,  which  dairy-farming  ia  followed  as  the 
chief  occupation,  pigs  are  reared  and  fed  in  con- 
siijeralde  numbers  an  an  auxiliary  indu.'itrj".  While 
several  differt-nt  methiHJH  of  feeHing  an<I  manage- 
ment are  pursued  with  goo")  results,  certain  prln- 
cipleii  in  common  are  recngnixed  as  forming  the 
basis  of  the  work.  These  will  be  treated  under 
four  different  heads  or  divisiona.  namely  :  the 
breeding  boar,  the  breeding  bow  and  young  pig». 
fni.<<hing  the  lard  or  fat  hog,  and  liniahing  the 
bacon  hog. 

Tht  hrefilins  l/oar. 

The  food  of  the  boar  shoald  be  varied  somewhat 
in  accordance  with  his  age  and  the  season  of  the 
year.  Young  boars  should  Iw  fed  more  concen- 
trated food  than  nhould  mature  animala.  During 
thd  breeding  season,  the  boar  should  be  fed  more 
liberally  and  on  a  more  nutrition.')  ration  than  dur- 
ing that  part  of  the  year  when  not  used  for  ser- 
vice. At  all  timeA  the  food  of  the  boar  should  be 
varied,  of  a  nutritions  nature,  and,  in  the  case  of 
grown  animate,  moderately  bulky.  It  ia  especially 
important  that  some  form  of  succulent  food  b* 
Bupplii'd  throughout  the  entire  year.   Where  grass 


grain  ration  should  he  composed  of  foods  rather 
rich  in  protein  and  of  a  c^)oling  nature,  as  foods 
rich  in  (rariK»nacf?ous  matter  tend  Ui  produce  obes- 
ity and  a  bunted  condition  of  the  digeative  organH, 


Fix.  6U.    Pli-Iee«tBj[  Mrae  in  mlddto  Wnt. 

fa  not  available,  such  foods  as  roots  or  finely  cut 
clover  or  alfalfa  leaves  during  the  winter,  and 
gruen  food  of  .-lome  kind  iluring  the  sammc-r,  should 
ktwaya  be  fed  in  addition  io  the  grain  ration.  The 


Pl2.  ti*.    ColOBT  b>iitiMB  ud  peiu  la  the  weit. 

both  of  which  are  detrimental  to  any  sires,  often- 
times causing  aterility 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  grain,  finely  ground  oata 
are  perhaps  the  most  fleairable  for  the  bulk  of  the 
ration.  The  addition  of  wheat  middlings  in  the 
CBH«  of  a  young  hour,  or  wheat  bran  in  the  case  of 
a  mature  animal,  to  the  extent  of  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  ration  by  weight,  added  to  the  oata, 
makes  a  most  oftefnl  combination.  Skimmed  milk 
may  be  fed  to  good  advantage,  especially  to  young 
boars.  For  the  purpose  of  fumifihing  bulk,  variety 
and  succulence  during  the  winter  months,  some 
second -crop  clover  nr  alfalfa  hay,  cut  up  finely, 
Honked  tn  warm  wut«>r  and  mixed  with  the  grain 
ration,  given  excellent  reKulUt.  The  boar  should 
not  be  overfed,  but  given  just  what  he  will  eat  up 
clean.  By  all  means,  the  feeder  should  avoid  hav- 
ing the  boar  fat.  as  it  is  juat  as  injurioua  as 
to  have  him  too  thin.  Regular  exercixe  flhuuld  be 
given  throughout  the  entire  year.  This  can  usu- 
alty  be  furnitthed  through  the  medium  of  a  grass 
lot  in  the  Humiiier  and  a  Kmall  yard  adjoining  the 
pen  during  the  winter  months. 

The  feeding  and  manasemeitt  of  brttding  «if«  and 
younff  piijt. 

Breeding  bows  are  kept  for  their  present  or  pros- 
pective value  as  pig-producers.  Their  manage- 
ment and  feeding  is  purely  a  buHinesH  prop<:witioB. 
Irregular  breedtirs.  sows  that  produce  but  few  piga 
at  birth,  or  sows  whose  pigs  are  not  of  high  excel- 
lence as  individuals,  should  be  weeded  out  as  Boon 
as  po8.«ilile.  Sows  that  are  not  in  themsoh'es  good 
representati^'es  of  the  type  Hought,  and  that  are 
not  descended  from  prolilic  ancestry,  should  not  b© 
taken  into  the  herd  as  breeding  sows. 

In  thv  practical  management  of  sows,  or  sows 
and  pigs,  health  is  of  primary  importance,  ifun- 
light  should  have  access  to  all  parts  of  the  hog 
sheds  or  shelters.  With  sunshine,  good  ventilation 
and  thorough  clcanline^  most  be  provided.  All 
sleeping  quarters,  feeding  floon).  troughs  and  tnhel- 
ters  frequented  by  the  pigs  should  be  disinfected 
once  a  month  with  some  good  disinfectant.  The 
coal  tar  or  other  gu<Hl  disinfectants  should  be  used 
fre«ly  by  means  of  a  good  barrel  spray -pump. 
Careful  study  will  enable  anpr  iatelligent  owner  or 
herdsman  to  keep  his  herd  m  a  healthy  conditioD^ 


«60 


SWINE 


SWLVE 


and  every  hoi^-raiser  whoiikl  keep  in  ti>uch  with 
B(vnrcBa  of  iiifiirtniLtinn,  mirh  ha  the  a^ric'^ulUiriil 
exiHjrimtiiit  HLatioim  and  thuj  natiunal  departnmnL 
of  agriculture. 

In  feeiinK  br(«-'<iin|;  hows,  the  aim  should  Iw  to 
snpply  the  natriunta  neL-ded  for  maintenance  or 
growth,  and  such  additional  food  nutrients  as  maj 
lie  required  for  the  pigH  in  utero  or  nursing,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Oowl  pUHture  (liliw-graaR,  clover  or 
nlfntfii)  18  Uiu  chiMijit^Ht.  fe«d,  Jind  furniHhes  tho 
oliiments  moat  neudEsd  to  build  a  strong,  bony 
framework  and  a  wfll-doveloped  musi'ular  Byattm, 
In  the  sonthern  stjittis,  cowpea  and  scYb>L-iin  paaturo 
fill  the  plaoe  that  is  occopied  by  obver  in  the 


.11  Mt^ 


^^m 


^M^^Mi 


PIk.  as.    Coacrato  bottHoaM. 

cutltral  Btatesand  by  alfalfa  in.  thecentraUwestem 
and  far  western  states.  In  most  of  the  northern 
states,  clover  or  alfalfii  c»n  be  grown,  and  whert! 
thea<!  are  not  reguhirly  grown  the  CiiniLcliun  field- 
pea  lilla  the  sane  pbice,  and,  with  bluo-KraiW.- 
often  known  an  Junw-ifrasa— must  form  the  chief 
po^ure  feed.  Tho  sow;ii  tihould  have  acct-ss  to  pas- 
ture for  as  much  of  the  timo  ns  weather  conditions 
will  permit.  In  practically  all  Iwalities  south  of 
the  forty-second  parallel  of  latitude,  they  can  Iw 
permitted  to  rang«  at  will  on  winter  pastiireit,  ex- 
cept during  Iht;  stormitMit  duys  uf  winter,  which 
are  few. 

If  80W8  are  to  produce  but  one  litter  per  year, 
this  fihoald  come  about  the  fir^t  of  March;  when 
two  litters  are  to  be  produced,  the  second  litter 
should  come  early  in  September.  Sows  should  he 
in  fair  ftesh  and  gaining  well  about  the  time  they 
are  to  be  bred,  for  conception  ia  then  more  certain. 
The  period  of  preprnancy  is  IV^  to  IIG  days.  This 
makeA  it  pofiiiible  to  have  the  sows  on  pa.'ituro  (in 
alt  dtatricta  south  of  the  forty-second  parallel)  dar- 
inc  both  periods  when  they  are  to  be  bred. 

In  feeding  sows  that  are  to  produce  hut  one  lit- 
ter per  year,  one  must  see  to  it  that  their  pigs  are 
weaned  by  the  tirst  of  August.  Young  sows  thai 
have  never  produced  pigs  should  receive,  from  the 
time  they  are  weaned  until  they  are  of  age  to 
bree<l,  about  one-half  ration  of  grain  :  and  the 
raixturwa  recommended  later  for  young  growing 
pigs  are  the  right  ones  for  these  young  !*owa  on 


pasture.  Mature  sows  need  nothing  except  gom 
pJiHtwre  during  .\agiist  and  September.  In  Ot 
ber,  Home  corn — alniat  two  punnda  per  bead  ^1 
should  be  given  to  tht^m  hows  on  pasture  to 
crease  their  gains,  .\fter  the  sows  (young  sr 
mature)  are  bred,  tho  feeder  should  return  them 
to  pasture  and  continue  t«  feed  somt^t  grain,  pref* 
erahly  corn  and  o«tt  in  equal  parta  hy  weight. 
About  three  or  four  poumls  of  thin  grain  should  be 
alliiwed  ti>  300-  or  40(l-piiund  huwm  until  lat«  in 
December.  Then  the  feeiler  must  begin  feeding 
ground  com,  2  parta,  ground  oats,  2  parta,  ana 
l>rnn,  I  part.  If  corn  is  not  available,  barley  or 
wheat  may  hL' substituted  in  its  place.  W ben  the 
feeds  named  are  not  available,  selection  can 
be  made  from  the  following  rations  :  corn 
7  parts,  t.-inkage  I  part ;  corn  2  partn,  cnw- 
peatj  1  jmrt ;  barley  2  parta,  Canadian  field- 
pea^  1  part :  corn  2  parta,  shorts  2  parts ;  ^ 
corn  2  parts,  fine  alfalfa  2  parta;  c-om 
parts,  soybeans  1  part. 

All  these  rations  are  to  be  mixed  b| 
weight.  AH  are  improved  if  mixed  well  witbl 
akimmed  milk.  Of  thp,<te  mixtures,  about  fife 
or  six  poandH  per  he:id  should  be  allowed 
daily.  This  grain  should  be  fed  dry  ch*  in  a 
very  stiff  slop,  and  pasture  allowed.  In  the 
northern  states  and  Canada,  where  the 
verity  of  the  winter  preventH  paaturin 
the  sows  should  have  all  the  good  brig! 
clover,  alfalfa  or  [>ea  hay  thai  they  will  ea^l 
and  d!iity  exercise  ia  eeseotiaL  Kven  when 
sows  are  closely  boused,  as  in  the  North, 
every  pregnant  sow  should  be  obliged  in 
some  way  to  walk  half  a  mile  every  day.  lack 
of  exercise  is  certain  to  lead  to  trouble  at  farrow-! 
ing  time,  either  with  the  sows  or  pigs. 

Pr<>gnant  sows  are  liable  to  conatipation. 
this  m  likely  to  lead  to  a  feverish  condition  at  tio 
of  parturition.  They  should  therefore  be  closely 
watched,  and  the  bowels  regulated  by  supplying 
more  bulky  feed,  such  as  fine  alfalfa  or  clover  hay, 
or  better  islill,  more  wheat  bran. 

When  the  sow  is  due  tu  farrow  she  should  have 
a  dry,  comfortable  alall  or  pen  with  but  little  bed- 
ding in  it.  The  pigs  should  be  removed  as  fa«t  a* 
they  are  bom  and  placed  in  a  basket  or  barrel  oa 
some  dry  straw.  A  blanket  may  be  thrown  par- 
tially over  the  top  of  the  basket  or  barrel  to  keep  ts 
the  he^it,  but  cnre  must  l>e  taken  to  permit  acoMS 
of  air  or  the  pigs  will  smotht^r  liefore  the  attend- 
ant is  awarw  of  it.  At  the  «nd  of  three^aart*is  ofj 
an  hour,  the  young  pigs  may  be  allowed  to  non^n 
then  returned  to  the  barrel  for  two  hours.  wh«i 
they  may  nurse  again  and  then  be  left  with  the 
30W,  The  owner  or  attendant  must  he  prvnent  to 
give  cbx^e  attention  to  sow  and  pigs  aa  indicated, 
or  success  cannot  be  expectwl. 

For  the  first  twenty-four  hours  after  the  pi| 
are  horn,  the  row  should  receive  do  feed.    All 
lukewarm  water  she  will  drink  may  be  allni 
hut  nothing  more.    After  this  she  may  be 
on  a  light  ration  of  I  ground  com.  i  groond  oils. 
and  i  shorU,  mixed  with  skimmed  milk,  using  8 
to  o  pound.<i  of  milk  to  one  of  grain.  This  may  be 


[jKk 
row*^ 

tindl 


J 


SWTNE 


SWINE 


6S1 


Cndoaliy  increased  until  hy  the  eni)  of  ten  day» 
V»  sow  i.'^  receiving  all  iif  thiM  >ilup  tih«  will  cun- 
«ume.  This  should  be  continued  fur  at  least  two 
monChii. 

Other  grain  ratioiu  that  can  be  subtttitnted  for 
the  one  given  abuvc  are : 

In  southern  gtat«8.— Corn  3,  cowpeas  2  part*. 
Cora  2,  cowpeas  1  part,  mixed  with  skimmed  milk. 
Corn  S,  guybeans  1  part.   Com  6.  tankage  1  part. 

In  far  western  »tatt'^.  Barley  1,  oatu  1,  ehurta 
1  part.   Barley  1.  short.''  1  part. 

In  far  northern  wtnten  and  Canada. — Barley  2, 
pea-i  I.  shortK  1  part.  Barley  3,  peas  1  part.  Bar- 
Ivy  1.  oats  1.  shorU  1  part. 

All  of  the  above  rations  are  improved  by  mix* 
inff  with  Bkiramod  milk.  The  grain  should  be  ground 
for  80WB  suckling  young  pigs.  Numerous  other 
j^rain  rations  could  be  suggested,  but  those  given 
are  thoroughly  satisfactory,  usually  as  chv&p  aa 
any.  and  ai>[ily  to  practically  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  No  matter  which  of  the  above 
rations  10  cho^n,  the  sow  should  bo  alli>w<:-<l  all  i«he 
will  eat,  and  should  aUo  be  put  an  good  {lasture  as 
soon  aa  possible.  Th>d  pigs  should  be  given  a  little 
of  the  feed  in  a  small  trough  of  their  own,  by  the 
time  they  are  thr^e  weeks  uld.  Thtry  will  soon  learn 
to  eat,  and  may  tht>n  be  allowed  all  they  will  con- 
same.  Any  of  th«  grain  mixtures  recommended  for 
the  sows  nursing  pigs  will  do  for  th«  young  pig.>!. 
for  in  feeding  thu  sow  we  are  merely  feeding  the 
pigs  through  the  dam. 

The  pigs  must  also  be  kept  dry  for  a  week  or 
two,  and  allou-ed  plenty  of  exercUe.  This),  with 
abundant  feed,  ia  all  th^y  need.  Ad  soon  as  sows 
and  pigs  are  on  good  pa^iture,  much  less  grain  feed 
will  be  required,  but  the  practice  of  allowing  tht>m 
all  they  will  eat  should  be  foll<jwed  until  they  are 
at  least  three  months  old,  for  the  gains  made 
when  the  pigs  are  young  are  very  much  cheaper 
than  any  made  thereafter.  .A-fter  the  pigs  are  of 
this  age,  if  feeds  are'  high  priced,  they  shoald  be 


Pl|.  656.    OmUj  v(  pUsl*  00  cAtDoaC  Bam. 

nada  to  depend  largely  on  good  pasture,  and  the 
grain  ration  should  be  cut  down  to  about  half  of 
what  the  pigs  would  eat.  If  feed^  am  chvap.  the 
policy  of  full-feeding  may  be  continued  until  the 


pigii  are  weaned,  which  will  u.^^u.^tly  l>e  when  the 
pigs  art*  u)h>uI  fuur  ur  five  mantha  old. 

When  twei  littt'rti  per  year  are  to  be  raised,  th« 
pigs  must  be  weaned  when  they  are  about  six 
w&eks  old,  to  permit  the  sow  to  fli-sh  up  for  a 
couple  of  weeks  before  re-brecding.  If  this  is  not 
done,  it  will  Helilom  l)e  possible  to  breed  the  sow 
as  promptly  as  she  should  t»e  bred.  Pigs  weaned  at 
ao  early  an  age  must  be  very  liberally  fed. 

Bucceiw  in  managing  and  feeding  breeding  sows 
or  young  piga  lies  in  keeping  them  healthy  at  all 
times,  and  in  supplying  them  with  an  abundance 
of  food,  which  will  build  up  boues  and  muscles, 
Feed.i  lacking  in  protein  and  asih  will  not  do,  and 
the  rations  given  are  those  which  supply  an  abun- 
dance of  the  needed  elements.  Good  patiture  is  une 
of  the  cheapest  and  one  of  the  best  feeds. 

Fiauhinif  the  tard  hoff. 

In  the  corn-belt  area  of  America,  where  com  is 
the  chief  part  of  the  ration,  hogs  are  used  to  fol- 
low the  fattening  steers,  gleaning  from  their  drop- 
pings the  undigested  food  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted.  From  this  source  conies  a  large  part  of 
the  food  of  the  fat  hoge  of  the  market.  They  are 
given  the  same  run  as  the  cattle,  and  usually  given 
the  same  amount  of  shelter,  although  in  the  milder 
parts  of  the  country,  where  the  winters  are  open 
and  where  the  only  shiidtfr  provided  for  the  steers 
is  a  windbreak,  there  should  be  provided  for  tho 
swine  a  shelter  from  the  rain  and  snow  by  a  tem- 
porary roof  beneath  which  a  dry  sleeping-place  is 
aMured. 

The  manner  of  feeding  these  pigs  is  determined 
largely  by  the  form  in  which  the  corn  i.*!  fed  to  the 
steers  and  by  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the  sup- 
plenientar)'  feed-stuffs  that  enter  into  the  ration. 
The  com  is  usually  fed  to  the  steers  as  ear  corn, 
chopped  corn,  shelled  corn,  soaked  shelled  corn, 
com  meal  or  corn-and-cob  meal.  The  most  com  in 
available  for  the  pigs  if  shelled  cum  forms  the 
ration  for  the  steers ;  the  steers  consume  more 
com  when  it  is  fed  in  this  form,  eating  it  more 
rapidly,  so  that  it  is  less  perfectly  masticated  and 
more  of  it  passes  from  the  body  unaltered.  Soak- 
ing the  com  from  one  feeding  time  to  the  next 
softens  the  com  so  that  less  mastication  is  required, 
and  results  in  a  more  nearly  perfect  digestion,  so 
that  much  less  corn  i^  found  in  the  droppings  for 
the  pigs.  Grinding  the  com  for  the  steers  has  a 
result  similar  to  soitiking,  but  with  the  difference 
that  what  corn  is  found  in  the  excreta,  being  in  a 
much  finer  pby.-^ical  condition,  is  leas  perfectly 
gleaned  by  the  swine,  while  they  niu^t  work  more 
diligently  to  get  it.  Grinding  the  cob  with  the  com 
insures  a  more  complete  digestion  than  of  the  com 
nit-al  alone,  with  the  consequence  that  the  swine 
following  can  secure  but  scant  rations  from  the 
droppings.  The  addition  of  various  snpplementary 
foorts  containing  a  high  i>ercentage  of  digestible 
proteids  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  utilization  of 
the  carbonaceous  part  of  the  ration,  thus  reducing 
to  a  minimum  the  available  nutrients  in  the  excreta 
when  fed  in  conjunction  with  the  less  wasteful 
forms  of  com. 


652 


SWTNE 


6WINB 


When  shelled  corn  atone  forms  the  ration,  the 
preferable  practice  is  to  place  after  the  ste«rs  an 
equal  numlier  of  p\gs  of  about  nix  months  of  age. 
Tnoy  sh'juld  be  fed  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  a 
poand  of  tanka^  per  day,  or  Us  available  proteid 
eqairalent.  in  thu  form  of  a  thin  slop,  to  produce 
the  maxiinmn  utilization  of  th*  excreted  corn. 
During  the  first  few  months  of  feeding:,  no  nther 
concentrate  need  be  added,  but  under  8ucb  manage- 
ment, 3tfi  the  pi^  approach  ripeness  they  will  prac- 
tically cease  to  make  gains,  and  they  will  not 
thoroughly  glean  the  corn  from  the  droppings.  For 
the  last  four  or  five  weeke.  therefore,  they  Bhould 
be  taken  from  the  steer  lots  and  fed  as  much  com 
as  they  will  take  per  day,  while  in  their  place 
younger  pigs  should  be  placed  after  the  steers. 


Plf.  tSl.    Movable  oot  (or  dm  In  fleUs. 

When  the  amount  of  food  available  for  the  swine 
h  Ittjwened  by  narrowing  this  ration,  by  grimling 
the  corn  or  by  the  uae  of  c»rii-and-cob  mL-ai,  addi- 
tional corn  should  be  supplied  from  the  very  be- 
ginning, varying  from  one  and  one-half  to  three 
pounds  per  head  per  day,  according  to  the  maturity 
of  the  pigs.  As  before,  during  the  last  weiiks  they 
shonM  lie  removed  entirfly  from  the  steer  lot.  It 
has  been  abundantly  proved  that  for  economic 
results  from  piga  fulUiwing  fiti:'i*r»  in  dry  lota,  some 
iiitrogenouB  concentrate  should  be  fed,  and  that  for 
the  linisbing  period  corn  must  be  given  in  addition 
to  that  in  the  excreta.  When  hogs  follow  steem 
on  pasture  they  will  make  slightly  more  economic 
gains  when  the  only  source  of  protein  is  the  pas- 
turage. .As  in  dry-lot  feeding,  the  pigs  should  be 
clooeiy  yarded  during  the  final  wewkfl,  receiving  a 
ration  of  rnrn  ami  tankage.  m«it  meal  or  shorts, 
forming  a  nutritiv*>  ratio  of  1:7. 

By  far  Lhu  grualt'st  numK-r  of  hogs  are  fitU-d 
for  market  during  thi-  summer  and  early  fall 
months.  During  the  summer  the  requirements  for 
shelter,  maintenance  and  Inbor  are  least,  while  gains 
are  greatest  and  cheapest  at  this  period  of  the 
year.   Of  th«£e  summer-fed  pigs,  muuh  the  greater 


per  cent  are  fattened  on  pasture.  It  is  found 
pigs  fi'd  com  alone  on  blue-grass  pasture 
etjually  a!<  great  gains  as  pigs  fed  in  dry  lot  oi 
ration  balanced  with  the  most  suitable  prot«id-rich 
foods.  Uowever,  clover  or  alfalfa  pasture  gii-a 
mucb  greater  gains  than  a  timothy  or  blue-graM 
pasture,  when  com  alone  is  fed  in  conjunction.  In 
fact,  com  alnne  on  an  abundant  clover  pasture 
forms  almost  an  ideal  ration,  excelling  a  ration  of 
com  and  shorts  in  parts  two  to  one,  and  almwl 
equaling  a  ration  balanced  with  tankage  ur  neat 
meal  in  rapidity  of  gains,  while  it  excels  all  other 
rations  on  pasturage  when  both  rate  and  economy 
of  gains  are  considere<].  On  pastures  other  than 
leguminoua  ones,  it  is  desirable  to  nse  with  com  a 
nitrogenous  concentrate.  Meat  meal,  tanki^  or 
oil-meal  are  very  desirable  foods  for  this  purpose. 
Meat  meal  or  tankage  are  most  profitably  used  in 
the  proportion  of  1 :  10  by  weight,  although  slightly 
greater  gains  anse  from  a  proportion  of  liTi.  Oil- 
meal,  having  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  quality  of 
the  fats,  should  not  he  be  nsed  in  the  last  weeks  of 
finishing.  Gluten  food,  being  in  itself  a  com  by- 
product^  and  deficient  in  palatability,  in  not  well 
suited  for  the  purpoi)e ;  shorts  are  not  sutliriently 
rich  in  protein  to  give  the  mogt  profitable  resalts, 
while  wheat  bran  is  too  coarse  and  bulky. 

Feeding  pigs  in  the  dry  lot  in  the  summer  markedly 
increase-^  the  cost  of  production.  In  dry  lota  lli« 
pigs  rwejuirv  more  concuntraleti  [K>r  hundred  pioiidl 
gain,  are  less  thrifty,  and  make  noticeably  Ism 
gains.  Under  these  conditions,  the  infloence  of 
adding  jirotein  to  the  ration  is  greater  than  on 
pasture.  The  taont  advantageous  rations  in  dry- 
lot  feeding  but  slightly  excel  the  feMling  of 
com  alone  on  timothy  pasture,  from  the  stand- 
point of  rate  of  production,  and  it  is  moch 
more  costly  at  all  times. 

Cure  must  be  exercised  in  the  preparation  of 
food  for  swine.  Coarse,  bulky  foods  never  give 
satisfactory  results ;  as  a  consequence,  the  oseof 
wheat  bran,  corn-and-coh  meal,  oat  feed  nr  glutea 
ffwd  is  not  recommended.  When  com  is  finally 
ground,  or  soaked  from  one  feeding  time  to  ttw 
next,  there  is  a  more  ihorough  digeation.  Coarsely 
ground  corn,  especially  If  it  is  dry,  is  poorly  ntit- 
ized.  Practically  all  rations  should  be  mixed  and 
soaked  at  least  twelve  hours,  while  all  Dteasjls 
rouAt  he  kept  sweet. 

Wtnttir  ffHfding  di>t>H  ncit  differ  etwentiiilly  fmi 
dry-lot  fwding  during  tlw  Bommer,  except  thit 
more  feed  is  requirwf  pt-r  hundred  pounas  gailL 
Much  of  the  winter  feiMling  consista  in  foltowiM 
after  steers,  which  method  has  been  dewribw 
already. 

Finigking  the  bofvn  koff. 

Throughout  North  .America,  bacon  hogs  are 

ducud  chiefly  in  Canada  and  parts  of  those  rej 

of  thm  Unit«d  States  outside  the  corn-belt,  while 
considerable  bacon  is  manufactured  in  tbe  (*nil«d 
.States,  much  of  it  is  from  fat-hog  sides  and  is  n 
inferior  quality  of  meat.  There  is,  however,  wwne 
feeding  of  hogs  for  tiacon  practicf^l  in  the  more 
eastern,  the    northern  and    the    mountain  atattiC 


SWIN'B 


SWINE 


653 


where  the  fnod-HtufTs  are  adni'tiil  to  this  pur)iom; 
rather  thnn  bo  the  production  uf  the  fat  hag. 

In  thH  btwun  hop  only  a  modorati!  ilL-jirvti  of  fat- 
nvas  is  dusir*^,  not  exci'uding  an  inch  in  thickness 
alonK  the  spinal  column.  The  fat  and  lean  must 
be  nicely  interspenied.  Itiit  even  mure  ewential 
than  the  quantity  of  fat  in  the  quality  of  it.  In 
bacon  pnnlHt'liun,  a  comm^m  source  of  tn>ui>lH 
ariee»  frnm  Lh«  «ffflnt!«s  of  the  HiilfB,  Thtir«  is  u 
certain  firninvsji  lo  tha  fat,  u  freedtiin  from  (jreaai- 
n«w  and  (wiftuess  which  is  abaolutely  essentia!  in 
Na  1  bacon.  This  quality  ia  nevur  securn-d  in 
bacon  made  from  tht;  siden  of  fat  ho(^,  nor  can  it 
be  socored  where,  in  feeding,  the  metlinda  used  are 
similar  to  thuHe  uumi  in  feeding  fat  h(»gH  ;  neither 
ta  the  desired  quality  fuund  In  ]iiga  that  are  car- 
ried t(»  extreme  wL-i^ht*!.  Tlie  pit;»  niUHt  be  mark- 
eted between  ISO  and  220  pounds,  aft-ur  Imving 
been  fed  in  a  careful  manner,  if  the  bacon  ia  to  be 
of  the  highest  grade. 

In  the  production  of  bacon  the  feeds  entering 
into  the  ration  must  be  csirefully  choaen.  Some  of 
the  feed-fltntTs  uaed  for  pork-pn«lncti(in  can  be 
used  but  sparingly,  if  at  a!l,  for  bacon.  The  use  of 
corn  in  thu  proportion  larger  than  one-third  of  the 
ration  is  almost  certain  to  produco  tioftness.  Feed- 
ing rye  or  beans  exclusively  produces  similar 
ffsults.  Even  an  over-abundance  of  green  forage 
tends)  to  prmlnce  a  wiftneai  in  the  bacon.  The 
feeds  used  most  largely  and  HuccenHfully  are  btir- 
\ej,  peaA,  uaUi,  shortH  and  Hklmmed  mitk,  and  these 
feeds  gire  best  reitultbi  when  mixfd  rather  than 
when  used  alone.  Although  "Canada  pea-fed  bacon" 
has  had  considerable  reputation  of  late  years,  pea^ 
have  been  a  Bmall  factor  in  feeding  operations, 
When  usenJ  alone  they  give  dry,  rather  hard,  fla- 
vorlefla  banon.  Barley  is  the  feed  mo»t  used.  It 
should  lie  ground  or  Hnaked  twenty^foar  hours  ;  tt 
can  he  fed  alone,  but  gives  Itelter  n-jtulls  if  a 
amall  quantity  of  p^as,  oil'meul,  tankage.''  or  SDeljr 
ground  oata  is  added.  Oala  are  objected  lo  because 
of  their  hutla,  v>-hii:h  for  younger  pigs  necewitatas 
sieving  them  ;  with  larger  piga  careful  grinding 
makeji  them  unable. 

Bacon  ia  uitualty  a  protluction  of  dairy  districts, 
where  skimmed  miEk  is  always  avalLible.  Skimmed 
mitk  makes  an  excellent  feed,  and  if  supplied  in 
the  proportion  of  Z  to  5  of  milk  to  1  of  meal  gives 
the  very  best  results  both  in  gain  and  in  quality  of 
meat. 

Summer  feetling  on  pasture  of  clover,  alfalfa  or 
rape  sapplies  the  greater  quantity  of  bacon.  IieH? 
skimmed  milk  is  required  un  such  pa^^turnf,  and  a 
protein-ricJi  supplement  ia  not  required.  One  of 
shorts  to  two  tif  barley  with  skimmed  milk  makes 
one  of  the  moat  aatisfactory  rations.  In  the  north- 
em  states  there  is  a  gn«iter  use  of  shorts,  corn  and 
of  small  or  upoilwl  whe.'it.  One  of  com  to  two  of 
aborts,  or  a  ration  solely  of  damaged  wheat,  gives 
satisfactory  results.    In  I'olorado,  some  bacon  is 

riroduced  on  peas  alone,  gleaned  in  tha  field,  but  80 
ittle  hafl  been  done  that  conclusions  can  not  be 
drawn. 

Winter  ftwding  is  approximately  25  per  cent 
more  cfleitly.   The  succulence  supplied  by  the  paa- 


tnrea  must  be  foniilhed  by  mangels  or  sagar-beetii, 
whlli^  more  tankftge^  btood  meal,  oil  meal  or  skim- 
med milk  must  be  used  to  balance  the  ration. 

LiieraturE. 

For  referenceji.  see  page  646. 

Detemiijiuig  the  Age  of  Swine. 
By  H.  ff.   Wing. 

White  swine  have  two  sets  of  teeth,  temporary 

and  permanent,  as  in  the  other  domestic  animals, 
the  dentition  is  so  irregular  as  to  be  of  little  service 
in  determining  the  age  of  the  animal.  Moreover, 
the  dillicuUy  of  catching,  holding  and  examining 
the  animal  is  so  great  that  the  teeth  are  seldom,  if 
ex'er,  usuil  to  determine  the  age  of  swine.  !n  market 
stock,  the  age  does  not  play  an  important  part,  as 
the  value  depends  entirely  on  the  weight  and  con- 
dition of  the  animal,  except  in  the  caee  of  old  sows 
and  stags  (castrated  mature  males).  The  former 
are  easily  distingui.thed  by  evidence  of  having 
Huctcleil  pigs,  ami  the  latter  by  the  tusks  and  the 
development  of  the  "shield" — a  enarse  heavy  fold 
of  muscle  under  the  skin  en  the  .shoulder.  In  breed- 
ing animals,  the  ago  is  alwaya  indicated  on  the  cer- 
tificate of  registry  of  pure-bred  stock. 

Common  Ailmenta  of  Swine.   Figs.  G.5f^^2. 
By  John  li.   Afahk-r  and   Ceorgr  H.   Hart. 

Probably  the  most  important  diseases  of  swine 
are  tuberculveJA  and  hug  cholera,  which  have  been 
described  by  Dr.  Moore  on  pages  136  and  137. 
These  two  discasoa  have  been  given  the  greatest 
amoont  of  attention  by  investigators  with  a  view 
to  determining  satisfactory  methods  of  prevention 
and  treatment.  In  a<3ditinn  to  these  two  affections, 
there  are  a  number  of  ailments  of  hogs  that  cause 
serious  losses,  although  they  have  received  but 
scant  consideration  either  from  the  hog-raiser,  vet- 
erinarian or  investigator.  In  fact,  stockmen  are 
very  reluctant  to  secure  the  services  of  ■  veteri- 
narian for  their  sick  hogs  unless  the  losses  are 
great  or  the  exi.=ttence  of  an  infectious  disea.ie  is 
sus{>ected.  Mtdlcines  should  never  be  given  unless 
there  la  a  well-defined  ides  as  to  what  they  are 
expected  to  accomplish,  and  "specifics"  for  hog 
diseases  should  bo  avoided  the  same  as  "specji^cs'' 
for  affections  of  man. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  of  adminisl^ring 
medicine  to  hogs  internally  is  by  putting  it  in  their 
feed  or  drink,  iis  drenching  adult  nogs  ia  often  dan- 
gerous. To  no  other  class  of  animals  is  the  a^age. 
"an  ounce  of  prevention  is  woKh  a  nound  of 
cure,"  wo  applicable  as  it  is  to  hogs,  and  preven- 
tion of  disease  by  rational,  decent  treatment,  which 
includes  proper  housing,  feeding,  breeding,  and  the 
like,  should  be  given  lirst  consideration. 

Paralytu  or  paraplegia. 

Thb)  is  an  ailment  of  hogs,  the  nature  of  which 
ia  not  clearly  understood.  It  is  characterized  by  a 
progressive  paralysis,  affecting  first  the  hind-legs 
and  gradually  extending  orer  the  entire  body  (Pig. 


^ 


654 


SWINE 


SWINE 


39 


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19 


20 


Fit.  tS».  HnuuUt  lyftta  ot  lU  hoc  1.  Suparior  loTitor  miupl*  at  tho  Up:  3,  MiparioT 
Irvainr  pmiirlui  iiiuiclc>  of  lb«  lipt  3i,  Kceeisary  muwk  to  tlio  Io*-iiior:  3.  laiuel*  cuilnac 
(pyr»aik1nlls),  I.  mn*rlp  ilfpp*BioTTO»lmai;Ii,tDineIe  orbicularis  oru:  ft,  lnforiflrd«ipwii«f>r 
iniiiirip  of  III?  Ilt>;  T.  iniiiirlt<  lyKo'natli-iia  niiOdr;  S.  maaastsr  mawrlp;  1I.9|.B(,  cmiitcis  c-Iet<]o- 
miLslolileiuii  tU.  nmaclH  >l«rDu*uiiuitvliIeiif:  11.  uiuiicJe  itAmu-byoideiu;  13.  a  !>m«ll  pBtt  iif 
tbi*  tliuiil<1f<r  ponton  uf  rhe  tTit[-i>iliii  riu»i^I<>;  13,  mjiMiui  mnfteliS;  U.  Tvntml  I<Talor 
mu*.'lr  "f  ihp  uriviiiilBi  I.",  tnll»*lniiu  iV.ml  uiiiartr,  Ifl,  iliirwi-liiwbiir  f»»rt«;  1",  pxlprnnl 
(ih-llgiif  (iMomlniil  muncle;  17(,  ii>iiihii<ini  ("i-i*  of  ini(>niftl  obllgup  coiuwlei  IB,  Infvrinr 
tkimihor  irmilim  mntrl*'^  lU.  pnrlloi:i  nl  nntr-rinT  iH>rrniii>  ■^■lwl^:  SO.  portion  of  tho 
unallpr  pwtaDil  maiii'lni  Ul.  «ii[irii>i>l[iKtii«  miiipln;  2!!.  dflUoitl  iniiap|i>;  23,  tfi"  1<>ii|[  liriiil  of 
tba  crlcvpfl  muRda;  H,  the  outiT  'jt  latrml  hnwt  of  Iho  trle»p»i  SB,  TnuKtilii  («naor  f«*«iiD 
fttitl  brkir'hi.l:  2ti.  ninaplA  lint<-hknli!i  and  britrMl:  27,  mnM'lA  lAxtpnaor  rarpl  nillitllar  *JH, 
iniuel0  Mt*oanr  diaili  qiiarti;  -1),  inixfl^  tixrnna[>T  illglil  qnintir  '">.  ninw-IfnilcnaoT^arvi 
nlnarU:  31.  mimMo  iiAlinnrt*  Inugo^:  3'i,  idiupIp  i[Iulpn>  timlhiii:  Xt.  niiiwlr  lonanr  lani-lai 
lat»i  M.  mmcle  stutTia  mnxlmiii;  ^.  nmiirip  Mrcps  fomoria ;  ;ii^,  inii^In  ti^inl  ircdloiMnii 
37,  miiHclB  >siiiininni)iriini»iJi:    'iS.  IbII  inuaclp^    ID-  ■iil>riilaiimua  r»l.    ^Aflri'  Bll'iitwricec.) 

659).  Excrfwive  ft-eriing  of  corn  has  been  advanced 
as  a  caiiMM  in  noniu  instances.  It  has  uImo  bi^un  said 
that  kidnty  worms  are  a  causal  factor,  but  they 
tan  be  excluded,  a.s  the  disease  is  frequently  seen 
in  hogs  which,  on  postmnrlem  oxamination.  are 
found  to  be  free  from  kidney  wormi*,  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  many  hogs  aiTectud  with  kidney  worms 
do  not  becrtmfi  attnrked  with  jiariple^ia.  Animnla 
dead  of  the  diseiisn  show  no  constant  lesions.  The 
moat  iroportaat  Byniptonis  Mnsist  in  the  proj»Te88ivB 
weaknoss  of  the  Iiintl-<]unrt«r3,  which  is  nnnccom- 
panied  by  any  general  diaturbance.s.  The  appetite 
remains  good  and  there  is  no  emaciation  until  late 
in  the  disease. 

Treatment. — This  contiistA  in  deep  point-firtng  of 
the  alTected  animak  with  the  actual  cautt^ry,  mak- 
ing eight  punctures  on  each  side  of  the  «pinal  col- 
umn in  thti  n'gion  of  the  loins.  The  iron  should  not 
Ikj  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thii;k  and 
should  be  at  a  red  heat.  It  is  mjtde  to  penetrate 
about  two  inches,  so  oa  to  pa«s  through  thc^  dulwu- 
taneoria  layer  nf  fnt  into  tho  muwles.  Tht>  first 
holes  should  be  made  about  three  inches  in  front  of 
the?  tail  and  one  and  om^half  inches  to  each  side  of 
the  mitdtan  tine  of  tbo  back.  They  are  thvn  eon- 
tinuiHl  fon\'ard  about  one  and  one-half  inches  ajiart 
until  eight  have  been  made  on  each  side.  A  small 
quantity  of  vaseline  flhotild  bi^  riibbwl  ovftr  the 
punctures.  Com  should  b«  withdrawn  from  tha 
diet.  Impnivement  tH'gins  in  one  to  two  veekft 
following  the  firing,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
com])lete  rocovt-ry  occurs.  Considerable  care  is 
demanded  in  the  application  of  thi^  treatment. 

ilangt. 

This  is  a  not  uncommon  contagions  skin  disease 
of  pigB,  caused  by  two  varieties  nf  animal    para- 


sites, the  .Siif 
friVT,  an<l    the   Yh 
foilirulorum. 
of  thesATcoptcat  burraws 
into  the  skin,  giving  riae 
to  irritation  and  the  for- 
mation of  papules,  vesi- 
cles, pustules  and  cnwts. 
The  crusts  are  often  the 
initial    eWdence  of   the 
disease   noticed    by 
owner,  and  ap[iear  ti 
about  the  eyes  and  ea 
From  theae  locations  I 
disease  spreads   to 
niwk,  inner  side  of 
thigh.^    flanks,    with« 
and  mav  cover  the  pntire 
body.   ¥here  is  marked 
itching,  due  to  the  irri- 
tation set  up  by  the  para- 
sitett  in  the  skin.   In  ne- 
vere  cawit  there  is  losi 
of   flesh   and    unthrifti- 
n&ss,  ami  in  young  ptgs 
death  may  occnr.   The 
sarcopt  of  tbu  pig  is  tlw 
largest  of  its  specie  and 
can  he  flftein  with  an  ordinary  hand-lens  by  remov- 
ing the  cniKts  and  e.xnmining  the  scrapings  from 
the  skin.    Thii  disease  i»  contagious,  and 
hogs  may  contract  it  from  atfeetMl  bogs, 
being  placed  in  infL-sted  pen«  or  yards.  ^ 

TWiitmenl. — When  only  a  few  animals  are  al 
tacked,  the  crunts  and  scabs  should  bo  remnvtd  b; 
scrubbing  with  soap  and  water,  followed  by  th 
application  of  a  3  per  cent  creolin  solution  or  l 
ointment  composed  of  sulfur  2  drams,,  rennrcin 
dram,  and  vaseline  insufficient  quantity  to  make  al 
ounce.  Balsam  of  Peru  in  ointmeiita.  a  dram  tu  ih 
ounce,  is  valuable  as  a  curative  agent,  bat  it  ir  n 
pensive.  The  treatment  should  be  continued  daQ 
until  all  the  parasites  are  destroyed.  'WTieo  Ui:^ 
numUin;  of  animals  are  alTec^ted,  dipping  is  thi 
only  practical  trBatment.  (Pig.  fifiO.)  TTie  animalq 
however,  .should  not  bo  dippud  in  cold  weather  na 
should  they  have  mud  cakes  over  the  body  at  th 
time  of  dipping.  In  bad  cases,  the  dip  should  ht 
nibbed  into  the  skin  of  the  animals  by  meaiu  of  a 


rti.  »59.    Hoc  «rWi  pvalrelt. 

broom  or  hnish.    A  second  dipping  should  be 
at  the  expiration  of  six  days  to  kill   the         _ 
parasites  that  have  hatched  since  the  first  treat' 
ment.  The  time  and  sulfur  dip  may  be  used,  < 
sisting  of  unslaked    lime    10  ponnda,  fl 
sulfur  24  pounds,  and  water  100  gallons. 


The  Drmf/dexfiBkiUorum.  CBOSin^r  the  other  vari- 
ety of  hog  mange,  llvw  deep  in  the  hair  foliiclwi 
and  sebaceous  glands,  lis  pn^eiice  causes  pustule 
formatioiw,  which  ruptwre  and  leave  gmall  u)cer» 
OB  tb«  skin.  Th«  soft  skin  is  usually  attacliei],  as 
the  snout,  neck,  lielly  and  initWe  of  the  legs.  The 
puuite  ia  present  in  the  pufltule»  In  enormons 
nnnbers.  The  outlook  for  recovery  in  ijoublfut, 
as  the  parasites  are  so  deep  that  parasitic^dt-iido 
not  reach  them.  In  case  thi'  animals  are  market- 
able, they  should  bo  sent  to  the  butcher  at  once. 
Otherwise  the  treatment  &s  recommended  in  3a> 
Coptic  mange  may  be  tried,  but  the  course  of  treat- 
ment  will  lie  necessarily  protonged.  [Kor  further 
information  on  mange  and  lice  in  Iioi::s,  eee  Bureau 
of  .\Tiimal  Induiitry,  Bulletin  No.  69.] 

VenniaotiM  brrmehitis. 

This  is  a  common  dtseas*  of  pigs  in  certain 
lecalitieJ.  characterized  by  an  inflammation  of  Che 
bn)nchial  tulies  with  paroxysms  of  coughing  and 

stunting  of  the 
growth.  The 
cause  is  a  small 
round  worm, 
the  Sirotiffyiui 
paradoxus, 
about  one  inch 
in  length  and 
of  the  thickness 
of  a  thread.  It 
may  be  present 
in  eoormoDS 
nam  bars  and 
completely 
plog  the  small 
bronchial  tubes 
mechanically, 
giving  rise  to 
irritation  of 
the  lining 
membrane. 
The  diseaae 

ia  most  fre<juent  among  young  pigs.  A  large  per- 
centage of  the  animals  are  osually  alTect^ed.  The 
owner's  attention  is  first  attracted  by  the  jwirox- 
ysms  of  coughing,  which  are  very  constant.  This 
continues  over  many  weeks ;  the  growth  uf  the 
animal  ia  stunted  and  emaciation  becomes  marked. 
The  diagnoflis  la  made  positive  in  case  of  doubt  by 
killing  one  of  the  wontt  affected  animals  and  exam- 
ining the  lungs  for  the  presence  of  the  paraaiteis. 
In  making  this  examination,  it  is  important  to  open 
the  bronchial  tubes  longitudinally  with  the  scisiiiorf! 
and  not  crossways,  as  the  worm  may  be  readily 
overlooked  by  the  latter  method. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  purchasing  new  pigs 
that  they  are  free  from  thedLiuia«e.  Young  pigs 
in  infested  localities  should  not  be  allowed  to  run 
over  low  marshy  groand,  or  drink  from  pools  and 
ditches. 

TVYd/mcn/.—The  use  of  drugs  in  this  disease  ia 
rather  unsatisfactory.  It  is  better  to  kill  adnlt 
pigs  for  food,  in  the  early  stages.  In  young  and 
half'grown  plga;  a  teaapoonful  of  turpentine  in 


Plji.  663.    DIpvtu  plc>  for  miD2e  and 
bee.    Kvwir  Cur  the  itlutiictv    1  tVian  I 


milk  swill  or  other  fluid  f<XHl  should  he  given  three 
timcj' daily.  Turpentine  is  excreted  by  the  tongB. 
numbs  the  worms,  and  allows  them  to  be  expelled 
during  the  fits  of  coughing. 

Black  tooth. 

Many  farmers  are  inclined  to  attribute  \*arious 
ailment*)  of  swine  to  the  presence  of  one  or  more 


pis.  ui.    Hoe  wltti  tadilUs  at  hclnu. 

dark-colored  teeth  in  the  mouth.  As  soon  as  any 
of  the  animals  become  sick  the  mouth  is  examinwi. 
and  in  case  black  teeth  are  found  they  are  cunuid- 
ered  sufficient  to  account  for  the  trouble.  This 
discoloration  of  the  teeth  is  due  to  the  deposit  of 
tartar,  and  in  the  majority  of  coses  can  be  rt-adily 
scraped  off.  leaving  the  white  enamel  underneath. 
Black  teeth  are  often  found  in  the  mouths  of  healthy 
animals,  never  produce  any  abnormal  condition, 
and  their  presence  cannot  account  for  any  symp- 
toms the  animal  may  be  showing.  At  the  time  of 
shedding  the  milk  teeth  and  penetration  of  the 
permanent  teeth  through  the  gums,  the  latter  may 
become  :-ore  and  interfere  with  mastication,  but 
this  has  no  connection  with  the  presence  of  black 
teeth. 

Raekiti*  or  riekeU. 

This  is  a  bone  disease  of  young  pigs,  the  cause 
of  which  is  not  positively  understood.  It  is  thought 
to  be  doe  to  errors  in  diet  and  to  indigestion, 
together  with  mal-assimilation  of  food  and  lactic 
acid  fermentation,  as  a  result  of  which  there  Is 
not  sufficient  lime  deposited  in  the  bones,  and  they 
remain  too  soft. 

The  affected  animals  are  usually  stunted  in  growth 
and  poorly  nourished.  There  is  lamenuss.  with  the 
swelling  of  the  hones  about  the  joints,  making  tht- 
latter  appear  too  large.  This  i,s  especially  notice- 
able in  the  hock  and  pastern  joints.  The  legs  may 
be  so  weak  that  they  are  unable  to  support  the 
body  weight.  (Fig.  r»()I.)  In  some  cases  the  nasal 
and  maxillarj'  bones  are  involved,  and  become 
enlarged  to  the  extent  of  causing  difficult  respi- 
ration. This  form  of  the  disease  has  been  termed 
"bull  noiie"  and  "snuffles."  The  latter  name,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  used  in  designating  rickets  [see 
catarrhal  rhinitis,  page  6.%].  The  emaciation  id 
often  progressive  ;  the  animala  an  unable  to  more 
about,  and  die  from  weakness  or  ttome  terminal 
affection,  as  pneumonia  or  enteritis. 

rrM^mm^ —Attention  to  the  diet  ts  important. 
It  should  consist  of  concentrated  nutritious  nitrog- 
enous   food.    Carbohydrates  (starchy  foods)  are 


W 


k 


«56 


SWINE 


SWINE 


Tit.  663.    HcK  with  ton  nunitb 
or  caakor. 


more  likely  to  underi^  fennentaLion,  with  lactic 
acid  formatiuEi,  which  i^  In  be  avoiduil.  Milk,  mid- 
dling)^ and  bran  aru  viilucible.  At  Ihu  Katne  time 
lime-water  should  hn  fulded  to  the  milk  or  ^iven  to 
drink.  Ground  lione-meiil  may  be  addtid  to  the  feed. 
Sunlight,  frush  air,  clean  (jBarteni  and  exercise 
are  importanL  Medicinally,  the  precipitated  pho»- 
phatd  of  calcium  in  one-dram  diwea,  two  or  three 

Lim^H  daily  in  the 
fewl.twjte tiler  with 
oil  of  phoaphorua 
in  one-drop  doses, 
is  valuable. 

Sort  mottlh. 

This  if*  an  Jiil- 
nw-'iit  i)f  yiiimy 
piga,  alaii  callwl 
necrotic  »tomii- 
titJH  and  canker  of 
the  mouth,  nlFect- 
ing  thf!  month  and 
adjacent  struc- 
turt>s.  It  tHCHUHed 
by  a  apecifie  microiirganiam,  and  ia  frw^uently 
asBociatod  with  constitutional  distarbanctie.  Thu 
direct  cause  of  the  condition  is  the  liariilae  ftetrftpk' 
nrun.  It  iiminlly  ajipears  in  winter  and  laeta  until 
warm  Hpring  weather.    (Fig.  662.) 

The  fifHt  ttymptoms  noticed  are  a  dii^incli nation 
to  take  nouriHhjnent  and  the  dropping  of  saliva 
from  thu  mouth.  On  exumtnattun  ia  found  a  con- 
gestion of  the  gumit,  and  in  more  advanced  casee 
necrotic  patches,  especially  ahout  the  region  of 
the  front  teeth  and  tufik.t.  The  necrosis  of  the 
gums  may  be  so  extensive  that  the  teeth  loosen  and 
fall  out.  The  jhwh  are  Kwutlen,  and  the  lips  and 
Knout  fire  frwpiently  cracktKJ  and  coverwl  with 
scabs.  There  la  a  foul  odor  to  the  mouth.  The  dis- 
ease ufteti  extends  to  the  larynx,  pharynx,  and  in 
some  cases  to  the  nasal  cavities.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  term  snuffles  has  bei>n  applied,  but  its  use  should 
be  diacuura[red  when  referring  to  this  disease.  tSe« 
CfUavrhal  rkinitin.]  The  mucous  membrane  of  the 
stomach  and  intestinen  may  become  inviilved,  caus- 
ing an  olTeTiJiive  diarrhea.  Proatratlon  and  emaci- 
ation may  be  exci.<«tdve.  The  disease,  if  untreated, 
may  result  f.itally  in  one  to  five  weeks,  but  with 
proper  treatment  nearly  all  casea  recover.  The  dis- 
ease may  tw  transmitted  to  healthy  hogs.  The 
BBBOciation,  however,  must  be  intimnte,  and  there 
raitBt  be  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  in  order  that  the  germ 
may  gain  entrance. 

TVf-tfmnif. -The  affected  animals  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  healthy,  and  the  sheds  and  pens 
disinfected  by  thoroughly  saturating  them  with  5 
per  cent  carbolic  acid,  or  rftVo  bichlorid  of  mer- 
cury solution.  Medicinally,  the  mouth  should  be 
washed  with  2  per  cent  warm  croolln  solution  to 
soften  and  remove  the  necrotic  patches,  or  the 
animal  may  be  grasped  and  ito  head  forced  down 
into  the  solution  contained  in  a  bucket.  After 
washing  in  this  itolution.  a  10  per  cent  ointment  of 
salicylic  acid  or  ichtbyoE  may  be  applied  in  aggra- 


vated cases.    The  treatment  shoald  be  repeat 
daily  until  the  condition  is  cared. 

Catarrhal  rhinitis. 

Catarrhal  rhinitis  is  an  Inflammation  of  t 
macous  membrane  lining  the  nasal  cavities,  a 
called  acute  coryza  or  cold  in  the  head.  The  c 
dition  resultfl  from  exposure  to  cold,  especially 
when  the  animal  iH  in  a  run-down  condition,  or 
after  uver-healing  or  eating  improper  food,  or  get- 
ting the  surface  of  the  body  wet  during  a  cold 
rain. 

The  animal  appears  less  active  than  usaat,  stao' 
in  protected  places  away  from  the  cold,  and  a 
Enhow  slight  chilK  The  eyes  are  red.  the  appeti 
is  reduced  and  constipation  is  present.  Soon. 
watery  discharge  :ipi>eurs  from  the  nostrils.  In 
day  or  twu  thitt  becumes  thicker  and  corapnsed 
mucus,  and  lutt-r  changes  to  a  Chick  purulent  dia-' 
charge  which  dries  on  the  nose,  occluding  the  do»- 
trils  and  giving  rise  to  difficulty  in  breathing. 
The  animal  makes  violent  snorting  efTortfl  to  clear 
the  nose,  and  these  may  result  in  rupture  of  a 
small  bloitd-vessel  in  the  engorged  mticouK  mem- 
brane, and  lead  to  hemorrhage.  The  blocking  of 
the  nostrils,  with  consecjuent  ttnuffiing,  haa  caused 
the  word  snuffles  to  be  used  as  a  synonym  for  the 
disea.se.  The  use  of  this  t4.-rm  is  more  or  lees  con- 
fusing, as  it  is  used  indiscriminately  at  present  to 
designate  the  nasal  form  of  rickets,  sore  month, 
which  ha.<t  extended  into  the  nattat  cavity,  and 
catarrhal  rhinitis.  En  rickets,  the  ubstruction  isdne 
to  enlargemvnt  of  the  bone*.  While  the  Gerraant 
have  used  snuffles  ojl  a  synonjTn  for  this  disease,  it 
would  seem  that  "bull  nose"  is  more  descriptive 
of  the  condition.  In  cases  of  sore  month,  the  term 
should  not  be  used,  as  the  nasal  involvement  is 
merely  an  extenjiion  of  the  inflammation  from  the 
canker  In  the  mouth.  The  word  snaffles  in  reality 
refers  only  to  one  symptom,  and  it  is  doobtful 
whether  it  should  !«  used  to  designate  any  disease 
entity.  If  it  is  to  be  used,  however,  it  should  be 
conlined  to  cases  of  rhinitis,  or  cold  in  the  head,  as 
in  this  disease  above  nil  others  tbe  symptoai 
snuffling  is  conntant. 

Acut«  corysa  usually  terminate  in  recovery 
one  to  two  weeks.    However,  it  may  run  into 
chronic  nasal  catarrh,  or  complications,  as  bron- 
chitis or  pneumonia,  may  interrcne  and  lead  to  a 
fatal  termination. 

TVeat merit.— The    animal    ehonld    be   protec 
from  the  cold,  and  have  clean.  well-Iighled  qi 
tera.    Liquid   foods,  as  milk  or  stops,  shoald 
warmed.    Medicinally,    li    oances    of   costor-oi 
should  be  gi\-en,  Fumigation  may  bo  tried  by  plae- 
inig  the  animals  in  an  enclosed  room  and  bamioi 
tar.    Tincture  of  belladonna  leaves  in  one-half-tea- 
spoonful  doses  may  be  added  to  the  feed  twice 
to  lessen  the  naaal  secretions. 


as 

3 


Thumpt.  or  tpatm  qf  tif.  dtaphraffm. 

This  ailment  is  common  in  young  pigs,  aod 
ally  affects  tbe  fattest  and  most  thrifty  animals  i 
the  titter.  Thumps  is  similar  to  the  same  eoadittoa 
in  horses,  which  has  been  deacribed  on  pact  440i 


1 

i1sM| 


J 


SWINE 


F\nyE 


657 


It  Mts  in  suddenly  and  asuall)'  occurs  as  a  rv^ult 
of  digeetire  disordere,  especially  overloadiTjjr  of  the 
stomach.  Wornifl  or  any  other  cause  of  irritation 
may  pro>luce  It.  Excitenmnt  and  itisiifficieat  exer- 
cise may  likewise  cause  it  to  apjioar. 

The  first  indication  of  this  trouble  is  a  sudden 
jerking  movement  of  the  flank,  which  continues  at 
irregular  interval);,  being  more  frequt^nt  at  one 
time  than  at  another,  [t  may  increase  in  strength, 
canatng  a  violent  thumping  or  ihruhbing  of  the 
side  and  producing  a  backward  and  fom-ard  move- 
ment of  the  body.  The  animal  takes  but  little 
exercise,  has  a  poor  appetite,  and  in  some  cases 
l)ecomed  unthrifty  and  stunted. 

Treatment.  —If  worms  are  suspected  as  the  cause 
of  thumpH,  the  piga  should  be  treated  for  worms 
by  giving  dried  sulfate  of  iron  in  the  swill,  at  the 
rate  of  one-fourth  pound  of  the  sulfate  for  forty 
pigs,  oncB  daily.  This  treatment  may  be  given  for 
at  least  a  week  and  continued  if  ncceasary.  If  the 
condition  is  caused  by  indigestion,  the  quantity  of 
food  .-*hnulfi  be  reduced,  access  given  to  charcoal  or 
wood-a.«he8,  and  as  much  exercise  affonied  as  poa- 
aibW  every  day.  If  practicable,  the  pigs  should  be 
tamed  on  pasture  and  plenty  of  opportnnity  given 
to  run  around.  At  the  beginning  of  the  trouble,  a 
phj-sic  of  two  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil,  followed 
with  three  to  ten  drops  of  the  tincture  of  opium  in 
a  little  oil,  should  be  given  every  four  houra. 

Catlontfed  poimntng. 

This  is  a  peculiar,  often  fatal  poisoning  of  hogs, 
resulting  from  the  ingestion  of  too  large  a  quantity 
of  cottonseed  meal,  or  feeding  it  over  too  long  a 
period  of  time.  The  acute  poisonous  principle  is 
not  definitely  known,  although  all  domestic  animals 
are  liable  to  its  effects  if  fed  in  sutHcient  quanti- 
ties. 

The  symptoms  may  follow  a  single  ingeation  of 
the  material  in  those  coius  in  which  the  animal  has 
got  into  a  bin  or  fved  room  and  eaten  its  fill.  It 
more  commonly  occurs,  however,  after  the  hogs 
have  been  fed  nn  the  material  for  a  period  cover- 
ing several  weekc.  In  some  case-t  there  may  be 
several  mild  attacks,  a^  evidenced  by  loss  of  appe- 
tite and  jerky  movement^!  of  the  flanks  (thumps), 
which  pass  off  in  a  few  daj's  if  the  cottonseed  feed 
is  stopped.  In  other  case«,  after  the  feed  has  been 
given  for  about  four  weeks  the  animals,  without 
warning,  drop  over,  kick  and  squeal  for  a  few 
momente  and  die  from  asphyxia  due  toe<]emaof 
the  lungs.  In  these  cases,  on  post-mortem  exami- 
nation there  is  found  an  intense  eongt-stion  and 
cloudy  swelling  of  the  internal  organs,  with  severe 
hiflammation  of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  and 
edema  of  the  lungs. 

Treatment. — The  positive  prevention  in  the  ab»o- 
lute  withdrawl  of  cottonseed  meal  from  the  ration 
of  hogs.  Cottonseed  meal,  however,  is  a  valuable 
fo(jd  for  hogs,  and  given  in  the  proper  qnantitiea  it 
is  safe.  The  amount  to  be  given,  as  pointed  out  by 
Dinwiddie,  varies  with  the  weight  of  the  hog.  and 
should  be  one-fourth  pound  per  day  for  animals 
fluder  50  pounds,  one-third  pound  p«r  Jay  for 
animals  between  50  and  7u  pounds,  0,1  pound  per 


day  for  animals  between  75  and  100  pounds,  and 
one-half  pound  for  animals  between  100  and  150 

pound}. 

Iiiffuinal  hernia. 

Ingflinal  hernia  is  a  condition  extremely  common 
in  young  male  pigs.  It  consists  of  the  descent  of  a 
loop  of  the  intestine  into  the  scrotal  sac.  It  is 
diagnosed  by  the  enlargement  of  the  affected  side 
of  the  scrotum,  the  doughy  feeling  of  the  mass, 
and  by  the  fact  that  it  is  re<]ucihl«  in  the  majority 
of  cas^s  by  raanipulatioD  or  by  raising  the  hind- 
quarters of  the  animal.  These  latter  meaaarefi 
cause  the  protrudt-d  part  of  the  intestine  to  pass 
back  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  leaving  only  the 
testicle  in  the  Hcrotum.  If  not  treated,  the  growth 
of  the  animal  is  frequently  stunted,  and  the  intes- 
tine may  become  strangulated  and  cause  death  in 
a  short  time. 

Trffitmcnt.—ThtB  nocosaitatea  the  castration  of 
the  animal.  In  young  pigs,  anesthesia  is  not  neces- 
sary. The  animal  is  either  suspended  by  iti  hind- 
lega  or  held  on  it^  back  with  the  hin'd-quarterfl 
elevated.  An  incieion  is  made  through  the  skin 
directly  over  the  tumor.  The  hernial  sac  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  surrounding  tiitaue.  When  possible, 
the  hernia  is  reduced  without  opening  the  sac.  In 
case  adhesions  have  formed,  it  is  necessary  to  cut 
Into  the  sac  and  separate  them  before  reduction  can 
be  accomplished.  After  the  loop  of  the  intestine 
has  been  put  back  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  the 
sac  and  testicular  cord  are  twiated  up  to  the 
inguinal  ring,  which  obliterates  the  sac.  A  ligature 
is  then  applied  close  to  the  ring  and  fixed  to  the 
lips  of  the  ring  by  a  suture  or  two  to  prevent 
entwisting  of  the  sac.  The  teaticle  i.s  then  removed, 
and  the  skin  wound  sutured,  a  strip  of  iodoform 
gauze  being  ini*erted  for  drainage.  The  other  test- 
icle u  usually  removed  at  the  same  time. 

Every  precaution  possible  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  infection  of  the  affected  parts. 

[The  following  infectious  diseases  are  discussed 
by  Pr,  Moore,  in  addition  to  bog  cholera  and  tuber- 
culo«it«  mentioned  above :  Swine  erysipelas,  page 
133 ;  ijwine  plague,  page  133.] 

Liiemture. 

The  literature  relating  to  the  diseases  of  swtne 
will  be  found  in  part  in  htiokn  relating  to  the  dis- 
eases of  other  farm  stock  (which  see).  Craig  and 
Bitting.  Diseases  of  Swine,  Bulletin  No.  100.  Pur- 
due University,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station; 
CJfio.  M.  Rommel.  The  Ilog  Industry :  Selection, 
breeding  and  management.  Bureau  of  .Animal  In- 
dustry, Bulletin  No.  .18;  F.  D.  Cobum.  Swine  Hus- 
bandry :  A  practical  manual  for  the  breeding, 
rearing  and  management  of  Swine,  with  sugges- 
tions as  to  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  their 
diseases  ;  G.  T.  Brown,  The  Pig :  Its  External  and 
Internal  Organisation;  R.  Jennings,  Sheep,  Swine 
and  Poultry,  embracing  the  history  and  varie- 
ties of  each,  best  mode.i  of  breeding,  their  feeding 
and  management,  together  with  the  diseases,  etc. 
[For  further  references,  see  page  (Vlti,  and  pages 
1^- 140.1 


658 


SWINE 


SWINE 


B«rluhir«  Swine.   Pik-  663. 

By  G.  B.  Day. 

Bt!rk«hirB  swine  are  of  the  "fat-hog"  type,  and 
arc  i;rvat1y  valuud  in  Amorica,  ranking  amung  the 
fir^t  in  iioputarity, 

Dticription, 

The  BerltFiKire  is  a  styli^ih,  hand-some  hog,  the  best 
ty|j<e  being  of  rathi>r  more  thiin  mHium  Hi£e,  although 
notiio  large  Bii  the  Larj;i-  YorkMhirHorthe  Turn  worth. 
Th« snoot  la  of  mudium  lc>n[;th,  and  the  fuct*  <iished. 
The  eim  are  generally  nearly  en.-ct.  althnuEh  in 
the  larger  strainn  and  in  ageJ  animaltt  they  fre- 
(jiiently  incline  forward.  They  should  be  well  car- 
rje<l.  The  jowl  is  rather  hi^avy,  imil  the  neck  short, 
UKuatly  tMirrying  consideraMe  creat.  Th«  tihoiilder. 
Iiai:k  and  ruin;)  aru  of  good  width,  although  the 
back  18  probably  not  ()uite  ao  broad  b»  that  of  die 
Foland-Chinu.  The  ham  is  thickty  meaU-d.  and  is 
gonerally  siifnowhnt  trimmer  in  ajjpt'Jirunce  than 
that  of  the  Pdland-China.  The  Berkwhire  generally 
ha«  gciuS  depth  of  body,  and  indicationHof  a. ■strong 
con.-*titution.  The  taia  in  of  exc4jll'ent  iiuality  in 
the  beet  Hpecimens,  and  the  animal  U8ually  Htun>ds 
well  on  its  feel.  The  standard  colnr  ia  black,  with 
a  white  mark  on  the  face,  white  on  each  foot,  and 
white  on  the  lip  of  the  tail.  Sometimes,  aiHlie  of 
the.<ie  white  markings  are  absent,  and  sometimes 
white  occuM  on  other  jiiirt-s  of  the  body,  Huch  a.i  a 
white  blotch  on  the  jowl,  on  the  fihoiildtir,  or  else- 
whent.  Tho  standanl  of  excellence  prepiured  by 
the  American  Horksbire  Aa-sociation  does  not  dia- 
qnfilify  an  animal  for  defective  markings,  but 
in  !K)lecting  hret»ding-«tock,  some  breeders  ahun 
animalfl  Uh)  freely  marked  with  white. 

Following  18  the  KtunJunt  of  excellence  adopted 
by  tho  American  Berki^hiru  Aasociation : 

SCALR  or   POIMTK    rOK    BKRX»HI1tB 

Swine  p^rfw-t 

1.  Color." Black,  with  white  on  foct,  face,  tip  of 

tsil  anil  an  Dccwional  tyXmh  on  the  arm     .   .      4 

2.  Face  and  •ooul.     Short,  tho   torm^r   ficio    and 

well  Jiiihc-d,  and  hruiid  belwtt«-n  lh«  oyw  ...      7 

3.  Eye.     Very  i-lear,  rathor  |jiri;v,  dark    haz^I    or 

eruy 2 

4.  Ear. — (generally  almust  erect,  but  Bitmetimes  in- 

clined forward  wiili  advandng  ago ;  m^tdium 

flizt.  thin  and  floft 4 

h,  Jowl.—Pull   and    heavy,  running  w*ll  back  on 

nwk 4 

6.  Heck.  -Short  and  broad  on  top 4 

7.  Hair. — Pino  and  fl»fl.  nn-dium  thickn«wi ....      3 

8   Skin.— vSmoath  and  plialiJA 4 

9.  Shoulder.— Thick  and  even,  broad  on  top,  and 

Ae\'\i  through  cheet T 

10.  Back.— Broad,   short   and   straight:    rtha    v»1l 

flfintngi  couiding  cUwe  to  hipR 8 

It.  Side.-  'I)e<-p  and  well  let  down ;  straight  on  bot- 
tom lin<^    ...  fi 

12.  Flank, — Well  huck  and  low  down  on  Ivg,  mak- 

ing nffiLrly  utriiight  liae  with  lh«  lowor  part  of 
aide & 

13.  Loin.— Full  and  widi? 9 

14.  Ham. — I>nep  and   thick,  eitendtne  well   up  on 

bKk,  and  holding  thickness  ««11  down  to  bock    tO 


ScAUi  OP  Vasfm  rot  BMirwmtir  Sww^t 

contisMd 

in.  TaiL— Well  set  np  on  back  :  L^tering  and  not 
coane 

16.  LC(8.— 8hort.  straight,    and    atrong,  aet    vide 

apart,  with  hoofs  erect  and  capable  <^  koUioff 
good  wvighL 

17.  Symmelry.   -Wei)  proportioatid  throngkout,  d*> 

pending  largvly  on  coa£tiai 

IB.  Condition. —In  a  good,  healthy,  growing  atata; 

not  over-fed 

19.  Style.— ,\ttrfi«tive.»piriM«l.  indlcal]v«  of  Dnr- 

ongh  br«ediag  and  conetitntional  rigor    .  .  . 


Perfection 


I 


Hittory. 

The  name  Herk.Hhire  cornea  from  l^unty  of  Beri 
in  England.  The  breed  is  not  by  any  mcam*  conn: 
to  thia  county,  but  is  now  spread  all  over 
Kriti.'ih  Isles.  Theiiriginnl  Kerkahire  wa«  of  ancr 
origin,  and  very  little  i;*  known  n-garding  its  origi 
The  color  of  tho  old  Byrkuhirw  was  commonly 
Kundy,  or  reddish  bruwn.  spotted  with  black, 
white  with  black  apota.  It  was  very  much  ci 
than  the  present  type  and  poeseeBod  lopped 
bnt  even  in  ita  nnimpmved  stale,  it  had  a  n?po 
tion  for  producing  a  g<M)d  quality  of  meat 

Ah  to  thh  meLhuil  of  improvement,  it  is  said 
sume  that  black  Siamese  boiira  were  used  on  I 
old  Berk-ihire  sowd,  and  some  persona  state  thi 
white,  and  black  and  white  Chine«iH  boars,  were  all 
iirted.  It  is  easy  to  nnderstand  how  breeds  of  the  tvp 
of  Siamese  and  Chine.'*  swine  shonld  be  eminentl 
well  adapteil  to  modifying  lh»  original  coarse  ty 
of  Kerk.Hhire.  Mr.  .\.  H.  .^Ilen  favora  the  tbeo 
that  Chine^te  blood  waa  used  to  some  extent,  as 
from  hiti  invt^stigationa  in  England,  fixes  the  begin- 
ning of  improvement  in  the  Uerkahiro  by  croni 
as  some  time  previooa  to  ITHO. 

Ill  AmTirfl.— Acconting  to  Allen,  the  first  m 
tation  nf  HerkAhirea  to  America  waa  mwle  in  1 
by  John  Brentnall  of  New  Jersey.  The  nasi 
portation  waa  in  1&12,  and  great  nombern  ha 
been  brought  into  the  irniteid  States  aincQ 
time.  It  is  stated  that  the  firet  imports 
Canada  was  made  aboat  18:!8.  Cohtirn  sia 
for  ten  years  aulwetjuent  U>  1831,  siiecntalian 
importing  and  nelling  FU^rkshires  at  inllateii  pri 
WK.S  rife  in  the  United  Slatee,  and  that  the  methi 
employed  by  apeculatora  did  much  Ut  prejadi 
p&raontt  against  the  breed,  and  fierioasly  n>tard«d 
ita  progress.  The  breed  ha«oQtliv«d  this  prejadtce, 
however,  and  \tnn  tirmly  eKtablixhed  \t»eit  io  IIm 
confidence  of  both  American  and  Canadian  farantL 


crrito^H 

c«atefl 


Dintrikutitm. 

Berkuhirea  are  found  in  erory  state  tuid  ter 
of  the  I'nited  t^tates,  the  most  important 
being  Illinois,  Misaoori,  Indiana,  Texas  Ohin,  EaD* 
Has,  Iowa,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  IVnaeeae*- 
THey  also  are  found  in  every  Canadian  prurinrr. 
the  province  of  Ontario  taking  the  k*^.  They  ar* 
found  in  practically  all  parta  of  the  British  laW. 
in  South  America,  in  Hawaii,  and  in  eonie  ~ 
countries. 


SWIXE 


SWI.VE 


6G9 


P 


Tupet. 

The  tjrp©  of  the  Berkahires  is  affected  by  the 
method*  of  individual  breodew,  and,  to  Bom«  ex- 
t-'nt.  by  the  marktit  demands  i>r  the  cuuntriea  in 
which  thoy  are  bred.   In  thw  Unitwl  Statw  theiv 
was  a  tend&ncy  for  some  time  to  breed  a  line- 
boned,    Homcwhat    nnderitiEed   typo,    emithasizing 
smrwthness  and  quality  rather  than  siK.   Fortu- 
nately, however,  some  of  the   leading  American 
brooders   are  maintaining  both  siw  and   quality, 
ind  the  future  of  the  breed  i:s  no  duuhc  safe  in 
tMr  hand».  In  Canada,  owinji  to  th<r  demands 
of  the  market  for  bacon  hnpi.  and  owing  to 
the  competition  of  strictly  bacon  breeds,  the 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  bt'st  Berkshire 
breeders  has    been  to  sielect   for  a  len^hy, 
ntrong-boned  typ«",  which,  comparec!  with  the 
American    type,    looks   »<^mewhaL    leirgy  and 
coarw,  but  which,  in  ri-ality.  iu  a  ftrfst-cla&<t 
fomter'a  hog.    A  ^ood  doal  is  heard  at  present 
about    the    so-calLed    Larsc    ICnglish    Berk- 
shin.  The  I^rse  Ent;lish  Bt^rkshire  is  no  dif- 
ferent tn  breeding  from  the  onlinary  Berk- 
shire, but  in  England.  a»  in  any  other  country, 
the  Berkshire  will  be  found  to  vary  mure  or 
his  in  typo,  and   Home  importen  select  the 
larger,  stronger- twned  animals  for  importation 
to  America,  and  call  them  Large  English  Berkshires. 
Aa  a  matter  of  fact,  they  may  be  litter  mates  of 
animaU  of  the  very  linejit-Uoned  type. 

LVv. 

The  Berkshire  is  better  suited  for  supplying  the 
market  demand  for  fat  hogs  than  it  iii  for  produc- 
ing bacon  hoga.  When  backs,  shoulders,  and  hams 
are  the  main  reqairemonu,  th«  Berkshire  fitt  in 
exceptionally  well ;  but  for  the  export  bacon  trade 
in  what  are  known  as  "Wiltshire  8i4ie»,"  the  Berk- 
shire has  scarcely  enough  lentfth  of  side,  and  hns 
too  heavy  a  neck  and  sWuUkr.  bi>caBso  thi'  neck 
■nd  shoulder  furnish  cuts  which  arc  low  in  price 
and  diificult  to  sell  in  connection  with  a  "Wilt- 
shire side.-  When  cros9e<l  with  the  Ijirgc  Yorjc- 
■bire  or  Tamworth,  an  excellent  farmer'it  hog  is 
the  result,  although  it  '\»  perhaps  a  little  nearer  Co 
the  baom  type  than  to  the  fat  type.  Berki^hirea 
have  made  an  exceptionally  good  showing  in  tho 
market  claasea  at  leading  American  shows,  where 
they  come  into  competition  with  other  breeds. 

It  is  difficult  to  secure  data  rt>g;iniing  the  rela- 
tive early  maturity  of  different  breeds,  but  the 
Berkshires  certainly  stand  well  in  this  re<*pect. 
They  attain  rtaaonaMy  good  weights  at  an  early 
age  and  fatten  readily.  It  is  a  matter  of  dispute 
whether  they  are  e-jual  to  the  I'otand-China  in 
p<jint  of  early  matnrity,  some  good  authorities 
placing  the  Poland-China  first,  while  othi^rs  wonid 

Elace  the  Cheflt«r-Wbite  or  Duroc-Jersey  at  the 
ead  of  the  list.  Aa  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  quite 
probable  that  among  the  best  reprcftcntativcD  of 
the  breeds  mentioned,  there  in  not  any  very  marked 
difference  in  point  of  early  maturity. 

A«  an  economical  converter  of  feed  into  pork, 
the  Berkshire  is  probably  not  excelled,  although  it 
would  be  too  much  to  say  thai  it  lea<ls  other  breeds 


in  thift  reapect.  Breed  exijerimenta  have  been  con- 
darU'd  atfi'.^veral  agricultural  ('xperimentatationH, 
but  if  we  atudy  each  individual  tKiwriment  care- 
fully, we  will  be  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  tbe 
ability  to  make  economical  use  of  food  is  appar- 
ently a  question  of  individuality  rather  than  one 
of  breed.  With  our  present  knowleilgt?  of  the  pridk- 
lem,  we  feel  safe  in  slating  that  the  Berkshire  will 
pnidttce  [M>rk  as  cheaply  as  any  other  breed. 

The  flesh  of  the  Berkshire  is  of  excellent  quality, 
and  carries  a   large  proportion  of  lean  to   fat. 


■■^'^ 


ilM-^ 


^ry- 


FU.  H3.    B«ik*Uit  Mw. 


Investigations  regarding  the  quality  of  meat  trom 
different  breeds  generally  agree  in  giving  the 
Berkshire  a  high  place  both  in  quantity  of  lejin 
and  flneneeM  of  quality.  With  more  length  of  tfide, 
and  less  tendency  for  the  fat  to  run  unduly  thick 
over  the  top  of  the  shoulder  and  nock,  the  Berk- 
shire would  make  a  capital  "Wiltshire  side"  of 
bacm. 

Berkshire  sows  of  the  more  lengthy  ty^w  are 
prolific,  and  generally  make  good  mothers.  The 
extremely  fine,  .ihort  type  of  sow  dues  not.  ax  a 
rule,  produce:  Huch  large  litters.  The  hoars  are  pre- 
potent, and  cms."*  well  with  almost  any  other  breed, 
as  well  as  being  useful  for  improving  common 
Htock. 

Organizations  and  rrtordt. 

The  American  Berkshire  Association  was  organ- 
ized in  IS75,  anil  has  the  dii^trnction  of  having 
started  the  lirst  rcconi  of  swine  in  America.  The 
first  h»»rdb()ok  was  published  in  1877.  and  up  to 
the  present  UIK)H(  thirty  volumes  have  been  issned, 
ciintaining  the  names  of  I1I,!S40  animabi. 

Registration  of  Bcrkshires  in  Canada  was  begun 
in  IKTfi.  and  was  conducted  hy  the  Agriculture  and 
Art«  Association  until  1891,  when  the  records  were 
taken  over  by  the  newly  orEanizcd  liominion  Swine 
Breeders'  Association.  The  first  volume  of  the 
Dominion  Swine  Breeders'  Record  w-ts  piibliahc*!  in 
1892.  This  record  recorded  all  breeds  of  swine 
represented  in  Canada.  In  \\Vi'\  the  hominiun  Swine 
Records,  together  with  nearly  all  the  livp-utock 
recordfl  in  Canada,  were  placed  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  Canadian  Department  of.Vgri- 
culture  at  Ottawa,  but  are  under  the  contnil  of  a 
"Record  Board,"  compri-sed  of  representatives 
elected  by  the  various  breed  organ iiations.  This 
National  Live-St>x:k  IteconJ  records  ail  breeds  of 


660 


SWINE 


SWINE 


Bwine  ia  Canada,  but  the  herdbook  still  keeps 
the  name  of  Dominion  Swine  Breeders*  Record.  Up 
to  January  1, 1908,  eighteen  volumes  of  the  record 
had  been  pabliahed,  and  25,804  Berkshire  pedigreeB 
recorded. 

In  England,  Berkshires  are  recorded  in  the 
British  Berkshire  Herdbook,  controlled  by  the 
Britieh  Berkshire  Society. 

Literature. 
For  references,  see  page  646. 

Cheshire  Swine.  Fig.  664. 

By  G.  E.  Day. 

Cheshire  swine  are  a  breed  of  American  origin, 
and  may  be  classed  with  the  fat-hcg  types.  They 
have  not  attained  much  popularity  outside  of  a 
restricted  area  in  New  York  state. 

Description. 

The  Cheshire  is  about  medium  in  size,  but  some 
specimens  attain  heavy  weights.  It  is  said  that  the 
Cheshire  weighs  well  for  its  appearance,  and  is  a 
heavier  breed  than  is  generally  supposed.  Although 
the  body  is  not  noted  for  depth,  it  generally  has 
good  length,  and  the  shoulders  and  hams  are 
usually  well  developed.  The  face  is  slightly  dished, 
and  the  ear  rather  small  and  erect.  The  bone  is 
fine,  and  of  fair  quality.  The  color  of  the  breed  is 
white.  Black  spots  frequently  occur  on  the  skin, 
which,  though  objectionable,  do  not  disqualify. 

Following  is  the  standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  points  adopted  by  the  Cheshire  Swine  Breeders' 
Association : 

Scale  of  Points  for  Cueshirb 

Swine  Perfect 

si^oTe 

1.  He&d. — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  pro- 

portion to  length  of  body 8 

2.  Face. —Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the 

eyes 8 

3.  Jowl. — Medium  in  fulness S 

4.  Ears.  —  Small,  fine,  erect,  and   in   old   animals 

slightly  pointing  forward 5 

5.  Heck. — Short  .ind  broad 3 

6.  Shoulders.— Broad,  full  and  deep 6 

7.  Girth  around  heart 8 

8.  Back. — Long,  hroad  and  straight  nearly  to  root 

of  tail 10 

9.  Sides. — Deep  and  full ;  nearly  straight  on  bot- 

tom line 7 

10.  Flank.— Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank 

girth  nearly  equal  to  heart  girth 3 

11.  Hams. — Broad   ami  ni-arly  straight  with  back, 

and  running  well  down  toward  hock     ....     10 

12.  Legs. — Small  and  alim,  set  well  apart,  support- 

ing body  well  on  toes 10 

13.  Tail-  Small,  slim  and  ta[)ering 3 

14.  Hair. — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity  .  3 
1!>,  Color. ^White;  any  colored  bairn  to  di.s(}ualify  .  2 
IC.  Skin. — Fine  and  pliable :  small  blue  spots  objec- 

tion.ible  but  allowaljle 3 

17.  Symmetry.— Animal  well  proportioned,  hand- 
some, and  Htyii.'ih;  and  when  grown  and  well 
fattened  should  dress  400  to  tiOO  pounds  .   .    .      8 

Perfection 100 


Fi<.  664.    Chwhin  bainnr. 


Hietory. 

The  Cheshire  originated  in  Jefferson  connty. 
New  York,  and  dates  from  abont  1855.  J.  H.  San- 
ders, of  Chicago,  who  bred  Cheshires  for  some 
years,  stated  in 
a  letter  to  F.  D. 
Cobum,  that  he 
considered  the 
Cheshire  to  t>e 
"simply  a  deriv- 
ative  of  the 
Yorkshire."  The 
Yorkshire  was 
brought  into 
Jefferson  county 
and  used  on  the  white  pigs  of  the  district.  Early 
in  the  sixties  hogs  of  this  breed  were  shown  at 
the  agricultural  fairs,  where  they  attained  some 
popularity.  The  Swine  Breeders'  convention,  in 
a  meeting  at  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  in  1872, 
adopted  the  name  Cheshire  for  the  breed.  It  is 
thought  that  Suffolk  blood  was  also  used  in 
the  combination,  which  eventnally  resulted  io  the 
Cheshire. 

Dittrilmtion. 

The  Cheshire  is  found  mainly  in  New  York  state, 
with  a  few  scattered  herds  in  other  states,  mora 
particularly  in  certain  of  the  New  Englanid  and 
Middle  states.  The  breed  has  made  bat  little  prog- 
ress, and  does  not  seem  likely  ever  to  attain 
prominence.  No  doubt  a  few  have  been  taken  into 
Canada,  but  none  have  ever  been  recorded  in  the 
Canadian  record. 

Types. 

In  his  letter  to  F.  D.  Cobum,  previously  referred 
to,  J.  H.  Sanders  stated  that  in  his  herd  he  hail  pro- 
duced "all  the  different  types  of  Yorkshire,  from 
the  Large  York  down  to  the  Lancaahire  Short- 
Face."  The  type  he  succeeded  in  producing  "  was 
almast  identical,  in  size,  form,  and  quality,  with 
the  most  approved  medium  Berkshire."  As  bred  at 
present,  the  type  probably  does  not  vary  any  more 
than  that  of  other  breeds. 

Uses. 

The  Cheshire,  as  generally  seen,  belongs  more 
to  the  fat  hog  than  to  the  bacon  class,  although  it 
should  not  be  difficult  to  develop  it  into  a  fairly 
good  bacon  breed.  It  appears  to  l>e  a  good  feeder, 
and  its  meat  is  admitted  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 
The  sows  are  fairly  prolific  and  breed  very  readily, 
and  the  boars  appear  to  be  prejwtent,  although  but 
little  is  known  regarding  their  valoe  for  crossing 
purposes. 

Organizalioni'  and  reeorih. 

The  Cht'.shire  Swine  Breeders'  .Association  was 
organized  in  1884,  and  has  published  four  volumes 
of  its  herdbook  to  date  (1908).  The  first  volume 
appeared  in  1889. 

Literature. 

For  references,  see  page  646. 


SWINE 


SWIXE 


661 


4 


Chester-White  Swine.   Fig.  Wio, 

By  a.  B.  Dajf. 

The  Chester-White  is  an  American  brt*ed  of  awine 
of  the  fat-  or  lArd-hog  type,  but  i>oaM!Hing  good 
bacon  qaalitieB. 

Dtierifiion. 

Some  y«ars  ago,  the  Che^ter-Whita  ms  nied  as 
the  lar)»i'»t  brc-L-j  in  thf  United  iJitateg,  Imt  modern 
ineth(Klf)  of  breeding  huve  dccreaimd  the  size  and 
prciduped  an  .-inimai  of  more  quality  than  the 
originsl  type.  An  bn'dat  present,  theChpster-White 
may  ti«  ranked  a»  of  Tnetiiiim  itixe,  or  about  Ihu  same 
Of-  the  Poland-rhina.  Th*;  fare  in  BtraiKht,  or 
vi-ry  fili^htly  diflhed,  and  the  snout  is  gener- 
ally aoniewliat  longur  than  thatof  the  Poland- 
China.  The  ear  droop»,  sonifwhat  like  that 
of  the  Poland-China,  although  it  is  generally 
hp-Hvier,  and  the  droop,  or  break,  i?  nstially 
farther  from  the  tip.  It  \»  common  for  the 
ear  to  Ix:  m)niewhat  ImiKely  atlachfd  tn  tht; 
head.  In  general  confirmation,  the  rhcuter- 
White  iKBimilar  to  tht>  I'oland-China,  althout^li 
the  latter  generally  excola  in  depth  and  ful- 
ness of  ham. 

Tlie  color  is  while,  no  hiaek  hair  being 
admiflsible,  nlthongh  it  is  common  for  black 
or  bluish   Bp4itH    to  i)ceur  on  thw  skin.     In 
many  HEieclmenH,  the  hiiir  h.iH  a  decidt^d  tendency 
to  be  wavy,  ami  vwn  t-urly. 

Following  i.s  the  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the 
Standard  (.'hester-Whibc  Record  Association  : 


ScAi-B  or  Points  for  CHESTEK-WHrrE 

SnlNB  P«rfMt 

itcwra 

1.  HfAd  and  <«ce 4 

Z.  Byei 2 

a.  Kara 2 

4.  Meek 2 

5.  jowl 2 

S.  Shoulden 6 

7.  Chest 9 

8.  Back  and  tola 15 

9.  Sides  and  rib 8 

10.  Belly  and  flank 6 

11.  Hcini  and  rump 10 

12.  Feet  and  lejs 10 

la  Tall 1 

U.  Coat 2 

IB.  Color 6 

16.  SiM 5 

17.  Action  and  atyla 4 

18.  Condition 4 

18.  DupDBitlan S 

Perfection 100 

Ditqualificctiont. 

Farm.  UpriRht  ««■ ;  naall  cnunfxtd  chwit :  crfew** 
aroand  bock  of  shouldcra  and  over  th")  back,  caaeinK  a 
deprvMiion  eaBJly  noiJr<^  ;  fwt  broken  down,  faaHing  the 
•oimiU  to  walk  on  (Nutern  joints:  ditfomied  cr  hadly 
mtiokMl  lo^s. 

Site, — CliuSf,  or  not  two-thirds  larije  eaovgh  for  aii^. 

QmditioK. — .Squ&bbyfat'.  di'fortned,  eeriowly  defomed; 
barreniMM ;  total  blinaneM. 

A»r(. — Len  than  aixty  poiata . 


Pediffret. — Not  eligible  to  rvcora. 
CW(n-.— Black  or  sandy  spota  in  faair. 

Detailed  deKriptim. 

1.  Head  anJfacr. — H^ad  short  and  wido :  cheeks  neat 
but  not  1<M)  full :  iawii  hroad  and  Rlmng ;  foriihead 
medium,  high  and  wide.  Fare  tthort  and  siDooth ;  wid» 
betwtM:n  ttie  vyca ;  no««  neat  and  Uip«rini{  and  slightly 
dialled. 

O^'ccfiofU.— Head  lon^,  narrow  and  coarae  ;  forvhead 
low  and  narrow  :  jawx  oontraoted  and  weak.  Face  long, 
narrow  and  straight :  noM  coanti  ehnuy  or  dUhed  lik* 
a  Berkfthire. 

2.  %<«.— Large,  brlgbt,  clear  and  froa  from  wrinklea 
or  fat  Aurroundingii. 


.y" 


v-S      " 


".^^v^:^^ 


Fig.  «U.    Clueter-Wlilta  bosu. 

0bjtetient.—3mal],  deep  or  obacnre;  TJaira  impaired 
in  any  way. 

3.  J3tir«.— Medium  aixe.  not  too  thick  :  »oft;  attacbod 
to  the  bead  no  nn  not  to  look  tlumey ;  jHJtnting  forward 
and  Bllehlly  outward  ;  folly  under  the  control  of  the  anU 
msl  and  drooping  eo  as  to  giro  a  graceful  appearun'Ce. 

Ot>jttlunu.—L*iy[i,  api^ht,  cnara<>.  tHrk,  round,  too 
amall ;  drooping  too  clcce  to  the  face,  animal  not  being 
able  to  control  them. 

4.  NkA. — Wide,  dttep,  Bhort,  aad  nicety  arched. 
O^fc-tijjni-   lAing,  narrow,  thin,  flat  on  top;  toekwl 

up ;  nut  cxtcndine  down  to  l-rcant-bone. 

6.  ./oif/.— Pull,  smooth,  ncnl  and  firm;  carrying  full- 
ness back  to  shoulder  and  brisket  whvn  th«  head  is  car* 
rted  op  lerel. 

Objteticni.—Litiiii;  too  large  and  flabby;  rwgb  ud 
deoply  wrinkled;  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  anonlder 
and  hriBkel. 

6.  Shauidert.  —  Hmiui,  deep  and  full,  extendinR  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  side,  and  carrying  aiie  down  to  lino 
of  belly. 

OliJKtioiu.  —  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  not  tall  nor 
aanta  depth  aa  body;  exUndin^  above  line  of  back; 
abtcldi  on  boars  too  coarse  and  prominenL 

7.  Chtit. — Large,  deep  and  roomy,  so  a«  not  to  ermp 
vital  orKanni  full  in  girtb  around  the  heart,  the  breaat- 
bone  extending  forward  so  a«  to  ahow  slightly  In  front  of 
h'.g»,  and  let  down  mi  aa  to  be  ev«n  with  hoe  of  belly, 
showing  a  width  of  not  lera  than  Mvcn  Inches  between 
for»>lcgs  of  a  full-grown  hog. 

Ohjfftiont.  —  Narrow,  pinched  ;  heart  girth  laaa  than 
flunk  ^irth ;  loo  far  let  down  botWMO  for»-legi ;  breast- 
bone crooked  or  too  short. 

8.  Batk  and  loin.  —  Back  broad  on  top,  straight  or 
Bltghtly  arched  ;  nniform  width,  smooth,  free  from  tumps 
or  rolls  ;  shorter  than  lower  belly  IJne  ;  same  height  and 
width  at  shoulder  as  at  ham :  toin  wide  and  full. 

Oijtetioiu. — Back  oarruw,  crossed  back  of  shonlders  ; 
anB-flsh  shaped,  humped,  swayed,  too  long,  or  lumpy  rolls; 
aneren  In  width  ;  loin  narrow,  depressed  or  humped. 

9.  Sidet  ami  rt^— Sides  fall,  smooth.  de«p,  canying 


L 


662 


SWINE 


SWLN'E 


size  down  to  belly  ;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder ; 
ribs  long,  well  sprang  at  top  and  bottom,  giving  hog  a 
sqnare  form.  "^ 

Olfieetutnt. — Flat,  thin,  flabby,  cfKnpressed  at  bottom ; 
shrunken  at  Bhoaldere  and  ham ;  aneven  surface ;  ribs 
flat  and  too  short. 

10.  BeUy  and  fiani. — Same  width  as  back,  fnll,  making 
a  straight  line  and  dropping  as  low  at  flank  as  at  bottom 
of  chest ;  line  of  lower  edge  running  parallel  with  sides  ; 
flank  full  and  even  with  body. 

Objeefiont. — Belly  narrow,  pinched,  sagging  or  flabby ; 
flank  thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

1 1.  Ham*  and  rump. — Ham  broad,  fall,  long,  wide  and 
deep,  admitting  of  no  swells;  buttock  full,  neat  and 
clean,  thus  avoiding  flabbiness ;  stifle  well  covered  with 
flesh,  nicely  tapering  towards  the  hock.  Rump  should 
have  a  slightly  rounding  shape  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ; 
same  width  as  back;  making  an  even  line  with  sides. 

Ol^Mtioni.~Haaa  narrow,  short,  not  tilled  out  to  stifle; 
too  much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist,  not  coming  down  to 
hocks  ;  buttocks  flabby.  Rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too 
steep,  sharp  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

12.  Legi  and  feet. — Legs  short,  straight,  set  well  apart 
and  sqaareiy  nnder  body ;  bone  of  good  size,  firm,  well 
muscled ;  wide  above  knee  and  hock ;  below  knee  and 
hock  round  and  tapering,  enabling  animal  to  carry  its 
weight  with  ease ;  pastern  short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet 
short,  firm,  tough  and  free  from  defects. 

O^eetiona. — Legs  too  short,  long,  slim,  crooked,  too 
coarse ;  too  close  together ;  weak  muscles  above  hock 
and  knee  ;  bone  large  and  coarse  without  taper ;  pasterns 
long,  crooked,  slim  like  a  deer's  ;  hoofs  long,  slim,  weak  ; 
toes  spreading,  crooked  or  turned  up. 

13.  2'at'.--Small,  smooth,  tapering,  well  set  on;  root 
slightly  covered  with  fleab  ;  carried  in  a  cnrL 

Objeetiont. — Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  set  too  high  or  too 
low ;  hanging  like  a  rope. 

14.  Coat. — Fine,  straight  or  wavy;  evenly  diatribnted 
and  covering  the  body  well ;  nicely  clipped  coats  no 
objection.  , 

Objections. — Bristles,  hair  coame,  thin,  standing  up,  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  the  belly. 

15.  Cb/or.— White  (blue  spots  or  black  specks  in  skin 
shall  not  argue  impurity  of  blood.) 

Objeetiont. — Color  any  other  than  white. 

16.  Size. — Large  for  a^e  and  condition ;  boars  two 
years  old  and  over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less 
than  TiOO  pounds;  bow  same  age  and  condition,  not  less 
than  450  pounds.  Boiirs  eighteen  months  old  in  good  flesh 
should  weigh  not  less  than  400  pounds  :  sows,  350.  Boars 
twelve  months  old,  not  less  than  300  pounds ;  sows,  300. 
Boars  and  sows  six  months  old,  not  less  than  15U  pounds 
each  ;  and  other  ages  in  proportion. 

Objectioni.  -Overgrown,  coarse,  uncouth,  hard  to 
fatten. 

17.  Action  and  ttyle.—Aclioa  easy  and  graceful,  style 
attractive;  high  carriage;  in  males,  testicles  should  be 
readily  seen ;  same  size  and  carriage. 

Objeetiont.  —  Sluggish  ;  awkwani,  low  carriage,  wab- 
bling walk ;  in  males,  testicles  not  easily  seen,  not  of 
same  size  i>r  carriage,  or  only  one  showing. 

18.  Condition.  -Healthy;  skin  clear  and  bright,  free 
from  scurf  and  sDres  ;  fleah  fine  and  mellow  to  the  touch; 
evenly  laid  on  and  free  from  lumps;  good  feeding  qual- 
ities. 

Objeclions.  I'nhealthy  :  akin  scaly,  scabby  or  harsh  ; 
flesh  lumpy  or  tiahliy ;  hair  harah,  dry  and  standing  up 
from  boiiy  ;  poor  fo'dera ;  total  deafness. 

19.  Ditpotiiion,  —Quiet,  gentle  and  easily  handled; 
with  amiiition  enough  to  look  out  for  themselvea  if  neg- 
lected. 

Objeetiont. — ^Crotis  i  restless,  virions  or  wild;  no 
ambition. 


History. 

Most  aathorities  on  this  breed  recognize  three 
strains  of  Chester-Wbite  swine,  the  origin  of  which 
may  be  briefly  summed  as  follows  : 

(1)  The  original  CkesUr-  WhiU  originated  in  Ches- 
ter county,  Pennsytvania,  whence  the  name.  Large, 
white  pigs  were  common  in  Cheater  county  many 
years  ago.  They  were  taken  there  by  the  earliest 
settlers,  although  just  where  these  original  pige 
came  from  is  not  altogether  clear.  About  the  year 
1818,  Captain  James  Jeffries  imported  from  Eng- 
land a  pair  of  white  pigs,  which  are  spoken  of  as 
Bedfordshire  pigs,  and  as  Cumberland  pigs.  Cap- 
tain Jeffries  used  the  boar  on  the  native  white  pigs 
of  the  district  with  good  results.  Later,  it  is  stated, 
white  Chinese  pigs  were  imported  to  Chester  county 
and  crossed  on  the  native  pigs.  Eventually  the 
different  strains  of  blood  were  combined,  and  tiom 
this  combination  came  the  original  Chester-White 
breed. 

(2)  TWtTs  Improved  Oieater-White  has  a  some- 
what complicated  history.  About  1827,  Norfolk 
Thin  Rind  pigs  were  imported  from  England  to  Con- 
necticut. Two  brothers,  named  Todd,  bought  a  boar 
of  this  breed,  and  a  sow  of  what  was  called  the 
Grass  breed,  and  took  them  to  Ohio,  where  they 
were  bred  together  with  considerable  success. 
Later,  a  Joseph  Haskina  brought  to  Ohio  a  boar  of 
the  Byfield  breed,  and  a  sow  similar  to  the  original 
Todd  sow.  The  Todd  and  Haskin  pigs  were  freely 
bred  together.  Isaac  Todd  also  used  other  boars  in 
his  herd,  one  of  which  was  said  to  have  been  of  the 
large  Grass  breed,  and  another  was  called  a  Nor- 
mandy boar ;  little  is  known  of  the  breeding  of 
either.  Both  of  these  boars  were  white  in  color. 
In  1865,  Isaac  Todd  introdnced  Chester- White  Mood. 
Hia  son,  S.  H.  Todd,  made  further  use  of  the  Ches- 
ter-White, and  by  careful  breeding  and  selection 
evolved  what  is  known  as  Todd's  Improved  Chester- 
White. 

(3)  ITte  Ohio  Improved  Chester-  White  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  efforts  of  L.  B.  Silver,  of  Ohio,  who.  in 
1865,  began  breeding  Chester-Whites,  and  who 
aimed  to  produce  a  superior  type  through  selection. 

Distribution. 

The  Cheater-White  is  largely  distributed  over  the 
United  States.  It  is  very  popular  in  the  eastern 
states,  and  is  strongly  represented  in  Ohio,  Indiana. 
IlHnoi.'^.  Iowa,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania 
and  other  states.  It  has  also  spread  to  the  South,  to 
some  extent  at  least,  and  seems  to  be  giving  sati^ 
faction.  For  some  reason  it  has  gained  a  much 
stronger  foothold  in  Canada  than  the  Poland-China, 
probably  because  it  seems  more  easily  bred  to  a 
lengthy  type  than  the  Poland-China. 

Types. 

The  Chester-UTiite  is  capable  of  showing  ex- 
treme variations  of  type  in  the  hands  of  different 
breeders.  In  American  show  -rings,  the  short- 
legged,  fint'-boned,  deep,  thick,  smooth  type  l4 
generally  preferred  by  the  judges,  who  seem  will- 
ing to  sacrifice  considerable  size  in  order  to  get 
smoothness    and    quality.    Larger,   heavier-boned 


SWINE 


S^^TNE 


types  occasionally  appear,  bat  nre  KvncraEly  dis- 
oourtifed  by  thv  judges.  In  I'anada.  Kro&t«r  im- 
portance is  attachod  to  k>n'gth,  and  Kome  very 
Kajrthy.heavy-lwnBd  Chester- Whites  are  frequently 
Been  in  CanaiHan  Hhuw-rings.  At  thf  1907  !>(»• 
vtncini  Winter  Fair,  at  OLf^lph,  Ontario,  u  pair  of 
ChcAter-Wbite  carcasiKS  w^re>  exhibited  in  the 
bacon  cloKii  in  eomputition  with  Yorktihire^,  Tam- 
vortha  and  Bcrkshtrea,  and  though  they  w«r«  not 
idwil   bacon    carcai*803   by  any  mennii,  they  were 

food  vnoiigh  to  win  sixth  prixe  ;  and  a  number  of 
orkshire  and  Tamworth  carca-W-a,  toRether  with 
all  the  Iterkshire  carcwHes,  nvre  ranked  below 
them.  Any  jwrsyn  whu  han  Bvcn  thy  uncHjimled 
exhibit  of  bacon  carcasaes  at  liut-lph,  will  under- 
stand that  th<-se  ho^js  must  have  bo«n  about  as  far 
away  in  type  from  the  American  priae-winning 
Cheater-White  as  it  is  possible  t<>  khI.  This  is  an 
extreme  case,  but  it  i1lu.*<trateii  the  pottAibilities  of 
the  breed  nnder  dittttrt-'nt  ay^tUims  uf  et-Wtfon  and 
feeding.  As  to  thy  different  strains  mentioned  in 
the  history  of  the  breed,  they  have  now  all 
assumed  very  mnch  the  same  type. 

Vm*. 

Although  the  Choster-WTiite  can  he  made  to 
approach  the  bacon  type  through  selection  and 
feedintTt  nj*  raenti»iie)l  in  the  precettiri^  piim^aph. 
it  can  nev*r  be  made  an  ideal  bacoti  bag,  and  it 
seems  like  a  waste  nf  energy  to  attempt  to  make 
it  a  bacon  breed  when  first-class  bacon  breeds  are 
already  available.  The  Che.«ter-White  w  especially 
adapted  to  the  fat-hog  trade,  nnd  will  no  doubt 
continue  as  such.  C"n,>sseit  of  the  Chester- White 
with  the  IjaTffv  VorkAhire  and  Tamworth  have 
ffiven  very  satisfactory  results  in  Canada,  and  it 
fo  only  through  croaaing  that  Chester-White  blood 
can  be  used  succeAsfiiliy  in  the  bacon  trade.  For 
the  requirements  nf  the  American  packer,  the 
Chester- White  ia  eniin*^nt]y  well  suitetl. 

The  quality  of  meat  produced  by  the  Chester- 
.  White  in  (food,  bnt  is  twrnewhat  lackinu  in  lean. 
tt  is  (fcncrally  cmceded  that  the  Yorkshire,  Tam- 
worth and  Uerkshire  produce  more  tean  in  propor- 
tion to  fat. 

In  early  matHrity,  the  Chester-White  compares 
favorably  with  other  breeds,  and  it  is  an  economi- 
cal prodiK'er  of  meat.  In  feeiltni;  triab  it  has 
given  a  cood  account  of  iteelf,  but,  as  previously 
stated,  no  brec'd  can  claim  superiority  over  other 
breeds  in  this  respect,  so  far  as  we  can  jufipe 
from  ex[ierimental  work  and  from  practical  expe- 
rience. The  Cheflt*r-White  i«  also  a  (food  grawT, 
and  in  thia  feature  probably  excels  the  VorkHhlre 
and  the  Tamworth,  which  are  better  adapUid  to 
pen  feedine. 

It  b  eaio  that  the  Chester- White,  as  a  breed,  is 
somewhat  more  prolific  than  the  Ptdund -China  and 
tbe  fine  type  of  Berkshire.  The  asflertion  is  sup- 
ported by  thi3  findings  of  Dr.  A.  W.  Bitting,  who 
invest ijiTated  the  matter  in  1897. 

Kor  crftasinj;  purpasos,  the  Cheater- White  Is 
highly  esteemed,  a  cromt  with  the  Poland-China 
beings  regarded  with  especial  favor  by  feeders. 
The  grade  Chester-White  sow  is  a  very  useful  far- 


mer's pTR,  and  pure-bred  boars  are  very  effective 
in  improving  common  stock. 

Organizalioat  and  rfcordt. 

The  American  Chester- White  ReconI  Association 
look  over  the  basinesfl  of  the  Cheater-While 
Record  Association  in  li*i*4.  The  (Chester- White 
Record  Association  was  organized  in  18A4,  to  sup- 
port Todd's  Imjjroved  t'hestcr-White  Swine,  and 
issued  fnur  volumes  previous  to  181^-t,  when  it  was 
changed  to  the  American  Chester-White  Record. 
Thirteen  vnltimes  of  the  Record  have  been  pub- 
lished to  date  (190S),  with  )HJi'2i^  renistrationB. 
The  Ohio  Improved  Chester-White  Swine  Breeders' 
Association  was  organized  in  18U7.  For  registra* 
tion  in  the  herdbook  of  this  Association,  pedigrees 
must  trace  to  the  herd  of  L.  B.  Silver,  who  has 
alre-Jtdy  been  referred  to  as  the  originator  of  the 
Ohio  Improved  Chester -White,  or  the  O.  I.  V.. 
»truin,  as  it  is  generally  called.  The  Standard 
Chef? ter- White  Record  Association  was  organized 
in  IH'M,  and  has  issued  thirteen  volumes  of  its 
herdbook  to  date  {l!t08).  containing  31,877  regia- 
trations.  The  National  Chester-White  Record 
Association  was  organized  in  IXXO,  and  has  pub- 
lirfhiMi  twelve  volumes  of  )t«  herdbouk,  containing 
over  18,000  regialrations. 

In  Canada,  Chester-Whites  are  recorded  in  the 
Dominion  Swine  Breeders'  Record,  and  6,261  ani> 
mals  have  been  recorded  to  date  (1908). 

Litrraturt. 

The  American  Che-fter-White  Record  Association 
hart  undertaken  the  publication  uf  an  annual  called 
"The  Annual  Cheater-White  Bulletin,"  which  con- 
tains some  information  regarding  the  breed,  names 
of  breederp  and  advertisements.  "The  Chester- 
White  Hog  Breeders'  Directory,"  by  Frank  F. 
Moore,  Secretary  uf  the  Standard  Chewter-Whito 
Record  Asaociatinn,  contains  con«iiIerabl«  informa- 
tion, of  inten-at  to  Chester-White  breeders.  [For 
further  references,  see  page  646.] 

Duro^-Jersey  Swioe.   Figs.  666,  667. 

By  C.  E.  Dag. 

The  Doroc-Jersey  ia  an  American  breed  of  swine, 
and  ia  of  the  fat-  or  lard-hitj^  type. 

IkKrij^ion. 

The  Ifuroc-Jcraey  \a  similar  in  aise  to  the  Chea- 
ter-While and  the  Poland-China.  Some  specimenn 
are  of  very  large  size,  but  the  tendency  of  modern 
breeding  it*  toward  a  medium  siz^-.  with  rather 
fine  lione.  It  is  possible  that  breeders  are  going 
too  far  in  n^ducing  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the 
weight  of  its  bone,  and  the  larger,  heavier-bone*! 
hog  wit)  alwa>*9  Itnd  an  important  place  in  this 
bree<E,  as,  indeed,  in  all  others.  The  Nnout  is  of 
mt^liiim  length;  the  face  slightly  dished;  the  ear 
drooped,  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Fuland- 
China ;  the  jowl  heavy;  the  body  wide  and  deep, 
set  on  short  legs  of  medium  to  fine  Imne  ;  the  ham 
heavily  flewhed,  and  the  body  generally  not«I  for 
thickness  rather  than  for  length.  Cherry-red  is  the 


fi64 


SWINE 


SWINE 


Popular  color,  but  yellowish  red  and  chcstnat  are 
rt-quently  seen.  A  few  black  spoU  on  belly  and 
lega  do  not  rfisqnalify,  but  are  object  ion  able. 
Bmch  markings  on  uny  other  parts)  uf  Ihs  body  urt; 
very  serious  objectiona. 

Following  id  th«  scale  of  points  and  description 
adopted  by  the  Amtriciin  Duroc-Jcr&cv  Kccord.  It 
gives  in  uctait  tbc  poinbs  desired  in  the  breed  and 
as  well  the  characters  that  are  undesirable  avoided. 

SCAL£  OF  POWTS  FOR  DUSOC^ER^EV 

Swine  p»rfert 

•COM 

1.  Head  and  face 4 

2.  Eye* 2 

3.  Ears 2 

4.  Neck 2 

5.  Jowl 2 

ti.  Shoulders 6 

7,  Cheat 12 

8.  Baclt  and  loin 15 

6.  Sides  and  ribs 8 

10.  Belly  and  Bjitik 6 

11.  Hams  and  rump 10 

12.  Legs  and  fmt 10 

13.  Tail 1 

14.  Coat     2 

15.  Color 2 

Ifi.  Size      5 

17.  Action  and  style 4 

18.  Condition .   .    ■   ■ 4 

19.  Disposition 3 

Pflrfection .100 

Form. — Earn  aUii<!iiiK  erect ;  Hmall  crampod  ch.eBt.  and 
craaas  back  of  Mhoulili^r^  and  ovf*r  back  so  nut  tv  cuuhl-  u 
dapreaaion  jn  the  baclc  easily  noticed  ;  aerioiul/  deformad 
lega,  or  badly  brnkt^n-duwn  teal. 

5fr».— V*ry  nmatl.  <>r  not  two-thirda  large  enough  as 
^ven  by  Div  sUuiii&ri. 

Seare,  -Ijcaa  than  ftfty  pointJL 

Ptdigrtt. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

Dttailejf  Hftrriplion,, 

1.  Head  oiuifiuie. — U«mA  small  in  proportion  to  site  of 
body  :  wide  b«lweeD  eyes ;  face  nicety  dished  (about  half 
vajr  bolwi'L'n  a  Polnnd-Chiaa  and  a  BerkirhtTv)^  snd  tu[«r- 
ing  well  dnwn  to  th»  tnjse  ;  aurface  BRiooth  ami  ev6a. 

Oii}«riiant.-^]iargB  and  ruana ;  narruw  bgtwma  the 
eyes ;  face  straisht ;  crookf-d  now,  or  too  much  dished. 

i.  Bjfet. — ^Livdly,  bright  and  prominent. 

Otfjeefiom. — Dnil,  w^'sSc  snd  flhurure. 

3.  Ban. — \k>dium,  moderately  thin,  pointing  forward, 
dflwnwAnl  and  aliKhtly  <nulwnril,  carryinj^  a  .lUjj^ht  curve: 
sttaebwl  to  head  very  neatly. 

Ofrjeetiofu. — Very  l.trKc,  nt-arjy  roand.  Iao  thick,  Bwhig- 
iaii  or  Sabby;  not  of  eiune  aizei;  different  poallion  and 
not  ttuAvr  iMintnjI  iif  aiiimiil, 

4.  .Vf(A.— fibort,  thick  and  very  deep  and  sliflhtty 
archinif. 

06jwa"oB#.— Long,  shallow  and  thin. 

0.  Joicl. — Brood,  fall  and  neat;  carrying  fulness  bock 
to  inint  of  ahouldeni  and  on  a  line  with  br«aiit-bon«. 

Ob}teti4m».—tQo  Ian;*,  looee  and  Sabby :  aroall,  thin 
and  wedging. 

6,  SKouikfrt. — Moderat«ly  bniad,  very  doep  and  full ; 
carrying  thbkneiw  w«ll  down  and  not  extending  abov« 
line  of  back. 

(^jtttiom*.  —  Satall,  this,  ahallow  ;  extending  nfaoTe 
line  of  back.  Boan  nader  dm  y«ar  old  he>a?i1y  sbieldad. 


7.  Chat. — Large,  very  deep,  filled  fall  behind 
dera;  breast-bone  extending  well  forward  ao  as  tu  be 
readily  seen. 

OhjMtiont. — Flat ;  ahallow,  or  not  ertendtag  well  dowi 
between  fore- lega. 

K  Bnek  ttrut  {nfn.— Ra^k  medium  in  breadth  ;  atnighfr 
or  sligblty  arching ;  carryiog  even  width  from  ahonUar  t» 
)iam ;  mirfave  even  anil  smooUi. 

OttjK-fiotM.— Karrow,  crease  behbd  shonldara ;  myad 
or  humitcd  hack. 

9.  5i</ef  and  rib*. — Sides  Trry  deep,  mediuiu  in  length; 
level  bvtwoen  shouldets  and  hajna,  and  carrying  out  fall 
down  to  lini;  of  bolly.  Rlha  lang,  strong,  and  sprung  in 
proportion  la  width  of  ahcmldera  and  hana. 

0^'«fioni.— Flabby,  cnina^d,  shallow,  aod  not  canyinf 
proper  width  from  top  to  bottom. 

iO.  Jteliji  and  fititiM. — Straight  and  fall  and  eanytnt 
well  out  to  line  of  sidt^  Fiank  well  down  to  lower  Uae  of 
niilui*. 

OttjccCuna.— Narrow ;  tucked  np  or  drawn  In  ;  saggiaff 
ur  Hubby. 

11.  Hamt  and  rump. — Broad,  fall  and  w«!l  1#t  down 
to  th«  hock :  battock  fall  and  coming  nearly  dowa  and 
niling  fnll  bf<tw«(-n  bocks.  Hump  iihould  hara  a  roond 
slope,  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  eame  width  as  back  and 
well  filled  not  aronnd  tnD. 

Objfetiom.~-Uim.  narrow,  short,  thin,  not  projectinf 
well  (li>wn  tn  hnrk  ;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch.  Romp  na^ 
row,  flat  or  peaked  at  root  of  tail:  too  staep. 

12.  Iirgt  and  fcrL—  iSMmm  siu'  and  langth,  strai^tt^ 
nicely  tapered;  wide  apart  and  well  set  ander  lb* 
body:  paatenu  short  and  sLroog.  Feet  short,  fm,  and 
tough. 

O^retiant. — Lega  extremely  long,  or  very  abort,  *hni» 
coarse,  crooked ;  lacs  as  large  below  knae  and  hock  a* 
above :  set  boo  ehiae  togetlMr;  bocks  toned  in  or  ant  of 
straight  line.  Feet,  honfa  long,  alim  and  weak ;  tot* 
spreading  or  crooked. 

13.  Tail. — Medium  ;  lurg^  at  baae  and  nicely  tapering, 
and  rather  biuhy  at  end. 

Objeeliant.—'Rxlretnfiy  heavy;  too  loag  and  ropy. 

14.  Our.  —  Vnd^ralely  thick  and  fine  ;  siraiglit. amootk 
and  covering  Che  body  well. 

OtjtfiionB.  —  Too  many  hrktlas  ;  hair  coarse,  hmk 
and  rouKh,  wavy  or  curly  ;  swiila,  or  not  tveoly  laid  ont 
the  body. 

Ifi.  (JWor,— Cherry-red.  without  other  adnrixtnrea. 

Ohjfttinnt. — Voir  dark  red  or  shading  brown  ,  eery 
pde  or  iiKhl  red ;  black  spota  over  the  body  ;  black  Heels 
on  belly  and  leg8  not  di-nired  but  admissible. 

16.  ^f.  — Large  for  aga  and  condhjoo.  Boar  tw» 
years  old  and  owr  should  weigh  600  pooode  ;  sow  Sana 
age  andcondiCion.oOOponnds^  Boar  eighteen  n«tlia,47S 
pounds;  sow,  400  poaoda.  Boar  tweira  BooailH,  SBO 
pounds ;  sow,  HOD  poanda.  Boar  and  sow  pip  tax.  laaaU^ 
150  pounds.  The  Ggorcs  are  for  animals  ia  a  fair  she* 
conifilton. 

Otijft-fioiu.— liongh  and  coane  and  lacking  In  feadfaf 
qualities. 

17.  Attion  and  tt^ff. —Action  rlgoroiu  and  «di 
Style  frcD  and  wwy. 

ObfWttou.— I>q11  orstupid ;  awkward  and  wahU 
boars,  testicles  not  oaally  Ae«n  nor  of  aame  sise  or  car- 
riage :  too  large  or  only  one  showing. 

18.  dnufi/ioFi.— Healthy;  akin  fre«  from  scurf, 
Mireft  and  nuuiKe  ;   flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire 
and  fre9  from  any  lumps. 

Ofr;>rf tan ».— Unhealthy,  acnrfy,  scaly,  aoree, 
too  fat  for  breeding  purposts  ;  hair  haish  and 
up ;  poor  feonlers. 

19.  />ijp<»#i'*ion.  -Very  quiet  and  geaUe  ;  easily 
died  or  driven. 

Ofryec/iefts. — WQd,  vicioaa  or  atabbom. 


,tcal«ikl 


SVISB 


SWIXE 


666 


BiMtary. 

Red  pigB  have  existed  in  the  United  States  for  & 
great  many  years,  and  there  seema  tc  be  no  satis- 
factory atx'ount  of  their  ori^ii.  It  is  said  that 
slave  traders  broutfht  in  a  red  breed  of  bo^  from 
western  Africa,  known  as  the  Guinea  breed.    It 
18  also  stated   that   Honry   Clay   imported 
Spanish  red  pi^s  in  1S37,  and  that  Daniel 
Webster  brought  red  pigs  from  Portngal  in 
1852.    It   is  farther  stated  that  the  Herk- 
ehire^  which,  in  iu  earlv  days   was  freely 
marked  with  rvd  or  sandy  hair,  is  ree^ponsi- 
bl«  forsomeof  thvredpijra.  Whatever  breeds, 
or  mixture  of  brt-'eds,  were  responsible,  it  is 
certuinthata  large  breed  uf  red  hogs  attained       / 
toconsJderabte  prominence  in  New  Jersey,  and 
was  eventually  given  the  name  of  Jersey-Red. 
The  Jereey-Ited  had  large  lop  ears,  ana  good 
length  of  body.    It  was  rather  long  in  the 
leg.  and  coarse  In  bone  and   hair.    It  was 
valued  becaose  of  its  site,  strong  constitu- 
tion, and  rapid  growth. 

The  Puroc  originated  in  Saratoga  county.  New 
York.  and.  to  put  it  briefly,  resulted  from  crossing 
s  red  boar  on  the  common  bows  of  the  district.  It 
is  uncertain  whether  th«  boar  came  merely  from 
iDOther  part  of  New  York  stat«,  or  from  England. 
It  L«  takl  that  the  boar  was  named  "  Duroc "  after 
a  famoofl  stallion,  and  hence  the  name  of  the  bree<]. 
The  Daroc  also  hod  topped  ears,  hut  it  was  a  much 
finer  type  of  pig  than  the  Jcr*ey-Red. 

In  the  coarse  of  time,  the  breeders  of  Jersey-Reds 
and  Dorocs  came  together,  and  the  twn  breivJs  were 
blended  into  one,  under  the  name  ufUuroc-Jeney. 
The  amalgamation  took  place  in  1883. 

Dintribution. 

The  Daroc-Jersey  is  found  in  a  great  many 
states,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois, Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Ohio, 
llianesota,  Oklahoma.  Texa.'t,  Kentucky,  Tenne.s3ee. 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  The  bret'd  w  also  largely 
represt^nted  in  many  other  states.  The  breed  has 
been  iatroduced  into  <'anada.  but  has  not  made 


striving  f  jr  a  fine-boned,  smooth  type  of  hog  of 
medium  size.  It  i»  assertwl  by  some  pontons  that 
this  refining  process  has  been  carried  too  far,  and 
breeders  are  to  be  found  who  are  producing  hogs 
of  more  bone  and  more  size.  These  larger,  heavier- 
boned   hogs  are  attracting  considerable  attention 


DutoC'Jcraer  aow. 

much  progress  as  yet  in  that  country.  It  is  prac- 
tically unknown  outsid«  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Typu. 

Ijike  other  broods,  ODroc--ler8eys  present  varia- 
tions io  type.    On  the  whole,  breeders  have  been 


lirv^' 


"> 


w 


^i 


PiK-  M?.    Duroc-Jtrsey  bou. 

among  Haroc-Jersey  breeders,  and  it  would  M>cm 
that  they  would  yet  perform  an  important  work 
for  the  breed. 

I'in. 

The  Dtiroc-Jersey  is  swenttalty  a  producer  of  fat 
or  lard  hogs,  and  it  seems  to  be  meeting  the 
demands  of  the  American  packer  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.   As  a  bacon  hog,  it  is  not  a  success. 

It  is  an  early  maturing  hog,  and  makes  economical 
gains,  as  has  beon  demon.strated  by  exiwriments. 
It  must  be  repeat'ed  again,  however,  that  individu- 
ality is  much  mure  important  thao  breed  in  regard 
to  economy  of  production.  It  is  safe  to  say  th.it 
th(>  DuroC'Jersey  will  make  as  cheap  gains  as 
any  other  breed.  The  Duroc-Jeraey  has  consider- 
able reputation  as  a  grazer,  snd  also  takes  kindly 
to  corn-fpoding.  it  has  an  atlvantage  over  m(»t 
white  breeds,  in  that  its  skin  does  not  blister  with 
the  sun,  and  it  is  therefore  gaining  favor  in  th« 
South.  The  meat  of  the  Puroc-Jersey  is  similar  to 
th.it  of  the  Chester- White  and  the  I'o land-China 
when  fed  under  the  aame  conditions.  If  fed  a 
mixed  ration,  it  is  capable  of  producing  meat  with 
a  good  proportion  of  lean. 

The  Dnroc-Jersey.  for  a  fat  hog.  is  prolific, 
although  it  can  hardly  he  said  to  eqnal  the  Large 
Yorkshire  and  the  Tamworth  in  this  respect. 

The  Puroc-Jersey  crosses  well  with  otnur  breeds, 
and  a  cross  with  the  I'oland-t'hina  and  the  Berk- 
shire is  very  popular.  The  boars  do  excellent  work 
as  improvers  of  common  stock. 

OrganizaiioM  and  reeordt. 

The  American  Pnro&Jersey  Swine  BiMdenT 
Asaociation  was  organized  in  1883,  but  it  was  lot 
iiicorporated  until    1888.  The  first  herdhook  was 

Euhlished  in  IR85,  and  twenty-five  volumes  have 
sen  i.Hsued  since,  containing  :i8,000  registrations. 
The  National  Puroc-Jersey  Record  .Association  waa 
organiKe<l  In  1S91,  and  published  it»  first  herdbook 
in  1893.  It  has  published  twenty-eight  volumes  to 
date,  containing  i:iO.UOO  registrations.   In  Canada, 


666 


SWINK 


SWINE 


Diirof-,Vrseyfl  are  recorded  in  the  Domirion  Swina 
Ftretiier-s'  Record,  but  only  1,079  lutimals  have  b«en 
recorded  to  date. 

Ijilproturr. 

"Thi!  DuniG  BDlletin"  ia  a  HemUmonthty  paper 
jiublwhmi  at  Ptoria,  IllinoU,  in  the  interests  of 
Duntc- Jersey  swine.  The  Duroc-Jeraey  is  the  only 
breed  of  swine  hax'lng  &  paper  puliHsbed  solely  in 
it»  interesta,  although  some  other  awociatloiw  pub- 
liHh  yearbooks  ordirei^torieft  for  their  respective 
hrewM.   (For  further  referenceH,  aee  page  646.] 

£awz  Swine.  Fig.  668. 

By  G.  E.  Day. 

The  Essex  is  a  smalt,  eauily  fattened  pi^  of  the 
American  or  fat-hog  typt-.  It  originated  in  Kng^ 
tand. 

itewTt/jfiuii. 

The  ICflsex  moat  be  classed  with  the  small  breeds, 
being,  oa  a  breed,  decidedly  smaller  than  the  Berk- 
shire  or  the  Poland-China.  It  is  a  short,  thick, 
(leepv  chunky  type  of  pin,  with  shttrt,  fine-bonetl 
legs.  The  snout  ih  short,  the  face  dished,  the  fore- 
heait  broad,  and  the  eara  amalL,  fine  and  erect,  but 
inclined  to  droop  slightly  with  age.  The  nc'ck  is 
\KTy  short,  and  the  shoulders  and  hams  largely 
developed.  Altogether,  it  is  a  very  smooth,  co^mpact 
type  of  hog.  The  color  i*  all  black,  no  white  being 
ailmii4);ililt\ 

Pollnwing  \a  the  Kca1u  of  points  adopted  by  the 
American  Tsavx  Aasociation  : 

ScALB  or  Points  for  Bkkex  Swine      pcrfKt 

1.  Color.— Blat-k 2 

2.  Bead.— Small,  bmad  ^nd  face  diHhei] 3 

S.  Bars, — Fin«,  ^rvr\.  slightly  dnHijiing  with  age   .      2 

4.  Jowl. — Full  and  n*at 1 

5.  Keck.— Short,  full,  wull  ariihod     .    , 3 

6.  Shoulder».     Broad  and  deep 7 

7.  Glrtb  around  hu.rt fl 

8.  Back.— ^Straieht,  hroikd  and  leTcl 12 

9.  Side*.— Deep  and  fall 6 

10.  Sibs.— -Wei]  Jprang 7 

11.  Loia.— Broad  and  stronit 12 

12.  Flank.— Wf.ll  k-1,  dfiwn 2 

1.^  Ham.— Broud.  full  and  drop 12 

14.  Tail.— M»{ium,  line  and  curled 2 

15.  Legs. — Fini*.  iitruJaht  and  tap«riiuc 3 

16.  Feet.— Smull 8 

17.  Hatr.— Finft  and  Allky,  fr^^  from  hrisitleH     ...  3 

18.  ActlOD. — RaBy  and  RTacefal 4 

19.  Symmetry.— Adaptation  of  the  iktveral  partu  to 

each  other 10 

Perfection 100 

Biriorjf. 

TIm  Es&ex  ptg  takee  \i»  name  from  the  county 
of  Rfl.4ex  in  England.  The  original  Bssex  pig  was 
an  extremely  undesirable  feeder's  type,  being 
coarae  in  bone,  dat  in  the  rib,  and  long  in  the  leg. 
It  wail  hard  to  fatten  and  slow  to  mature.  In  color 
it  was  generally  binck  and  white.  In  1830,  Lord 
Western  imported    Ivlack    Neapolitan   pigs    from 


Italy,  and  crost^ed  them  with  the  Essex  pig8. 
the  courw  of  time  he  evolved  a  type  that  wai 
wonderful  improvement  on  the  old  Essex,  and  it  is 
said  that  he  uiu^d  other  blood  than  that  of  the  Nea- 
politan. It  is  stated  that  Lord  Western  inbred  too 
closely,  and  that  his  pigs  became  wt-ak  in  constitu- 
tion and  lacking  in  fecundity. 

Soon  after  Lonl  Western  began  hb  work  of 
improvement,  one  of  bis  tenants,  named  Fisher 
Uobbes,  took  up  the  breeding  of  E^ex-N'eapolitan 
piga.  and  in  hitt  hands  the  breed  was  much  in* 
proved.  incrt?asinK  in  sise  and  impronng  in  constH 
tutioD  and  bn^'Oing  qualities.  The  Hobbefl'  strain 
was  called  Improved  Essex,  and  gained  in  popubr- 
ity  very  rapidly. 

In  AiMrita.—  li  b  said  that  some  of  the  old 
Essex  pigs  existed  Jn  the  L'nited  Statea  as  early  as 
1S20.  Whon  the  Improved  Essex  had  established 
its  reputation,  importations  to  .America  became 
common,  and  large  numbers  were  brought  oat,  but 
of  bte  years  very  few  importationa  have  bero 
made. 

TyUlrihuiitm. 

Thti  Essex  has  spread  from  ita  native  coootj 
into  Several  other  English  counties.  It  has  been 
exported  to  several  Europaa  countries,  to  Ati»- 
tralia,  Canada  and  the  United  States.   It  would  be 


Pllt.fiM.    Esnz  boar. 

difficult  to  select  any  state  a?  an  important  ceetcr 
for  this  breed,  bat  it  occum,  scattered  here  and 
there  in  small  lnt.s,  in  a  large  numlier  of  8tat«a.  It 
has  become  very  popular  in  the  ?outh. 

The  Rosex  hmt  nearly  disappeared  from  Caaadi. 
only  one  ur  two  herds  being  left.  None  of  the 
Canadian  exhibitions  make  a  separate  clan  for  tlui 
breed. 

Type. 

Tn  meet  the  modem  demand,  many  breetei  of 
Essex  swine  are  striving  to  develop  a  Xy\^  with 
more  size,  heavier  t>one,  and  greater  length.  That 
they  are  meeting  with  some  degree  of  siooefls  is 
evidenced  by  the  types  of  Ei»ex  placed  on  exhibh_ 
tion  at  some  of  the  fairs  during  the  paat  few  yi 
This  recent  type  givea  more  promise  of  present 
utility  than  the  type  we  have  been  accustomed  to 
see. 

Vm. 

The  Eawx  belongs  to  the  extremely  quick  matur> 
ing,  easily  fattened  type.    \U  tack  of  size  prenata 


1 


SWtNB 


SlRTs^ 


667 


it  bwdrain^  popular  with  Iht*  gi-rteral  farmer,  nnd 
It  iH  nioru  suited  Id  the  ruquirereienitsof  the  villager, 
who  keeps  one  or  two  pigH,  nnd  who  winhen  tn  use 
the  minimum  amount  of  twnl.  Hw  will  mil,  havn  so 
many  poundi^  nf  [Ufrk,  hut  hn  will  have  a  jinished 
hog  with  a  Hmall  ontlay.  Tht>  hn-t^^d  i:^  regardtid  tut 
btfinic  a  uheap  iirnducer  uf  niL^at.  and  no  duubt  such 
in  th«  case;  but  it  wuuld  not  bu  safe  to  aeaQmc  that 
it  wil)  alwayii  produce  meat  at  a  lower  cont  tlian 
larger  breeds.  The  meat  tmm  the  Ejwex  is  litie- 
gTainni,  hut  pxceHHively  fiit. 

The  AowH  nre  ncit  regardnl  aH  prolific,  but  Ji  great 
deal  dupttnds  4m  hi>w  they  are  feil  and  Tnana^'d. 

For  crix-iH-brL-Liling,  the  Esbcx  is  Buitablu  for 
cru»ftinK  with  unduly  coarse  types.  In  the  past,  it 
played  an  important  part  in  imprnving  other 
breeds,  but  an  the  tireedn  of  swine  have  been 
brought  to  a  finer  tyj)e,  tha  field  of  the  Kbhux  haa 
tivcome  narn)WBd,  nntil  tha  brued  is  now  morn 
famiiu-s  fur  what  it  ham  accompHi^hed  than  fur  what 
it  is  ca[iablH  of  doing  at  present.  About  tho  only 
important  opening  for  it  in  the  United  5^tatea  at 
prewnt.  is  the  cnnquent  of  the  "!ta7,i»rb;ick"  of  the 
South,  and  on  thiH  misnion  it  has  already  net  forth. 

Orf/anizationt  and  reeordt. 

The  American  Essex  Asaoeiation  was  organized 
in  1:^7,  but  its  membership  is  not  large.  It  has 
pabliithed  two  volume,-*  of  its  record,  which  contain 
some  l.riOO  namea.  In  Canada,  Kssex  swine  are 
recorded  in  the  flominion  Rwine  Breeders'  IfeeunI, 
bat  only  2^  antmaU  havi>  been  rei^urdw]  to  date 
(1908).  In  England,  they  aru  recorded  in  the  herd 
book  of  the  National  Pig  BroedeTB'  Association. 

Littrature, 
For  references,  see  page  G46. 

Hampahiie  or  Tbin  Hind  Swine.   Fig.  6G9. 

Ity  a.  h:  Daif. 

The  Hampshire  or  Thin  Rind  la  said  to  lie  a 
bwon  hog,  hut  it  may  be  placeil  more  correctly 
between  the  luicon  and  fat-hog  types. 

Dttcnpttoii. 

The  Hampahire  ia  only  raediam  in  Buse,  and,  if 
there  is  any  difference,  it  will  scarcely  equal  the 
Chtwter-White  and  the  Duroc-Jersey  in  weight. 
The  face  is  straight,  and  the  ear  is  inclined  for- 
ward but  doeB  not  drrjop  like  that  of  the  Poland- 
China.  The  jowl  is  lighter  than  that  of  thi^  gen- 
eral run  of  fat  bug<t,  as  is  alto  the  shoulder  and 
the  ham.  The  bm-k  is  of  me<iiuni  width,  nnd  the 
siile  haM  fuir  length  but  is  not  so  deep  as  that  of 
a  typical  fat  hog.  The  legs  are  of  mediam  length, 
ant!  the  bone  is  of  good  quality.  It  may  l»e  de- 
scribed ai  between  the  bacon  and  the  fat  ty{ie. 
Mr.  H.  K.  Worlv.  at  one  time  Secr«tary  of  the 
.\merican  Hampshire  Aaiociation,  describes  the 
color  as  follows:  "In  color,  th«y  are  either  listed 
or  blacks,  the  most  foflihionabte  colors  consisting 
of  black  extremities  with  a  white  l>elt  four  tn 
twelve  inches  wide,  encircling  the  bmiy  and  irclud- 
ing    the  foro-lega.  which  should  also  be  white." 


Tlie  term  "  listed  "  mt*ans  that  the  white  helt  is 
present.  Mr.  Work  further  states  that  there  are 
some  breeders  who  try  to  run  their  henls  all  black, 
and  iLssertti  that  breedera  should  not  be  too  par- 
ticular reganling  color,  except  in  casea  when 
whiti!  sptjts  iK-cur. 

Fulluwing  is  the  standard  uf  excellence  adopted 
by  the  American  Hampshire  Swine  Record  Asoo- 
ciatinn : 

ScAug  or  Points  fok  BAursBiRS  Swine 
DUqualiJicaiions. 

Color. — Spotted  nr  more  thwi  two-thifda  white. 

ftfDji.— Any  radical  deformity,  ears  very  larg*  w 
drop[>in):  aver  eyaii,  crooked  nr  weak  legB  or  broken-down 
fe«t. 

IhndHioa. — S«noufity  impaired  or  liineAsed,  exi'OMijve 
gTO**nr«t,  b&m^aiii(>M  in  inimili  ovfr  two  years  of  age, 
ehiitfy  or  wiualiby  fat. 

Size.     Ivot  Cwo-third«  fitandard  weight. 

fedigrtt.-  -Not  fligitrln  lo  nrc«rd.  Purforl 

1.  Head  and   face.— Head  medium  lenj;th,  rather 

narriiw.  rhwks  tvat  full;  fiice  neJirly  »itr«i|{hl 
and  medirnn  width  between  th«  eyps.  sarfacv 

wen  and  regular 4 

Objfftiont:  Hekd  Urffe,  Morse  and  ndgy : 
ncwe  CTiwkvd  or  macti  diithwl. 

2.  Eyeft. — Brij;ht  and  lively,  free  from  wriokles  or 

fit  aurroundinga     .   .    - 2 

Olfjfttumi:  Smiill,  dii'jj  nr  olwcnre,  or 
riftioR  impaired  by  fut  or  oVtiur  c]ium. 

3.  Sail. — Medium  length,  thin,HliKhtIy  inclined  out- 

ward and  fnnvard 2 

ObJfttion»:  Largf,  vcium^.  thick,  large  or 
lone  Icnark,  drooping  or  nut  iind^r  goon  con- 
trul  of  thi'  unimiJ. 

4.  Neck      Khort,  w«^IJ  set  to  tha  flhanldcra,  tapering 

from  Hh'3'Uldt.'r  lo  heud 2 

Objeeliont:  lionR,  thick  or  bulky. 
6.  Jowl. — Lij^ht  lad  tupi-rinj;  frum  n«-ck  to  point. 

neat  and  lirni 2 

Ohjttliom :  Lvg«.  broad,  de)»p.  or  flabby. 

6.  Shoulders. --IV<'[i,  mMlium   widtb  and   fulnrao. 

well  in  line  with  hn<.'l( 6 

Objntii/ru:  Narrow  on  tup  or  botU>iD,  thick 
bt-yund  line  wtlh  sideit  and  hams. 

7.  Ch«lt.— Lwgi',  deep  and  rif^my  ;  full  girth,  ex- 

tending i|i>wn  even  with  line  of  belly    ....     12 

Objerthnt:  Narrow  it  top  or  bottom, 
finall  pirih,  rr&ni|>ed  or  tucked  Up, 

8.  Back  and  loin.-  Bjirk  xlnu^htorjiliKbtlyarirhed; 

niediuni  breadlh,  witk  nt'iirly  unifumi  thidt- 
ncM  from  shoulden  V'-  hiimi)  and  full  at  luins; 
sttnieltmeH  higher  at  hi}M  than  al  nhouldera     .    15 

O^refioiu;  Narrow,  crvaMed  or  drfjoped 
btihind  i(h»ulden :  aorfoce  ridgy  or  aneven. 

9.  Sides  and  ribs.     SidMfall.Kmooth.  Arm,  carrying 

aixv  evenly  frotn  shoulder  to  hama:  riba, 
atrong,  well  Hprun^  ut  lofi  und  liottvm     ...      8 

Objectioni :  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby  or  creaaed, 
or  rihii  nut  w«l)  aprunt;. 

10.  Belly  and  Bank.— SLmight  and  full,  devoid  of 

grosunfJiA ;  flank  full   and  running  nearly  on 

]in«  with  aidoa    . S 

Objretiunt:  Belly  aaggin^  or  flabby;  flank 
thin  or  Lurki'd  Tip, 

11,  HatDa  and  rump.— Hants  of  meditun  width,  long 

and  deep  ;  nimp  alightly  ruundi.-d  from  loin  to 
root  of  tail :  huKock  full  and  neat  and  Arm, 
devoid  of  AabfainMta  or  ezoeiaiVH  fat     ....    10 


SWINE 


SWIXE 


SCALB  OP  POIKTH  FOK   HaHPBHRB  SvmtE, 

CutllitiUfil  IVrfeel 

Ohjtctiotit:  Ham  narrow ;  cnt  too  high  in 
cratch,  buttock  flaiiky  ;  rump  too  lUtv  too 
narrow  or  too  st««p,  or  peakvd  at  root  of  taiL 

12.  Legs  and  feet—Irfiri  medium  Ipngth.  $»i  well 

apart  and  aquarBly  uader  \im\y,  widu  aliovu 
ImM  ind  tinck  &nd  rounded  and  wi^ll  mtiarled 
below,  taperioK ;  bone  mBdiuan ;  pufiternfi 
short  uul  nev]/  upright :  tof*  Rhort  mil 
film,  BDJiblinic  tbe  animal  lo  cany  iU  w«ight 

with  oom in 

O^WCiom:  Lege  tw>  lon^,  alini.  crooked, 
coaree  or  short;  wouk  mnmclus  abovs  hock 
and  kiif»e  boo* ;  large  and  coarse  le^H  withoat 
taper ;  paaterns  too  lon^  la  currenp'md  with 
length  of  Itg,  too  crc'oktfd  or  too  slender ;  f^i^t 
limg.  Hlim  and  weak  .  t(iL«  B)>n>iuliii);,  too  lung, 
cr<x^k'#d  or  turnwd  up. 

13.  Tall.  — Mediam  Itncth.slichtlycaried 1 

Objtdiom:  Oinrse,  long,  clumay,  awing- 
hg  likn  R  pi'indulum. 

14.  Co«t.-   PJnp,  KtrniKht,  smooth 2 

OlfjtctwM:   Briatles  or  HwirU.  coarse  or 
curly. 
Ifi.  Color.— Black,  with  ex<!ppUoti  of  vhlto  belt  en. 

circling  the  body,  inctuding  fore-k|i!S   ....      2 

Dhjffliam:  White  nmninjj  hitfli  on  bind- 
l(-i:«  -^r  oxlendinK  more  tb.aa  on»-fgurth  leii|j:lh 
of  h>n\y,  ur  H'llid  black. 

16.  Siie. -'l.an(«>  tor  condiLinn  ;  hcMir  two  years  old 

and  over,  450  ;  how,  same  aee,  400 ;  eiffbteen 
montliA,  boar,  ^hO ;  9»w,  32&  :  twi'lw  monthe, 
boar  or  aow,  300  ;  six  montha,  both  sexes, 
140 S 

17.  Action  and  style. — Activp,  vit;nriiuii,  quick  and 

(!ra<-eful  ;  style  atlracliv*'  and  spirited     ...      4 
Objrdiont:  Dull.  Hluggibh  ikcid  clunuy. 

18.  Condition.— Ik- iillhy.  iikia  trw  trvm  all  defects; 

ll«sh  evenly  laid  on  and  smooth  and  flrra,  not 
palchy,  und  devoid  of  all  ciicimb  of  gri}i«nv«H  .      4 

Obje4^tio7it :  Skin  srurfy,  scaly,  mansy  or 
otherwifie  unhealthy:  hAirhar«b;  dwsrf^  or 
cramped,  not  growthy. 

19.  Disposition. -Docile,  quiet  and  eoBiiy  handled   .      3 

Objrctioni:  Cross,  rutlcss,  vicious  or  with 
no  anibilion. 

Pnrfftction 100 

Hiaterjf. 

The  oriKiniil  .American  n»me  nf  this  linked  is 
Thin  Kinil.  In  liK)4,  the  orRmiizalinn  wliieh  looks 
iifU-T  thu  intertats  of  tho  brtt-d,  changwi  the  namo 
to  Hampshire,  which  is  now  the  official  name  of 


the  breed.   It  is  the  1at«et  addition  to  the 
nireii  jiure  liremls  of  awin^  in  the  L'nit«()  i>tat«l> 

AccDrdiBK  to  Mr.  H.  P.  Work,  the  namfii^ir? 
trac&B  to  piifs  brought  to  Miit>.sachu5ettd  from 
Hampshin',  Encland,  about  1S20  or  18^.  Il 
alan  stated  that  descendants  of  thb)  iiDportatt 
vn-m  tak-n  t"  Kentucky  about  1835.  Bo  this  u 
may,  the  breed  hsH  been  known  in  Kentucky  for 
many  years,  Variona  theories  rejfardintf  its  origin 
have  Ituen  advance!,  but  it  seem.4  tmp<V!itble  to 
secure  deliniU;  and  reliable  iDformation  reganllni 
the  origin  of  tin?  brieed. 

Dittribiition. 

Acconiing  to  the  necpetary  of  the  Ham^ 
Assuitiiaticm,  the  breed  is  to  be  found  in  a  tari 
numbur  of  atatea,  hut  the  numbers  in  anr  o 
statf  are  not  largo,  comparatively  speaking.  Kea- 
tBcky.  Illinois  and  Indiana  are  probably  the  nioitt 
important  fonters,  but  the  breed  has  b«?n  making 
rBpi<l  pnigresrt  of  late.  One  or  two  very  amali 
importations  have  ))e«n  made  into  Canada,  bat  no 
rejfiHirationft  havu  yet  bL>en  made  in  the  Canadi 
Record. 


1 


FIb.  M9.    HampihUs  koi. 


Hampehires  do  not  vary  cttremcly  in  typt, 
we  may  judge  by  exhibits  made  at  the  j«adiag 
shows,  and  the  breed  has  not  yet  attained  snfficieiA, 
promin4->nee    to  admit  uf  an  intelligent  stndy 
this  ph&»o  of  the  quoRtion. 

Urn. 

It  is  claimed  for  the  Hampttbire  that  it  is 
bacon  hog.  In  regan]  to  this  claim,  we  mutit 
in  mind  that  what  the  American  packer  calb 
bacon  bo}(  is  .i  v^xy  different  aninuil  from  the 
requirvl  t*>  make  a  "  Wiltshirw  side"  for  export  to 
Bnglund.  It  is  animals  suitable  for  making  Wilt- 
shire sides"  that  have  ^iven  rise  to  the  mark« 
term,  "bacon  hog."  and  if  judged  from  this  atand- 
pfiint,  the  Hamp-ihire  would  fall  far  short  of 
TRquirementii.  tt  is  altogether  too  short  in  tbti 
tilde,  tiM)  thick  in  the  Hliimlder,  and  too  hearr  in 
the  neck  to  make  a  number  one  "Wiltiiihire  ■ld^" 
but  OS  a  light-weight  hog  for  supplying  bacon  f 
home  consumption,  the  Hampshire  answers 
purpose  very  satisfactorily. 

In   early  maturity  and   feeding  qualitiee, 
II:im].uihire  «i%mfl  to  Ite  giving  gotid  aatisfnction 
thoM)  who  are  handling  it,  and  it  is  highly 
as  a  grazer.    It  is  an  active,  hardy  breed,  aad 
there  i»  no  apparent  reason  why  it  should  Dot  gtre 
a3  good  an  account  of  the  food  It  coosanes  aa 
othor  breed. 

In  quality  of  flesh,  the  Hampuihin-  has  an  en 
able  reputation.  It  has  made  an  exr-ellent  record  i 
the  dressed  carcass  competitions  at  the  Intent- 
tiona!  Live  Stock  Exponition  at  Chicago,  and  tlw 

r ackers  appear  to  regard  it  with  hi^  aoproraL 
ts  strong  point  is  tho  targe  proportion  of  leu. 

The  Hampfthire  ranks  high  in  regard  to  fecsn- 
dity,  and  appears  to  be  one  of  the  muftt  prolific  of 
American  breeds  so  far  aa  w«  are  able 
gat«  the  matter. 


SWINE 


SWINE 


The  vabo  of  the  Hampwhirc'  for  cross-breeding  is 
not  well  known,  bat  it  seems  rL-iisonabIc  to  RUpiwwt^ 
that  it  shuuld  cross  well  with  the  fat  types  of  hogts. 

Organimiioui  and  rttordt. 

Thti  American  Hampshire  Swirw  Record  jVasocia- 
tion  was  orKonixtil  in  ISyii,  and  published  its  first 
hLTcihook  in  lUWi.  Threo  volumes  of  the  herdbook 
have  U'^'n  ijnhlished  to  date  (1908),  with  a  total  of 
4,775  regialrations. 

Literature. 
Kor  references,  see  page  646. 

Large  Yorkshire  or  Large  Wbite  Swine.    Figx. 
6.0.  671. 

By  G.  E.  Day. 

The  I^arge  Yorkshire  is  an  T!nglish  breed  of  swine. 
It  pofiseaaee  very  superior  bacon  qualities,  and 
atand8  preeminent  amonc  the  baoon-hoK  typea. 

Dttcription. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  is  one  of  the  larpwt  breeds 
of  swine.  The  snout  is  of  mi'dium  Icn^^h,  and 
flhould  poflsesa  little  or  no  dish,  although  there  is  a 
moJerutti  dish  in  the  face.  Tiie  jowl  is  of  Kood 
width  and  tnuKcnlar,  bnt  it  should  not  he  ftahhy, 
nor  hc-avily  loaded  with  fat.  The  earn  are  rather 
large,  and  sometimes  inclinc-d  forward,  capecially 
in  old  animals,  but  they  should  be  firmly  attached 
to  the  head,  should  not  he  coarse,  and  shoald  be 
(ringed  with  fine  hair.  The  shoulder  and  back  are 
only  of  medium  width,  the  side  is  long,  and  the 
ham  carriw  very  little  surface  fat.  making  it 
lighter  than  the  bam  of  the  fat  or  lard  type 
of  hog.  The  flesh  of  the  ham  should  bo  carried  well 
ronnd  the  inside  of  the  thigh,  and  the  ham  gener- 
ally shows  a  tapering  appearance  toward  the  hock. 
The  bone  is  fairly  heavy,  but  should  be  clean  and 
flinty  in  appearance.  The  leg  is  longer  than  the 
teg  of  the  fat  hog.  Tlie  color  \»  white.  Black  hair 
on  any  part  should  di»|ualify.  Black  or  blue  spots 
on  the  skin  do  not  disqualify,  but  are  objected  to, 
and  the  aim  of  breeders  is  to  rednce  these  spots  to 
a  minimum.  In  the  description  of  the  snout  of  the 
Large  Yorkshire,  the  utandanl  of  excellence  pre- 
pare by  the  .American  Y<>rkshire  Club  falls  short 
of  the  ideal  of  the  beat  breeders  of  the  prewmt  day. 
The  short,  turncd-up  snont  is  no  longer  popular, 
although  it  is  v^ry  frequently  seen. 

Poilowing  is  the  standard  of  excellence  and  scale 
of  iwints  adopted  by  the  American  Yorkshire  Club 
in  1899: 

ScALK  or  Points  koe  Larub  Yokksiuke 

SWIKR  Perfwt 

1.  Oeoefa)  outline.  TyioK  and  dc«p  in  proportinn 
'j>  width,  hut  Hot  niunsive  ;  slightly  urctiud  in 
tlw  baek,  ajnnmeCriral  sml  flmnoth,  with  body 
Kmly  mpported  hy  w<>)t-[>l3Ci^l  \vgn  of  medium 
kngtb Ti 

£.  OatUoeof  bead.  — M«]erac«  in  length  and  tise, 
vHh  lower  jnw  wi^ll  Rpnint;,  adiI  coiuidcrilblo 
diati  toward  snoot,  imiviuinf;  with  advanced 
nstority 4 


Stale  op  Poists  for  Large  YoRKamiiE  Swwa, 

continiie^l  P«rf»rt 

■MI* 

8.  Forehead  and  poll.     Wido   . 1 

4.  Bye.  -Mfdium  kk,  cl«ar  and  bright 1 

5.  Jowl  — 'Medium,  nut  carried  loo  f&r  back  tuward 

Betk,  and  not  flnbbjr \ 

6.  Snoot. — Tuiaing  upward  with  a  ebart  carve,  in- 

creaeing  with  ii(;e 1 

7.  Ear. — Medium  in  itie.  standinit  woll  out  from  the 

Iwad,  of  Tni^'diompivction  and  tnrlining  nlightly 
forward 1 

8.  Heck, — Of  rrn.'ilium  length,  fair  width  and  depth, 

mitif;  frradnally  from  poll  to  withers;  mt»ca- 
lar,  but  not  gnim,  evenly  connecting  hevl  with 
body 3 

9.  Outline  of  body. — Long,  A^vo  and  of  muJiom 

hrciidth,  £'r|ii:ilty  wide  at  BAonlder.  side  aad 
hams;  t<it'- bud  slightly  arcbfd,  undcr-luie 
slrHbithL 7 

10.  Back.  -  Moderately  broad,  even  in  width  froDri 
end  to  fnd ;  strong  in  loin,  short  riha  of  gond 
length -   .    10 

IL  SIloulder.^Large   but   not   matwivA.  not    open 

above 6 

12.  Arm  and  tlligb.—Broad  ud  lA  mvdiuni  lun(;th 

and  development 2 

13.  Blifllcet.—  Widnaiidon  a  iBvd  with  unil«r-hno   .      3 

14.  Side.     Ixinjf,  deep,  HtraiKhL  and  even  frum  abouL- 

dt.T  to  hip 8 

l."*.  Ribs. — WpH  arrhed  and  fieftp B 

16.  Heart  ^rth  and  flank  girth. — Good  and  about 

ei|ua.l 8 

17.  Hind -quarters.  -Long,  to  coneapond  with  ihoul- 

der  and  ttidv ;  Avv\),  with  moderate  and  grailttal 
droop  to  tail 5 

18.  Ham.~~Liir(;e.  wull  Iwt  down  od  thigh  and  twiat, 

and  rear  outline  Botnevhat  manded 10 

19.  Twiat.— Well  down  and  meaty 1 

20.  Tall. — Medium,  nnt  much  inclined  to  curl    ...  1 

21.  Legs. —Medium  in  length,  atrong.  not  coarw,  bat 

ntiindinRstraiKht  and  finn 5 

22.  Hair.  — Abundant,  ionK,  of  medium  flnencw,  with- 

(iiit  any  hntitleH 4 

23.  Skin, —Smooth  and  white,  vithout  scale*,  but 

diirk  ti^>l9  in  ttkin  do  ni>t  di»i{aali(y 2 

34.  Color.— White  on  every  part 1 

25.  Movement.— Active,  but  not  reatless S 

Perfection 100 

llintifrjf. 

The  large  Yorkshire  undoubtedly  descended  from 
a  race  of  a  large,  coarse-botied.  leggy,  white  hoga, 
that  were  common  in  Yorkshire  and  adjacent  cotin- 
ties  for  BO  long  a  time  that  we  have  no  definite 
knowledge  of  their  origin.  These  coarsu  white  bogs 
poisesfled  the  merit  of  siie,  and  hence  it  was  pos- 
sible to  improve  them  by  crosising  with  finer  brewis. 
and  still  retain  plenty  of  size  in  the  improved  type. 
It  is  only  within  the  past  sixty  or  seventy  years 
that  any  marked  improvement  wa«  effected  in  the 
I^arge  White  hogs  of  Yorkshire.  According  to 
Sidney,  the  first  important  at«p  was  the  crossing 
of  the  Yorkshire  with  the  white  Leicester,  a  large 
breed,  but  finer  in  bone,  and  more  easily  fattened 
than  the  original  Yorkshire.  Perhaps  the  moet 
important  improvement  was  effected  by  crowing 
with  the  Small  Whites,  or.  aa  they  are  now  called 
in  America,  the  Small  Yorkshires.  These  small,  Bne- 
booed,  easily  fattened  hogs,  prodaced  a  very  marked 


670 


SWINE 


BWINE 


improvement  In  the  old  Yorkshire^  which  has  been 
etill  further  improved  and  brought  up  to  its  present 
high  staniinni  nf  excelknce  by  jnclicioitK  H(<leftLOn 
in  the  hanr]»  of  skilful  hreectera. 


*.  -:V* 


"2m 


N.vS. 


■v-*.>4. 


^^^ 


^^i^^i 


fji^ 


PlK.  670.    larcd  TarJunirc  Nmi. 


In  Amffka, — Large  White  hogs  have  been 
lifonght  to  the  Uniteii  State-n  nt  different  times 
during  the  past  cpntnry,  but  the  improveii  type  of 
l^irge  YorkHhiruK  can  ncarcfly  Jm*  hhiiI  tu  have 
uttaintMl  a  fituiiiiing  in  Lhu  IIniU*<l  tSLates  until 
]H9^  Among  the  firttt  to  im[iort  thL-m  into  CaTiaila 
were  Rome  of  the  packing  houses,  who  brought 
them  into  the  coiintry  for  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing thF>  hanon  (inalities  of  OinnrliiLn  hogn.  during 
the  pa^t  twenty  or  twenty-five  yaarR,  the  hnvA  ha« 
muilu  wonderful  progre^u  in  Canada,  and  haa  marts 
Hflimatfl  recorded  in  the  Canadian  record  than  any 
other  breed. 

Hiffrihufian. 

On  the  AmoricJin  continent,  Ijirge  Yorkshires 
have  madH  the  greatest  progrejw  in  Canada,  owing 
to  thi;  fact  that  Canadians  hava  Wn  paying 
specia!  attuntiun  to  the  prodnctioQ  of  bacon  hogs. 
In  the  United  States,  their  progre«3  has  been  com- 
paratively rIow,  and  itisdoubtfnl  whether  they  will 
ever  attain  a  high  (Jegree  of  popularity,  wppcially 
in  the  cnm-lwlt,  where  tliH  fat  tyjie  «f  hog  Hpema 
better  adapted  tu  prevailing  cK)nditiunH.  Minnesota 
is  the  headquarters  ftjr  th«  breyd,  and  they 
are  al!4o  found  in  North  Dakota,  South  Ha- 
kota,  Iowa,  New  York,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Virginia.  MajwachuRetts,  and  some 
other  Htaten.  Tn  Canada,  they  are  to  t>e 
found  in  every  province,  Chitario  taking  the 
lead. 

Uirge  Ynrkuhireaoceupy  a  very  important 
place  in  I'enmark,  and  there  are  compara- 
tively few  conntries  of  any  importance,  from 
n  live-Ktnck  xtand-point,  where  ths  breed  id 
not  repriwent*^. 

Large  Yt)rkshirBa  vary  more  or  leas  in 
tvpe,  ami  it  rei|uire8  skill  in  selection  to  keep 
them  tmo  to  the  beat  type.   Some  years  ago. 
it  wac  common  to  find  Large  Yorkahires  with  very 
Rhtirt,  tnmed-np  snoiitjt.   This  atyh)  of  unnut  is  gen- 
erally aftHoriiited  with  a  rather  heavy  jowl,  neck 
and  shoulder,  which,  from  a  bacun  standpoint,  aru 


very  objectionable.  Another  type,  which  is  fr 
([uentty  seen,  hax  a  lt>ng,  scrawny  nerk,  narroi 
chest,  and  long  itonrse-lxjned  legK.  Thin  ty)ie  tx^ 
generally  very  h)ng  in  th«  side  and  smooth  in  the 
shoulder,  both  very  desirable  featnrw  from  a 
bacon  curer't;  standpoint ;  but  it  has  too  modi 
bone  and  too  coarse  a  tikin,  and  lacks  In  qosA- 
tity  and  quality  of  fleoh.  It  iit  alito  a  Bome- 
what  slow  feedi'T,  and  is  therefore  objection- 
able from  a  farmer's  »tand|Hjint.  The  m'*t 
dniirallu  type  hu»  sofficient  langth  of  Ride  l^ 
make  a  good  pucker*);  hog.  and  baa  conatit 
tiun  and  quality  to  such  a  marked  Aegne  till 
it  ifl  unexcelled  from  a  feeder'^  standpoint 

Urns. 

As  previously  intimnleil,  the  \jitk^  Yi 
sbire  is  especially  valued  for  b:ici»n-prud 
tiois,  whvre  a  long  side  abounding  in  li 
meat,  and  a  light  shoulder  and  neck  are  eitpe- 
cially  desirable.  The  large  size  and  strong  bow  of 
thin  breed  make  it  valuable  for  crowing  on  breedi 
that  have  become  unduly  line  in  the  bone,  aad 
lack  siae.  It  [!nisK«s  remarkably  well  with  the  Berk- 
Bhirw.  Chuster-VVhitt!  and  Poland-t'hino,  as  well  ai 
other  fat  breeds,  increa-ting  the  sise  and  the  pro^ 
portion  of  lean  meat  without  impairing  the  feed- 
ing qualities. 

The  liarge  Yorkshire  in  frefjnently  apoken  of 
being  "slower  maturing"  than  the  fat  typea  4 
hogs,  but  thifi  is  not  a  fair  way  of  stating  t 
case.  From  the  bacon  curer'sstandfnint,  the  bn- 
will  reach  desirable  market  weight  and  conditi 
at  as  early  an  age  as  any  exi.'«ting  breed,  and  then 
are  few  hreed«  that  equal  it  in  this  respect.  Tbei* 
fore,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  farmer  who 
fewJing  hugs  for  the  iiaeon  trarle.  no  breed  exevlt 
the  Yurkshirt"  in  point  of  early  maturity.  For  t 
production  of  a  fat  carcass  at  an  early  age.  bn*' 
ever,  the  Large  Yorkshire  is  not  so  well  adapted) 
It  is  a  special-purpose  breed,  and  must  be  regard 
as  such. 

Prum  the  fact  that  the  Large  Yorkshire  gr&' 
rapidly  and  derelopn  bone  and  muficle  more  rapidly 


than  it  develops  fat.  feeders  are  inclined  to  nf 
it  as  an  exp«nnive  hog  to  feed.    Careful  t!X[ier 
ments  go  to  show  that  such  ta  not  the  case,  ar 
that,  under  looet  circumstaoooa,  it  la  capable 


SWINE 


SWINE 


671 


* 


r 


KivinR  as  gmid  rotmlts  fnr  food  consumed  as  any 
oUier  brefd.  Il  ie,  [)u^ha))^  not  tto  veil  adapted  to 
rrasinK  a^  somi!  other  bruede,  and  a  hot  sun  is 
likely  to  bli»U-r  the  skin.  It  is  probable,  too,  that 
■n  exclusive  com  r&tinn  would  not  agree  with  it 
80  well  as  with  boihb  oth+^r  bmwlH  that  have  \KeD 
develnped  enpecially  to  cun»ump  corn.  Thw  I^rge 
Yorkshire  has  tieen  di?VBlo[iod  in  a  cimntry  where 
a  mixed  ralion  in  imeJ,  and  where  feeding  in  pens 
fa  Iiirjtoly  practiced  ;  and  under  snch  conditiiins  il 
givtM  an  exceltuntaccoant  of  the  food  it  consumes. 

For  qnality  of  Kicnn,  the  Large  Yorkshire  is 
rivaled  only  by  thfi  Tirniwurth.  The  largn  propor- 
tion of  lean  Ut  fat,  ihv  thick,  ttftthy  belly  and  jj;reat 
lenxth  «'  side,  render  tha  breeii  [MH^uHarly  deaira- 
Me  from  a  biuMjn  curer's  and  a  conftnmer's  stand- 
point. At  the  Provinciiil  Winter  Pair.  heMannually 
at  CiQetph,  Canada,  thore  is  the  largest  exhibit  of 
bacon  carcasses  of  any  show  in  existt'nce,  and  the 
Yorkshires  and  Yorkshire  gra<ii?s  alwayH  carry  off 
the  largpHt  share  of  tha  prists. 

Lurge  Yorkahiru  wiwh  are  vtiry  prolific,  and  are 
B)ileD<tid  nuri^'f^.  Tha  boars  arv  excti-ptionaLly  pre- 
potent and  stamp  their  character  and  color  on  their 
progeny  to  a  remarkable  degree,  nu  matter  what 
they  are  crossed  with. 

OrjianitiUionji  and  reeotds. 

The  American  Yorkshiru  Club  waa  oruanizufd  in 
1892,  and  the  first  herdbook  was  publisht'd  in  19()1. 
tip  tci  VM^,  three  herilbook.'*  hml  hwn  piibli.shed. 
in  which  10.582  animals  are  reconled.  In  Canaidn, 
Yorkshires  arc;  recorded  in  the  Dominion  ^wino 
Breeders*  Record,  and  up  to  .lanuary  I,  1908, 
29,185  animals  had  been  recorded,  Fur  further 
infonnalion  regarding  Canadian  records,  see  under 
Bvrkshirea. 


¥ 


LUeratun, 

For  references,  see  page  64fi. 

Poland-ChuiA  Swine.   Fig.  672. 

liy  a.  K.  Dajj. 

Poland-China  swine  are  entirely  the  prodact  and 
development  of  American  awine-breedera.  "niey  are 
of  the  lard-hog  type. 

The  Poland-China  ia  a  mediam-sized  breed,  and, 
as  commonly  bred,  is  not  bo  large  a.t  the  large 
type  of  Berkshire ;  but  the  avenige  Poland-China 
if.  well  Dp  to  the  average  Berkshire  in  weight. 
The  face  is  sligbty  dished  :  the  jowl  full  and 
heavy ;  the  nars  ahimld  be  dm",  firmly  attiichnl  to 
thu  head,  and  about  one-third  of  the  ear  should 
droop.  The  neck  is  phort,  thick,  iind  heavily  arched 
on  top.  The  shonlder  Is  heavy,  the  side  rather 
short,  but  deep,  and  the  hack  wide,  with  a  slightly 
arched  tnp-line.  Tlie  whole  hin.d-i)uarler  is  h«&vily 
6edied,  the  ham  heingexceptronally  wide  and  deep. 
The  legs  are  chort,  an<l  the  Iwiie  fine,  breeders  hav- 
ing gone  to  an  t'^xtreme  in  regard  tn  fineness  of 
bone  in  many  ca««.  Some  years  ago,  Poland- 
Chinaa  were  freely  markeil   with   white,  but  the 


fashionable  color  tnday  is  black,  with  six  whit« 
points,  namely,  while  in  face,  on  tlie  feet,  and  tip 
of  thi>  tail.  \  limited  number  of  white  markint;s 
on  otht'r  parts  of  the  body  are  not  seriously 
object«?d  to. 

Following  is  the  description  and  scale  of  points 
adopted  by  the  National  Association  of  Expert 
Judges  of  Swine: 

Sc'Ai^  OP  Points  pok  Polaku  China 

SWLVli  IVf«^t 

1.  Bud  ■ 4 

2.  ByM 2 

a  B«rt  2 

4.  HKk Z 

5.  Jowl 2 

6.  Staouldcrt 6 

7.  ChtsI \l 

8.  Back  tnd  loin ' 14 

9.  Sidfs  and  rtba 10 

10.  Belly  and  flank 4 

11.  Hsm  and  rump 10 

12.  Feet  and  leji 10 

1.^  Taa      I 

14.  Coat      3 

15.  Color 3 

IS.  Slie 6 

17.  Action  and  etyle 3 

18.  Condition 2 

IV.  Dispotitioa 2 

20.  Synmctry  of  points 3 

P«rr«Nrli«n irO 

1.  tfcod.— Head  should  be  bixiad.  ev«n  and  smooth 
between  anrJ  rIkiv*.  th*  •yw;  ulighcly  diMhed,  ta|>ering 
e.vi^nly  and  Krivduslly  to  near  Die  end  of  th«  naee;  broad 
lower  JKor.  t>«sd  Wliond  Ut  «hortDCAfl,  hut  not  onnti|;h  to 
Kive  the  appcaiKBce  (A  stnbby  nose;  and  in  male,  s  mucu- 
Unc  expression  ind  spnearane*. 

Ol>)tetioni. — Head  lone,  narrow  between  the  eyes;  aoie 
aneven  and  course;  too  Inrg*)  at  th«  iDuule  or  the  hrud  too 
Bbi>rt;  not  full  or  hitrh  above  the  eyw,  or  too  much 
wrinkled  arunnil  or  above  tbD  vy^K. 

2.  Ri/ts. — Kull.  clear,  promim^nt  and  expreaaive. 
Ohjteiiotu. —  Dull    eiprvfiflion,    deep    Mt    or  obtCDje. 

Slgbt  impiilrcd  by  wrinklrii.  fatnr  other  caiini>. 

:i.  fiiri.  — Kara  attached  t-j  the  heud  by  a  ahort.  Arm 
knuck,  givinsr  frit<  &111I  eiL^y  wtiim;  standing  up  alixhtly 
at  tbo  baae  to  within  two-thirds  of  the  tip.  where  a  fcentle 
break  or  droop  itiiituM  ovcur;  in  nuv  neittit^r  ton  large  nor 
totj  urnall,  bat  even,  Rne,  thin,  leaf  shape;  ilightly  inclined 
outword- 

ObjectiQM. — I*ar([e,  flttppy.  struiglit.  nprieht  or  coarse; 
knvL-k  limt;,  iDttinj;  the  e.ir  droop  t<jo  cIiwd  to  the  head 
and  la.pp.  hindiTioE  thn  animal  of  free  uce  of  the  ear^. 

4.  Nttk. — Short,  wide.  ovon.  smooth,  wt-tl  arched; 
roil tidinjf  and  full  frnm  pull  to  abovlder,  with  doe  regard 
to  tho  characteristica  of  the  Hex. 

OlQf€ti*»t*. — Tiling,  narrow,  thin  and  droapintc  from  the 
(houlder  to  the  poll,  with  anewnnM*  caaecd  by  wrinkle* 
or  rrenMMi. 

r>.  Jowl. — Foil,  broad,  deep,  pmnoth  nnrf  firm,  rarryfng 
fnllnew  bank  to  near  point  uf  nh'^uliliTx.  and  beluw  line  of 
tower  |aw  ao  that  the  lower  line  wilt  be  ua  low  ua  breoHt- 
bone  when  hi'fid  ia  carried  op  tev^l. 

Ohjfetioru.—lAKht,  lUbby,  thin  and  wedj^-ahiped, 
deeply  wrinkled,  not  droopioE  below  line  of  lower  jsw, 
and  not  carrying  fnlneaa  bnek  to  nhoulder  and  brisket. 

G.  Si«ulAfr*. — Droad  and  OTat  at  lh«  to]),  ahowinic 
ev«nner«s  with  the  back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from 


672 


SWINE 


SWIXE 


the  top  to  the   battoin,  and  even  smoothneu  extending 
vrell  furvrard. 

OhjretumM. — Narrow  at  the  top  or  bottnm;  nnt  ao  deep 
w  the  body;  uneven  widlb.  SKields  on  pijj'S  und«r  eight 
moDths  of  ngs,  or  shawinK  tno  murh  shield  lit  any  a^. 

7.  Chert. -horse,  wide.  de*p  and  full ;  even  under-line 
to  the  ftbaulnler  and  »idtts  with  nn  cri';a»i^8:  ^ving  plenty 
of  room  for  heart  and  other  origans.  makinK  ■  lu^  l^rth, 
Indicatini;  much  vitiility.  Bmk«t  smooth,  own  and  broad, 
wide  between  \egs,  and  exteading  well  f&rward,  ahowioK 
in  front. 

06/friun*. ^PinchwJ  aiifwarnnce  at  tho  top  or  bottom, 
or  tucked  m  back  of  fore-legMi  ahowiny  mo  nwrow 
b«tw««n  thn  Vgt;  not  depth  enouj^h  back  of  the  ahunildi^r. 
Briakvl  uneven,  narrow,  not  prvmin'ent. 

8.  Bark  and  lirin. — Rruad,  etrai);H  or  sK^btly  archeil, 
carryint;  ttunie  width  from  Moulder  to  ham,  surface  even. 
atnooth,  frve  from  lumpft,  crvfuni'a  nr  |iroj(^i'tii>iiFt,  nut  ttm 
lotiK,  bnC  broad  on  top,  indfcatiiiKwelt-ftpninj;  tiba;  ahnvU 
aA  be  higher  at  hip  than  al  tihuulOi'r  Liiid  fthiidd  fill  out 
at  janc-tinn  with  nlde  aa  that  a  fltraij(ht-e(iKo  placed  along 
at  top  of  Bids  will  toucb  all  thtf  way  from  point  of  afaouldei 
to  poJTit  ctt  ham;  »huuM  Im  ahi>rter  than  lower  belly  line. 

Objeetioru.-~iitiTrDw,  created  back  of  ahonldem.  swayed 
or  hoilnw,  ilrnoiiing  b^low  a  Htraif;ht  line:  bamiH-d  nr 
wrinkled;  too  tone  or  suo-tiah  shaped:  loin  high,  narrow, 
deproswd  or  humjwl  uji;  surf itcv  lumpy,  cntamtd,  riil^y  "f 
aneven,  width  at  fide  not  at*  mucrh  as  ithoulder  ami  ham. 

y.  Sidtiiiful  rifts, ^SiJt'8  full,  ftrm  and  dwji,  frvi)  fruni 
wrinkles;  carryini:  huw  down  to  b«lly;  eren  frwn  ham  to 
shoulder.  Ribs  uf  j^owi  len|rth,  wgU  sprung  at  lop  and 
bottom. 

Objtftion: — Plat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  m  fall  at 
bottom  as  at  top;  drnwn  in  at  iihnul(k-r  «o  na  lo  producn  a 
cnoW)  or  pinched  and  tui-k«d  up  and  in  as  it  approaches 
th*  ham;  unwcn  nurfwi*;  rilm  flat  or  tuo  ohort. 

10.  BeUji  4n.J  jiank.—'BiWy  broad,  straluht  and  fall. 
lndkatiii)i;  ^.'iiptu'ity  and  nmni,  liciin^  lahout  the  samo  or  on 
n  IflTtl  at  th*-  flank  with  the  undtir  che«it'l!n«.  Under-line 
flti^Uht  or  nearly  sa,  and  froe  from  flaldiy  appearance. 

OijeetmnM.  -Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent 
loDflenens  in  the  make-i^.  Pinched  up  in  the  dank  or 
flanked  tuo  hiifh. 

U,  Ham  and  rump. — Haras  broad,  full,  deep  and  long 
from  rcTnp  to  htick:  fully  dov(sIo]N'd  ahnri'  nnd  h<^low, 
buin);  wide  at  the  point  of  the  hip,  carryinK  widt!li  welt 
down  to  the  lower  purt  of  the  h)im«:  flc*by.  [ilump,  round- 
ing, ftilneis  perceptible  everywhere.  Romp  roiindinii  and 
gradoally  HlopinK  fmm  the  luin  to  the  ruut  of  thu  tail, 
broad  and  well  developed  all  alnni;  from  loin,  and  in'adu- 
ally  rounding  to  the  buttock;  Iouit  (hmiI  part  of  ham 
ghrald  b*  full,  and  stifle  wp!I  covered  with  fl.^ah.  Kvan 
width  of  ham  and  rump  with  tbi>  back,  tuin  and  body; 
oven  a  gTftat^r  width  a,i  to  femalfs  not  ohjcctirinable. 

Objvtieru. — Ham,  abort,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim; 
not  fillH  lint  abovt'  or  b^tow,  or  unshapf'ly  fi>r  dnep  meat; 
DOT  ao  wide  aa  the  body,  back  or  loin;  Vxi  taperini;  or 
mull.  Rum|)  narrow  or  pointed,  not  pluTnp  or  well  tilled, 
«  loo  stwep  from  lyin  to  th«  tail. 

12.  X(qr«  and  JrrL—heKS  medium  lenKth,  straight,  set 
mil  tMR  and  «(]uarely  under  body,  taporiDg,  w«]I  miucled 
and  wide  above  knee  and  hock ;  below  hook  and  knee 
round  and  t.ip«ring,  capalil*  of  snst^ning  weight  of 
animal  in  fall  flesh  without  braaking  down;  bona  tirm  and 
of  flne  t*xtar«;  pastfima  short  and  nearly  upright.  Peot 
firm,  short,  tough  and  free  from  defects. 

OhjtetionM. — Lugn  long,  alim,  cymn<p,  crooked;  moiclM 
small  above  hock  and  knoe;  bone  large,  coam;  u  large 
at  fiiut  UH  above  kn««:  paetems  long.  Ktiin,  crooked  or 
weak:  the  hocka  tnroed  in  or  out  of  straiefat  liii»:  l«ga  too 
close  together;  hoofs  long,  alim  and  weak;  toes  sprpsding 
or  emoki.>d  or  nnable  to  bear  weight  of  animal  wlthotit 
breaking  down. 


'  coaauuncL 


13.  TVjt/.— Tail  of  mediam  length  and  ai»,  niMoth  an 
tapering  well,  and  carried  in  a  carl. 

Oi^aiioiu. — Coane   aad   long  vtthmt  a  citri:  shoi 
crooked  or  stnbhjr;  too  small,  ereo.  not  taperiSK- 

14.  Voat. — y\n\',  straight,  amnoth,  lying  elose  te 
eorering  the  body  well;  not  clipped,  erenly  dittrilm 
over  the  body. 

Oywfions.— Bristles,  hair  coaiM.  barsli.  tbin,  wavy 
curly:  swirls,  atODding  up,  vads  of  hair  split  and  brows, 
not  evenly  distribated  over  all  of  the  body  exc«|tt  belly.' 
Clippad  coats  mbould  be  cat  1.5  points. 

15.  CWiir.— Hlack,  with  aix  ^ii)  whit«  pointa: 
tail,  fonr  white  feet  and  white  in  face  on  the  note, 
the  point  of  lower  jaw;  all  to  be  perceptible  witluMit 
examination.  Splasbee  of  white  on  the  jaw.  le(»  or 
or  a  fftw  spota  of  white  on  the  body  not  ofajeetioaable.' 

OV<«ti0>>«.— Solid  black,  whit«  mixed  or  undy  apots: 
HiM-okled  with  white  bain  onr  tbe  body;  nottled  face  of 
white  and  black,  bur  nnxod,  making  a  Rrlnly  apputaaoib 

16.  Sut. — Lar]{«  (or  ag«.  ConctitJon,  vigor  udTftalil, 
to  be  cofisiderMl.  There  shonid  be  a  difTereuM  bttwwv 
broeding  animate  and  tboM  kept  or  fitted  for  tbe  sbow,  ot' 
at  least  25  per  cent  fn  site-  In  show  condition,  or  when 
fat,  a  twD-ye&r-old  boar  shonU  weigh  not  I«aa  than  six 
hundred  ((>on)  pounds,  and  aaow  not  less  than  fiva  hun- 
dred (5001  pounds.  Boar  one  year  and  over,  (oar  hudred 
(-100)  pounds:  80W,  tbn.1t)  handrad  and  fifty  (360)  poonds. 
Boar,  eij^hteen  months,  flvo  bnndred  (600>  poon^;  tow. 
fonr  huii'ln-d  und  fifty  (4&0}  ponnds.  Boara  and  sows  six 
months  old,  not  lo.'ui  than  one  biindred  and  sixty  (1<X)} 
pounds-  All  hu^^'H  in  Just  fair  breeding  coDdition,  one- 
foarth  left)  fur  size.  The  keeping  and  rhancAtltal  ajOBOC 
hog  has  cuts  a  figure  in  his  size  and  sboald  be  coaauKl^ 
oth^r  pnlniii  b«ing  c(]n:il.  Fine  quality  and  alsa 
are  deHirnble. 

Of^rttionM. — Overgrou'n;  coorso,  flabby,  loom 
ance.  gangling,  hard  to  fatten  :  too  fine,  andcrstaa;  a^ort. 
Htubliy,  inclinod  to  chubby  futseea:  not  a  bardy,  rolmst 
animal,  M 

17.  Action   tnd    atylt. — Aclba    vlgoroas.   easy  andf 
gracefnl.  Rtyle  attrsrtive:  high  carriage;  and  la  males, 
testicles  should  be  prominent  and  of  about  tbe  nme  siis, 
and  yet  not  too  large  and  pouchy. 

Otijw/ioiu.— Clumsy,  s1l>w,  awkward  movenMnt',  hnr 
carriage;  waddling  or  twittttng  walk;  a  seeming  tired  or 
laiy  appearance;  not  ataoijing  erect  and  firm. 

18.  CiiiuftXwm-— Ht-aliby,  skin  dear  of  scurf,  aeais* 
and  sores;  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  fl^sh  fine;  evenly 
laid  on  and  (reo  fnim  lumps  and  wrinkles.  Hair  lufl  aa4 
lying  cloee  to  body;  good  feeding  qnatitiu. 

Ot|;cc£iQils.— t'nbealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby 
or  harsh;  fiabbinAM  or  Ittmpy  fiesh;  too  nach  fat  (or 
Ibreeding.  Eair  harsh,  dry  and  etandiae  ^V  txnm  body; 
poor  feeders:  deafnesa,  partial  or  total. 

19.  i>tipo«ifuMi.— Lively,  easily  handled  and  waintly 
kind,  reapnniiir^  tu  good  tnalment. 

Ohjtrti^**. — Cross,  slnggiab,  restless,  wild  or  of  a 
vicious  turft, 

2*1.  Symmftrf/or  adaptation  of  poimU. — TbeadapUtwa 
of  all  (ho  piiinl):.  »ko  and  style  combined  to  maka  Um 
deured  type  or  mode!. 

Hinton/. 

The  Polaod-China  orifpnated  in  Batler  and  Wv- 
ren  counties,  in  Ohio.  These  two  coontJM  are 
drained  by  the  <>reat  Miami  and  the  Little  Miami 
rirerfi.  The  vallt^y  of  the  Miami  i^  a  very  fertile 
district,  and  it»  natne  is  closely  aHncist«d  with  the 
early  history  of  this  breed.  The  history  of  the 
origin  of  Pola&d-C'hioa  swine  is  not  altf^rf-tber 
dear,  and  some  poiiit«  have  been  the  subject  at 


SWtNE 


SWINE 


GTS 


lenpfthy  controversies.  From  the  varying  theories 
and  claims  put  forward,  we  may  accept  the  foJlawine 
slaWnn^ntfl  an  beiny  reasonably  accurat*r.  I'revious 
to  ISlfi.  th^RuMia  and  Byfield  breeds  were  largely 
iwed  forcrawinRon  the  common  hogs  of  the  Miami 
valley.  Tliuse  w«rti  both  white  breeds,  possessing 
more  or  less  merit  as  feeders.  In  ISlC,  the  Society 
of  Shakers,  of  Umon  Village.  Warren  county, 
brought  a  boar  and  three  sowa  from  I'hiladelphia. 
The  piga  were  represented  to  the  Shakers  as  being 
of  pure  ChineHfi  blood,  and  they  were  called  Big 
China*.  The  boar  and  two  of  the  bows  are  said  to 
have  been  pure  white,  and  the  other  bow  waa  white, 
with  aome  sandy  and  black  spots.  These  Big 
Chinas  and  their  descendants  were  exten.iively 
crossed  on  the  hogH  then  in  the  cotinty.  and  the 
resulting  type  came  to  be  known  aa  the  Warren 
county  hog.  The  Big  China  was  it  medium-sized 
tireed,  of  fine  bunu  and  good  fueding  qualiliea,  and. 
its  use  on  the  hogis  of  Warren  couuty  effL-cted  a 
marked  improvement.  It  is  also  stated  that  suhse- 
riuent  to  the  introiiuction  of  the  Big  China,  other 
China  hogs  of  finer  and  iimaller  type  wwre  brought 
into  thtfCfiuntv.  In  Ift.'?')  or  IfilO.  Derkshirea  were 
introduced  and  extensively  used,  and  about  1839  or 
1840.  the  Iriah  Grazii-r  wa»  im]>ort*d  and  uaed  oo 
these  piga  of  complicated  breeding  in  Warren 
county.  The  Irish  Grazier  was  a  white  breed  of 
considerable  merit  anil  liid  its  .share  toward  modi- 
fying the  Kiami  valley  hog.s,  It  was  also  said  by 
aonte  persons  that  a  Poland  breed  was  uf^e<l  for 
cnnsing  on  Warren  county  hogs,  while  others 
.  maintained  that  no  such  breed  was  ever  iiitr^fKluced. 
An  extended  controversy  ensued,  which  was  finally 
ended  by  the  lindings  of  a  committee  that  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  origin  of  the  breed, 
and  which  reported  its  findings  to  the  National 
Swine  Breeders'  Convention  hfld  in  Indianapojifl 
in  1872.  This  committee  reported  against  the 
theory  that  a  Poland  breed  had  been  u.sed,  but 
recommended  that  the  name  Poland -China  be 
recognized  as  the  accepted  name  of  the  breed.  The 
recommendation  was  udogtted,  and  since  that 
time  the  breed,  which  previously  had  been  known 
by  a  gve&t  variety  of  names  has  been  known 
AS  the  Poland-China.  It  is  ^aid  that  since 
l&4ri  no  outside  blood  has  been  infused  into  this 
breed. 

Diftriimtion. 

The  Poland-China  is  widely  distributed  over  the 
L'Dit«d  States.  The  principal  states  in  which  the 
breed  is  found,  according  Ut  the  iSeoretary  of 
the  American  Poland-China  Reconi  Aw^uciation, 
are  Ir>wa.  Illinois,  Tuxas,  Mifisouri,  Kansas,  NV 
braaka,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota, 
Wisconsin,  Oklahoma,  and  Michigan^  but  there  are 
few  states  where  Poland-Chinas  are  not  to  be 
found. 

In  Canada,  the  bruud  ha.1  not  obtained  a  very 
strong  foothold,  and  bait  rather  decreased  in  num- 
bers during  recent  years.  Th«  strong  demand  for 
the  bacon  type  in  Canada  is  mainly  reepoDsiLli;  for 
this  fact.  Outside  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
the  breiMl  is  but  little  known. 

C43 


Type*- 

As  is  the  case  with  other  breeds,  the  Poland- 
China  differs  more  or  less  in  the  hands  of  different 
breedera.  The  older  type  of  Poland-China  watu  u 
larger,  more  rangy,  and  heavier-boned  hog  than 
the  l'oland-(.'hinaa  seen  in  the  show-rings  of  today. 
Breeders  of  Poland-Chinas  have  gone  rather  to  an 
extreme,  on  the  whole,  in  the  matter  of  selecting 


■  NtiAi 


rig.  t/Jl.    Podjud-Cblna  boAr. 

for  fineness  of  bone,  and  the  result,  in  many  cases, 
is  a  hog  that  lacks  somewhat  in  size  and  in  fecun- 
dity. These  facts  have  been  brought  forcibly  before 
breeders  during  recent  years,  and  any  defects  of 
the  nature  stated  will  be  remedied,  no  doubt, 
by  thoughtful  breeder.4.  Even  now,  we  can  see 
evidences  of  a  change  in  methods,  and  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  PoIand-('hina  wili  be  bred 
to  retain  its  high  quality  without  sacrificing  ita 
utility. 

The  Poland-China  has  been  developed  esftecially 
to  meet  the  market  demand  for  a  fat  or  lard  hog, 
Ita  heavy  shoulder,  wide  back,  and  hea\ily  developed 
hams,  render  it  an  exceptionally  good  yielder  from 
the  packer's  Ktanclpoint. 

The  quality  »f  the  meat  produced  by  the  Poland- 
China  baa  fre(iuently  been  criticisMl  because  of  its 
large  proportion  of  fat  to  lean.  The  development 
of  a  tendency  to  pro<luce  lean  along  with  fat  has 
been  largely  overlooked  in  bringing  this  breed  to 
its  prefifint  stage  of  perfection  from  a  feeder's 
standpoint,  but  it  apgiearK  to  moel  the  demands  of 
the  American  jhacker,  and  ho  is  willing  to  pay  top 
market  price  fur  it. 

In  oarly  maturity,  that  i«,  in  ability  to  produce 
a  finished  fat  carcass  for  the  packer  at  an  early 
age,  the  Poland-China  is  unexcelled.  It  has  been 
bred  for  early  maturity  for  genenitions,  and 
has  attainted  an  enviable  reputation  in  this  con- 
nection. 

Afi  a  feeder,  the  Poland-China  is  a  favorite  with 
corn-bolt  farmers.  The  breed  has  been  developed  on 
coni-ft>eding,  and  seems  to  thrive  on  an  exclusive 
corn  ration  better  than  many  other  breeds.  In  a 
colder  climate,  and  on  a  mixed  ration,  the  Poland- 
China  might  not  show  to  so  good  advantage  as 
some  filliur  breeds,  but  fur  the  purprise  of  turning 
corn  into  pork,  it  h  dlHicult  to  beat.  The  I'oland- 
('hina  iias  also  demonstrated  its  usefulness  as  a 
grass  bog,  malung  good  gains  on  pasture  with  a 


G74 


SWTKE 


SWINE 


light  gnm  ration.  Experiment!  with  breeds  of 
8win«  have  resulted  di(r«ivntlyatdillerent  «tJition«, 
and  it  would  acem  that  economy  of  prodnctinn  is 
more  a  question  of  individuality  than  of  breed. 
Their  exceptional  tendency  to  fatten  renders  ani- 
mals of  thi»  breed  enpecially  vainable  for  crosjting 
purposes,  and  the  Poland-China  i»  highly  esteemed 
forcro!«ing  on  other  breeds,  aa  well  as  on  common, 
or  grade  stock.  A  cross  between  the  largu  York- 
shire and  the  roland-Chins  has  been  found  to  give 
an  excellent  hog,  both  from  a  farmer's  and  a  packer's 
standpoint.  Forcroesing  with  the  Berkshire,  Duroc- 
Jersey  and  Cheater- White,  the  breed  is  very  highly 
esteemed,  and  the  cross-bredfl  are  gcnt-ruUy  re- 
garded na  SQperior  to  the  pnre-breds  for  feeding 
poriposes. 

"Hke  most  serioua  cnticisTn  directed  against  the 
Poland-China  is  on  the  score  of  fecundity.  In  any 
brec>d  in  which  so  much  attention  has  been  paid  to 
the  development  of  fine  bone  and  a  very  marked 
tendency  to  fatten,  it  ia  only  natural  to  extwct  that 
there  would  be  some  Iom  of  ftwundity.  and  statistics 
appear  to  indicate  that  the  Poland-China  ia  no 
exception  to  the  rule.  This  criticism  applies  especi- 
ally to  the  very  fine-boned  types. 

OrgajiizatioRg  and  remrds. 

Organizations  in  the  interests  of  Poland-Chinas 
are  numerous.  The  largest  organization  is  the 
American  Poland-China  Record  .Association,  which 
was  orgMni7A!d  in  1S7S.  It  nnblifthet)  its  firpt  herd- 
book  in  1S79.  and  has  publiahod  fifty  volumes  to 
datu  (1908),  containing  the  names  of  278.000  ani- 
mals. The  Ohio  Polatiti-China  Itecord  wa.-^  organized 
in  1877,  and  up  to  1900  had  pnWished  twenty-seven 
voliiKicH.  The  Central  Poland-China  .\fisociation 
wa-H  organijwd  in  18S0,  and  puhli»(hed  twentv-six 
volnme.i  of  its  Record  np  to  PJOe.  In  1906.  the 
(Ihio  and  Centml  Associations  amalgamated  under 
the  name  of  the  National  Poland-China  Kecord 
Company,  and  since  amalgamation  two  volumes 
have  been  published,  which  are  numbered  twenty- 
night  and  twenty-nine,  beginning  where  the  O^hio 
hcrdbooks  left  off.  The  Ohio  Association  recorded 
103,000  head,  the  Ci-ntral  Association  48,000  head, 
and  since  amalgamation,  13.<J00  head  have  been 
recordeil  in  the  two  volumes  of  the  National.  The 
NorlhwuBlern  Poland-China  Swine  Asi«ociation  was 
organi&'d  in  1881.  The  Standard  Poland-China 
Record  Association  waw  organiite*!  in  1887.  and  has 
published  atime  twenty  votumefi  Kitice  that  time. 
The  South  western  Poland-China  Record  Association 
was  organised  in  1896,  am]  ha-^  published  two  herd- 
hook«,  with  2,378  registrations.  Theae  aMOclatioiu 
in  the  main  are  thrifty  and  inflaential,  as  indicated 
by  the  largu  number  of  n-giwtraliona;  but  the  best 
inturesU  of  the  breed  demand  greater  unity  of 
effort  and  of  ideals. 

In  Canad;i.  Poland -Ch  in  a*  are  reconleJ  in  the 
Dominion  Swine  Itreedera'  Record,  but  only  3,367 
hogs  of  thii*  brt-i?d  have  been  recorded  to  January 
1,  1908. 

Litfratarr. 

t'or  referenoeis  oec  page  646. 


Small  Yorksliire  or  Small  White  Swioe.   Tit 

673,  674. 

By  G.  E.  Da}/. 

The  Small  Yorkshire  if>  an  English  breed  of  pi( 
and  may  be  i^aid  to  be  of  the  fat-bog  type.  It  ia  i 
relative  «nimi>artance  in  America. 

Thxripiivn. 

The  Small  Yorkshire  may  be  considered  the 
smallest  breed  of  swine  kept  in  the  Tnited  States. 
It  has  a  very  short,  turned-op  snout,  wide  face, 
small,  erect  ears,  heavy  jowl,  and  a  very  short, 
heavy  neck.  The  body  ia  fthort,  thick,  deep,  and 
smooth,  and  the  legs  are  very  short  and  fine  in  ibe 
bone.  The  color  is  white  and  the  hair  is  abnodant, 
but  fine. 

Following  is  the  description  and  Kale  of  pois 
adopted  by  the  American  Yorkabire  Clab. 


Scale  op  Points  for  Shall  To«tRmiR8 

PwtNB 

1.  Oentral  ouUiae.— Wiiit^  and  doeii  in  proportioD 

to  the  lernrth,  ntraijtht  al>aro  and  bclov,  a&d 
Btii>rl  in  hciu),  nouk.  tKidjunri  limlM 

2.  Outline  of   head,     ^ort,  Abrupt,  iticliniig   to 

fine,  and  pnwcased  uf   much  dish  and  down- 
wiiril  HjirinK^nKuniler  the  jawa 

3.  Forehead  and  poll. —Wide 

4.  Eye.— MeiiiiiRi  aii£,  rl^ar  and  bright 

5.  Jowl.— Large,  amooth  and  carried  well  back  to- 

wnrd  the  nedt 

G.  Snout. — Short,  tvming  upward  ioin<>what.  witli  a 
iliM>|)  indrDturtT  ur  carve  imsediately  abffn  it . 

7.  Ear— Small,  thin,  erect  and  inclining  dightlf 

forwani  rather  than  Ijzu-kward  at  the  tiM   ■  • 

8.  Neck. -Short,  wide  uml  drap.  the  width  Mlghtlr 

increasing  tuwaris  the  shoniden 

9.  Outlinof  tHidy.— l^hort,hroad.deepuda(niglrt 

above.  Wlow,  and  on  th^  aide* 

10.  Back.— Very  itrond,  of  even  width  and  straight 

from  withers  to  tail  hwid 

11.  Shoulder.— Large  ftmoothly  and    evenly  dMel- 

r>I>ed,  and  blending  perfectly  with  nwck  aad 
cropp ••• 

12.  Arm   and    Ihlgh.  —  Moderately  wide,  te|Mvtaff 

aiceljr  down,  and  incltoin^  to  ba  abort .  .   .  ■ 

13.  BriRket.- Willi'  and  on  Uvel  with  ttnlBr-lfaM  .  . 

14.  Side.  -[>vep,  thii:k  in  every  part,  ttrslgfat  ni 

pvcn  frrira  Khituldt-r  L»  hip 

15.  Rib», — VVidt'lr  and  d«eplr  sprang _. 

16.  Heart  and  Dank  giitb.  — Ext^llrint  in  proporttoB 

Vi  the  l^mcth  of  b»jyand  ali'^Dl  dqaal  .... 

17.  Hind-quarters.— Uttlalivvly  luiitf  \  bri»«d  iaewfj 

part  ami  d>^ep,  with  bvt  littl«  lowering  towitd 
the  tiiij  head 

18.  Bam.— Largt^,  wnll  let  down  at  thi|{h  aod  Lwitl 

and  iDt-lined  to  be  slrai^ht  behind 

19.  Twist.-WDll  dftwn  and  full 

20.  TKit.--Fine.«hort  and  inclined  to  cor)    .... 

21.  Legs. — Sliiirt,  line   rather   than   coarse,  ftivt)(> 

alrai^tht.  and  p!ar»d  well  ap*rt     

22.  Hair.— Abundant,  fin--,  trvcn  in  naality    .... 

23.  Skin. — SniMth  tad  whii«-  nnd  free  from  trtttH 

and  scnlffi 

24.  Color  -  White  on  every  part 

25.  Horement.— Gentle  aikd  eaqr  but  not  at&cgiih  ■ 

ferfectioR I' 


SWINE 


SWINE 


675 


The  ii'mall  Yorkshire  conies  from  Rnglanil,  where 
it  goes  by  the  name  of  "Small  White,"  thw  name 
"Small  Ytirkshiru"  beinj;  uf  Aineriojin  origin.  The 
breed  is  Lhouj^ht  to  be  of  CbioBW  orij;io>  modified, 


#:... 


'^y^^-f.AJ: 


.^l^i 


/*f*^. 


Pli.  679.    Souill  Totluliim  bfM,t. 


of  course,  by  the  methtuls  nf  the  Eniilish  breederB. 
Various  tyjie*!  or  strains  nf  Sinall  Whites  hnve  been 
bred  in  Hnf^land.  but  at  present  they  are  all  classed 
U  onu  breed. 

/«  .Imfrii-a.— The  Small  Vorkshire  was  broucht 
to  the  Unit<Ml  t?tate8.  according  to  Curti*.  in  I8(><1, 
and  nuineroue  importationa  were  made  between 
that  time  and  IST8. 

Dittribution. 

Small  Whites  are  found  in  many  parts  of  Enff- 
land.  In  the  United  States,  under  the  name  of 
Small  Vurkshire,  email  henU  arc  to  he  fimnd. 
mainly  in  the  East.  The  breed  no  longer  attracts 
much  attention. 

i'»ai. 

It  U  Bomcwhat  dilTicnlt  to  Rive  any  very  impor- 
tant une  for  Small  Yorkshires  in  America.  The 
bree<J  matures  very  early,  and  fatten*  easily,  but 
prodaceiiexcef«ively  fat  meat.  It  i.s  prnlmhly  mit^it 
saitable  for  the  cottUfriT  wh<i  wantA  a  pig  lh\l  i:an 
be  matored  with  a  swiiiU  amimnt  (tf  ffinl. 

There  is  no  American  bn.'ed  that  rt^^uires  croe- 
sing  with  a  breed  like  the  S'mall  Yurk)<hJri),  unU«K 
it  is  the  "  Riuorback."  and  the  Eluisex  tttivmm  to  be 
nther  belter  adapt.'d  to  this  purpiwe.  as  it  will 
stand  the  hut  xun  of  tb^  South  better  than  a  white 

pip.  .Anyadvan- 

tai;e  frum  rnnw- 
ing  with  ordi- 
nary breeds 
would  acL-rue  to 
the  Small  York- 
shire, rather 
than  t<i  the 
other  hived. 

Pic .  (,!<     Small  rarktliin  tow.  v     ,t-  **["",' 

Yrtrfciihire  ik  nut 

noted  for  fecundity,  and   it  voulil  seem  ati  thouKli 

the  hrepd    were  destined   gradMally  to  dinappear, 

unless  Bome  unforeseen  conditions  arise  wbii'^h  call 

for  the  iierviceK  of  a  pig  of  this  kind. 

Organizat ioR»  and  rreoriia. 

The  American  Smalt  Yorkshire  ('tub  was  ofKin- 
ixed  in  1878,  and  has  reconM  some  l.FtOO  pigs  in 
itJt  herdiinok.  The  American  York«hire  Club  obtu 
recordi^  Sinall    YorkshireR,  the  Small    Yorkuhires 


being  recorded  in  what  is  called  C\i\&»  A  and  the 
l^rge  Yorkshires  in  Class  R.  In  Kngland,  the  hn->od 
i»  registered  in  the  herdliook  cif  the  National  I'ig 
HrcHiters*  AMUKtiatifm.  No  Small  Yorkshires  bate 
been  rocunled  under  this  name  in  Canaila. 

Lilrrature. 
For  references,  see  page  64& 

Suffolk  Swine.  Fig.  675. 

By  G.  E.  Day. 

The  Suffolk  is  an  KngliBh  breed  of  swine,  closely 
iilentiliwi  with  the  Small  Yorkshire,  and  of  little 
im]iortanee  in  America,  it  may  be  cla.<tsed  with 
the  fat-  or  luni-ho^  tyix.>s.  It  la  best  adapted  to 
intensive  conditions,  where  land  for  prajing  i» 
scarce  and  soiling  food  is  used  in  aiildition  to 
pasture. 

Dcseripfion. 

At  the  N'atitmal  Swine  Breeders'  ronvention  at 
IndianajMilis,  Indiana,  in  1872,  the  following  de- 
scription of  the  Sulfolk  waa  approved:  "Head 
small,  very  short;  cheeks  prominent  and  full  ;  fioo 
dishi-d;  snout  small  and  very  short;  jowl  fine;  oars 
short,  small,  thin,  upright,  soft  and  silky  ;  neck 
very  short  and  thick,  the  head  nppe-aring  almost  as 
if  set  OQ  front  of  shoulders,  no  arching  of  cre^t ; 
chest  wide  and  deep;  elbowe  standing  out ;  brisket 


/ 


K 


^a^^^ 


•^^^^W^"^ 


PIC.  6TS.     SuDoU  ]Wfl. 


^H    rtjcurci!   r>ii 


wide  but  ncil  deep ;  shoulders  thick,  rather  upright, 
ntundinjj  ontwanl  from  top  to  eEhnw  ;  crops  wide 
and  full,  long  riiw,  widl  arche<!  otit  from  back,  good 
lengtli  betwtwii  shouhiefB  and  hams ;  Hanks  well 
filled  out  and  coming  wi-ll  down  at  ham;  back 
broad,  level,  straight  from  crest  to  tail,  not  falling 
otT  or  down  at  the  tail  ;  hams  wide  and  full,  well 
rounded  not,  twist  very  wide  and  full  all  the  way 
4biwn  ;  legs  small  and  very  short,  sUinding  wide 
apart  in  sows,  justkwpinglM'lly  frwm  the  gnmnd; 
bone  fine,  feet  small,  hoofs  rather  sjiri'ading ;  tail 
sniatl.  long  and  taiiering;  skin  thin,  of  a  pinktRh 
shade,  free  from  color  ;  hatr  line  and  silky,  not  t<JO 
thick  ;  color  of  hair,  pale  yellowish  white,  perfectly 
free  from  any  Bjw>t«  or  other  color ;  size,  small  Ca 
medium."  In  size,  the  SutToth  is  probably  slightly 
larger  than  the  Small  Yorkshire,  but  it  t»  practi' 
cally  tbt^  same  breed. 

Kollowing  is  the  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the 
American  S\ifroIk  Association : 


676 


SWINE 


SWINE 


6CALB  OF  PaiNTa  FOB  SUFFOLK 

Swine  Porfm 

HOT* 

i.  Color —White 2 

2.  Head. — .Smul),  liroud,  nod  fuco  diBfa>ad 8 

3.  Ears. — yiae,  emct,  Hlijchtly  droopinR  with  age  ,  2 

4.  Jowl,— Full  iind  neal 1 

5.  Beck.— Short,  foil  aniialiKhtlyarched 3 

6.  Shoulders.— liruad  and  dwp 7 

7.  Glithacouad  heait 6 

8.  Baclc.-Straieht.  broad,  level 12 

9.  Sides.— !),■,)£>  Jiij.i  full 6 

10.  Hibs.— Wtili  eprunir 7 

11.  Loin. — Brviid  and  Htrong 12 

12.  Flark.— Well  letdown 2 

13.  Bam.— Brond,  full,  deep 12 

14.  Tail  — l!e.tiDni,fln«iind  corlod 2 

15.  Legs.  — Pine,  tttxuight  and  tapering 3 

Iti.  Feet.— Smull 3 

17.  Hair  — Fine  and  silky,  frew  from  bristlva     ...      3 

18.  Action. —Eiwy  and  gnwvful 4 

19.  Symmetry.— Adaptation  of  the  several  porta  to 

4^m;h  ulhur 10 

PurfBctipn lOU 

Hittory. 

The  Suffolk  is  undoubtedly  of  the  same  origin  as 
the  SmaU  York.«hire,  and  uian  offshoot  of  the  Small 
White  breed  in  England.  There  la  no  Kuch  bret-d  a^ 
a  Whitft  Suffftlk  rtcoi;nizfid  in  England,  hut  the 
name  Suffolk  i&  Bometimcs  applied  locally  to  the 
Small  Black  breed,  of  which  the  Essex  is  a  repre< 
tentative. 

In  America. — The  breed  is  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  the  United  States  in  18^)5.  but  it  has 
never  made  much  progreaa,  and  aeemB  to  be  losing 
ground  Mteadily. 

DiMtrUmtieu. 

Th«  so-callwl  Suffolk  piR  ia  confined  to  the  TTnitad 
States  and  Canada,  although  it  baa  practically  dis- 
appuared  from  the  latter  country.  In  the  United 
States  it  ia  found  mainly  in  the  Miasloslppi  valley, 
but  herdls  are  not  at  all  numerous. 

Vmui. 

What  lia«  been  said  refiarding  Small  Yorkahirea 
uiidnr  thiH  h+*ading  applies  hero,  aa  the  breeds  are 
t«aential]y  the  eame.    [See  page  C74.] 

Organiialiona  and  rerardt. 

The  .\merican  Suffolk  Assnciation  was  organiseii 
many  years  a^,  but  no  h«rdbook  ha*i  yet  bt^n 
publisheil.  In  Canada,  KiilfolkK  are  recorded  in  the 
Duminion  Swinu  BrwedMrs'  R«coni,  only  850  animals 
having  been  recorded  up  to  January  I,  1908. 

Literatun. 
For  references,  see  page  646. 

Tamworth  Swine.  Pig.  676. 

By  G.  B.  Day. 

Tamworth  awine  are  of  the  bacon  t>'pe,  and  as 
Buch  have  lit-en  afrcorded  a  high  place  by  brvc^lers. 
Thoy  are  much  more  popular  in  Canada  than  in 
the  United  States. 


Daenjttion. 

According  to  the  standard  of  excell«nce  adopted 
by  the  National  Pig  Breeders'  Association  of  (jreat 
Britain,  the  Tamvpforth  should  have  "golden  red 
hair  on  a  fieah-cDlored  .tkin,  free  from  black." 
However,  the  shade  of  red  variea  conaiderably  in 
individaals,  and  a  chestnut  shade  is  very  common. 
In  aged  animals,  it  N  not  uncommon  to  see  aoch  a 
dark  shade  of  chestnut  that  the  casual  ohBenrcr 
might  mistake  it  for  a  dull  black.  The  snout  is 
long  and  straight,  and  the  ear  large,  and  somewhat 
more  pointed  than  the  Yorkshire  ear.  The  ears 
should  be  firmly  attached  t-j  the  head.  The  jowl  is 
narrower  and  lighter  than  that  of  the  Yorkshire, 
the  neck  and  sh^'ulder  are  light,  the  back  and  loin 
of  medium  width,  and  the  side  of  good  length  and 
only  moderately  deep.  Deficii^ncy  of  ham  is  a  com- 
mon weakness  of  the  Tamworth.  Since  the  Tam- 
worth lielongs  to  the  bacon  type,  it  U  not  deiiira- 
ble  that  it  should  have  a  heavy,  fat  bam  like  a 
fat  h'Og :  but  the  ham  ia  often  lacking  serif 
even  from  a  bacon  standpoint,  and  the  bi 
are  making  an  effort  to  strengthen  thia 
The  Tamworth  18  a  large  hog,  strong  in  the  bone, 
and  look;ei  leggy  befli<te  a  hog  of  the  fat  type.  The 
Tamworth  and  Large  York-ihire  are  similar  in  siie, 
and  are  the  two  leading  breeds  of  the  bacoD  type:. 

Followinf?:  is  the  stnndaix!  of  excellence  adapted 
by  the  National  Pig  Ureeders'  Association  of  Great 
Britain. 

Standabd  or  Excejxence  for  T.\iivokth  Swimb 

1.  Color.— Golden  red  hair  on  a  flesh<<iulor«d  skio.  fm- 

from  black. 

2.  Head. — Fairly  long,  snout  tnodcratoly  long  and  qoit* 

straight,  face  alicbtly  diahed,  wide  between  ean. 

3.  Bars.- RsthiT  lurg«,  with  Riip  fringe,  carried  rigfd 

and  inclined  aiigbtly  forward. 

4.  Neck.— Fairly  long  and  muHculiLr,  especially  in 

5.  Cheat.— Widu  and  deep. 

6.  Shouldeii. — Finp,  Klatilinj;.  and  weltaei. 

7.  Legs  —Strong  nnd  ahapoly,  with  plenty  of  boH] 

aet  wall  oatoidc  body. 

8.  Pasterns.— Strong  and  Kloping. 

9.  Feet.-- Strong  and  of  Tiir  size. 

10.  Back.— Long  and  atralght. 

11.  Loin. — Strong  and  Iroad. 

12.  Tail.- ^ct  on  high  and  W.'I9  lameled. 

13.  Sides  —  IjODg  and  d<*i'(>. 

14.  Riba.— Woll  Bprung  and  extending  well  ap  to  Ink. 

15.  Belly, — Deep,  with  straighc  uoder-tine. 
18.  Flank.- Full  and  well  let  down. 

17.  Quartofs  —Long,  wido,  and  straight  from  Up  U>  UlL 

18.  Hams.  -Broad  iind  full,  well  I«t  down  t«  hocbi. 

19.  Coat.-AI'idndunt.  long,  straight,  and  flne. 

20.  Action.— Firjii  and  free. 

Ohiti^liiint:    Black   hair,  very   light   or 
hair,  curly  coat,  c«ar»e  mane.  Mack  spoU  M  i 
Hlnuch  or  drooping  ahoulden,  wrinkled  eUn,  fahMt 
kaftM,  hoUownvMt  at  bock  of  sbmildm. 

Hiei'^U- 

The  Tamworth  Ukea  its  name  from  Tamworti. 
in  StatTordsbin.',  England,  it  is  also  to  l>e  found 
in  adjoining  counties.  It  ia  of  ancient  and  nneer- 
certain  origin,  and  there  seema  to  be  nn  well 
aiithenticateid  accMJunt  of  where  it  came  from,  Aa 
first  known,  it  was  an  extremely  leggy,  nam* 


SWIVE 


SWINR 


0TT 


type  of  hog,  but  it  has  l>een  Kreatly  improved  dar- 
ing the  past  thirty  years.  Whether  this  improve- 
ment was  wrought  siilely  by  selection,  or  whether 
croflfi-breHling  was  rewirt*wl  to,  in  nnwrtsin.  Pro- 
ffssor  Long  favors  the  theory  that  thw  Tumworth 
was  crtmscd  with  boihh  white  hrewl,  hut  apparently 
no  proof  exists  us  to  thu  corrvctni^sa  or  incorrect- 
noBA  of  this  claim.  AlthoLifh  it  ie  one  of  the  oldest 


pIk.  M6.    Tunwortb  ttm. 

&iglieh  kreedf,  it  wait  not  ^ven  a  i^eparate  claRfl  at 
the  Royal  .'Agricultural  Society's  Show  until  1SS5. 

In  Aforrim. — Representativus  of  tlio  Tamworth 
breed  were  hruught  to  thti  Unitt-ii  States  nearly 
thirty  years  ago,  but  the  hroed  does  not  tnako 
rapid  progress.  The  long  snout  tendn  to  prejudice 
the  average  farmer,  and  the  fact  that  the  prixluc- 
tion  of  bacon  hngs  receives  little  or  nu  enRciiiragp.- 
ment  in  the  United  States  alsn  ttnds  to  work 
against  th«  geni>ral  adoptiim  uf  the  brwd. 

Like  the  Large  Yorkahire,  the  Tamworth  waa 
brought  to  Canada  by  tho  packers  »omo  twenty 
yean  ago,  with  a  vii-w  to  improving  the  bacon 
qnalitiM  of  Canatlian  hogs,  and  liirge  nnmlters  have 
been  importe't  byCanjuIian  breeders  during  thepast 
twenty  yean*.  The  Tarnworth  has  m>t  attainwl  the 
degree  of  popularity  in  Canada  that  is  «n,i(jyi«d  by 
the  Yorkshire,  although  it  is  always  well  rcpre- 
Bonted  at  the  leading  Canadian  fairs. 

Viatr^iitxon. 

Aft  already  stated,  the  Tamworth  has  not  made 
rapid  progTeiw  in  the  United  States,  although  rcp- 
reaentativea  are  to  be  found  in  Illinoi«.  Kentucky, 
Iowa,  Kanfta8,  Tcxaa,  Wiuconain  and  Ohio.  In 
Canada,  it  is  ntore  numerous  in  Ontario  than  in  any 
other  province,  bnt  it  is  to  he  found  in  practicflHy 
every  province.  England  and  Canada  are  the  two 
leading  countriet)  in  the  production  of  this  breed. 

Via. 

The  Tamworth  ia  especially  adapted  to  the  pro- 
daction  of  bacon.  Its  light  shoulder,  nc-ck  and 
head,  its  good  length  of  side,  and  its  tendency  to 
pnxJuce  a  large  proportion  of  lean  to  fat,  render 
it  welt  suited  tn  the  bacon  carer's  requirements. 
Being  a  large  breed,  and  strong  in  the  bone,  it  has 
become  popular  for  crowing  on  liner  and  fatter 
breodi  in  districts  where  it  is  well  known.  A  cross 
between  the  Tamworth  and  tho  Berkshire  is  very 
popalar  in  Canada. 


As  to  early  maturity,  it  is  similFtr  to  the  Large 
Yorkshire.  For  pritducing  fat  carcaswjs  at  an 
early  age,  it  is  unsuitable,  as  this  is  tuA  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  brwi.  It  will  n-ach  suitable 
Weight  for  the  bacon  eurer,  however,  at  as  early 
an  age  as  any  of  the  fat  bretxls,  and  will  not  carry 
the  excessive  fat  which  renders  the  fat  breeds 
unsuitable  for  bacon  purposes.  For  bacon-produc- 
tion, therefore,  it  matures  eiirly,  and  it  is  from  the 
bacon  standpoint  that  thu  Tumworih  must  always 
be  judged. 

Them  is  a  ^mpalar  belief  among  farmers  that 
the  Tamworth  does  not  make  economical  use  of 
food.  A  good  deal  of  this  prejudice  is  duo  to  tho 
appearance  of  the  animal,  and  the  man  who  is  used 
to  the  short,  thick,  fine-lmned  t>i.ie  of  hog,  finds 
difficulty  in  reconciling  himself  to  a  hog  of  Tam- 
worth type.  Kxi>eriinenta  show,  however,  that  the 
Tamworth  is  capable  of  making  gi«xl  u«e  of  the 
food  it  consumes,  and  that  it  compares  very  favor- 
ably with  other  breeds  in  this  respect.  Like  the 
Yorkshire,  it  ia  rather  better  adapted  to  pen  feed- 
ing than  to  pa.'*ture.  It  has  beyn  imjviR.'siblB  to 
secure  much  infcirmatinn  reganling  its  alnlity  Lo 
fitanil  exclusi%'p  ciirn-fBeding.  Avuilablt)  tnfurtna- 
tion  indicuk's  that  the  breed  is  not  particularly 
well  adapttMi  to  this  purpose. 

It  is  asserted  by  some  persons  that  Tamwortha 
produce  higher  clasp  bacon  than  any  other  breed, 
but  this  is  too  sweeping  an  assertion,  and  when 
they  have  come  tiigether  in  dreased-rarciiHS  compe- 
titions, the  Large  Yorkuhirt!  has  won  t)ie  larges, 
share  of  priw*.  There  is  no  i|ueation,  however, 
that  the  Tamworth  produces  excellent  bacon, 
which  is  well  mixed  with  loan  of  fine  quality.  The 
Large  York.'^hire  and  Tamworth  are  the  only 
strictly  bacon  breeds  with  which  we  are  familiar 
in  America. 

Tamworth  snvs  are  prolific  and  are  good  moth- 
era.  The  boars  are  prepotent,  but  perhaps  scarcely 
equal  to  the  Large  Yorkshire  in  this  respect. 
According  to  Shaw,  the  Tamworth  a6  compared 
with  tho  Chester- White  shows  greater  wlapta- 
bility,  is  more  active  as  a  grazer,  more  hardy,  and 
produces  a  superior  quality  of  bacon. 

Orgaitizatiiin*  and  rwvWjr. 

The  .American  Tamworth  Swine  Record  Aaeoci^ 
tion  was  organited  in  1897.  The  first  volume  of 
the  herdbook  was  pahtished  in  1903,  and  up  to 
January  1,  1908,  two  volumes  had  been  pub- 
lished, in  which  4,510  animals  are  recorded.  In 
Canada,  Tamwortha  are  recorded  in  the  Damiinion 
Swine  Breftdera'  Record.  Up  to  January  1,  1908, 
6.970  animals  had  been  recorded.  {For  further 
information  regarding  Canadian  swine  organil^ 
tions,  see  under  Berkthirttwint,  on  pages  (^9  and 
6G0. 

In  Great  Britain,  Tamworth  swine  are  recorded 
in  the  henihook  of  the  National  Pig  Breeders' 
Association. 


LileraiuTt, 

For  references,  SH 
list  of  swine  books  b , 


&16,  where  a  general 


67X 


SWINE 


SWINE 


Victoria  Swine.    Fig.  677. 

Uy  (■;.  K.  Day. 

The  Victoria  brfed  of  swine  was  originaU^  in 
America,  Ifut  anlikt;  the  Poland-China,  tht;  great 
AnitTJcan  brt;«l,  it  has  not  (jaintfd  much  popuhirity. 
It  in  of  the  fat-hog  tyjie. 

lieMription. 

The  Victoria  rank*  with  the  moJtura-siztKt  breeiis, 
being  similar  to  the  Berkahiru  in  sia-.  Thu  snout  is 
rathtir  short,  the  face  diahed,  and  the  ear.  which  is 
of  ftnly  mtHlium  size,  is  firmly  attachec]  to  the  head 
and  wTvci.  Thw  body  ia  brorut  and  dcn-ji.  and  the  bamit 


FlC.  677.    Tiototia  sow. 

and  Bhinildeni  reasonably  w&l!  developed.  The  color 
is  vrhitv,  with  occasional  dark  spotoon  the  b>kin. 

Following  is  the  scale  of  points  adopted  by  thu 
Victoria  Swine  Brewlere'  .'Association  : 

Scale  or  Poikts  fok  Victowa 

SwiNK  Porf^'-i 

1.  Color. — Whitft,  wEth  ocrulotml  dark  spots  in  the 

t^kiii '1 

2.  Head. — Small,  bmail,  nml  fae-e  meicllun]  dished     .      3 
8.  Ears  — Fim-.  puinlinc  lomard 2 

4.  Jowl. — Medium  i<ix«  unit  nunl 1 

5.  neck.— Shyrl,  ftil!  and  w«!l  arched 3 

6.  Shoulders.     Bruud  and  dvup t 

7.  Girlh  around  heart 6 

8.  Back. — t^LraiKbt.  bmnd  aud  litvel 12 

9.  Sides. —Deep  and  full 6 

10.  Ribs.— Well  Hprung .  7 

11.  Loin. — Brtind  nml  ntrnng 12 

li  Flank  — Wutl  let  dovra 2 

i:^  Ham.— [tro^id,  full  um]  di'op,  wtthatit  loose  fiit   .  12 

14,  Tall. "Medium  fine  and  turled 2 

li'i.  Leg9. — Fine  and  straight S 

Id.  Feet,— Small 3 

n.  H»ir.  -  Pine  and  ailkjr,  free  from  bristlea    ...  8 

15.  Action.  -F,a*y  and  (tnfeful 4 

19.  Symmetry. — Adaptation  of  the  sareral  parts  to 

each  other 10 

Perftiction 100 

Detailft!  description. 

1.  Oicr.— Whitjj,  with  ocoaaional  dark  spots  in  thH 
skin. 

2.  firjjit  nmtfaef. — HtMil  rallier  nnmll  jtrid  neaU  Fate 
medium-diiihed  nnd  tmoolh  :  wide  between  eyes ;  tripering 
from  eye^  to  rum>. 

It.  S^fj.  -Modinm  aiie:  prominent,  bright,  clear  and 
lirely  in  yuuni;,  and  quiet  exprveaion  in  aged  animals. 
■i.  Kan.   -fvmall.  thin,  fiae,  silky;   upright   in   young 


pifl!*,  iKiIrtling  forward  uaA  slight)/  oalwaid  in  aifed 
animals. 

J>.  A'ttJIr. — Meiliiira  wide,  doop,  short,  well  artfaed,  sad 
full  at  tap. 

6.  Jvirf.— Medium  full,  nicely  rounded,  aeat  and  free 
tnm  loose.  Habfay  faL 

7.  ShouUtert'—BroitA.  deep  and  full,  not  hiitber  than 
line  of  back,  and  as  wide  as  tap  uf  back. 

8.  CKtit.—hnrg»,  wide,  deep  and  roomy,  with  larfo 
gfirtb  back  of  »houIden). 

9.  Baek  iind  /tun,— Broad.  slraiKht,  or  slightly  ard»d: 
carrying  same  width  f r<.>m  shuoldi-rs  to  ham :  leTvl  and 
full  at  loia,  sonietjmee  sliRhtly  higher  at  hips  than  at 
ithauldoni. 

10.  Ribi  and  ride:—iiH»  well  sprang  at  bip;  atrting 
and  Arro ;  i^idcs  dec-p,  fall,  smooth  and  firm:  free  frmu 
creaaft*. 

1!.  Brllf!  tind  fiank.  Widp,  straight  and  full:  as  low 
or  eligbUy  lower  >l  flank  than  at  chest.  Flank  full  and 
nesrly  uven  with  isides. 

\2.  H'im$  and  ruiap.  — Eaou  long,  full  and' wide, 
nicely  ri>unded ;  trim  and  free  from  loHse  fat,  Bulu>cks 
large  and  full,  reai-faing  well  down  Vt  hocks.  Kamp 
Hiightly  Ktuped  Tront  end  «f  loin  lo  root  of  tail. 

13.  Lfrfi  ani  frti.  -L*g9  short,  set  well  apart  and 
firm ;  wide  alrave  knee  and  hock,  tapering  Wluw.  Feot 
Arm  and  standing  well  up  <m  u>o*. 

14.  TaiX. — Small,  tnn  and  tu|>ering,  ni<-«ly  carled. 

15.  Cmt.  -  Fine  and  silky,  eveniiy  covering  the  body. 

16.  S\tt.—)ioax  tm>  years  old  and  over  wfaeo  in  good 
condiLioa  should  WL'igh  not  tej«  than  500  ponnda.  sow 
samo  agt;  and  cvnditiLm,  4o0  poynde.  Boar  twelve  month* 
old,  not  lewi  than  300  pounds ;  bow  in  good  Awh.  900 
piTiundi.    Cigs  fire  to  six  ini>iithii  old,  UO  to  100  pooada. 

17.  Artion.  — Kasy  and  Kraceful.  but  qoiet. 

18.  Condition.  —  \\f:3.\\\\Y ;  skin  clean,  and  white  or 
pink  in  cidnr.  free  from  sr-urf  :  lle.'ih  firm  ami  evenly  laid 
on. 

1!>,  Ditpotttitm. — Quiet  and  gentle. 

D  is/fuat^fiatttoiit. 

Qthr.     Other  than  white  m-ereamT  white,  with  or^^ 
sional  dark  sputu  in  skin. 

f^rnt. — Crooked  juwa  or  deformed  face ;  crooked  or 
doformfd  legs  ;  large,  coame,  drooping  ears. 

(AmdtJtBH.  -  Ezcaesive  fatness  ;  harroaaeea  ;  detunaitjr 
in  any  i>art  of  the  body. 

i^fiigree.^Hat  eligible  for  record. 

Hitinry. 

At  one  time  there  were  two  bre«4l«  of  TicK 
Bwine,  hut  only  one  breed  and  type  i«  now 
nizei].  The  brei-d  that  has  secur^  the  asc^ndaacy 
was  oriKinatfd  by  (it-orfie  F.  Davia,  Dyer.  Indiana, 
and  wus  formed  by  combining  the  blood  of  th« 
Poland -China.  Berkshire,  Cheater- White,  and  Suffolk, 
accompanied  by  carefii!  Wilection  to  a  type.  The 
origin  of  the  brt^ed  date/;  to  about  L870. 

The  other  hrved  was  estnldished  about  IPTO  by 
Colonel  P.  D.  Curtis,  of  NVw  York  state,  who  is 
said  to  have  used  Irish  Ctninier,  Bylield.  Vorksbirf. 
and  Sulfolk  blood.  This  breed  ^eems  to  hare  diMp- 
peannl  an  a  recc^ized  pure  breed. 

DiitrtimHon. 

According  to  Professor  Plnmb,  the  Victoria  is 

found  mainly  in  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Illinois,  witk 
8rjitt<?red  henls  in  a  few  other  &tat«ft.  .A  very  few 
Vietorias  have  found  their  way  into  Canada,  hut 
the  brwd  is  now  nearly  extinct  in  that  e«juntry. 


SWINE 


SWIXE 


679 


For  aom  raasoo  the  breed  does  not  make  nocf 

f«r. 

The  Victoria  belongB  to  the  fat  class.  We  have 
ltlU«  informntiiin  re^nling  iUs  early  maturity  and 
fwxling  riualitieft,  but  from  the  tm'l  that  it  does 
Qut  iocruaiio  ru[iiilly  in  p'^ularity.  It  would  aeem 
that  the-  pulilii!  (low  Dot  rucojoiizu  any  outKlanilinj; 
merit,  or  advantage  over  other  breeds.  In  quality 
of  meat,  it  niipeart  qnitt;  eqiiiit  to  other  brve<ltt.  and 
it  hn#  a  kixkI  reputation  for  being  prnlitir. 

Its  valuu  fur  crusft-breeding  has  not  been  well 
denmiistratcd. 

OrgaiiiztUioM  and  rtcardt. 

The  Victoria  Swino  Breeders'  AKsociation  was 
organixed  in  18S6,  and  the  Victoria  Swine  Kecord 
is  publi^e^l  by  this  a«8i>ciation.  In  Tjin^iilH,  imly 
nine  animaU  of  tbi«  breed  have  been  reconled  in 
tha  Dominion  Swine  llreeJers'  Kecord. 

liitrrafure. 

For  references,  see  page  *>46. 

MisceUaneouB  Breeds  of  Swine. 

By  G.  E.  Day. 

There  are  certJiin  little-known  breeds  or  typea  «f 
bogd  that  are  of  interest  historically,  or  in  rL*ittrie- 
ted  area.s.  In  onler  tomake  the  iii»cus.sion  offwint* 
in  this  cyclnpcflia  more  nearly  completa,  brief  notes 
on  several  of  thes«  breeds  are  intrmtucH<l. 

Historic  Brkeda 

It  is  an  old  opinion,  apparently  well  subsLanti- 
ated,  that  the  l^nt^Iinh  swine,  from  which  thi3 
modern  American  typea  are  derived,  sprung  from 
breeibt  intnnluced  frum  the  east,  as  Chinese,  Nea- 
politan and  Siamese  pigs.  Even  in  sui^h  a  not«i) 
live-Htock  country  as  Great  Britain,  the  piK«  nf  law? 
than  a  century  ago,  were,  on  the  whole,  a  ratbL-r 
undesirable  lot,  according  to  descriptions  that  havt? 
boen  handed  down  to  us.  I*ong  legm,  general  coarse- 
ness, and  slnw  fattening  prutiensities  were  then 
commonly  characteristic  of  British  breeiU.  It  is 
nut  of  the  (|UHxtinn,  even  if  it  were  dtwirable,  to 
attempt  to  trace  atl  tlie  sU'IB  that  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  Kritidh  breedi*  as  we  know  thorn  today, 
bat  there  is  no  di>nht  that  much  of  the  improve- 
ment came  from  the  introduction  of  foreign  breed;*, 
which  were  crosseil  on  the  native  stock.  Although 
thene  foreign  bree^la  are  now  practically  unknown 
in  Great  Britain  and  America,  there  are  three 
breeds  whow  influence  has  been  so  far-reaching  as 
to  render  them  worthy  of  stt  lea^t  a  pa-«ing  nt^itice. 

The  inlrodaction  into  England  of  thrwe  Chinese, 
Neaimlitan  and  Siamese  pigs  wrtiiigbt  a  revolutinn 
among  the  earlier  ly[Hs  of  swine,  and  tfie  crutising 
and  inler-crostting  of  varions  types,  which  followed 
the  intrudaction  of  foreign  blood,  and  which  is  too 
intricat4>  and  too  tittle  known  to  admit  of  complete 
inviMtigation,  n^nlted  eventually  in  the  Rngllsh 
breeds  of  the  present  da?'. 

Chinese,  Neapolitan,  and  f^iamefie  nwine  were  aleo 


imported  into  the  Vnit«l  States.  The  great  bulk 
of  American  roundatioii  stock  came  Trom  Great 
Britain,  especially  England,  and  a^  was  the  ca-^e  in 
England,  the  u^-  of  ('hine^>.  Neapolitan,  and  other 
similar  blood,  followed  by  the  crowing  of  various 
local  ty^tes,  has  lod  to  the  e^Utblishment  of  what 
are  known  as  American  breeds. 

rAi«oer»MjiBc.  — Youatt  writes  of  these  swine  as 
fullowit :  "There  sre  two  distinct  varieties,  the 
white  and  the  black  ;  both  fatten  readily,  hut  from 
their  diminutive  size  attain  no  great  weight. 
rhey  are  small  in  limb,  round  in  bo>ly,  short  in  the 
head,  wide  in  the  cheek,  and  high  in  the  chine ; 
covertsl  with  very  fine  bri.ttlea  gnjwing  from  an 
exceedingly  thin  skin ;  and  not  {lecaliarly  sym- 
metrical, for,  when  fat.  the  head  is  so  buried  in 
the  neck  that  tittle  mure  than  the  lip  of  the  snout 
is  visibla." 

Xeapditan  *in'nf. — This  breed  came  from  the 
country  about  Naples,  in  Italy,  and  was  also  of  the 
extremely  fine-lxmed,  easily  fattened  type.  It  is 
especially  noted  for  the  part  it  played  in  the 
formatcoTi  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Essex 
breed. 

Siaitujn  «fi"(wr,— Mr.  A.  B.  Allen,  who  bred 
Siamese  Ewino  many  years  ago,  describes  them  in 
part  as  follows  ;  "They  varied  in  color  from  deep, 
rich  plnm  to  dark  slate  and  hiat-k  ;  had  two  to 
three  white  feet,  but  no  white  on  the  legs  or  other 
parta  of  the  body.  The  head  was  short  and  fine, 
with  a  dished  face  and  rather  thin  jowl;  ears 
short,  slender,  and  erect;  shoulders  and  bams 
round,  smooth  and  extra  large ;  back  hroad  and 
slightly  arched;  btidy  of  moderate  length,  deep. 
Well  ribbed  up,  and  nearly  as  round  as  a  barrel; 
.  .  .  Wga  fine  and  short ;  hair  soft,  silky,  and 
thin  ;  no  bristles,  even  on  boars  ;  .  .  .  flesh  firm, 
sweet  and  very  lender,  with  less  lean  than  in  the 
Berkshire." 

Mile-foot  Hoc. 

A  hog  in  which  the  hoof  is  single  has  recently 
come  into  notice.  Its  origin  seems  to  be  obu-wure, 
being  attributwi  by  one  account  to  a  cross  of  a 
Berlishire  boar  on  a  native  raiorbaek  sow  in  Ar- 
kansas previous  to  19fH),  and  by  others  to  intro- 
ductions  fruin  varionj;  fon-ign  countries.  The 
National  Mule-foot  Uog  Keeonl  Ajisociation,  re- 
cently organi7^1  in  Indiana,  makes  the  following 
statements  :  foot  solid,  short,  smooth,  eiiabiing  the 
animal  to  carrv  its  own  weight  with  ease  ;  color 
black,  with  wtiile  tmints  sdmissibte ;  imar  two 
years  and  over  should  weigh  UH)  jHiiinds,  bow  siime 
age  450  p'>ijnds  ;  neither  a  lard  or  bacon  hog.  but 
a  medium  between  the  two. 

Large  Bi.ack  Swine, 

Th)>  t.iirge  Itlark,  as  its  name  implies,  is  a  Inrge 
breeii,  nil  bhu'-k  in  coliir,  and  pORsessing  very  large 
drooping  eam.  In  general  conformation  it  ap- 
proacheti  the  liacon  type,  having;  a  good  length  of 
side,  medium  width  of  back  and  shoulder,  a  rather 
light  neck  and  jowl,  and  fairly  heavy  bone. 

The  Large  Ulnck  hog  is  the  latest  addition  to  the 
recognJKed  pure  breods  of  swine  in  Great  BritaiD. 


680 


SWINE 


SWINE 


The  origin  of  the  breed  ts  not  well  known,  but  it 
has  1>een  bred  for  a  great  many  veant  in  the  ea^t 
and  Pioiith  of  England.  It  h  hardly  known  outi;ide 
of  Bnglanil,  anri  m  nut  widely  il istributed  even  in 
EnKlanil.  being  confined  mainly  to  the  southern 
part  of  the  coantry.  Som^  yoara  ago,  repreaenta- 


'^. 


fcrc..;v 


:-*-4i,-*v 


>-^-  r 


''^- 


PlK.  era.    Middle  wnite  boai. 

tives  of  the  breed  were  brought  to  the  Central 
Experi mental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada,  but  did  not 
prove  very  satisfactory.  At  present,  the  breed  ih 
practically  nut  represented  on  the  American  conti- 
nent. 

Tha  main  claims  for  the  Lar^  Black  are  ItH 
bacon  qualilitia,  its  fecundity,  and  its  value  as  a 
BCaveD^er,  Its  bacon  is  highly  estei^nitxt  in  England, 
containing,  as  it  does,  a  large  percentage  of  lejin. 
It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  at  Ottawa  the 
bacon  of  the  liarge  EUack  was  nut  equal  to  th;it  of 
the  Lartie  Yorkslnre  tjr  the  Tamwurth.  Thn  aowH 
are  excutlemt  nur»i^A,  ami  the  breed  is  regarded  aa 
a  firat-claws  farmer's  breed  in  England. 

The  interests  of  the  breeds  in  England  are  lucked 
after  by  "The  Large  Plack  Pig  SociL^ty  of  Great 
Britain."  This  organ iziition  publishes  the  only  berd- 
tmok  for  the  breed. 

MiDOLE  White    or  Middle   YonKSHiRE   Swine. 
Fig.  67S. 

Tho  Middle  White,  as  the  namo  implies,  is  inter- 
mediate in  type  between  the  i^arge  White  and  the 
Small  White.  It  is  recegniBed  in  England  as  a  dia- 
tinrt  bree<l,  but  it  i.s  a  difficult  breed  to  dpj^cribe. 
Imcauae  of  iLi  variations.  Some  repreHentivea  iif 
tha  bri*tl  might  waaily  piws  an  Larga  Whites,  and 
from  this  extreme  thi?y  shade  down  nearly  all  the 
way  to  the  Small  TiVhite  type.  There  is  little  doubt 
that  mnny  Bo-called  Large  White  pigs  carry  aeme 
Middle  White  blood,  and  that  many  Middle  Whites, 
or  piga  containing  n  large  percentiige  of  Middle 
White  blood,  have  been  brought  te  America  and 
paaaed  a.s  Large  Whttea.  PienHrally  K|ieaking,  they 
are  smaller  than  the  I^arge  Whites,  have  a  shorter 
side,  ahorter  leg,  finer  bone,  and  a  heavier  neck  and 
jowl.  They  usnally  have  a  shorter  snout  than  tho 
f  Jirge  White,  and  "have  more  dish  in  snoot  and  face. 
They  belong  to  the  fat  type  of  hog. 

Tne  Middle  White  originated  from  a  cross 
between  the  Large  White  and  the  Small  White 
broods.  Even  at  present,  pigs  may  ap[iear  in 
Large  White  littt^rs  that  are  cla»«ed  by  their 
breeders  as  Middle  Whites,  so  that  it  nomctimea 
happens  that  Large  Wbitoeand  Middle  Whites  may 


come  from  the  same  titter,  especially  In 
henls  in  which  Middle  Whito  blood  in  occaaioi 
i]S(id  to  refine  tbfl  Large  White.   Sometimes  Mid 
Whites  are  produced  by  one  croas  of  Small  ^liit 
on  Large    \\1iiteH,  and  animals  produced    in  tht 
way  ahoald  scarcely  be  regarded   as   a  distinct 
breed. 

The  Middle  White  is  uakaown  outside  of  iU 
native  country,  and  if  any  have  been  brought  to 
America,  they  were  intrucluced  uiuler  the  name  of 
Large  Yorkshire. 

The  utility  of  the  Middle  White  is  neceflaanly 
limited.  The  practice  of  crossing,  followed  by 
many  breeders,  has  told  against  the  asefaloeso  of 
the  breed.  Middle  \\'hites  which  have  been  bred 
pure  for  a  numlwr  of  generationa  would  no  doubt 
prove  satisfactory,  but  £u  many  of  them  pOBBeaa 
recent  eroKseft  uf  other  blooil,  that  the  breed  as  a 
whole  lacks  prepotency  and  truonesa  to  type.  The 
mixing  of  Middle  White  blood  with  that  of  Large 
White,  as  practiced  by  many  English  bmdenL 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  A  so-called 
I>arge  Yorkahire  hoar  produoetl  in  this  way  may 
look  more  attractive  to  the  inexperienced  breeder 
of  T.arge  Yr>rk«hira«  than  a  pure  Large  Y'orkshii 
bnt  he  makefl  a  very  unsatisfactory  aire.  Br 
of  Large  Yorkshire*  soon  learn  to  avoid 
showing  any  evidence  of  Middle  VNliite  blood. 


R.\2oi:iiACK  SwiNB.  Fig.  679. 

Whether  it  In  strictly  correct  to  call 
"Rjizorhark"  a  diatinct  breed  may  be  open  to 
qui^Htion,  but  aince  it  represents  a  type  of  hog 
existing  in  some  parta  of  the  United  States,  it 
should  receive  passing  notice. 

The  "Razorback"  is  characteriwd  by  long, 
coarse  lega  and  snout ;  coarse  earn,  coaise  skin, 
and  a  bristly  coat ;  narrow  back,  stab  aides,  no 
hams  worth  mentioning,  and  an  absence  of  any 
tendency  to  fatten.  In  apito  of  its  undeairable 
(lualitien,  it  ia  mure  or  less  amenable  to  improT»- 
mont,  and  soma  of  the  finer  bn-eds,  notably  tha 
Essex,  hnve  been  crossed  on  it  with  a  fair 
of  succei>s.  Its  hardiness  and  its  ability 
after  itself,  are  its  main  recomiDendaCions. 


Fli.  tn.   Buorbtck  Mnr  ud  lluer. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  "Razorback' 
degen&rate  dfyicendant  of   pigs  brought  into 
country  by  the  earlie-st  white  aettlera.    Hon^r, 
expriRure  and  the  npceafllty  fur  looking  after  itaelf 
and  foraging  its  own  living,  have  been  tke 
factors  in  evolving  the  type. 

The  "Raxorback"  is  now  found  almost  exctoa* 
ively  in  a  comparatively  limited  area  of  the  iioath, 


.cUiC| 


J 


TURTLES 


fi8l 


and  this  area  m  becnmin^  more  and  mon;  restricted 
aa  improved  agriculture  advancen.  It  is  only  a 
question  of  iinw  until  the  type  entirely  tlisappears. 

Literature. 
For  referenctiB,  aee  page  646. 

TURTLES   AND   TURTLE- FARMING.     Fige, 
680,681. 

By  E.  A.  AndirwK. 

Along  the  ooa^ts  of  America,  fonr  kinds  of  ma- 
rine turtles  lay  their  esy:s  in  the  sandy  beaches, 
where  they  anj  It-ft  tv  develop  by  themselves,  if 
BQCb  enemies  as  the  bear  and  man  do  not  dijjcover 
tbem.  Whilu  the  flush  of  the  green  turtle  is  moat 
highly  esteemed,  and  the  shell  of  the  "  hawk's  bill " 
or  tortoiM-shell  turtle  ia  greatly  valued,  a  third  of 
the.9$  four,  the  loggerhead,  is  alao  n»ed  as  food, 
ao  that  much  profit  would  come  from  an  increase 
in  the  abundance  of  thene  marine  turtl^^tt.  How- 
ever, as  they  are  wide  wanderens.  weking  food 
over  large  areas  and  coming  to  shore  only  to  lay 
tb«ir  flgga.  there  ia  no  question  of  private  turtLe- 
farming  for  thejw  large  oceanic  reptilies,  nlthongh 
the  government  might  well  take  steps  to  lessen 
the  too  rapid  extermination  of  the  race  by  dimin* 
iahing  the  destruction  of  eggs  and  young,  just  as 
ban  t»en  done  fur  equally  pelagic  fi.ih. 

The  green  turtle  feeds  on  marine  grass,  off  the 
Florida  ooaBts,  in  comparatively  shallow  water,  but 
the  femalea,  after  mating  in  May,  migrate  hun- 
dreds of  miles  to  lay  their  eggs  on  the  Uahama 
banks  and  small  ialands.  The  eggs  are  laid  in 
batches  of  130  to  180,  and  it  \s  thought  that  each. 
female  may  lay  four  batches  in  June,  July  and 
August,  bnt  no  more  for  one  or  two  years.  The 
eggB  require  ten  to  twelve  weeks  to  hatch,  and 
80  many  are  eaten  by  gnlls  and  sharks  that  prob- 
ably only  2  to  3  per  cent  sorvive  the  first  week 
oat  of  the  shell. 

Frrjih-iratrr  and  land  turtlf*. 

Among  the  freah- water  and  land  turtles  the 
problem  is  somewhat  different,  ami.  in  time,  a 
turtle- farming  industry  will  arise.  There  are  some 
fifty  kinds  of  these  land  and  fresh-water  turtles: 
snappers,  mad  turtles,  painted  turtle^  and  terra- 
pins, pond  turtles  and  wood  •  terrapin  {Chtiopu.% 
inteidjitut),  box  turtles,  tortoises  or  gophers  of 
Florida,  and  the  Boft-shel!e<)  turtles.  The  wood- 
terrapin  eat«  berries  and  insects,  and,  in  New  York, 
is  protected  by  a  stat.1  law  from  capture  and  sale. 

Of  these  several  turtles,  the  terrapins  and  snap- 
pers are  most  often  used  as  food,  although  the 
sofl-fthelled  turtles  are  sold  in  the  markets,  both 
North  and  South.  The  snapping  tartles  may  ho 
readily  kept  alive  and  fed  on  animal  refuse,  which, 
however,  they  must  tak«  under  water  to  swallow. 
On  the  market  thfV  bring  but  ten  cents  a  pound,  ao 
that  there  is  not  the  incentive  to  artificial  calture 
that  there  is  in  the  very  hig)i-pric<^d  diamond-back 
terrapin.  The  snapping  turtles  leave  the  water  to 
lay  their  eggs— some  two  down— in  th<*  earth,  and 
if  there  V6re  a  auffictent  supply  of  cheap  animal 


food,  a  busines*  of  rearing  theae  turtles  in  confined 
areas  might  be  AvnUoip^d.  However,  like  the  bull- 
frog, these  large  carnivorous  animals  belong  natu- 
rally to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  wild,  unsettled 
regions,  and  man  will  not  find  it  profitable  to  rear 
carnivorous  animals  as  food  unless  they  may  roam 
over  unutilired  regions,  or  for  some  reason  they 
become  esteemed  far  above  their  real  food  %'alue. 
This  latter  conditiun  is  met  in  the  diamond-back 
terrapin,  which  sells  for  $60  to  $70  per  dozen 
when  eight  inches  long.  When  about  seven  and 
one-half  inches  long  they  bring  $6  each ;  at  eight 
inches  long,  bring  $8 ;  but  when  five  inches  long, 


Pig,  fBO.    TCTTApm  { UalaeiftttmifM  tttUraia  o^ntnitrita) , 

bring  only  {1.50.  Every  year  these  turtles  are 
becoming  scarcer  and  the  price  higher.  To  take 
their  places,  many  of  the  3e.*«-eflteeme4)  species  of 
the  same  genua,  and  of  the  reEated  forms  of  painted 
turtles  {Oiryteinn!>\,  are  sold  as  "sliders,"  at  $1.25 
to  $1.50  each  for  large  specimens. 

The  diamond -back  terrapin  differs  from  the 
others  in  living  in  salt  and  brackish  water  along 
the  coast  and  up  tidal  rivers.  In  captivity,  it  does 
not  thrive  without  the  addition  of  some  salt  to  the 
water,  becoming,  in  fresh  water,  infected  with  a 
fungus  that  causes  its  death.  However,  it  needs 
fresh  water  also.  In  captivity,  it  may  be  fwl  on 
chopped  clam»,  meat,  tish.  cmstacea  and  periwin- 
kles. As  in  the  case  of  the  snapper,  all  the  feed  is 
taken  under  water,  so  that  these  tnrtk-s  cannot  be 
reared  without  sullicient  water.  In  nature,  the 
diamond-back  turtle  eats  such  soft  shell-tish  as  Us 
weak  jaws  enable  it  to  crush,  and  also  a  consider- 
able amount  of  soft  roots  and  shoots  of  plants. 

The  different  sorts  of  diamond-back  turtles  hav« 
been  divided  by  Hay  into  the  following  specie*; 
Malademmys  centraia,  the  Carolina  terrapin;  M. 
centrata  {Qjuxntrica,  the  famoua  Chesapeake  bay 
terrapin;  M.  macr&gpilofa.  the  Florida  terrapin; 
M.  piimfa,  the  Louisiana  terrapin  ;  if.  Iitlfrali», 
the  Texas  terrapin.  The  life  history  and  habits  are 
best  known  in  the  case  of  the  Carolina  t«rrapin. 
It  has  been  found  as  far  north  as  Buisard's  bay. 
The  adults  sleep  in  the  bottom  of  ponds  and  rivers 
all  winter  and  mate  in  the  spring.  The  males  are 
so  small,  not  exceeding  five  inches  a»  measured 
lengthwise  of  the  under  shell,  that  they  are  ex- 
cluded from  the  market  by  the  laws  of  some  states, 
which  fix  the  limit  at  five  or  six  inches.  Hence. 
there  is  great  destruction  of  females  and  rapid 
diminution  in  thi^  numb&r  of  eggs  that  might  be 
laid.  The  female  lays  the  eggs  in  May  or  June, 
digging  a  hole  in  the  bank,  five  or  six  inches  deep, 
and  carefully  covering  the  five  to  twelve  egga  with 
earth  and  then  leaving  them  to  hatch  by  them- 
selves. This  they  do  in  six  to  twelre  weeks,  accord- 


TURTLES 


TURTLES 


iaff  to  the  t«>tnp«ratare  of  the  Beuon.  Soon  after 
hatching,  tht^  yniinfi  Imry  Ihtmselves  in  the  marsh 
and  there  remain  all  winter  and  perhaiia  pjirt  of 
the  followiniif  summer  also.  They  grow  aWout  one 
inch  a  year  up  to  five  inches,  and  then  more  slowly. 
They  nach  a  Tnuximum  length  uf  eight  to  nine 
Inches  and  are  supposfd  to  Uvo  twcnty'l^vc  to 
thirty  years.  Apparently  the  diamonj-back  dowa 
not  mi;;rate  bnt  remainsi  in  the  region  where  it 
was  hatched  ur  wheru  it  was  put.  so  that  it  would 
be  readily  possible  to  protect  and  increase  the  ktcal 
supply. 

TurUi-farming  indiulry. 

In  Japan.  -  It  id  only  la  Japan  that  a  profitable 
turtle-farrainK  industry  has  been  developed.  There, 
the  soft  snappinR-turtle  (JVrorrj/r  Japonicus)  in 
reared  from  QRgs  laid  by  captive  turtles  in  special 


m. 


i  •*-:s^y^ 


K 


Fit.  Kl.    AinUk|»iii«it  tta  esUUof  newly -luiUUed  turtles. 

ponds  made  for  the  bugiaesB.    The  farms  of  the 

Hatlori  family  have  shown  a  healthy  and  steady 
growth  since  their  establish  men  t  in  IfTIi,  with  a 
stoclt  of  fifty  turtles.  In  1901,  the  three  "farms" 
of  25,  7  and  2  awrwK  were  ex]KM!teil  to  yield  aliout 
4.11X1  britches  of  ejrjfs,  or  nay  .S2.iXH)  t-BRS.  hatch- 
inu  W.OlX)  yriuny  and  vieldinK  some  tjOMX)  mar- 
ketable turties  at  the  end  of  the  third  year. 

One  of  these  ''farms"  is  a  collection  of  ponds  fwtj 
by  canals  and  separated  by  Inw  Imanl  walls  to  con- 
fine the  tiirtlej*.  The  ponds  an*  but  two  to  three 
feet  deep,  and  jis  the  tiirLl'fti  «re  shy  and  will  not 
feed  well  in  clwir  water,  it  haw  Iwen  found  exjHsliont 
to  koe|)  carp  and  uther  fish  in  the  same  p>i>ndf!.,  in 
order  that  they  may  stir  up  the  mud  to  conceal  the 
turtles.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  steep  b.ink»  nf 
earth,  and  each  batch  is  at  once  covered  with  wire 
netting  by  the  attendantx.   When  the  youn^  hatch, 


1 


ri«j| 


they  are  prevented  from  crawlini:  into  the  water  by  - 
planks  on  edge,  that  divert  them  from  a  straii;ht 
course  to  the  water  until  they  finally  fall  into  sun- 
ken  jars,  whence  they  are  removed  by  the  atteod-J 
ant^  and  placed  in  rearing  ponds.  There  they  are' 
fed  on  chopped  ll«h  until  they  go  into  the  winter 
sleep.     Oradnally  they  are  given  the  food  of  tfa« 
adults,  and  are  finally  not  kept  separate  from  laree 
turtles.   The  young  of  three  to  live  years  are  tSi 
most  esteemed,  ann  are  the  ones  sold  in  the  markeL 
When  six  years  old.  they  begin  to  breed,  but  ara, 
not  yet  at  the  maximum  of  reproductive  power. 

TheM  farms  have  been  soccessfnl  because  of  tht 
abundance  of  che.^p  animal  food  -a  kind  of  clara, 
which  it  crushed  under    heavy  millstones.    Th« 
turtles  are  also  given  boiled  wheat  grain*,  d 
fish  scraps,  silkworm  pupjE.  and  other  food. 

In  America,  the  Bo-called  turtle-famu  prove  to 
be  merely  places  for  holding  the  stock  for  shipment 
to  market,  with  the  one  important  exception  of  the 
turtle-farm  at  Lloyda.  Maryland.  Thi*  is  now  under 
the  control  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisher- 
ie8.  It  has  been  there  demonstrated  that  ynunz 
turtloiB  may  be  secured  from  eggs  laid  in  encloMd 
pens  by  the  diamond-back  terrapin.  Whether  tba 
young  can  be  reared  profitably  to  a  marketab 
size,  remains  to  be  demonstrated  by  this  exper 
mental  farm,  .\lthough  this  industry  is  thus  merel 
in  the  experimental  stage,  there  ie  hope  that 
proprly  undertaken  on  a  Urge  .scale,  withlar, 
oatlay  and  with  the  realization  that  some  eix 
must  elapse  before  the  product  of  the  hatched  eg? 
can  be  of  marketable  size,  financial  saccees  might 
result. 

Af  turtlea  lay  bnt  few  eggs  as  compared  wi 
fif>hand  Crustacea,  theHrsteMentlal  inturtle-fi 
ing  ii*  to  have  ponds  with  proper  conditions 
moisttiire  and  temperature  in  the  neighboring shorw,' 
so  that  all  the  egvcs  laid  in  the  gronnd  may  hatch. 
Another  necessity  is  to  protect  rhe  yoong  turtl« 
and  to  feed  them  enough,  not  only  for  growth,  bat 
to  carry  them  safely  through  the  long  bibernati 
[jerifjd  of  winter.  On  the  other  hand,  the  long  lifi 
of  the  adults  f-nables  one  to  secure  many  Baccewi 
broods  from  the;  itame  parents.  At  the  beet,  onl 
exceptional  conditions  of  cheap,  natural  feedi 
grounds  and  cheap  labor  may  be  utilized  for  proi 
in  turtle-raising. 

Litrrrilurc. 

Hay.  Revinion  of  Molaclemmys,  Bolletin  of  tl 
Tlnited  States  Ilureau  of  Fisheries.  Volume  XXf 
(1004) ;  Munroe.  The  Gr«on  Turtle  and  the  Possi-J 
bilities  of  its  Protection  and  Consequent  Incres 
on  the  Florida  Coast.  Itulletin  of  the  United  Sl&U 
Fishrommtflsion  ( 1S97)  ;  R.  L.  Ditmars,  The  R*j 
tile  RfMik.  Doiibleday,  Page  &  Co.,  ilWiT) :  Mil 
kuri,  The  Cultivatiun  of  Marine  and  Frefh  Wat 
Animals  in  Japan,  Bulletin    of  the  rniteJ  Stat 
Burean  of  Fi«heriee,  Volume  XXIV  (1TO4). 


INDEX 


601, 502,  503. 

15,  478,  5M. 

d  sweetbread,  20, 

505  506 

Angus  cattle,  330-333;   for  baby  beef,  31S; 
r  in,  36;  notes,  34,  303. 
Tabs,  448. 

character^,  tranBrniBsion  of,  37. 
n,  IS. 

32;  contagious,  32,  143;  notes,  123. 

25,442. 

n  cat,  300. 

D  caw,  520. 

»7,  662. 

180,202. 
IT,  211. 
20. 

Columbianum,  120. 

omposition,  96;  digeatibility,  90;    digestible 
ta  and  fertilizing  conatiliienis,  102. 
characters,  inheritance,  39. 
.  vulturinum,  578. 
«owa,  138;  effect  on  meat,  248. 
ochial  catarrh,  327. 
tro-intestinal  catarrh,  325. 
»th,  quoted,  619. 
A. 

eorge,  quoted,  627. 
ion  of  milk   tests  for,  179,  180. 
I  register,  Ilolstein-rriesian,  358. 

m,  wild,  276. 
iese,  572. 
■ay  parrot,  524. 
I,  retained,  324,  325. 

rmining,  of  cattle,  321;  horses,   433;  slieep, 
iae.653. 
^273. 

[erino  sheep,  619. 
Spherie,  composition,  21. 
178,372;  3d  13320,372;  Duke  5306,372. 
lerrier,  515. 
.,  quoted,  335. 
a,  571. 
»,74. 
■ven,  269. 

r  seal,  399;  farming,  404;  notes,  404. 
Ue,  402. 
I),371. 

177;  notes,  17. 
cattle,  notes,  335,  361. 
).  G.,  quoted,  338. 
r,  A.  J.,  quoted,  372,  375. 
r.  Dr.,  quoted,  494. 

>  lioney-plant,  285;  composition,  95;  dieenti- 
98,  9^;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
lente,  KG.  lOt);  factors  affecting  re«<ding  value, 
me*t-pro<lurtion,247;  nut^-s,  11, 151 ;  nutritive 
ltd   protein-equating  value,    104;    productiuii 

»y,  available  energy  in,  66;  for  beef  cattle, 
[ ;  for  colt.**,  43;  composition  and  digest)- 
f  dried,  68;  for  dairy  cows,  310;  digestibility, 
jeMible  nutrients  in  statetl  amounts,  111; 
'e  ratio  and  prutein-ctiuating  value,  10.^; 
ion  value,  07. 
.  as  honey-plant,  286. 

ter  poiHoning  of  stock,  US. 

B.,  quoted,  6.58,  670. 

F.,  quoted,  31 ,  375, 

KM. 

M98  (Fig.  366),  340. 

composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 


Alpaca,  7. 

Alterative  toods.  106. 

Althrope  quoted,  372. 

Alvord,  Major  Henry  K.,  quoted,  374. 

Amazon  parrot,  524. 

Amble,  423,  424. 

Amelia  meleagriditt,  140. 

American  Breeders'  Aisaociation  of  Jacks  and  Jennets 
quoted,  276. 

American  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders*  A»s«>ciation 
quoted,  303.  337. 

American  Ciirl,  492. 

American  Hackney  Horse  Society  quote<l,  481,  487. 

American  Jockey  Club  quoted,  499. 

American  Merino  sheep,  621 . 

American  mockingbird,  523. 

American  Poultry  Association  quoted,  .'>47,   503. 

American  sable,  401. 

American  saddle  horse  (See  .Saddle  horse). 

American  Saddle  Horse  Breeders'  AHHuciation  quoted, 
490. 

American  Sebright  fowls,  564. 

American  Star  14,  5I>6. 

Amides,  58. 

Ammonia,  for  poisoning,  120;  refrigeration,  259. 

Amylopsin,  20. 

Ancona  fowls,  567. 

Andalusian  ass,  277;  horse,  450;  jacks,  508,  500. 

Andatusian  fowls.  Blue,  566. 

Anderegg,  Professor,  quoted,  411. 

Anderson  quoted^  37. 

Anderson,  GaDtam,  quoted,  398. 

Anderson  ana  Kindlay  quoted,  332. 

Anderson's  Kaloef;e,  582. 

Andrew,  J.  T.,  quoted,  625. 

Andrew  Jackson,  503,  505. 

Andrews,  E.  A.,  articles  bv,  394,  635,  681. 

Angle-berries,  328. 

Anglo-Swiss  Condensed  Milk  Company  quoted,  191. 

Angora  goat,  405-408,  40i». 

Angora  rabbit,  517. 

Angus  Doddie,  331. 

Annual,  breeding,  26-43;  chemical  basis  of,  158;  com- 
position of  body,  58;  domestic,  place  in  civilization, 
3-14;  husbandry,  progress  of,  9-11,  273;  numb<-r 
and  value,  122;  phy.tiology,  15-26;  products,  total 
value  of,  9;  tirTX^s  and  score-cards,  44-55, 

Animals,  wild,  in  relation  with  agriculture,   163-109. 

Anos  boachas,  569,  572. 

Anser  albifrons,  575;  cinerous,  572,  576;  segetum,  576. 

Antar  Jr.  217  (Fig.  307),  277. 

Ant<4ope,  2. 

Anthrax,  129-131;  inoculating  for  immunity,  145; 
note,  126. 

Apes,  2. 

Aphth.'e,  553. 

Apiculture,  278. 

Apis  Adansonii,  dorsata,  floreu,  Indira,  iinicolor,  279; 
mellifica,  278,  279. 

Apoplectiform  sepliccmia  in  chickens,  129. 

ApixtnzcUer  goat.  White.  410. 

Apple  pomace,ci>m|K)sitiiiii,  95,i)6;  digestible  nutrients 
in  stated  amounts,  116. 

Appleby,  J.  C,  (lUot^Hl,  481 . 

Apples,  comiMisitioii,  iKi;  I'limjMisition  and  fuel-value, 
264;  digestible  nutrients  in  .stated  amuunt.s.  116,   117. 

Aquicultun-,  390. 

Arab  horee,  440-449,  4NS;  lu.tes,  450,  497,  501. 

Arabella,  .372. 

Aratus,  490. 

Archangel  pigeon,  521. 

Arctomys  moimx,  165. 

Anlennais  horm-.  400. 

Arenga  saccharlfera,  2S6. 


(683) 


684 


INDEX 


AigilLBSe. 

Afgklntt  BpicaCus,  121. 

Arfonkut,  506. 

ArgtM  ptipasiuit,  £80. 

ArEu^iaJiua  argiu,  580. 

Anon,  £04. 

Ari«tophiuicfl  r|uot«<d,  £28. 

Arifltoii,  50A. 

Ariatotlp  quotH,  H4,  278, 

ArtnaSy,  H.  P..  arliHi'  by.  58. 

Amuitron^,  Jotiii  M..  i|uiiu^],  373. 

Arnold  hnt  fur  b()il<xl  milk,  im. 

Arrowddff  Duke  fl-ig.  488),  493. 

Artinhnkf,      i-i)iii.|H)Biti»ii,      lUi;      digeatiblf^     nutrienta 

Artillery  lionwit.  471.  472. 

A^bo^oe  aa  inmilfitina  maieri&l,  339. 

Asc*rid  mf?gBJoocphaIs,  443. 

AMMtnil(«.  i-iS, 

Awcl  ffiwl,  .128.,  f.29. 

,Aali  of  milk,  177. 

Asili,  nature  and  function,  B8,  82. 

Aninl'ii*  iu»,  witiL,  37ti. 

Aap^rgiUopm,  S&3. 

Am.  27&-?7S:  ducoam.   122-140;  «xt«ot  of    ewoatiiLg. 

2S;  milfc  of,  170;  porioii  wf  ee«t«ti<m,  31;  wild,    not*, 

419. 
Auocitition    of    Br(^('!T»  of   Thoroughbred    Holatciti 

CaltiB  quofol,  3.17, 
A»U>r  BA  hrtn«^y-pliuit,  2S5. 
ANthrnin  in  fiiwm  and  pigMinB,  131. 
Antnx-liBn,  3ftti,  4ll7. 
Aatragaltj?  moUisHUntw,  121. 
AlaviKiii.  39. 
AUtu  K^uiea  Si-vd.  diftntible  niitrtvnts  and  fcrrtitirinfc 

const itynts,  UMJ;  mral,  74;  nutritive  mtiv  «t«i  jjno- 

Alropliy,  5ft4. 

Atropin  for  jMisanJng,  120. 

Am-ntrr  fi(lnt,ml,  85.  • 

At.wofid  Mcritio  nlifH-ii,  010. 

AiiilubuEi  quuUil,  400, 

Auiluban  Boy,  CIH. 

AurocliB,  287. 

AuMtraliati  MrKno  iih"'p.  620. 

AufltraJi&u  Tnistw.  .'ill.'i. 

AuUm  4S6  <Fig,  3(>S),  342. 

AvftdftviLt,624. 

Avery.  J.  n.,  qwotwl,  366. 

Avi&n  tuhrrMiltmin,  136. 

Award-1,  ^liow,  15.**. 

A.  W.  Riilmiand.  506. 

AxUtII.  501. 

AyJcsburv  diirk,  5Q9. 

AvhnvT,  IliJgli,  iitiotod,  611. 

Avr«,  H.  L  .  article  bv,  230. 

Aynaiiro  cattle,  333-^7;  notes,  177.  303. 

Babcwk,  Dr.  S.  M,.  miotml,  17S.  181.  1S3. 
Habcock  inilk  t«^t    178,  ITfl;  note.  SOS. 
Babiniuwa,  640;  aliunw  (Fie.  ftal),  047. 
liaby-bwE.  3lfi,  .^10;  Htrefopd  eattlp  for,  353. 
BaeitJun  alvH,  2K.^;  rholi>ni'  miiii,   137;  rliau\-a4,   137; 

<liiwa»L»    (-Aviard    bv    biidiTJii    of    gcnup,    13(j-]:tS; 

m-cTOifkioniii.  137.  607,  80S,  6S0. 
BncoH,  ciuinral,  202;  (>ivdut'Ui,ni,  047-O49;  octe«,  644, 

fi45,  64(1;  »liip(iLtn[,  200;  i>iii|tiir-<^li^I.  266. 
Bai-iiu  liug,  fiulsliiug,  66iJ;  tvpi*,  So. 
lliM-iin,  W:  C.  articliC  by,  4*58. 
I)a«;lord(-iuia,  124. 
BacU'ria,  in  tnilfc.   1H2,   !.'47-l(>(l,  200;  In  rolalkin  to 

infection,  124;  in  irUtion  to  fm-iit-miJiiiing,  2fl] . 
Bft4vteriolngy  BpiilioJ  to  refrigeration,  238. 
Biu-tiTiiim,    luithnic-ijt,    12ft,    12fl;   axtlinnin?,    131;    di»- 

■■aso  rniDuxl  by  baoti-ria  of  i^eiiiui,  12B-1<tO:  iTiatlni, 

131 ;  of  i'reisx,  132;  Hanguinanum,  131 ;  tubcn-utoaiei, 

133. 
Hw-trioii  -cniiid,  21)7. 
Baditctv,  notc^.  IM,  IC^, 
Ewl<rv,  rharlM,  qnolM,  31. 
BaJky,  C.  P.,  qiiolod,  40fl. 
Bajl«fv,  ^'(•mon,  quoted,  166, 
Baker  quoted,  370. 


t\ab 


Huki-n-i-ll   I. (Ill    (.rshcop, 

llakttwcll,   iLuLtrl,  quotAJ 

BalaoceiJ  ratiiitta,  compiii 
f>IMitiinr,  lis, 

Dalata  aa  Itnncy-nlanl,  38 

Uald  StoclOngH  70, 490. 

BallutiK.  420. 

Balh,  322. 

Bana-rtar  {riK.  402)  497. 

Dang  method  of  tucierciil< 

Ban^  Profcnaor,  quot«d,  ] 

Bane-berry,  131. 

Hantanu,  568, 360. 

Barb  dog,  388. 

Barb  tiorae,  449-151 ; 

Barb  pigoona,  S2I. 

Barbados  ahccp,  631. 

Ban  (411).  381 

Barker,  Itif^liard.  quoted,  < 

Barkt-p,  William,  <iuot4>d,  1 

Harl«-y  nnri  pnui,  nigtidjbi 

IJarlty,  rom position,  03; 
iiutriaiiu  arid  fortilisin| 
74;  fcoline  value,  73; 
42H--432;  fur  uliow  noii 
f>>>;  grM.'u,  digvatible  a 
Btitue«t«,  101  ;  nutritjv 
valup,  10ft;  srrreningii. 

Barley  liay,  fiHiiixMrilion, 
fprriliring  con«titnc-nt*, 
tivp  ratio  and  ppoteinn 
Lion  vahii',  07. 

Rnrli-y  riii'nl,  i'iitti|>iHiitkiri 
livi-  ratio  nn^l  i<rot«iu-e 

Uartey-straw.  comiKMitioo 
bk'  milrietits  atid  fertil 
ing  vnlu"-,  71 ;  for  dairy 

BaniBflc,  634- 

Ilnrnard  Mor)y»n.50rt. 

Kamutn,  P.  T.,  quoted,  34 

Barnyard  millet,  i-ompdid 
eoni|iiiMtinn,  0.5;  dige^i 
crtfi  and  fertilising  ron 

Baron's  rridi-  ( !■  ig.  464), 

Uanx-t  clium.  202. 

Ham-nnt™",  3.'1,  34. 

Bam-ll,  O.  W,,  .iiioled,  2S 

Barron,  ro([ii[ii>iJ'irp,  qiiot 

BaiTOW.  149,647. 

Bam  1rtl,4S1,  475. 

ItaiTw.,  475. 

Barllctt'fl  Childcra.  501. 

Barton,  E.  M.,  quot4Ml,  33! 

Baal  WW.  503. 

Uaxhnn-  51],  505. 

ttaHtiaw  Arabian,  4S0. 

Bawt,  biftik,  .Tin,  ;KI2,  3M, 

RaxHWCHid  ai  lionoy- plant. 

Bates,  Ttiotnaa,  ituoUsrt,  -ii 

BatK,  tlW. 

Battbdor  (Fig.  478),  482, 

Hay  lynx,  403. 

Buyn«9,  E.  II.,  artide  b>-, 

llr-iLg]v)ii)iind,  517. 

Ilntili',  Lieut.  E-  1'.,  quolix 

Ileal],  C.  H.  quoted,  622, 

Bean  goo«c,  5ifi. 

Bean  ntraw,  digMliblc  ni 
HI.  112. 

Beanos,  Captain,  quoted,  ( 

BcajiB,  available  on  erg;)'  1 
iiig  value,  71 ;  fiiNlirig  vi 
dncd,  compoHitioa  and 

Bear,  402;  notM,  ISS;  pt{ 
tiun,  397- 

Bearaiice,  106. 

Beattic,  Snmon,  qiiot«d,  3! 

Beautiful  Brl]»,  SOS. 

Beautv  004,  4DI. 

itea%-a-,  398,  400;  fanniog, 
of  ^tatton.  31 ;  (irutccl 

Beddmg,  147 ;  for  abovr  aii 


INDEX 


685 


Bf^ford,  r>Mrp>  M.,  quoted,  372. 
Hrdc  i|«ioUd,  36It. 
Ucdfonbliirv  fAff,  W2. 
BedlingtoD  Cerrier,  516. 
BaImhi,  8.  L..  quuUil,  -iW. 
B<w>-pl«n(.  'JK5 

IVrf,  ftiitoutit  of  ilrv  tiiftltvr  t«  pnMluii?e  a  pound  of,  II; 

CMUiod  rosAt,  2fii3;  oharftrtoriiitios  of  good,  24^:  cotn- 

pnrition  ATu)  fud-vAtiK',  2B-t.  261^  27&;  •  iiUine,  253; 

arind,  25S;  scmp  for  futh-ning  (dwU,  MO;  tttiippirig 

CEfewsH,  2f)0;iitorine.  2,Vt:  talTow,  3511. 
Bc(€  catUe,  feeding,  .'117-321;  typo,  4S-S0. 
Bennrmx   for  condli'v,  2£9. 
Bert    [iioliL8&««,   compof^itiun.  9<6:  dienttiblc   nutricnU 

And  fprtJlitiDft  rijjLatiiiiciitM,  |(>2,  llfl;  nutritive  r«tiQ 

aiirl  pni(*-iiifi(iiiitiiiK   vkIui'.  105. 
IW^t  irtilt',  "ft;  ii>iiiiio»iiii>nj  Hfi;  ■  lij(«ilibility,  09;  diges- 

tihJc  nulpiriils  jind  fe(tili«iti(E  <viii!<t.it.in-n'l«|  HI2, 
fhTiii,  (YiinpoBilion,  9&;  digeatiblc  mitricnla  and  (rrti- 

lizing  cMiKiiUif^nta,  102;  fuedlng  valuB,  71;  ivutritivc 

raiiu  Mid  I  im  I  (-in -r^  I  UN  ting  vulue,  105. 
BumlinR  milk  U«t,  17H,  I7». 
l)djp*ii  draft  Uane,  451-453;  notsfi,  274. 
B«l^»n  luurv,  412-415;  note,  fil7.    (Se«  Uftre,  Delgi»D,) 
BdituUaSlwrtlinnu',  :i71. 
Bril  Dwke  trf  Ainiri*-  2ftfi2,  372. 
TVIIp  ArUiii,  6l>4. 

B<-Jlr  SarciMTM-,  No.  1 108  (Fig.  370),  358.  350. 
B^JIfliiWiT  lut  hnnr-v-plmil,  2Sfl. 
Ht-Jlf«.L.nilrr  5.  .1112;  (.W),  467,  .502;  Imported,  502. 
Bt-lv<-.l,Ti-  C17I.K1},  371. 
Hi.nnrnl,  C.  N.,  quotoi],  629. 
H«-n  Fraoldin.  JJOO. 
IVii  Lumoni],  500. 
tViiign  V'-ncrrftl  diaeaae.  140. 
B«.iftmin  loai  (Fig.  374),  846. 
B«TKh  A  Coinpanv  ouotod,  47.'). 
Hrrt(i>)iiri>  emnav,  '65S-660;  fitting  for  exhibition,    154j 

tuitt><,  fll4. 
Ik-ikihirrknot  alit^op,  614. 
llrrliu  l^uMd  of  llmJth  ([Uoted,  134. 
Bemacle  guune,  570. 
Bcni«aecattJ«,381. 
Bcmicla  cucopata,  576. 
nt-TTv,  Williuu,  ouotcd.  622. 
BfrtJiolf,  Liput.  E.  v.,  quottd,  6Sfl,  OTI. 
BvrUiune,  4d0. 
Bertua,  403. 
Berwick  awan.  586, 
lltTit  €|uol«l,370. 
Ik-'tsey  Hnrhiuiii,  490, 
llt^Mrrmcn,  milk.  IS7. 
Key  UiLiliauiiunl  Paaha  qttnted,  207. 
B4'i>o*rgii*t.4(>$. 
Bi«  '"hina  -iwine,  673. 
Hig  bend,  ]38,  438;  unlet,  500. 
Hig-lmrn  sheen,  507. 
IU«iU«  (iN«.  iiOfi)  (Fig.  467).  461. 
Bile,  19. 
Bile'a  XXXX,  digiwtililc  niiCrieiila  in  Kinted  nmoUTita, 

BiUarv-  jitundice,  20. 

Bilirubin,  IS. 

Rilivirdtn.  19. 

Biamnjt.SM. 

Biid^iftwka,  173. 

Knfa,  car^,  522-A24. 

Birds  H  cmrrien  of  dia«ute,  137;  In  their  rel&tjaaa  with 

urieulturv,  lflft-173. 
Birui,  Dfenialurv.  32. 
Bithop^s  HiunUetonian.  467.  501,  602. 
Biaon,    2,    287-202;    AnuTicftniia,    287;    bi»op,    2S7; 

bonasiM,  2S7. 
Biaulfid  of  catIhio  for  rotlenU,  165,  167. 
BitUnc,  Dr.  A.  W.,  riuotw).  663. 
Black^acknH  Kal>-4«e,  582. 
Black  Bam,  400. 
Black  Brant  room-,  576. 
Havk-brpaHtt-d  Ucd  Malay  fonl,&e8. 
Black  brood.  2li5. 
Blaf  k  cap,  .'•22. 
Blark  Cayugn  ditrk,  570. 


BIwk  Rafale  74.  400. 

Blix'k  F»<t  India  diirk.  570. 

Blni'k-fn>ce  Highland  atiw]).  631, 

Black-fuolvd  Hirret,  1G8. 

Blut'Li,  GvurKi--,  qmiU-d,  U23. 

B1a<-k  KTiuw  hav,  diEmtibililyj,  98. 

BIni'k  KiiiiL  tw  (luiifiy-pliuit,  285. 

BInrk  Hawk  5.  606. 

Black  KfifHc  ijf  Flandpra,  450,  493. 

BInck  IcR,  137:  iniifiunity,  IW. 

Blmk-ncrkivi  Valaiii^Bn  gimt,  410. 

Black  (lUArUT,  137. 

BliiL'k  Hliwp.  .'■i'J7. 

^lIl^-k  Bpiiiiifi})  rf>wlH,  Wbitc-Iacwl,  506. 

Block  Sumatra  Uiv.\s.  5iU^, 

Bl»L'k  B*iat-,  LiiiK''.  OT't*,  !:ilnia|l,07i>. 

nijuk  f«)uirrfl  .W.  49IJ. 

BliK^k-throaUtl  dolfica  pheasant,  £82. 

Black  tooth,  CW. 

Black-top  Spaiiiiili  Merino  sheep,  622. 

Block  trtntcr  of  Frienlatid,  451 

Block  Webb  [-nidc,  .177,373. 

Black-win^cd  jx-afDwl,  5K0. 

Blaok-and-laiL  u-rrier,  516. 

BJofkbirO,  170,  171 ;  red-winged,  not**,  170- 

Blackbinl  401 .  016. 

Blackbird  4U2,  5tm,  .523. 

Bl&ckbuni'*  whip.  4»0. 

BliW-keat,  401. 

Blapkhcod,  140. 

Bljuikeiing  xCiick,  US,  154. 

BIflso,  40fl,  407,  407,  500,  501,  502. 

Bleeding  oattlc,  250, 

Bleuheiin  dug,  517. 

Blind  giii,  20. 

UloatiniK,  3'26;  of  sheep,  60S. 

IMondcurtli^s,  521. 

Utaid  fire  uJ  at  ion,  20,  21. 

ninitil,    drii-d,    (LigeHiibiliiy,    00;    diRcstlblF    nutriciitji 

iind    frTltlising    riiti.HtiluuiLii,    102;    Dutritivo    raUiJ 

and  prtitcin-ctiuiitinn  voluu,  105, 
UhKtd  uicai  fur  hIiow  anirnalM,  I&3. 
llliioil  jHiiiiitiiiiK.  uute,  15U. 
|lUM«i'»  IHmk  llawk,  490. 
Itloud  worms,  3»2, 
Bloodhi^uitd.516. 
Bloody  Buttocks,  505. 
BloS3«m,  ."^71. 
niui-l>ird«,  17.T 
Blue  Bull,  476,  400. 
Blue  Front  parrot,  524. 
Blue  giiuM!,  fi?."!, 
Blue-gra.-*,  iictcn,  69,  71. 
Dlue^rays.  347. 

Blue-juint  KraM,  digi?9itilMlity.  OS. 
Blue  SwtHlisli  <luck,  570. 
Blue  thi^tli-  AH  li()ni'y-plBtit,  285. 
Blundi'villr,  'riiiiiiiii.1,  ijUotMl,  497. 
Boar,  fwiiing,  «4!l;  wild,  «40. 
Boanl  of  HcuUIl  IjiclonM-tvr,  181. 
Bob  HMiter,3*t7. 
Bobolink,  171. 

BobtaJI  SliMp-duR.    {Stt  Sheep-dog.) 
Bobwhitc,  dome^iticalion,  BJt4,  686. 
Body  funclions,  62,  03. 
Boeee  Ilwtar,  ijuolfd,  631. 
Bnllcd  milk,  U-Ht  fnr,  180. 
Boiling  meats.  25K. 
Bollinger  quoted,  132. 
I'tnliiRnu  Kau.iiitfi*,  257  ,  canned,  263, 
Bomouy  buffafu,  205. 
BombjTi  atori.CW, 
Ikinaaa  umbclla,  576. 
Bone,  174;  flour,  174. 
Bone  upavin,  445. 
Bonnii-  S(vitland,  503. 
BoripMliiN  nnniilatua,  141. 
ItootiMJ  White  banta>m,  500. 
Buolli,  JuincM,  quoted,  467. 
Itwotli,  Julin,  quoted,  371. 
bootli  Bed  Ko"™,  371. 
Booth,  liifhnrd,  qiii>t«d,  371. 
Booth,  liioinaa,  qrioU-d,  371, 


686 


INDEX 


Boractc  acid,  sa  meat  preservative,  254;  in  milk,  t«st, 
179. 

Boralma,  504. 

Borax  as  meat  preservative,  254;  teat  for,  in  milk,  179. 

Borden,  A.  P.,  quoted,  378. 

Borden,  Owl,  quoted,  191. 

Border  Leicester  sheep,  6t5,  617. 

Bomean  Fireback  pheasant,  581. 

Bos  bubalus  292;  frontosua,  302;  Indicus,  301,  303, 
378;  longifrons,  302;  primigcniua,  302;  taurus,  301, 
302,303. 

Boss,  Andrew,  article  by,  248. 

Boston,  498. 

Boston  terrier,  516. 

Botryomycosis,  125. 

Bots  and  bot-fly,  442. 

Boulonnais  horse,  461 ;  notes,  452,  479. 

Botirbon  Chief  970,  490. 

Bourne,  F.  G.,  quoted,  475. 

Bo  vo  vaccine,  136. 

Boyd,  MoBBom,  quotod,  291. 

Bowdit«h,  E.  F.,  quoted,  613. 

Bracelet  tribe  of  Shorthorns,  371. 

Bradley,  Peter  B.,  quoted,  447. 

Brahma  bantam,  569. 

Brahma  fowls,  565;  note,  529. 

Brahmin  cattle,  378. 

Braising  meat,  208. 

Bran,  73;  composition,  92,  93|  for  beef  cattle,  318-321 ; 
for  dairy  cows,  316;  for  dairy  heifer,  314;  for  horses, 
431,  432;  for  show  animals,  153;  mash,  430,  431; 
notes,  151. 

Branch  grass,  digestibility,  98. 

Branding  stock,  151. 

Brant  quoted,  575. 

Branta  bcmtcla,  576;  Canadensis,  574. 

Brassica  campestris,  597. 

Brazilian  cardinal,  523. 

Bread,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 

Breed,  defined,  421. 

Breeders'  associations,  notes,  27. 

Breeding,  animal,  20-43;  back,  39;  poultry,  529-532; 
young  stock,  306. 

Brcnnus,  33. 

Brentnall,  John,  quoted,  058. 

Breton  cattle,  379. 

Breton  liorpp,  461. 

Brewer,  W,  H.,  article  by,  3. 

Brewers'  grains,  74;  for  calves,  313;  compositionj  93; 
digi'slibility,  97;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliziiif; 
constitueiils,  IfX);  digestible  nutrients  in  stateil 
anioiuil.s,  1 14,  1 15;  nutritive  ratio  and  prnteiu-cqiiat- 
ing  value,  IO.t;  production  value,  07. 

Brewing,  notfs,  74. 

Briek-clu'c'se,  ■2'.i4;  notes,  220. 

Bridle.  4'if>. 

Brie  ehecse,  223;  notes,  220. 

Brieiiz  .S"i).  KiS,  33S. 

Brjggs,  H.  A.,  quoted,  452. 

Bright  I'lyes,  371. 

Hrirnse  clieefse,  223. 

Briiidsc  ehee.se.  223. 

Brine-euring  of  rnenl,  255. 

Uriiise  cheese,  223. 

Brilisli  War  Ulliee  quoted,  474. 

Brittjiny  cattle,  379. 

BroaiiiT   qiic)letl,   371. 

Hroiliiig  men.t,  '2lt7, 

lirokeri-wjmi,  2'J;  inheritance  of,  3S. 

Hnmcliiti^,   327,   4tl;  in  fowls,  5-'j-^;  venninous,  0.5.5. 

Bronco,     -IS.'S,  .184. 

Hroncho-pneviinonia,  1.33. 

Hroodiiif;,  .542-.544. 

BriHiks,  Dr.  W,  K.,  quoted,  53S. 

Broorn-iiirii  Mceii,  eiini|msilir>i[,  ft'i;  digcMlible  nutri- 
ents :iiid  fertilizing  const iliii-iils,  IIH). 

Broiigliloii  Shorthorns,  371. 

Brown  H.'.^sie  (I'ig.  3S1),  3fi3,  374. 

Brown,  i;.  .\,,  (jvioted,  -(3-5. 

Brown   ii:il,  477. 

Hrown,  Hon.  IJeorgc,  quoleii.  :(73. 

Brown  .~5ili\vyzer  cattle,  -33.S. 

Brown  Si-ijniird  quoted,  .HS,  ;jO. 


Brown  Swiss  cattle,  337-339;  note,  303. 

Brown  Switier  cattle,  338. 

Brownlow  Turk,  467-  ' 

Bubalis  ami,  bos,  bubalis,  buSalua,  202;  C«ffer,  2 

Bubonic  plague  immunity,  14S, 

Buchan,  Geoise,  quoted,  345. 

Buchan  Humbliea,  331. 

Buck  kaees,  500. 

Buckeve  fowls,  565. 

Buckskin,  tanning,  271. 

Buckthorn  for  birds,  172. 

Buckwheat,  bran,  73,  93,  100,  105,   114;  compooit* 

93;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliaing  constitun 

100,  113;  flour,  93;  as  honev-plaot,  285;  hullo. 

100;  middlings,  73,  74,  93,  ibO,  105,  114;  shorto, 

100;  straw,  95. 
Buffalo,  292-296;  milk,  176;  period  of  gesUtkm, 

(See  Bison). 
Buffalo-grass,    nutritive    ratio    and    protein-cquat 

factor,  104. 
Bulk  in  the  ration,  106. 
Bull,  dairy,  304,  306;  feeding,  308,  317. 
Bull  nose.  655. 
Bull  terrier,  515. 
Bulldog,  515. 
Bullfinch,  523- 
Bullfrog,  395. 
BuUe  Rock,  498. 
Bullock  horse,  502. 
Bulman  quoted,  42, 
Bulrush,  503,  506. 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  quoted,  161,  325. 
Bureau  of  the  Census  quoted,  272. 
Bureau  of  Fisheries  quoted,  390,  391,  393,  394. 
Burke,  John,  quoted,  453. 
Burkott,  Charles  W.,  article  by,  507. 
Burleigh,  A.  E.,  quoted,  375. 
Burieigh,  J.  F.,  quoted,  375. 
Burma  i>ony,  489. 
Burncns  quoted,  278. 
Burrell  quoted,  396. 

Burrell-Lawrence-Kemiedy  milkins  machine,  312. 
Burro,  276,  277. 

Buttcl-Reepcn,  H.  von,  quoted,  279. 
Butter,  198-207;  amount  of  dry  mattrr  to  produoi 

(Kjund  of,  11 ;  coniiK>silinn  and  f  del -value.  2fi4:  m 
(jr,  note,  176;  notes,  174;  packing.  21)4;  pasteuri* 

207;  records,  207;  n'trigeralion,   236,  243;  worki 

2(K. 
Butli?r-fat,  cost  of  producing,  14;  increase  in  jifrrf 

age  of,  10;  nature,  atid  causes  of  variation  in  qii 

tity  in  milk,  176,  177. 
Buttercups,  coiniKisition,  94;  <ligestibility,  9S. 
liutterine.  note,  259, 
ButteriTiilk,    comixtsition.    96;    composition    ami   fi 

Viilue,     264;     digest  ihle     nutrients     ajid     fcriilif 

constituents,   102,   117;  nutritive  ratio  and  pmi. 

equating  value,  105. 
Buttiro,  eiieew  219. 
But  vrin,  177. 

Byerly  Turk.  4.51,  497,  .501,  .505. 
ByficUl  swine,  602,  673. 
By-product  feeding-stuffs,    73;     produeiion    vsJ.iv, 

('lihbuge,  cnmp>sition,  90;  comtMisit ion  and  fuel-val 
204;  digestible  nutrients  and  fi'rtiljzing  conslil'iei 
11)2,  116;   for  show  nniinals,  1-53;  tainting  milk.  ^ 

CsIk'H's  l-.-xington,  49(1. 

Cabezii  ilc  Vaca  quotei.1,  49S. 

Cackling  KO()se,  .576. 

Ciiddis-wornis,  .392. 

Cadet  12,51,  467. 

Cieeuin,  20. 

C;enuris  ceri'liralis,  605. 

C:[-sar,  -Inlius,  quoted,  302,  484,  493,   528. 

Cage-birds,  .522-.524. 

C;iked-biig,  .323. 

Calarnngro.stis  Cana^lensis,  9S. 

Caldwell,  William  11. ,  article  by.  34S. 

Calf,  eonqto.sition  of  ImmIv,  59;  feeding  the  dairv,  3< 
30ti,  313;  pulse  in,  21. 

Caliban,  505. 

Call  duek.s,  571. 


INDEX 


687 


Call,  Surg.  8.  J.,  quoted,  591. 

Callineft«6  hastatiui,  634. 

Cftllorhinus  Alasoanus,  390. 

Calorie,  05,  264. 

Camas,  death,  120.  . 

Camel,  296-299;  pulse  ,21 ;  ruminatioQ  in,  18. 

Camellia    bacterianue,  297;  dromcdarius,  297. 

Camcmbert  cheese,  223;  notes,  220. 

Campbell  Patent,  193. 

Canada  Chief,  490. 

Canada  lynx,  403. 

Canada  peas,  digestibility,  08. 

Canadian  geese,  574. 

Canaries,  522;  mule,  622;  notes,  31. 

Candles,  making,  259. 

Canine  malaria,  139. 

CaniB  faniiliaris,  383;  lupus,  402. 

Canker,  584;  of  fowls,  553;  of  the  mouth,  in  swine,  656. 

Canning  meat  and  fisli,  261-263;  oysters,  639. 

Canter,  427,  491. 

Capital  investment  on  stock-farm,  12. 

Capons  and  caponiting,  540    541;  notes,  149,   150. 

Capped  elbow,  443;  liock,  443. 

Capra  legagrus,  405;  angoreoais,  405;  falconeri,  405; 
Ibex,  408. 

Carabao.  292.    (,See  Buffalo.) 

Caraen,  278. 

Carbohydrates,  nature  and  function,  5S,  62,  63;  fuel- 
value,  65. 

Carbolic  arid  as  disinfectant,  146,  147. 

Carcajou,  397. 

Cardinal,  523;  Brazilian,  523. 

Caribou,  588,  590,  592. 

Cariylo,  W.  L,  articles  by,  451,  460,  632;  quoted,  483. 

CarmicWl,  T.  J^  quoted,  610. 

Carmichffl.  W.  E.,  quoted,  31. 

Camion,  506,  507. 

Carnivorous  mammals,  167. 

Carob  bean  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Carolina  duck,  571. 

Carp,  German,  393,  394;  notes,  390,  392. 

Carpet-grafls  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Carriftge-liorsc  bref-drng,  274;  type,  46,  47. 

Carrier  pigconw,  521. 

Carrot,  available  cncr|^,  66;  composition,  95;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituentB,  102,  110;  feed- 
ing value,  71  ;  for  liorset*,  430  ;  nutrilive  ratio  and 
protein-equating  value,  105;  production  value,  67. 

Carthagena  parrot,  524, 

Cartilaginous  quittor,  443. 

Casein,  177. 

Caseous  lymph-adenitis,  132. 

Cashmere  goat,  405. 

Casings  for  sausage,  257. 

Cassandra  (Fig.  473),  472;  2nd  16305,  369. 

Casserole,  268. 

Caasius  H.  Oay  20,  605. 

Caaswell,  I.  E.,  quoted,  618. 

Castlcman,  David,  article  by,  489. 

Castor  fiber,  399. 

Castration,  149. 

Cat,  299-301;  fecundity.  33;  mastication  in,  17;  notes, 
167,  173;  period  of  gestation,  31;  sweating  In,  23; 
vomiting,  19. 

Catalonian  jack,  277,  508,  509. 

Catarrh  in  fowls,  554. 

Catarrhal  fever,  malignant,  60H;  rhinitia,  656. 

Catbird,  170,  172. 

Catclaw  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Catfish,  392. 

CatreusWallichi,  .581. 

Cattalo,  2,  288-292. 

Cattle,  301-382;  age  to  breed,  30;  branding,  151 ;  com- 
mon ailments,  122-146,  321-330;  conipoaition  of 
increase  in  live  weight,  80;  determining  the  age,  321 ; 
digestibilitv  noten,  61;  distribution,  10;  dnw<ing, 
260-2.52;  dr>-  matter  ixrr  dav  for,  1.3;  feeding  stan- 
dards, «2,  lOS;  fitting  and  exhibiting,  153-158;  in- 
crease in  nuiiil>er,  910;  iiiM|iertioii,  161 ;  ntaintenance 
reqiiirenienta,  77;  niarkcting,  l.W-162;  nuiiilier  in 
relation  to  size  of  fariu,  12;  origin  of  domeutic,  302, 
303;  period  of  heat  in,  :U);  [xiiHoning,  120,  121 ;  pre- 
paring for  shipment,  151 ;  prolificacy,  13;  proteid  re- 


quirements, 81;  ptibertv,  30;  pulse,  436;  statistics, 
302;  types,  47-51 ;  value,  10;  vomiting,  19. 

Cattle  tick,  141 ;  as  an  agent  of  infection,  125;  notes,  123. 

Cavalry  horses,  471. 

Cavanaugh,  Geo.  W.,  article  by,  194. 

Cavy,  519-520. 

Cecil,  Lord  Arthur,  quoted,  487. 

Cecil  Palmer  933.  490, 

Cedar  birds,  notes,  170. 

Cedric  (1087),  457. 

Cell,  animal,  cliaracters  and  functions  of,  28. 

Cellulitis,  infectious  suppurative,  125. 

Cellulose,  58,  59;  notes,  17. 

Celtic  ox,  302;  pony,  420  488. 

Central  Experimental  I-arm  (Ottawa)  quoted,  344, 
648,  680. 

Centra! izers,  230. 

Century  plants  as  honey-planta,  285. 

Ceratophyllum,  392. 

Cereal  grains,  feeding  value,  72,  316;  notes,  8,  11. 

Cerebritis,  notes,  119. 

Cerebro-Hpinal  meningitis  in  horses,  143. 

Cereopsis  goose,  576. 

Certified  milk,  186;  note,  175. 

Ceylon  jungle-fowl,  682. 

Chamnch,  522. 

Chamberlain,  Wm.,  quoted,  620, 

Chambers,  E.  T.  D.,  article  by,  395. 

Champion,  467. 

Champion,  E.  R.  B.,  article  by,  299. 

Chapman  horw,  454. 

Chapped  teats,  323. 

Chappie  Lee  (Kig,  493),  498. 

Chara,  392. 

Charcoal  as  insulating  material,  237,  239;  notes,  106. 

Charge  quoted,  37U. 

Chargers,  474. 

Charlemagne  (Fig.  43),  46. 

Cliarles  if  quot<ut,  497. 

Cliarles  Caflrey,  .506. 

Charles  Kent  mar«^  467,  502. 

Chaucer  quottxl,  464. 

Chauveau  quoted,  24. 

Chesapeake  bay  dug,  515. 

Cheddar  chcct<c- making,  208-217. 

Cheer  pheasant,  581, 

Cheese,  20S-226 ;  American,  componition  and  fuel- 
value,  264;  factories,  174,  208,  209,  214-217.  245; 
im|iortatinns,  220;  milk  for,  notes,  176;  notes,  174; 
refrigerali<m,  236,  245,  246. 

Chclopua  iiiHi-ulptua,  681, 

Chcinirul  ba-HiH  of  plants  and  animals,  58. 

Cliemical-piiimming  of  stock,  118. 

Chen  ea;rulcscens,  575;  liyitcrlwrca,  676. 

Chcnery,  Winthrop  W.,  quoted,  357,  360. 

Che  no  pis  at  rata,  585. 

Cherry,  wild,  121. 

Cherry  bints,  172. 

Cheshire  quoted,  285. 

Cheatiire  cheese,  note,  208. 

Chesliire  swine,  660. 

Chester  Dare  10,  4!M), 

Cluster  Wliite  Hwinc,  661-663;  notes,  644. 

Chestnut  finch,  .Vi4. 

Cheviot  hIim  |>,  mf.}. 

Chicago  ilortc  Show  rules,  157. 

Chickadee.  170,  173. 

Chicken,  canned,  263. 

Chicken  cholera  immunity,  14.'3;  pox,  143. 

Chickens,  brce<ls  and  tyi>ew,  5<W-56!» ;  care  of  young, 
543;  marketing,  544-547;  statistics,  527. 

China  torquatus,  .581, 

Chinalo])ex  yEgyiiticiw,  .554. 

C)iinii«e  gii'si',  .573,  574;  swine,  658,  679, 

Chipmunks,  16-t. 

Chloral  liydrate  for  {Miisoning,  120, 

('hloriiiatcfl  lime  an  disinfectant,  146. 

Clioice  gotxis  (Fig.  4t>J,  4H, 

Chuki'bcrry  fur  Innls,  172, 

Choking,  326. 

Choh-ra,  iffi-ct  on  meat,  248;  fowl,  131,  555, 

Chri.tti)l>el,  '.iT.i. 

Cliristopher,  384. 


LNDEX 


Clmrn,  202. 

Clmniing,  202-204.  2t)7. 

Clin'si}|iip)nui  Aiiihrnitup,  582;  pictus,  582. 

Ch>Tiie.  19. 

Cicuta  ix-i'idi'nlaliB,  120, 

On^tlminw!  tiufTnUi,  2tf4. 

Cinnnmnn  hrar,  4(12, 

Circulficion  ff  thr  blood  in  nnimttls,  20, 21 ;  in  fowlB,  26. 

Ci  to  lion,  47ft. 

riti'lliis  Or.-Kt>mi3,  HVl. 

Cliulonin  nimrifiTimi,  501. 

Cliulotlirix  ikriinoEiiyrcH,  138. 

Claiu,  634. 

Cliuk  Cliief,  505, 

Onrk  (.'i>iiiitv  (Ohio)  Importing  AnodftttDQ,  37S. 

Clarii,  Ilciiry  M  .  iiiio1*J.  338. 

Clav  Aruliiiiii,  45il. 

Olav  ffciiiily.  '^2,  5(J3,  fillS. 

Clni-,  Urnry,  niiot«-d,  27(\.  45W,  (WW. 

diiy  Pilnt,  505, 

Oc«r  Qril,  476. 

Owiiiie  ill Lt^KTi folia,  2R5. 

0«%-L-liui<l  Buy  hi>r><T,  ']53-'455:  tiutr,  451. 

Cltivolnitil  ,Stninx>t.k  (Hintwi,  4.'j3. 

aitt.  L,  D..  qiioti-iJ,  018. 

OtinaCt!  tut  a  cuiuie  uf  voiiiLliun  in  nuiiutila,  S4. 

Clinton  CViutity  (Uhio)  Importiux  A-wodatioo,  377. 

<!lip|>inj;  ho^rsft*,  148. 

Clo-",  Wn>.  C.  articlr  by,  408. 

Claafv-bre-nUikg,  43, 

aiiUiild.^  No.  15S.  3.V>. 

Clovrr,  fartors  iifTi-<-liiig  fitnlJiig  value,  71:    sa    honey- 

pliknt,  2H&;   Imv.  fiS,  61,  63-~d6,   151,  310,  31S-32I, 

428-432;  uutt«;  II, 
Clovur,     al»ikc,     cum  posit  ion,     95;    djgeatibility,     98; 

diKt^tibli.-     nutrii-ntct    and     foniliisinK    constituents, 

101,  lOi;  liay.  ICM, 

<lovi>r.  crimHon,  as  honpy-plnnt,  285;  rompo«ilinn.  95; 

dijp«t.lbilliy,  9S:  UignMlibk*  nutrimlH  ami  rertiUting 

mnmitiwii tit,  102;  buy,  U>5;  Dutritive  rttCi<i  aiul  jira- 

l«iti-c?t|ualiiiig  vBliir,  1(>4. 
Clover,  luainmuth  rcii,  95,  102. 
Clo\Tr.  ilaijait,  yj. 
Ctuver,  ml,  voinpuaitiuu,  M,  95;  digestibility,  98;  di- 

KMlibk-  niLlrii'ui>«  ami  firtiliiinK  couRtituvnu,  101, 

102.  109;  li»v.  Ill ;  niilriiivtf  ratio  aad  prot*in-«qu»- 
ttng  value  104;  allagr,  67,  flA. 

Clover,  while,  95,  98,  102,  )04. 

Cliili-h<ni«f  bniiloTH,  ."544. 

Cluinbcr  Sjinnii'l,  515. 

<.*lyd(Silak-  horap,  455-^5S;  Dot^s,  274. 

Coach  dug,  515. 

Cuach  liorst!,  for  military  purposea,  472;  type,  40,   47, 

420,    [Set  FrcncL  coach  h<>r»«  tual  Gerinan  coach 

honw.) 
Coal  sparks  M  iiMulaliiLg  iiintj:-rinl,  235, 
Coal-tor  dyes  in  milk,  tt^t  tor,  180. 
Coatm,  Clcorip!,  qiiotwl,  374, 
Cotw,  474. 

Cobuni  qiitited,  65H.  fl80. 

Uuchiii  baiitiiiii,  5uy;  fuwie,  565;  Dot«a,  528,  520. 
Cocliiii4^  iDsit-t,  2. 
UochtHU  niilk  tr«t,  17S. 
CfHclirane.  M.  II..  quoted,  373. 
Cocker  apaiiid,  214. 
Coi^klv-bur,  121. 
Coclupur,  490. 
CorocavallD  chcMe,  210, 
Cuoonut,  cak^,  f)3,  IU1 ;  aa  bonciy-plant,  280. 
Cotlniaii,  JariK-M  M.,  qtwtei],  350. 
CofToe  na  huiivy -plant,  2B0. 
Cof&a  quutMl,  3i2. 
Coliii'piis,  41$. 
Coit.  llt!iiry  L.,  quoted,  17& 
Colantlut.  4th's  Jobaiina,  310,  350, 
Co)d-«t,anwc,  DOtc,  345.      {Sre  Itefrij^nUinn.) 
Coldn.  in  lowU,  AM. 
Cole,  Trunmn  A-,  quote.!,  379. 
Culi-iMiiii,  ilixi.  Rohrrl  W.,  ijuiotuil,  342. 
CUmnaK's  Eureka,  4ihU, 
Colic,  439. 

Ouliii,  Dr.,  quolvd,  37,  428. 
Coiinua  Virginiaou*,  584. 


CalldRnn,  2fll. 

C<illi»  dng.  .S83-3S6;  natm,  MS. 

CoIlingB,  Charlce,  qwted,  370. 

Collinga,  Robert,  quoted,  370,  371. 

CuUum,  Witlinm,  quoU-t),  373. 

Colon,  20. 

Colorado  BxperiiuMit  Station  quoted,  374,  507. 

Colored  Muacov«y  duck,  570. 

Coloring  butl«r,  202. 

Coloatrum^dll;  coinpo«tion,  06;  dignatible  nut 
and  rcrttlinne  ron^titurntn,  tt)2. 

Coltfl,  traiuin|!,434. 

CoEuinbiaiiUS,  586. 

CoiurnbitK-,  5U0. 

Catuuibua  quotnj,  498. 

CciEuiiibua  pKcioiE  family,  476,  509. 

0>luiTi«lln  (luotuj,  27S. 

Comb  III  ft  I  ion  Jcrioyd,  3<>4. 

Ci>m<-t.  (15,*>).  370. 

Comptofi.  J.  L.  Gibb,  quot«d,  612. 

Ooncencrat^d  feedlne-atufra,  60,  316;  compoaitioo, 
63;  tiuturv  ami  vaUie,  72;  wheo  to  feed,  IS. 

Condenacd  milk  manuTacture,  IBO-IM,;  uot«a  170. 

Condimental  food«,  100. 

Coadltioa  powders.  106. 

CooestoKa  liorav,  421 . 

CoQpy.  50t. 

Confi'kiKc  (158),  467. 

Congniitnl  diacaacs,  38. 

Counts  rnara  pony,  488. 

r-iniJviT,  U.  G..  arlicte  }yf,  412: 

(.ViiieanguJiiPciiui  bm^diiig.  42, 

Conslan-ct^,  372, 

Coiiititiiipliou,  133. 

Coiilagioii»  pleiin^-pueumonia  in  cattle,  142. 

Conliiituity  of  ici.-rni  pl<L»tii,  3U,  40. 

OafilrotlitiR  Avx  of  <>ffiii>ring,  40,  41. 

Cook    William,  quofjxl,  5»37, 

Cooking  feeds,  volue,  60;  mPol«.  205-270. 

CooIiiIki.-,  ('■oriiHiu^,  quoted,  372. 

C(K>liiig  arningitmcut.-i  fur  inilk'nxnii,  20S. 

Cooper  gravity  briivv-HVotcro  of  rvfrigeration,  240.   (i 
Vol,  f) 

CooixT,  T.  S.,  quot«d.  613. 

Cojwlaiid  1153,  4y2. 

Coppt-rbottoni,  476,  503. 

Cflfbeau   47a. 

Cordon  Blue  bird.  524. 

Curk,  KniuuluUid,  lui  inautating  material.  237,  239. 

Com.  2(>I;  bran,  75,  02,  IIH).  cub,  W.  96,  100; 
meal,  67,  H2.  IW.  09.  IW.  lOo,  113,  431.  432;  l. 
lioii  aud  valui-,  67,  72    9^  tW,  100.  103,  It 
clTect    ou    fi-cundity  of  aiumiJ,  -13;    nnergy 
«n»iliii«,  eS;  f.-0(ling  value,  314.  31S-321 ;  Ho* 
foddor,  67.  94,  97,   101,  104,   100.   til;  (or 

Jerrn  meal.  76,  02;  a*  hor^-y-plant,  38fi;  for 
28-432;  huskn.  04;  kcniolit,  99;  leavw.    94;  ine_ 
51^  ti:i-66,  76,  Q'i,  'M,  99,  lOS,  151,  304;  not«a,  B,  U, 
60-71,  151;  ntui  oiiU,  105;  tot  Bltow  OOiinali,  153; 
Mlagc,  07,  95,  99,  Ittt,  1(M.  110,  247;  and  aoyb«  " 
ailugB,  95,  99,  102;  «U)ver.  67,  71,  94,   07,  101,  It 
111,  310. 
Com.  awvot,  compowlion,  92. 
Com.«Ulk  diMoae,  119,  130. 


OttniPd-bocf,  2.55,  362;  ahipmnR,  260. 
icuhii 
quotnl    1K2,  31U. 


Cornell    L'nivenity    Agricultiirwl    Cx|)«tnMBl 


38.  3«. 


Comins,  KnuLUK,  quutMl.  612. 

ComUli  Indian  fowl^  508. 

Convlatiou  of  parta  iu  aiiittial-liTvnliiiK. 

Corraaivu  subJiiuate  as  di«iii[><rtniit,  14(i. 

Cortex  quoted,  408. 

CorysH,  a4nil«,  656. 

Cotcntin  caitk,  381. 

Cabiwold  Hikeep,  61 1,  012. 

Cottagt;  (.-l>(.-[»o,  220,  221;  compuaition  and  fud-valii 

204;  ri{H-iii»il,  220. 
Cbtton,  notes,  H;  a*  houey-pjant,  285. 
Cotton  rat.  106. 
CuIIuiiwimI  fwd,  93,  97.  101,  105;  f<v>dilig  value, 

313,  316,  319-321;  KutU,  93.  07,  101.    IDA;  kprnr 

93;  meal,  67.  75.  76,  03.  97,  101,  H»5,  115.  110^ 

not«a,  75;  poiaoning,  119,  657. 


INDEX 


&9 


CottootaiU,  167. 

Cough,  327. 

Crtwlomniicr  ohwiw,  224;  nolwi,  220. 

CounH^'  (It^llrman,  The.  iiuotciti.  S3. 

CiiiKPur,  roluHcl  l.v,  quoUnl.  361 ,  3A2. 

Cuuttirc,  I>r.  J.  ,\.,  ([U«t«i,  MS. 

Cow,  ffvuiirlity,  33;  i^eriixl  of  XMttalioo,  31;   rccvnls. 

181 ;  tc«t  BMwialionv,  ISl. 
r.)W  poni«w,  483.  607, 
Co»-i«',  .IttriKw.  (|ii«iml,  3C(t. 
C.>»-p«-ft.  03,  101,   1(M;  hay.  67,  95,  OS.  BO,    102,   105. 

lfil,3lS-32l, 
Cows,  milrh.  focdiiig  slandAixl?,   107,  lOR;  nuitild-r  in 

United  Sinlm.  176. 
CoK,  nuul«il  372. 
Coyotw.  IM.  107,  595. 
Crab.  634,  l>3fl. 
(■r««l<i.i<-V  .|I).>I<tJ,  372. 
Cr&in.  JuUii  A  .  v1  i.-lm  bv.  4S3,  455,  459,  404,  476,  47^ 

403,  404,  600   6(IU,  631,  032,  633;  quotol,  44. 
Cna\o,  Williiwn  W..  niioitiiNrl,  375. 
CnuiBin  vulgaris,  84() 
CnW&B)),  S3S. 
Cmyfiali,  635. 
Crmmenn,  226-232;     nnt'M,     174;     nrfrig«rntiati      in, 

241-245. 
Crwunrrv  mrthod"  uf  butl">r-m»kit>g,  206,  2f>7. 
Crraniing  ii)Uk,  UI8. 
Ofnm  clie*«e,  221. 
Crciun  RniiKr-  milk  l-r-^t,  178, 
Cn-nni  KliiLrti,  ft2,  9f,,  105. 
Cn-iiiii,  rcfrigi^rstiua,  S!30. 
CYnilin.  Ifl,  22. 
Crrnlioin,  22. 
Circfwr,  170. 
Cn^aii,  38. 
Crixilc  ponil^s.  484. 
Crrsc(Mi8  <  Fig.  495),  501,  5lH,  505. 
Crasted  White  <Lm-k.  57l». 
CrevMMCiir  fctwlw,  607. 
Crib-bitjnn,  inhrriUinrp  of,  3S, 
Criiiiaon-c&r  waxbill,  524. 
Crisp  bunir.  495. 
Crocker,  Uaiii<-1,  (^uutnl.  4»2. 
Croanftti,  Maj   <1.  ]|.,  unou-d,  2y7. 
Croas-briMl.  tirlincil,  421 
Cnxw-bn-wijng,  42;  ns  rrlttted  to  revtrwon,  30;  cffrci 

cm  feoundity,  33. 
Crom-tox,  401 . 
CWMft-lifmiily  87. 
Crusw*j|ili|iii]  M»ntr hurl  cum.  ■VtQ. 
Crouch  lib  8oti.  i..  iiwili^,  452,  463. 
Crow,  17t>,  171,  17-i.  173. 
Crowfoot,  120, 
Crown  Prinpc  (10087),  371 , 
Cruickiihnrtk,  Amrw,  ijufttivi,  373. 
CruickKliank,  .\iitlicHiy,  (juoU-U.  373. 
Crying  bac-V,  39. 
Cuban  p&rrut.  525. 
Cucktx).  yt'lluw-bitli-d,  nult^n,  170. 

Cu<i,  loM  of,  asu. 

Ciill.^-  nu<j«i-d,  X15,  366,  382,  4.S4,  464,  617. 

CunilnTlsn'i  i>ipi,  1162. 

Ciirmjlplii,  522. 

CiiTkoiiigliaiii  cMtlU-,  ^4. 

Curb.  443. 

Curb-bil.  422.  423. 

Ciirina  mvala,  254 ;  reciptw,  26^257. 

Ctirtiii  *iurj[«l,  378,  675. 

Curtiw,  riiarlf*  F.,  ■rticl^  by,  478. 

Curwen'j.  B»y  liwb,  SC5. 

Ctuliitig,  .livlin  P.,  qunird,  335. 

CuUtbmnI  wruifrow,  524. 

Cutting  rMlili>r«,  effect  on  fM-diiig  value,  OS,  C9. 

Cuttlebob.  GM. 

Cuvier'a  Aiiiiiml  KitigdunL,  1. 

Cygaopti*  cvKiioiJrs,  573. 

C^^uii  iti'i-n-it-ki.  5M6;  musicuM,  6S&;  olor,  586. 

CynomyH  LudovirianUM,  165. 

C>-pheni,  riiftrlea  A.  »rtidc  by,  542. 

Cypriniu  Corpio,  303. 

Uw!b»buiid  (Fig.  4),  5. 

C44 


DRir>-  br*i-d«,  275;  bull,  WH.  30fl,  308,  317;  hen),  ae- 

lerrloit  and  niurtHgcmrnl.  3(K(-3(K>;  iLtittbBnilry,  300; 

type,  50,  SI,  303,  304,  310. 
Mniry  .Mniiln.  371. 
i>Biry  (►riKliicU",  nmriiitm-lun;  >t(,  175-246;    rvUtJon    to 

fanu  tuuiiagt^uieiit,  12;  total  vaJUf,  I), 
Dairy  rtfrijueratioH,  232-246. 
PaiKy.  whit<',  vunipoMtiou,  04 ;  dignttibl'O  Butrienta  and 

fiTliliicT  con;"!;! uontii,  101. 
nnl[iinrian,  fil.'i. 
riamp  Hcslpr.  387. 
Dwn  Pmrb.  -176.  477,  478,  502,  504. 
DnndrufT,  23 

Daiidv  Ki-x  716S9  (Fir.  370>,  ;»3. 
Daiicgck,  -167. 
DhiiipI  lluuiie,  470. 
DaiiiH  LamtxTt,  500 

llaninh  iiK-iliiidH  of  biarnii-protlucllaa,  64A. 
Dantlidnii-jvspjffttii,  0«. 
Darid,  S04. 

narii'V  Arabian.  4-lS,  4S0,  4fil,  467,  497,  498.  501,  B02. 
Ilamk-y  (222),  457. 
haKiiKior  i>f>nir*i,  487. 
Uarwin  quulwl,  31 .  33,  37,  38,  42,  43,  278,  520,  S32. 

Iiaumii*  i|uijttti,  449. 

l)«vp  A]«iri,  775,  4!il- 

llavwiport,  C    B,,  nrticlp*  bv,  528,  529. 

Pavenport,  Eugme,  arliifte  t>>',  26. 

DaveniMirl,  Hciiicr.  arlirl<-«  by,  446,  579;  c|uut<Hl,  450. 

I)»vi^ri]i(irt,  8«.ii)ucn,  ijuntiil,  41)0. 

Oavidwin,  Janiif  1.,  iiiioli.'d,  373. 

DaviB,  Mr.,  quoted,  3i8. 

Davis,  Owrge  I'.,  quoted,  078. 

UaviBp  Jattinf  B.,  quutMl,  405. 

Davia,  J«ncnKin,  quoted.  297. 

Davy,  Colonifl,  f|uotcd.  ^0,  341. 

Davy  CrockrH,  47fi.  4(iO. 

Davy,  Joiin  Tanner,  quoted,  340. 

Dawn  luimv,  418. 

Da*pfM3ii  quotwl,  131. 

Day,  U.  t..,  articlra  by,  343,  658,  600,  661,  063,  666, 

»7,  669,671,  674.  675,  670,  078,  679. 
De  Kol  Creamclle,  35U. 
l)e  Laval  lactocrite,  178. 
De  Schwcinics  r^unljsd,  137. 
rie  Soto  qiiot«a^08. 
IX>ath  camas,  120, 

Decker  Jubn  W.,  mrtes  by,  218,  219,  224,  225. 
I)emlvlH.«  t(m[uatun  (Fig-  652),  647. 
Di-rr,  2.  IC'J. 
Deer  iiiice.  156. 
DeerlkoHjiiiiB,  5l6i. 
Deipvo  quoteil,  24. 
Ih-Klulitiain,  17. 

Dcliiirr,  iiule  ref^arding  iwe  t>f  word,  332. 
DfboriiiriK  rnltle.  150, 
DelaiiLe  Merino  -tliLvi*,  022;  notes,  509. 
Delhi  Imrralo.  2»4. 

Delphiniujci  bicolor,  120;  glaucuiu.  120. 
Demi-t>iuis  horse,  458,  461,  600. 
Deuii>lex7olliculoriiiii.  H.'i4,  fl.W. 
DeniH  .-Vllwrt  No,  1477  (Fig.  370),  344. 
D<-ni*.-  niiiin|.ioiine  No,  6247  (fig.  371),  344. 
Dfiiuiiig  .\lli-ii,  .VtO 
Dc-nniark.  467.  4W).  500. 
Derby,  4yS;  of  llouen,  460. 
Derbjaliire  cbt^Me,  218. 
Dtfll  WLilor  quutiil,  41)1'. 
DfviU-l  ni'-«t*,  263, 
Devon    i-Attle,    :i:i>(-:i41;    ItiTedity  in.   36;    mdk.    177; 

note,  Mr.i;  peritMl  of  geAlatitm,  31 ;  axeni  306. 
Dexu-r.  5lKt,  .V» 
DcxtcT,  Mr.,  (lurttecl,  38U, 
Dexter-Kerry  eatOe.  370.  380. 
Dexter  Priutc,  605. 
Dextrin,  58,  59. 
Diabetw.  20. 

tMatnund-back  terrapin.  t>81. 
tNamond  apaiTow.  524. 

Diarrhea,  in  ealvea,  (26;  in  foaU,  431 ;  in  fowls,  554. 
Dial.  Prraident    quoted.  342. 
Dick  Taylor  5508,  372. 


690 


INDEX 


Dickinson  Delwne  Sheep,  622. 

Dickinson,  Wm.  R.,  quoted,  622. 

Dictator,  478,  502,  505. 

Didelphis  Vii^iniaoa,  163. 

Digestibility  c^  feeding-stuffs,  59-62. 

Digestion,  coefficient,  60;  conditions  affecting,  60-62; 
in  animals,  17-20;  in  fowls,  24,  25. 

Dilham  Prime  Minister  (Fig.  470),  465. 

Dillon,  Mr-LQUoted,  480. 

Dinsmore,  Wayne,  article  by,  649. 

Dinwiddie  quoted  657. 

Momed,  498. 

Diphtheria,  immunity,  145;  in  fowls,  142,  553. 

Direct,  478,  505. 

Direct  Hal,  478,  505. 

Directly,  505. 

Director,  505. 

Directum,  605;  {Fig.  44),  47. 

Disease,  of  animals,  122-146  (See  alao,  Cattle,  Horse, 
Poultry,  Sheep,  Swine);  heredity  of,  38;  of  the 
rump,  140. 

Dishley  sheep,  616. 

Disinfection,  146. 

Distemper,  colt,  442;  in  cats,  301;  dog,  142,  385. 

DUtiUera'  fp-ains,  74,  100,  106,  115,  313. 

Distillery  slop,  74,  96. 

Distomum  hepaticum,  604;  lanceolatum,  604. 

IMvi-divi  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Dobinson  quoted,  370. 

Docking  horses,  150;  lambs,  150. 

Doddies,  note,  331. 

Dog,  amount  of  blood  in  body,  21 ;  as  carriera  of  disease, 
127;  digestion  in,  18,  20;  distemper,  142;  fecundity, 
33;  heredity,  37;  mastication  in,  17;  nature  of  stom- 
ach, 18;  notes,  7,  595;  period  of  gestation,  31;  pulse, 
21,  436;  respiration,  21,  437;  sweating,  in  23;  tem- 
perature, in  21,  436. 

Dogbane,  121. 

Dogs,  farm,  383-389;  notes,  167;  pet,  614-517. 

Dominique  fowls,  563. 

Dominor  2631,  490. 
■  Donkey.   (See  Aaa.) 

Dorking  fowls,  567;  notes,  529. 

Dorothy  1210,  492. 

Dorset-Horn  sheep,  612;  hothouse  lambs,  595,  590. 

Double-Standard  Polled  Durham  cattle,  375. 

Double-Standard  Polled  Hereford  cattle,  355. 

Double  Yellow-headed  Mexican  parrot,  254. 

Dourine,  139;  note,  125. 

Doves,  mourning,  note,  170. 

Down-Cot3Wold  sheep,  625. 

Doyle,  Martin,  quoted,  454. 

Dr."  Buckingham,  372. 

Draco,  506. 

Draco  Prince,  .506. 

Draft  breeds  of  horses,  420;  for  military  purposes,  472, 
473,  474 ;  lyix-,  44-46. 

Dragoon  pigeon,  521. 

Drenches,  322. 

Drennon,  476. 

Dried  beef,  255;  canned,  262. 

Driver,  467,  501,  502. 

Driving,  426,  427. 

Drui'e,  SanHU'l,  quoted,  625. 

Dry-cured  pork,  2.'V6. 

Drydfn,  Hon.  John,  quoted,  373. 

Drj'ing  forage,  effect  on  diRCMtibilitv,  68. 

Dual-purpose  cattle,  303;  tyi)e,  48, '50. 

Duchess  Airdrie,  372. 

Duchess  Athol,  372. 

Duchess  family,  371. 

Duchess  of  G<!ncvB,  373. 

Duchess  X,  No.  8!H)0  (Fig.  367),  340. 

Duck,  cITcft  of  domestication,  35;  period  of  incuba- 
tion, 542. 

Ducks,  .'«>l)-572;  feeding,  536;  notra,  35,  542;  statis- 
tics, 527;  wild,  2,  571,  572. 

Dudding,  Henrv,  quoted,  618. 

Duke  of  Airdrie,  372;  (12730),  372. 

Duke  of  Northumberlaml  (194U),  371. 

Duke  of  Rutland's  Black  Barb,  467. 

Duncan,  .lere,  quoted,  372. 

Duncan's  Duke  of  Airdrie  2743,  372. 


Dunham  &  Fletcher  quoted,  452. 

Dimham,  M.  W.,  quoted,  460,  475,  480. 

Dunlop  cattle,  334. 

Dunlop  cheese,  note,  208. 

Dunn,  Christopher,  quoted,  812. 

Dunn,  Walter,  quoted,  372. 

Dunsiey's  Dart,  454, 

Durham  cattle,  369;  Ox,  370;  Polled,  375,  376;  not 

303.   (See  Shorthorn  cattle.) 
Duroc-Jersey  swine,  663-666;  notes,  644. 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  341-343;  not*.  303. 
Dutch  cattle,  357;  horaea,  498;  rabbit,  518. 
Dutch  cheese,  221. 
Dwarf  parrot,  525. 
Dzierzoa  quoted,  278. 

Eagles,  notes,  164. 

Eared  pheasant,  680. 

Earl  of^  Arundel,  quoted  497. 

Earl  of  Cawdor  quoted,  378. 

Earl  of  Harchmont  quoted,  335. 

Earl  of  Morton  mare,  41. 

Earl  of  Spencer  quoted,  31. 

Earth-wax  for  candles,  259. 

East  Fricsian  cattle,  357. 

East  Friesland  horse,  463. 

Eaton,  Gen.  Wm.,  quoted,  633. 

East  Prussian  horse,  463. 

Echo  II  701  (Fig.  369),  342. 

Eclipse,  497,  501. 

Ecology,  15. 

Ecraseur  for  castrating,  150. 

Edam  cheese,  218;  note,  208. 

Edgbaston  Marvel,  384. 

Education  of  horse,  421.  422,  424-428. 

Eelgrass  (Vallisnena),  394. 

Egbert.  505. 

Egg-cell,  nature  and'  function,  29. 

Eggs,  care   and    preservation,    546,    647;    compoaitioi 

and  fuel-value,  264;  feeding  to  show  animals,  153 

formation,  26;  notes,  174Mperiod  of  incubatioD,  MS 

statistics  of  production,  527;  value,  9. 
Egyptian  geese,  574. 
Elder  for  birds,  172.. 
Eldredge,  J.  B.,  quoted,  338. 
Eleata,  505. 
Electioneer,  504,  605. 
Electuaries,  322. 
Elephant,  3;  notes,  9;  period  of  gestation,  31 ;  pulse  in 

21;  (Fig.  12),  10. 
Elk,  2. 

Ellanl,  C.  H.,  article  bv,  514. 
Ellenberger  quole<l,  17,  18. 
Elliot,  Prof.  D.  G.,  quote,!,  581. 
Elliot,  S.  B.,  article  by,  481. 
Elliot's  ptiea.'ianl,  581. 
Elliott,  J.  D.,  quoted,  447. 
Ellis  quotwl,  617. 
Elhnaii,  .lohu,  quoted,  628. 
EUwyn  Perfection,  384. 
Ely,  David,  quoteii,  37. 
Emasculatfir  for  castrating,  149. 
Embden,  geese  573. 
Emily  85.'),  492. 
Emmenthaler  cheese,  218. 
Emperor  goose.  576. 
Endocarditis  of  ervaipelaa,  133. 
Endow,  504. 

Energy  values  of  feeding-stuffs,  65. 
Engineer,  467,  501,  502. 
English  canary,  522. 
English  Cart  Horse  Society,  493. 
English  cavy,  520. 
English  dairy  cheese,  218. 
English  pheasant,  581. 
English  rabbit,  518. 
English  setter,  514. 
English  sparrow,  171,  173. 
Ennydra  Marina,  397. 
Enailing,  effect  on  feeding-stuffs,  68. 
Entering  show  stock,  155,  166. 
Entero-liepatitis  in  turkeys,  infectious,  140. 
Ento,  463. 


INDEX 


691 


Environment  an  a  cause  of  variation,  34. 

EohippuH,  419. 

Epitheltoma  contagioas,  143. 

EpiEootic  catarrhal  fever,  144;  lymph  an  f;itiB,  139. 

Equine  contacioua  pi  euro- pneumonia,  128,  129. 

Equine  malana,  140. 

Equisctum  arvense,  121. 

Equity,  372. 

Eauus  aainuR,  276,    419;  caballus,  415,  419;  caballus 

libycus,  450;  hermionus,  276;  i«bra,  419. 
Erf,  Oscar,  article  by,  232. 
Ergot,  121. 

Ermine,  400;  notea,  403. 
Erj's'pelas,  125;  swine,  133. 
Escunal  Merino  sheep,  619. 
E^paraette,  digestibility  of,  68, 
Essex  swine,  666;  note,  675. 
Ethan  Allen,  503,  506. 
Ethel  Downs,  506. 
Etradesant  (tig.  477),  479. 
Eucaljjptus  as  honey-plant,  286,  286. 
Eugenia,  492;  Janibas  as  honey-plant,  286. 
Euren  quoted.  368,  369,  464,  467. 
Evaporated  cream,  190;  milk,  100. 
Ewart,  Professor,  quoted,  42,  420. 

Ewes,  feeundity,  33;  milk,  composition,  96;  not*,  176, 
Exchange,  live-stock,  160. 
Exercise    148;    in    relation    to     meat-productiOD,    82; 

to  milk-production,  84;  of  show  stock,  155. 
Exhibiting  animals,  152-158. 
Exmoor  ponies,  487. 
Extasy,  504. 

Factories,  butter  and  cheese,  208,  209,  214-217,  226- 
232;  refrigeration  in    241-245. 

Failyer  and  Willard  milk  test,  178. 

Fairchild  quoted,  294. 

F^le,  Rev.  Philip,  quoted,  362. 

Fallopian  tube,  29. 

False  colic,  439. 

False  mangrove  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Fancy,  505, 

FanlMl  pigeon,  521, 
'  Fantasy,  504. 

Farcv,131,  132. 

Farewell  Sfiorthoras,  371. 

Farm  management,  relation  of  domestic  animals  to, 
1 1 ;  relation  of  feeding  practices  to,  57. 

Farm  products,  total  value,  9. 

F'aroe  inland  sheep  {Fig.  3),  4,  597. 

Farrington,  Harvey,  quoted,  200. 

Farrington's  alkali  tabletH,  180. 

■Fat,  cnide,  59;  digestibility  of,  64;  fuel-value,  65; 
nature  and  function,  58,  62,  63;  notes,  17. 

Fat  in  milk,  nature  and  quantity,  176,  177. 

Fat  hos  type,  54,  55. 

Fat-tailed  sheep,  697,  633. 

Fattening  stock,  79,  80;  poultry,  638-540. 

Favorite  (252),  370. 

Feamaught,  506. 

Feathers,  value,  527. 

Fecundation,  23,  24. 

Feeundity,  32,  33;  as  affected  by  heredity,  36;  as  af- 
fected by  croti.<iing,  42. 

Feed,  effect  on  liealili  of  cows,  182. 

Feeding,  56-118;  beef  cattle,  317-321;  dairy  cattle, 
308,  310,  313-317;  horseH,  428-432;  poultry,  533-540; 
sheep,  600-603;  swine,  649-653;  for  exhibition,  153, 
164,  150;  for  gainn,  82;  standardH,  57,  89,  107,  314, 
315  ;  standards  for  meat-product  ion,  82  ;  for  milk- 
production,  sr),  Sfi;  tables,  64,  92-102. 

Feeding-HtufTs,  63-76;  composition  and  digestibility  of, 
59;  preservation  and  j>rcparation  of,  68;  relative 
values,  63. 

Feet,  care  of  horfies'.   149;  sore,  in  sheep,  608. 

Kelcli,  I.  K.,  cpioted,  529. 

Felis  domesiicUM,  2^t9, 

Fenugreek,  iioteH,  106. 

Feral  horses,  419. 

Fermentation  tent  of  milk,  184. 

Fem't,  black-fcK.ted,  168. 

Fertility  of  animals,  32,  .33. 

Fertilization  of  ovum,  29,  30. 


Fescue,  meadow,  notes,  71. 

Feser's  lactoscope,  178, 

Fiber,  crude,  59. 

Fiber  zibethicus,  166,  400. 

Field,  Capt.  Thomas,  quoted,  298. 

Field-curing  of  forage,  effect,  68. 

Field  mice,  166. 

Field-pea  vine  silage,  composition,  05. 

Field  spaniel,  514. 

Figgis  76106  (Fig.  37),  36. 

Figs,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 

Filho-de-Puta,  490. 

Filigree,  372. 

Finch,  524. 

Findley.    (Sec  Anderson  &  Findlev.) 

Fire  finch,  524. 

Fireaway,  467,  502;  (Burgess'),  467;  (Jenklnson's), 
467;  (Ramsdale's),  467;  (Scott's),  467;  (TriflSt's), 
502;  (West's),  467. 

Fireback  pheasant,  581. 

Fireless  cooker,  269. 

Fireweed  as  honey-plant,  285. 

First  consul,  505. 

Fish,  390-394;  canning,  261-263;  culture,  390-392; 
digestible  nutrients  and  fertilising  constituents  in, 
102;  dried,  composition,  96;  food  and  feeding- 
grounds,  392,  393 ;  notes,  35. 

Fish  Commission,  United  States,  quoted,  390,  394. 

Fish  guano,  dijtestibility,  99. 

Fishclier,  Ferdmand,  quoted,  620. 

Fish-hawks,  172. 

Fisher,  401. 

Fisher,  Dr.  A.  K.,  quoted,  171. 

Fisheries,  United  States  Bureau  of,  quoted,  635,  636. 

Fistula,  125,  442. 

""istulous  withers,  125.   (See  Fistula.)  > 

Fitting  live-stock  for  exbibition,  153. 

Fiord's  control  apparatus,  178. 

Flamande  cattle,  357. 

Flashwood  (3604J,  493. 

Flat-footed  walk,  491. 

Flat  pea,  composition,  95. 

Flax,  notes,  8. 

I'1axs<'e<l,  composition,  93  ;  digestibiKty,  97  ;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100;  deeding 
value,  73;  for  horses,  430;  meal,  75,  153,  154,  313. 

Fleas  on  dogs,  386.  '     "^ 

Flemish  cattle,  357. 

Flemish  Giant  rabbit,  517;  note,  412. 

Flemish  horses,  451,  452,  456,  461,  479,  493. 

Flesh  meal,  digestibility,  99. 

Flicker,  notes,  170,  173. 

Flies  as  agents  of  infection,  125. 

Flora  Temple,  503. 

Florine  of  River  Meadow,  No.  1407  (Fig.  365)^  339. 

Flour,  composition  and  fuel-value,  92,  264;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100,  113,  114. 

Floyd,  John  B.,  quoted,  297. 

Fluke  diseases  of  elieep,  604, 

Flycatcher,  171,  173. 

Flying  cliilden..  467.  501,  602, 

Flying  Cloud  134,  506. 

Flying  Fox.  499. 

Flving-sqviirrel,  164. 

Foal,  feeding,  431 ;  pulse  in,  21. 

r»xl(ier,  coarse,  69;  production  value,  67. 

Food,  measure  of  nutritive  value,  264;  requirements, 
81,  264;  suptily  as  a  cause  of  variation,  34,  35. 

Foot-aiid-inoutli  disease,  143,  296;  non-infcytioiM, 
32.1;  notes,  123. 

Foot-rot,  125,  137,  607. 

Forage- 1 >ois<ming  of  stock,  110. 

Forbes,  K.  B.,  qunte<l,  44. 

Forbush,  K.  II.,  article  by,  169, 

Fordlmni,  467. 

Fon-st  horse,  419. 

Foriiialdchyde  test  of  milk,  179. 

Foniialin  at  disinfectant.  146;  as  preservatt^'e,  254. 

Forshav,  C.  (S..  quoted,  625. 

Foul  bnHMl.  285. 

Foul-foot,  607. 

Founder,  444;  inheritance  of.  .38. 

Four-homed  sheep  (Fig,  3),  4, 


692 


INDEX 


Fowl  cholera,  131,  165;  pest,  143;  typhoid,  131. 

Fowlers  quot«d,  350. 

Fowls,    525-587 ;    composition    and    fuel-\'alue.    264; 

cost  of  keeping,  526;  diseasesj  122-146;  fecundity,  of 

33;  marketinR,   544-547;  origin  of  domestic,   528; 

period  of  incubation,  31. 
Fox,  166,  167  ;  as  carrier  of  disease,  127  ;  notes,  396, 

397,  404;  period  of  gestation,  31;  skins,  401. 
Fox  terrier,  515. 
Fox-trot,  427,  492. 
Foxhound,  516. 

Francis,  Dr.  Mark,  quoted,  378. 
Francisco,  Stephen,  quoted,  175. 
Franco-Merino  sheep,  624. 
Frandsen,  Peter,  quoted,  164. 
Frapp^,  195. 

Frederick  William  I  quoted,  463. 
Free-martin,  24,  33. 
French  bulldos,  515. 

French-Canadian  cattle,  343-345;  notes,  275,  303. 
French-Canadian  pacer,  476. 
French  coach  horse,  458-460;  influence  of  Thoroiigti- 

bred  on,  500. 
French  draft  hor«e,  460-462;  notes,  274. 
French  Merino  sheep.    (See  Ranibouillet  sheep.) 
French  Percherou  Society  quoted,  480. 
Friesland  cattle,  302. 
Frill-back  pigeon,  522. 
Frizzles,  569. 
Frogs,  2,  394,  395. 
Fromagc  de  Brie,  225. 
From  age  d'Isigny,  225. 
Frosch,  143. 
FrUhstUck  Ksse,  226. 
Fmit-bloom  as  honey-plant,  285. 
Fryers,  544. 
Fuchsia,  459. 

Fuel-values  of  feeding-stuffs,  65. 
Fulcher,  Mr.,  quoted,  368. 
Fullington,  Mr.,  quoted,  480. 

Fungi,  diseases  caused  by,  138,  139;  infection  by,  124. 
Fur-bearinR  animals  of  North  America,  395-404. 
Fur-seal,  399. 

Furgeson,  Adam   quoted,  373. 
Furs,  tanning,  271. 

Gadfly,  sheep,  605. 

•Gaines'  Denmark  01,  490,  491. 

•Gaits  of  horses,  423,  424;  saddle,  491,  492. 

•Galalith,  177. 

■Galbrailh  Brothers  quoted,  495. 

Gallberrv  aji  honev-plant,  286. 

•Gallipoli',  451. 

Gallop,  423,  424. 

Galloway  cattle,  345-348;  notea,  34,  154,303,331-333. 

Galloway  ponies,  487,  488. 

Gallus  bankiva  or  ferrugineUR,  528,  682;  Lafayettii,  582; 

sonnerati,  582;  varius,  582. 
Gambian  soose,  576. 
Game  birds,  2. 

Game  fowls,  568;  bantams,  31 ;  note,  529. 
Game  preserves,  2. 
Gainmelost  clieesc,  223 ;  notes,  220. 
Gangrene,  treatment,  323. 
Gapes,  555. 

Garbage  poisoning  of  stock,  118. 
Garden  mole,  168. 
Ganjet,  323,  609. 
Garhc,  tainting  milk,  86. 
Game  quoted,  611. 
Garrard  quoted,  362. 
GarvanzB  peas  as  honey-plant,  285,  286. 
Gas-producing  Ijactoria  in  milk,  188. 
Gathered -cream  creameries,   230. 
Gaudv  Shorthorns,  371. 
Gay,  Carl  W.  ,  articleH  by,  449,  496. 
Geese,  572-576;  feeding,  537;  jieriod  of  incubation,  131, 

542;   statistics,  527;  wild,  2. 
Geliin  quoted,  390. 
Geia.'ikaes,  411. 
Gelding,  defined,  149. 
General  (Fig.  472),  471. 
General  Gates,  506. 


General  Knox,  506. 

General -purpose  cow.    (See  Dual-purpose  cow.) 

General  Washington,  506. 

GenuRUs  Andersoni,  582;  lineatus,  581 ;  Muthura,  682 
nycthemerus,  581 ;  Swinhoii,  682. 

Gentian,  notes,  106. 

Gentry,  N.  H.,  quoted,  43. 

Oeomyidte,  167. 

Geo.  M.  Patchen,  503,  505. 

George  Wilkes,  478,  503-605. 

Oeorgeson,  C.  C.  ,  article  by,  588;  quoted,  175. 

Gerber  milk  test,  179. 

Germ  meal,  75;  composition,  92;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fertilising  constituents,  LOO. 

Germ  plasm,  continuity  of,  39,  40. 

German  breakfast  cheese,  225. 

German  coach  horse,  462-464;  influence  of  Thorough' 
bred  on,  500;  note,  451. 

German  feeding  standards.  (See  WtdfF  feeding  stand- 
ards.) 

German  Merino  sheep,  620. 

Germi native  vesicle,  29. 

Gestation  period  in  animals,  30,  31. 

Giant  thistle  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Gid,  605. 

Gilbey,  Sir  Walter,  quoted,  481. 

Gillett  quoted,  611. 

Qillett,  Wm.,  quoted,  626. 

Gillispie,  Rev.  John,  quoted,  346. 

Gilt,  647. 

Ginge,  J.  H.,  quoted,  648. 

Ginger,  notes,  106. 

Gipsy  Maid  (Fig.  385),  371. 

Giraffe  notes,  35;  period  of  gestation,  31, 

Gist's  Black  Hawk,  490. 

Gizzard  shad,  392. 

Glanders,  131,  132. 

Glencoe,  503. 

Glorious  Thundercloud,  607. 

Glossinia  morsitans,  140. 

Gloucester  cheese,  218;  note,  208. 

Glucose,  17;  meal,  100;  notes,  75. 

Glue,  note,  174. 

Gluten  feed,  75;  composition,  92;  digestibility,  96;  di- 
gestible nutrients  and  fertilizing  constitumts,  100, 
115;  for  beef  cattle,  319-321 ;  for  dairy  cows,  316;  for 
dairy  heifer,  314;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating 
value,  105;  production  value,  67. 

Glycocholate,  19, 

Glycocholic  ac'd,  19. 

Glvcogeii,  20,  58. 

Goat,  405-412;  milk,  96.  176;  mountain,  597;  nature  of 
stoinachj  18;  period  of  gestation,  31;  nmunaticHi  in, 
18;  respiration,  21,  437. 

Godolpliin  Arabian,  505. 

Godolphin  Barb.  451,  497,  501. 

Going  light,  131,  135. 

Gold  Spangled  Lizard  Canary,  522. 

Golddust.  450,  506. 

Golden  pheasant,  582. 

Golden  rod  as  lioney-plant,  285. 

Goldfinch,  522;  American,  524;  canar\',  522. 

Goldsmith  Maid,  503.  505. 

Goodnight,  Charles,  quotwi,  290,  292. 

Goodwin,  Jolui  S,,  article  by,  330. 

Goose.    (See  Geese.) 

Goose  septicemia,  132. 

Goplier,  pocket,  167;  notea,  164, 

Gopher  tiirtlea,  6S1. 

Gorden  setter,  514. 

Gorgonzola  clieeaf,  220,  222. 

Gouda  cheese,  218;  note,  208. 

GoUKli,   Mr.,quiiteti.371. 

Grade,  defined.  421 ;  grading.  27,  42. 

Grakle,  musical,  523. 

GralTian  follicles,  28,  29. 

Graham,  W.  R.,  article  by,  538. 

Graliam  Brothers  quoted,  346. 

Graham  flour,  264. 

Grain,  effect  of  grinding  on  feeding  value,  69;  feeding, 
151 ;  feeding  value,  72;  production  value,  67;  when  Ui 
feed,  18. 

Grana  cheese,  219. 


INDEX 


69« 


Gnnd  Bashaw,  450. 503.  SOS. 

tltam^gliiiriL.  fi>inf>wiiioti.  !I2 ;  .iigr^i ibir  sutiints atul 
fpnilning  i»o*t4iuM>t*,  100. 

Oruit,  G*n.  U-  R-.  ouoW^I.  +*~r  ■♦SO. 

Crapes,  eompnaatiion  and  fticl-i-aliip.  264. 

■Crsjts.  tii^estjblr  nutrifnin,  11)1 :  fntb,  for  bwf-produc- 
lion,  31;S--.TJ1:  mi'Mxl  h»y,  nwtrilii.'c  nlm  and  pn>- 
l«n-«iuat ini;  valiic.  lf>l;'n>>1rss  12,  65t-3I,  ITI;  pas- 
ture, pcrrpii lage  (^jmpt»ilJon  ami  tlifp*tibl<'  matter, 
69-70:  niiagi',  102;  liiae  to  ^carv'««i  to*  hay.  '0. 

Grs£9  stagsen.  6C]i9. 

Graw  emiiH-.  S62, 

GraJisM.  »"■!  dovrr  niWiNl.  fnfiijve^iti^ini.  01:  d!gnti- 
bitity,  97;  digestible  nutrienlK  and  fertiliiing  roastit- 
uenlV.  \01,  110.  Ill;  iiiitrit»-«  ratio  and  protein- 
wfuatiajt  value.  104. 

Gratsltoppff  mii*.  las 

Grav-blue  finch,  524. 

GraV  roll  diH-k,  571- 

Gray.  CTharlca.  arlide  bv,  345, 

Grav-ln^  goo**.  F.iimpeant  572.  576. 

Grrat  Aliie  Ikniglaa,  384, 

Gmit  I>anc,  516- 

Great  wliite  plague.  133. 

GT?{^n,  Fmncift,  quoted,  373. 

Grr-rn  M.mntain  Halil.  3IK;  (by  Harr>'  Clay),  505. 

Gret'd  JaiJaiifve  ptieasiant,  581. 

Gr«?n  peafcwl,  580. 

Grwn'»  Bft--*l!mw,  603, 

Groen,  Svtti,  quoted,  390. 

Grteftbc-»rt  b«  Iic3.|i*v-|>li«ii,  286, 

'GiTin'PT,  T,,  artirl«  bv.  S4(). 

Grrnfetl    Mr.,  nllottd,  592. 

Grtv,  invde.  78.  4SS. 

Grey  Grantham,  467. 

Greyhound,  516;  nalct,  34. 

Gn-vlifr)it,  486. 

CriftitK's  -\niiTial  Kin^lum^  I- 

GrifTon  doK,  517. 

Griggs,  Mi.inv,  i|iii;iteiH,  36S 

Grinding;  jEmin,  effect  on  feeding  vidue,  69, 

Grindlev,  II,  S.,  quoted,  265,  268,  270. 

Grits,  73. 

Grissly  bear,  402. 

Groujiiing,  \i^;  exhibition  aairoals,  154;  notes,  23. 

Grunbcak,  c-Bi-dinal,  523. 

Graund-liog,  16.^. 

Ground-miee,  166. 

Ground-squirrel,  164;  nates,  401. 

Groude,  rufTeil,  domestication,  576-578. 

Growtli,  ri.t>ding  for.  7B.  SO, 

Grub  in  the  head.  (305. 

Gruyprp  eliit-sv,  218;  nnte,  209, 

Guadalupe  Mcrina  abeep,  619. 

GuAtUtiU^ed  milk,  175. 

GuATiLirnan  (Fig.  471),  *6a. 

Gutfgcll,  Charles,  article  bV,  3.^1- 

Guenrtn'ft  hJul  &44:22  {Fig.  3^"),  363. 

GMn-m-tpvoartli!,  34B-."iGl ;  milk,  percentage  of  butter- 

ffrt  In,'  I77:iiriie,  303. 
Guinofl-fowl,  67S-.^79;iiotes',  31,  172;  Btatistics,  527. 
Guinea-pig,  BID;  Brown -Bei7uaT<i  experiments  with,  38, 

30   iiotC;  6. 
Guinea  ^vnn*•,  S95. 
Gijjunit  bi.ifTalif,  iin<^,  295. 
Gum,  58,  59;  trees  as  lioney-plant,  285. 
Gunn  quoted,  141. 
G«JtiB-||MTrlja  Bit  lionrv-planl,  286. 
Guv.  r^m. 
Gwynnc's  Hhorthoms,  375. 

Hackney  horae.  464-468;  influence  uf  Thuroiighbrcd 
on,  500;  pony,  484;  Soeiely  quote!,  4G«,  4SI,  487; 
note,  ^-'il 

Hadb&n  Ankli8,448. 

Hwinrthchm'  roiit":!"!!?.  103. 

IlAsemanit  quoU«d,  7B,  H7,  88,  89, 

HftTgiit,  U.  H.,qy<iW-d,  :t42. 

Hjiini'^,  Reuben,  quoti'd,  349. 

ICuir.  f-f'li  Ei>  iri.Hiil»Uii^  material,  237;  treatni<>nt  of 
show  animals,  154. 


Hair  »>eaK  399: 

Hal  I^llar.1.  4T7. 

Hal  familv.  476. 

Haleb  (Fi- 460>,  477. 

Hall,  Capt.  Basil,  quoted.  279. 370. 

Hail,  1>..  -fui'liil.  ;tW. 

Halter-pull'iig,  ISC'. 

Haiti,     |irn.iuelion,    644-646;    *liipping.    XOi    MtgKr- 

cunil,  J.it", 
Hainbriglti  liialu,  564, 

HambI(-toniiin  10.  'uri.  503.  SM;  note.  W,7. 
Hainblf  Ciniiiftii  family,  504.  505. 
Haiiililf'(<wiiari  fuwL*.  564. 

Hamburg  fowK  56.S;  |ieri(M)  of  incubation,  31. 
Haiiibtir^  !>teak.  '257. 
Hamdani  .\rabei.  44S. 

Humi-Mhin?  iKmn  Sdr-™,  614.  615;  notea.  599. 
Hampsliirr  swine,  tiiir-fiffl*;  note,  342. 
Han«j,  General,  quuted,  633, 
Handling  atoefc,  I4S. 
Hand»ime  Bnv,  3S8, 
Haniiibtil.  463'. 
HannL-t,  .MIS 
Hanover,  4','9- 
Hanoverian  horse,  463 
Happv  mnhiiri,  502,  505. 
Hafil  "cheese?".,  208-21!!. 
Hare.  H^slgian,  Jli-iiri,  wild.  167. 
HargrT,  S  .1   J  ,  iirtide  bv,  17. 

Harness  and  luvnwsing;  422,  423.  426;  leather.  271. 
Harold,  505. 

Harper,  M.  W.,  articles  by,  424,  428,  462,  647. 
Harriet,  372. 

Harris,  Edward,  quoted,  480, 
Harris,  John  ?*,,  ijui'tcd,  4llli, 
Harris,  C^.t  W-  \  .  qunteil.  3T1. 
Harris,  Dr.  W.  T  iiimied,  .^S». 
Harrison  Chief  1606,  401, 
Ham  Clay.  505. 

Hart;  Geo.  H,.  arliclea  b»',  321.  436,  MS. 
WmU  Ki««>.  226. 
Harvest  mice,  lft6. 
HafVey  qiiiited.  41, 
HaAkins.  Joseph,  quotenl,  862. 
Hattori  familv  quoled,  682. 
Havemever,  Theodore  A,,  nuolwl.  3S1, 
Hawcfl,  Sidney,  quitted.  629, 
Hawl(.17l:noie«.  104,  106, 
Hawk'abiH  turtle,  Ft8l, 
Hay,  roriHKwition,  94;  dig™iibility,  B7,  98;  pnHlucthm 

value,  07;  time  for  diavH^UtU.  |8;  when  to  feed,  18. 
HftVi*.  Ca|i(aiii,  qUot«<l,  -Im, 
Hayward,  \\MT\\  artiolp  by,  333. 
Head-rlirt-w.  256. 
Heart,  20 

Hi^artfU-Aite  a«  hnnev-plant,  2SA. 
Ilea^tiian.  Alfrot   qiiolnili,  376. 
HpM,  iK-riiwI  of.  is,  2lt,  30. 
Htiat-titnike,  4.17;  noli-n,  23. 
HE'ftllier  n.<ir»k  (lig.  .™m,  332. 
Hcaton,  Mr.,  iiunlcd,  371. 
Heaven,  I^IO, 

flt'lH-r,  lieginHhli,  i|iiiiliHL, /Mil, 
lleilg^lmp,  167. 

]l(<KeliLrii]  oietlMxl  i>[  iiiidiir  inaiupulatlon,  B4. 
llihin-i-'x  ii"»t  fur  fxruLiil-Leliyde,  170. 
Heifer,  feeding  dairv,  314. 
Helen  Hale,  !iO!i. 
!li-liLii-l  li'm-yTll,  .'I'.^l. 
IIi-(iii*iilt'liiii.  ~l- 
j|<<Eii|cH'k    wjitir,  lliO. 
Hi>niot(I<iliitiurin.  141, 

fli-HKirrliiiKiiiL  M'lithi'eniia.  132;  note,  206, 
Mi'tiip  "'"l  ("T  I'lijd",    73. 

Ili't  liilt'HilaM.  5'JI 

lliHgi'tvcli],  I'dirrnxiir  ii»ot*'i,  ."i-W. 
H.t,rvflav,A(V,*,J!HKli,WW. 
H.nry,  G    W..  nuut^'.l.  33. 
Henrv   Pftiff»wi.ir,  i|«i.itr  d,  92,  100, 
Ileriry  VIII  iiUulfil.  4'.<T, 
Hriin,  (irri'id  iif  II    ikhalion,  31. 
l!'-|iHtj''  l<iM'Piiiii,  20. 
Ilcnlwick  (>lie<'|i,  6:tl. 


694 


INDEX 


Hereditary  diseases,  note,  ]  25. 

Heredity,  36-38;  as  a  cause  of  variation,  34;  effect  on 
fecundity,  33,  36. 

Hereford  cattle,  351-355;  for  baby-beef,  318;  period 
of  gestation,  31 ;  heredity  in,  36;  note,  303, 319;  oxen, 
366;  Polled,  355. 

Hermaphrodites,  24. 

Herod,  501,  506. 

Herring,  canned,  263. 

Herterozygotea,  530. 

Hess,  Mr.,  quoted,  447. 

HeteromyidtE,  167. 

Hey],  Jacob,  quoted,  475. 

Hiatogas,  476. 

Hide  industry,  272;  preserving,  252;  shipping,  260; 
tanning,  271. 

Highball,  505. 

High-flyer  pigeon,  522. 

Higgins  quot^,  131. 

Highland  Denmark  730,  490. 

Highland  man,  503. 

Highland  sheep,  Black-face,  631. 

High -school  horse,  427. 

Hillhurat  Stork  Farm  quoted,  467. 

Hills,  H.  W.,  quoted,  335. 

Hills,  J.  J.,  quoted,  373. 

Himalayan  rabbit,  518. 

Hinny,  507. 

Hipparion,  419. 

Hippuric  acid,  22. 

Hives,  437. 

Hoard,  W.  D.,  article  by,  246. 

Hobbes,  Fisher,  quoted,  666. 

Hobbles.  477. 

Hodge,  C.  F.,  articles  by,  576,  584. 

Hofmeister  quoted,  18. 

Hoe,  carcasses,  shipping,  260;  dressing,  252;  pulse, 
436;  respiration,  437;  temperature,  436,  (See  Swine.) 

Hog  cholera,  137. 

Holbart,  A.  B.,  quoted,  452,  463. 

Holbert,  J.    A.,  quoted,   343. 

Holdernesa  cattle,  379;  note,  335. 

Holland  Land  Company  quoted,  357. 

Hollow  horn,  19,  330. 

Holloway,  Col.  Robert,  quoted,  457. 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  356-361  ;  milk  percentage  of 
butter-fat  in,  177;  note,  303;  oxen,  366. 

Holstein  horse,  463. 

Home  District  Agricultural  Society  quoted,  373. 

Homer  (Homing)  pigeon,  521 ;   for  squab-raising,  583. 

Hsminy  chop,  74;  composition,  92;  digestible  nutri- 
ents and  fertilizing  constituents,  100;  digestible 
nutrients  in  stated  amoimts,  115;  nutritive  ratio  and 
protein -equating  value.  105. 

Hu  mo  zygotes,  530. 

Honduras  turkey,  586. 

Honey,  281. 

Honey-bees.    (See  Bees.) 

Honey-plants,  285,  286. 

Hooded  Jacobin  pigeon,  521 . 

Hoofed  mammals,  163. 

Hoofs,  disease  of,  in  reindeer,  592;  fitting  for  exhibi- 
tion, 155. 

Hook-in-t lie-eyes,  329. 

Hoomes.  Colonel,  quoted,  498. 

House,  606. 

Hopley    &    Co.,  Peter,  quoted,  495, 

Hopples.  477. 

Hornaday  quoted,  290,  291. 

Hornless  cattle,  notes.  331. 

Horns,  fitting  for  exhibition,  156;  note,  174. 

Horse,  415-507;  age  to  breed,  30;  ailments  of,  436-446; 
branding,  151 ;  capacity  of  stomach,  17;  care  of  feet, 
149;  causes  of  variation  in,  34;  cost  of  maintaining, 
14;  determining  age,  433-436;  development,  notes, 
274,275;  digestibility,  notes  61;  disea-jes,  122-146; 
notes.  123;  distemper,  144;  docking,  150;  dry  matter 
per  day  for,  13;  education,  harnessing  and  gaits, 
421-424;  extent  of  sweating,  23;  feeding,  428-433; 
feeding  for  work -production,  86-92  ;  feeding  stand- 
ards, 107;  fitting  and  exhibiting,  153-158;  inspection, 
161 :  maintenance  requirements,  78,  79;  mastication 
in,  17;    amount  of  blood  in  body,  21  ;   number  of 


respirations,  21;  native  American,  498;  number,  7, 
10;  notes.  9;  marketing,  158-162;  number  of  acres 
cultivated  by  one,  11;  of  the  Sahara,  449;  ori^pn  of 
domestic,  418;  period  of  heat  30;  poisoning,  120, 121 ; 
puberty,  30;  pulse  in,  21,  436;  respiration,  437;  tem- 
perature, 21,  436;  training  and  handling,  424-428; 
types,  44-47;  value,  10;  value  of  grinding  grain  for, 
^;  vomiting,  19. 

Horse  bean,  composition,  93;  digestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  101;  roughage,  95;  straw,  SS. 

Horseman  pigeon,  521. 

Horseshoeing,  149. 

Horsetail,  121. 

Hot  iron  test  of  acidity,  212. 

Hothouse  lambs,  593,  597. 

Houdan  fowls,  567;  notes,  529. 

Hounds,  516. 

House  wren,  170. 

Hoven,  326. 

Howard  B.  (Fig.  481),  485. 

Howard,  U.  P.,  quoted.  624. 

Howard,  L.  O.,  article  by,  640. 

Hoxie,  Solomon,  article  by,  355;  quoted,  358. 

Huajilla  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Huart  du  Pleasis  quoted,  409,  411. 

Hubback  (319),  370. 

Huber  quoted,  278,  279,  281. 

Humblics,  note,  331. 

Humming-birds,  173. 

Humped  cattle,  note,  303. 

Humphrey,  Col.  David,  quoted,  619,  620. 

Humphrey,  G.  C,  article  by.  698. 

Humphrey,  William,  quoted,  614. 

Hungarian  grass,  composition,  94;  digestibility,  97, 
98;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilising  constituents, 
101,  109;  hay,  104,  111;  nutritive  ratio,  104;  produc- 
tion value,  67;  seed,  note,  93. 

Hunt,  Thomas  F.,  articles  by,  7,  421. 

Hunter  horse,  468-470;  gaits,  427. 

Hunter,  John  quoted,  281. 

Huntington,  Randolpli,  quoted,  450. 

Huniiker,  O.  F.,  article  by,  190. 

Husk  606. 

Hutchtns  goose,  576. 

Hutchinson  quoted,  370. 

Hybrids,  animal,  sterility  of,  24. 

Hydrophobia,  144. 

Hymettus,  504. 

Hypohippus,  419. 

Ibex,  408. 

Ice,  harvesting,  235;  houses,  farm,  232-236. 

Ice-cream  manufacture,  195-198;  poisoning,  198. 

Ices.  195. 

Ictero-hcmaturia  in  slieep,  HO. 

Illinois    Experiment    Station    quoted,  13;    State    Fair 

rule,  158. 
Illustrious,  372. 
Immunity,  disease,  145. 
Imp  Diomod,  490. 
Imp  Hedgcfuni.  490,  500. 
Imp  Sal  tram,  490. 
Imp  Whip.  490. 
Impeyan  pheasant,  580. 
Imperial  rabbit,  519. 
Imported  Bellfounder,  467,  502. 
Imported  Traveller,  505. 
Improved  Black-top  Merino  sheep,  623. 
Improved  Esses  swine,  6G6. 
Improved  land  in  United  States,  11. 
Inbreeding.  42,  43;  effect  on  fecundity,  33. 
Incestuo\is  breeding,  142. 
Incompatibility,  33. 
Incubation,    542-543;    periods,    and   factors   affecting, 

31. 
IndianChief  1718,  491. 
Indian  fowls,  568;  games,  note,  529. 
Indian  wany,  483,  484. 
Indian  Runner  duck,  570. 
Indianapolis,  506. 
Individuality  as   related  to  milk-production,  83,  84; 

relation  to  feeding,  77;  to  meat-production,  81. 
Infantado  Merino  sheep,  620. 


INDEX 


696 


Infection.  124. 

Infectious  abortion,  143;  entero-hepfttitia  in  turkeys, 
140;  mastitis,  125;  suppurative  cellulitis,  125 

Influenza,  123,  143. 

Inglia  quoted,  362. 

InpiiDal  hernia,  657^  note.  149. 

Inneritance  of  acquired  cnaracters,  39. 

Inoculation,  protective,  against  disease,  145. 

Insectivorous  niainnials,  I6R. 

Insects  as  carriers  of  disease,  127. 

Inspection  of  live-atock,  161. 

Insulating  materials  for  ice-houaes,  235;  for  refrig- 
erator, 236. 

Inter-breeding,  42. 

International  Encyclopedia  quoted,  296. 

International  Live-stock  Exhibition  quot«d,  156,  157. 

International  Stock  Food  Farm  quoted,  502, 

Intestinal  juice,  19. 

Iowa  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  quoted,  644, 
645. 

Ipomoea  sidipfolia  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Irish  deerhound,  516;  setter,  514;  terrier,  516;  water 
SDanicI,  515. 

Irisn  Graiier  swine,  673. 

Irish  Hunter  horee,  468. 

Irish  rats,  520. 

Iron,  notes,  106. 

Isaac,  George,  quoted,  373.       '    ' 

Isabella,  371. 

Isign^  cheese,  225. 

IsmailofF,  Lieut.,  quoted,  475. 

Italian  greyhound,  517. 

Italian  cowpea,  94. 

Italian  lye-grasa,  94. 

Ivory,  174. 

Jack  rabbits,  167. 

Jackass.    (See  Ass.) 

Jacks,  breeds  of,  508,  509.  (See  Ass.) 

Jackson,  Dr.  Sheldon,  quoted,  589,  590,  592. 

Jackson,  Wm.,  quoted,  490. 

Jacobin  pigeon,  nooded,  521. 

Jacoby  quoted,  390. 

Jafarabadi  buffalo,  294,  295. 

James  I  quoted,  497. 

James  L.,  505. 

Jamestown  cattle,  368. 

Japannte  bantam,  569;  peafowl,  680;  robin,  524. 

Japanese  millet,  composition,  94;  seed  for  birds,  173, 

Japanese  pony,  489. 

Japanese  rats,  520. 

Jarvis,  Lieut.  D.  H.,  quoted,  691. 

Jarvis,  William,  quoted,  357,  619. 

Jasmine  {Fig.  494),  499. 

Java  fowls,  563;  jungle-fowl,  682;  peafowl,  680. 

Java  pony,  489. 

Java  sparrow,  523.  . 

Jay,  170,  171,  173. 

Jay  Eye  See,  505. 

Jay  Gould,  505. 

Jefferaon,  Thomas,  quoted,  490,  499. 

Jeffries,  Capt.  James,  quoted,  662. 

Jeffries,  Mr.,  quoted,  368. 

JenneU,  276. 

Jenny  Cock  racy,  490. 

Jensen  quoted,  133. 

Jersey  cattle,  361-365;  milk,  percentage  of  butter-fat 

in,  177;  note,  303. 
Jerscv-Red  swine,  065. 
Jilt  15th  (Fig.  361),  332. 
Jockey  Club  quoted,  470. 
Joe  Johnson,  372. 
Joe  Patchen,  476,  478. 
Joe  Young,  478,  505. 
John  Dillard,  490,  492. 
John  N<rfan,  504,  505. 
Johnson,  Arthur,  quoted,  373. 
Johnson-grass,  composition,  94;  digeetibiUty,  98. 
Johnston,  Hobert,  quoted,  458,  623. 
Johnston  quote«l,  407,  479. 
Jolly  quoted,  370^ 
Junes,  C.  J.,  quoted,  290,  291. 
Jordan,  W.  H.,  article  by,  56. 


Josephine,  372. 

Jo  wan  buffalo,  294. 

Judas  tree  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Judging  poultry,  547. 

Jumping  mice,  167. 

Juncus  Gerardi,  98. 

Jungle-fowl,  528,  582 ;  note,  529. 

Justin  Morgan,  497,  500,  503,  505,  606. 

Jutland  cattle,  357. 

Kafir,  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  105. 
Fodder:  Digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliimg  constitu- 
ents, 101 ;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating 
factor,  104.  Meal:  Nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equat- 
ing vaJue,  105.  Seed:  Composition,  93,  100.  Stover: 
Nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  104. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm,  463,  494. 

Kaleege  pheasants,  581,  582. 

Kangaroo  rata,  167. 

Kansas  .Agricultural  Experiment  Station  quoted,  165. 

Kate  Spray  4th  (Fig.  131),  154. 

Keheilan  Ajus  Arabs,  448. 

Kellner  quoted,  66,  67,  81,  85,  86,  89. 

Kennedy,  W.  J.,  article  by,  649. 

Kent  sheep,  632. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  composition,  94;  digestible  nu- 
trients and  fertilizer  constituents,  101  nutritive  ratio 
and  protein -equating  value,  104. 

Kentuclcy  Importing  (Simpany,  372. 

Kentucky  Prince,  505. 

Kentucky  saddle  horse.    (See  saddle  horse.) 

Kephir,  187. 

Kerrv  cattle,  379,  380;  note,  301,  303. 

Kian'g,  276. 

Kilbame,  quoted  141. 

Kingbird,  171,  172. 

King  Charies  dog,  517. 

King,  Col.  W.  8.,  quoted,  373. 

King  of  Diamonds,  504. 

King  Herod,  497,  506. 

Kings'  mares,  497. 

Kip,  272. 

Kitasato  quoted,  138. 

Klatawath,  505. 

Klein,  Louis  A.,  article  by,  603. 

Klippart  quoted,  357. 

Knight  of  Malta,  276. 

Knox,  Mr.,  quoted,  379. 

Koch,  W.,  quoted,  134,  338. 

Kohlschmidt,  Dr.,  quoted,  411. 

Kolmognfian  cattle,  357 

Korean  pony,  489. 

Koster  quoted,  279. 

Kremlin,  505. 

Kumyss,  187. 

Kurdistan  ponies,  451. 

Kyloe  catUc,  382. 

LaFayette,  Marquis  de,  quoted,  276. 
La  Flcche  fowls,  567. 
La  Mancha  Union  Jack  (Fig.  392),  380. 
La  Tristeza,  141. 

Lactic  acid,  177;  bacteria  in  milk,  188. 
Lactobutryometer,  178. 
Lactocrite,  De  Laval,  178. 
Lactometer,  180,  181. 
Lactoscope,  178. 
Lactose,  177. 

Lady  Amherst  pheasant,  582. 
Lady  Amy  7th  (Fig.  276),  249. 
Lady  lletty  Shorthorns,  371. 
Lady  Fragrant,  371. 
Lady  Gulnare,  372. 
Lady  Jackson,  490. 
Lady  Matchleaa  2nd  (Fig.  377),  353. 
Lady  Suffolk,  502,  503. 
Lady  Vere  de  Vera  (Pig.  329),  299. 
Lakenvflder  cattle,  341 ;  poultry,  342. 
Lamarck  quoted,  35,  39. 
Lamarrc,  L.  Hert  <le,  quoted,  293. 
Lamb,  characteristics  of  good,  265;  composition  and 
food  value,  264,  269;  docking,  150;  hothouse,  593,  599. 
Lambert,  D.  J,,  article  by,  544. 


696 


INDEX 


Laramitis,  inheritance  of,  38. 

Lamp  Girl,  506. 

Lampu,  438. 

Lampere,  438. 

Lancashire  cheese.  226. 

Lancashire  Short-Face  swine,  660. 

Lance,  Dr.  H.  W.,  quoted,  342. 

Landrum,  Wm,  M,,  quoted,  406. 

Langshan  fowls,  665. 

Langstroth,  L.  L.,  quoted,  278,  282. 

Langworthy  quoted,  89. 

Lanolin,  23. 

Lants,  D.  E.,  quoted,  164,  166,  167. 

Lapidist,  503. 

Lard,  174;  production,  647-649;  notes,  644,  645.  646; 
shipping,  260;  trylng-out,  256. 

Lard  nog,  finishing,  651. 

Large  Black  swine,  679;  White  nrine  660-671;  York- 
shire Bwine,  609-«71. 

Larkspur,  120. 

Laryngitis,  440. 

Latax  marina,  397. 

Laugher  pigeon   522. 

Laurel,  121 ;  as  honey-tree,  285. 

Laut,  Miss  Agnes,  quoted,  396,  398. 

Law,  Jamea,  article  by,  122. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  quoted,  11,  13. 

Lawrence,  A,  A.,  (quoted,  464,466,  618. 

Lea,  Overton,  article  by,  376. 

League  of  Amateur  Driving  Clubs,  606. 

Leather,  271 ;  industry,  272;  notes,  8, 174. 

Leather  carp,  393. 

Leeches,  139. 

Lefebure,  E.,  quoted,  452;  &  Sons,  quoted,  452. 

Leghorn  fowls,  566;  notes,  529. 

Legumes  as  source  of  coarse  fodder,  69;  factors  aETectlng 
Ceding  value,  71. 

Leguminous  grains,  feeding  value,  72,  73. 

Leicester  sheep,  615. 

Leicester  swine,  669. 

Ldcestershire  cheese,  218. 

Leopard,  450. 

Leopard  frog,  395. 

Leporidie,  167. 

Leucanthemum  vulgare,  98. 

Leuckart  quoted,  280. 

Leucocytes  in  milk,  190 

Levroux  cheese,  411. 

Lexington,  498. 

Libyan  horse,  449. 

Lice  on  animals,  329;  on  fowls,  552;  sheep,  607. 

Ligard,  George,  quot«d,  455. 

Light  horae  types,  46,  47. 

Ligliting  stables    147,  182. 

Ligniferes  <iuoted,  141. 

Lignum-vitic  as  honey-ptant,  286. 

Lima  beans  as  lioney-plant,  285. 

Limbemeck,  555. 

Limburger  cheese,  225;  notea,  220. 

Lime,  slaked,  as  disinfectant,  146. 

Lincoln  sheep,  617,  618. 

Linden  tree,  450. 

Lindaley,  D.  C,  quoted,  505. 

Line- breeding,  43. 

Lineatni  pheasant,  581. 

Liner  felt  a^  insulating  material,  239. 

Linnet,  522. 

Linnicus  trunculatus  minutis,  604. 

Linseed,  cakf,  available  energy  in,  66;  for  horses,  430. 
Meal,  75,  76;  composition  of,  93;  digestibility  of,  97; 
digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents  in, 
100;  digestible  nutrients  in  stated  amounts,  115; 
for  calves,  313;  for  dairy  cows,  316;  nutritive  ratio 
and  protein-equating  value,  105;  production  value, 
67.    Oil,  notes,  76. 

Lion,  period  of  gcHtattun,  31. 

Lippiu  repeiis  a.s  liuney-plant,  2S5. 

Lisonjero,  505. 

Livarot  cheese,  note,  225. 

Live-stock,  cost  of  producing,  13;  distribution,  10; 
exchange,  160;  inspection,  161;  place  in  civihzatlon, 
7-14;  relation  of  prop  rotation,  11. 

Liver,  function,  19,  20. 


Liver  and  lung  disease  of  rdndeer,  592. 

Livei^rot,  604. 

Livingston,  Robert,  quoted,  619. 

Lizard  canary,  522. 

Llama,  (Fig.  11),  2,  7,  9,  296;  note,  5. 

Lloyd,  Frederick  Freeman,  articles  by,  386,  388. 

Lobelia,  120. 

Lobster,  635,  636. 

Lockjaw,  138;  note,  150. 

Loco- weed,  121. 

Locomotion,  energy  required  for,  87. 

Locust  as  honey-ptant,  285. 

Loeffler  quoted,  133,  143. 

Logan,  John  A.,  quoted,  467. 

Loggerhead,  681, 

Logwood  as  honey-plant,  285,  286. 

Long  Island  Black  Hawk,  503,  505. 

Long,  Professor,  quoted,  677. 

Long  yearlings,  fattening,  319. 

Longhom  cattle  380,  381. 

LonE-taitcd  fowl  (Fig.  5),  5. 

Lonk  sheep,  631. 

Lop-eared  rabbit,  518. 

Lophophorus  impeyanus,  680. 

Lophura  nobilis,  581;  prslata,  581;  rufa,  581. 

Lopp,  W,  T.,  quoted,  691. 

Lord  Clinton,  506. 

Lord  Derby  1 1  (417),  467. 

Lord  Russel,  505. 

Lord  Rothschild  quoted,  388. 

Lord  Western  quoted,  42. 

Lorillard,  Pierre,  quoted,  498. 

Losing  the  cud,  19. 

Lou  Dillon,  478,  501,  505. 

Louden  Duchesses,  372. 

Louis  Napoleon,  10,  480. 

Loup  Cervier,  403. 

Loups-Marius,  399. 

Low  quoted,  334,  335,  357,  364,  611,  619. 

Lowther  Barb,  505. 

Lucilia  macellaria,  607. 

Lumpy  jaw,  138. 

Luncli  cheese,  225. 

Lung  plague,  notea,  123. 

Lung-worm  disease,  606. 

Luob,  No.  2107  (Fig.  364),  338. 

Lupine,  feeding  value,  72;  poisonous,  121. 

Lutra  Canadensis,  401. 

Lydlin  quoted,  133. 

Lynx,  403;  Canadensis,  403;  notes,  167;  rufus,  403. 

Macdonald  quoted,  631. 

MacGregor  (1487),  457. 

Macgregor,  Sir  W'^illiam,  quoted,  592. 

MacNeiTage,  Archibald,  quoted,  456. 

Mack,  G.  A.,  article  by,  296. 

Mad  staffifcrs,  119. 

Madison  County   (Ohio)    Importing  Company,  372. 

Madras  buffalo,  294. 

Madrona  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Maeterlinck  quot«d,  281. 

Maggots  in  sheep,  607. 

Magic,  401. 

Magna,  492. 

Magna  Charta,  506. 

Magnolia  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Magpie,  521 ;  finch,  524. 

Mahoganv  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Maid  of  Melrose,  372. 

Maine  Experiment  Station  quoted,  275. 

Maintenance    reiiuiremcnts   of    farm    animals,    76-7fl; 

of  cattle,  77;  horae,  78;  sheep,  78;  swine,  78;  values 

of  feeding -3 tuffs,  65. 
Maize   feed  (Chicago),  composition,   92;   digestibility, 

96. 
Major,  W.,  quoted,  373. 
Major  Deltnar,  504. 
Maiorra  ass,  277,  508,  509. 
Mai  de  caderas,  140. 
MaJaclcnmiys  centrata,  681 ;  centrata  concentrica,  681 ; 

litteralis,    681;    macrospilota,    681;  ^iteata,    681. 
Malaria,  bovine,  141;  canine,  139;  equine,  140. 
Malay  fowl.  Black -brvasted  Red,  568. 


INDEX 


697 


HsligDuit   catarriud   fever   of   sheep,    008;   malarial 

JKundice,  139. 
KaiXard  duck,  569,  572. 
Maltese  aas,  277;  goat,  409;  jacks,  508,  509;  terrier, 

516. 
Maltoee,  17. 
Ualt-sprout«,   74;  composition,  93;  digestibility,   96; 

digestible  nurients  and  fertiiising  constituents,  100; 

Xtible    nutrients    in    stated    amounts,    114;    for 
s,   313;  nutritive   ratio   and   protein-equating 

value,  105;  production  value,  67. 
Hambrino,  467,  478,  501,  502;  Chief  II,  467,  502,  503, 

505;  Chief   family,    605;   Gift,    506;   Palchen,   505; 

Paymaster,  467,  501,  502;  Pilot,  459,  505. 
Uammals,   wild,  in   their  relationa  with   agriculture, 

163-169. 
Hammitia,  323.   (See  Mastitis.) 
Management  of  animals,  82, 122-151. 
Manchester  canary,  522. 
Manchurian  pheasant,  580. 
Mandarin  duck,  571. 
Mange,  328,  664. 
Mangel,  composition,  95;  digestibility,  90;  digestible 

nutrients  and  fertilising  constituents,  102;  digestible 

nutrients  in  stated  amoimts,  110;  feeding  valae.  71; 

nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  105. 
Mangrove  as  honey-plant,  286. 
Manipuri  pony,  489. 
Mann's  aind  test,  180. 
Mantilinis  Shorthorns,  371. 
Manufacture  of  animal  products,  174-272. 
Manx  cat,  300. 
Hanyplies,  18. 

Mansanito  as  honey-plant,  285. 
Maracaibo  parrot,  524. 
Haraldi  quoted,  278. 
Hare,  fecun^ty,  33;  feeding  brood,  430;  milk,  96,  176; 

notes,  24;  period  of  gestation,  31;  prolificacy,  13. 
Market  grades  of  stock,  161. 
Marketing  farm  atock,  151,  158-162;  poultry  products, 

544-547. 
Markhor,  405. 
Hariot  quoted,  428. 
Harouia  of  Salisbury  quoted,  487. 
Marsh-hen,  note,  400. 
Marsupials,  163. 
Marten,  401 ;  notes,  396. 
Martin  (bird),  170, 171, 173. 
Martin,  H.  A.,  article  by,  367. 
Martingale,  422. 
Martin  quoted,  376. 
Mary  Marshall,  350, 
Massachusetts    Society    for    Promoting     Agnculture 

quoted,  350. 
Maetennan  quoted,  370. 
Mastication,  17. 
Mastiff,  516. 

Mastitis,  infectious.  125;  non-infectious,  323;  strepto- 
coccus, 129. 
Matchem,  497. 

Matchless  Theodore  (Fig.  132),  154. 
Mate,  492. 
Mating,  double,  532. 
Maud  8.,  506. 
Maxie  Cobb,  505. 
Mayflower  (Fig.  486),  488. 
Maynard  quoted,  370,  372. 
Maynord,  Isaac,  quoted,  612,  629. 
Mayo,  N.  8.,  articles  by,  118,  146;  quoted,  139. 
Mazurka,  372. 

McClave,  Charles,  articles  by,  569,  572,  585. 
McClelland  Bros,  quoted,  622. 
McCormick  Brothers  quoted,  338. 
McCrae,  David,  articles  by,  609,  611,615,  617,629,633; 

quoted,  615. 
MclJonald,  W.  T.,  notes  by  161. 
McDowell,  Janieft,  quoted,  622. 
McGrew,  T.  F.,  articles  by,  678,  586. 
McKcrrow,  Geo     article  by,  632;  quoted,  625. 
McKissick^  N.  E.,  quoted,  291. 
Mclaughlin  Bros.,  quoted,  452. 
McLaury  Brothers  quoted,  338. 
McLean,  J.  A.,  article  by,  649. 


McMonagle,  Dr.,  quoted,  503. 

McQueen  (3513),  457. 

Meade,  R.  W.,  quoted,  622. 

Meadow,  area  in  United  States,  11.  Grass,  composition, 
digestibility  and  total  nutrients  at  different  stages,  70. 
Hay,  available  energy  in,  06;  diseatibility,  97. 

Meadow  fescue,  composition,  94;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fcrtiliein^  constituents,  101;  nutritive  ratio  and 
protcin-equa*^ing  factor,  104. 

Meadow  fox-grass,  low,  digestibility,  98. 

Meadow  mice,  166. 

Meadowlark,  170. 

Heat,  248-271;  buffalo,  295;  composition,  261;  cook- 
ing, 262;  cost  of  producing,  13,  14;  inspection,  161; 
nature  and  composition,  79;  notes,  174;  production 
79-83;  scrap,  96,  99,  106;  shipping,  260 

Mecklenburg  horse,  464. 

Meehan,  W.  E.,  articles  by,  390,  394. 

Megapodes,  542. 

Merrill),  584. 

MehrinK  quoted,  283. 

Meise,  Samuel,  quoted,  627. 

Melanosis,  inheritance  of,  38. 

Melanotus  pheasant,  682. 

Meleagris  Americana,  586;  Mexicana,  586;  ocellata, 
686. 

Mclipona  trtraaoma,  279;  trigona,  279. 

Menapause,  24. 

Mendel's  law.  530. 

Menhaden,  263. 

Menier,  Mr.,  quoted,  404. 

Meningitis  notes,  119. 

Mephitis  mephitica,  402. 

Mercuric  chlorid  as  disinfectant,  146. 

Merino  sheep,  618-624;  fitting  for  exhibition,  154; 
notes,  275,  598;  period  of  gestation,  31. 

Merrell,  \rthur,  quoted,  576,  584. 

Merriaiu,  Dr.  C.  H.,  quoted,  171. 

Mertoun  flock  of  Leicester  sheep,  617. 

Mesohippus,  419. 

Mcsuuite  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Messenger,  497,  501,  502,  505;  note,  467,  500. 

Messenger,  Thomas,  quoted,  615. 

Metabolism,  62. 

Metastasis,  124. 

Mctcalf,  Henry,  quoted,  615. 

Metcalf,  Mrs.,  quoted,  565. 

Metchley  Wonder,  384. 

Mexican  turkey,  586. 

Mice,  165,  166;  pet,  520. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College  quoted,  38,  39;  Expcri. 
ment  Station  quoted,  369. 

Micrococci,  diseases  caused  by,  129. 

Micrococcus  caprinus,  129. 

Microtus,  166. 

Middle  Yorkshire  or  M.  White  Swine,  680. 

Middlings,  73;  composition,  93;  for  show  animals,  163. 

Mieula  quoted,  128. 

Milbank  quoted,  370. 

Milch  cowH,  increase  in  number,  9,  10;  numbers  in 
United  Stales.   176;  value,    10. 

Milch  goats,  408-412. 

Miles,  Dr..  quoted,  34.  38,  41. 

Military  horses,  470-474. 

Milk,  176-187;  bacteria,  187-190;  beverages,  1R7; 
bufTalo,  296;  certified,  186;  clean,  175;  composition 
and  fuel-value,  85,  96,  176,  194,  264;  computiiiK 
total  solids  of,  181;  condensedj  190-194-  cost  lif 
producing,  13,  14;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliEing 
constituents,  102;  digestibility,  99;  feeding  show 
animals,  153;  fermentation  teat  of  milk,  iK4;  for 
poultry  fattening,  540;  for  young  stock,  308,  313; 
increase  in  production,  10;  market  milk,  185,  186: 
modified,  180;  notes,  174,  175;  nutritive  ratio  and 
protein-equating  value,  105;  pasteurieation,  184,  185; 
phyHioal  properties,  177;  powder,  194,  195;  produc- 
tion 83-86,  181-184,  309-313;  records,  181;  refrige- 
ration, 236;  sanitary,  181-184;  soorc-cards  for  pro- 
duction of  sanilarv,  182-184;  si^eretion,  physiulugv, 
310,  312;  standard,  186;  standardized,  186;  teals, 
178-180;  transportation  rates,  185,  186. 

Milk-bottlinK  plants,  refrigeration  in,  245. 

Milk-fat.    {Src  Butter-fat.) 


€98 


INDEX 


Milk-fever,  324. 

Uilk-room,  205. 

Milk-sugar,  177. 

Milk-weed,  121. 

Miikinc,  308,  312;  iii  relation  to  milk-production,  84; 
machinea,  312,  313. 

Mill  feeds  for  calves,  313;  for  dairy  cows,  316. 

Miller,  E.  D.,  quoted,  482. 

Miller.  George,  quoted,  373,  612. 

Miller,  H.  P.,  articles  by,  612,  614,  624,  626,  627. 

Miller,  Mr.,  quoted,  371. 

Miller,  Robert,  quoted,  626. 

Miller,  W.  8.,  quoted,  375. 

Miller,  William,  quoted,  373. 

Millet,  barnyard,  composition,  94.  Hay,  for  dairy  cows, 
316;  for  beet  cattle,  319.  Japanese,  94.  Seed  :  com- 
position, 93;  seed,  digestible  nurienta  and  fertilising 
constituents,  100. 

Milling  residues  for  feed,  73,  74. 

Mimufus,  373. 

Mineral  wool  aa  insulating  material,  237,  239. 

Miniature  cheese,  225. 

Mink.  400;  notes,  166,  168,  396,  404;  protection,  397. 

Minna,  372. 

Minor,  talking.  523. 

Minorca  fowls,  566. 

Mirror  carp,  393. 

Miss  Craigie,  490. 

Miss  McKinley  17203.  369. 

Miss  Russell,  506. 

Missouri  Agricultural  College  quoted,  33. 

Mites  on  fowls,  553. 

Moberly,  Col.  T.  S.,  quoted,  373. 

Mockem  Experiment  Station  quoted,  66,  77. 

Mockingbird,  American,  523. 

Modified  milk,  186. 

Modjeska  2194  (Fig.  466),  469. 

Mohair,  407;  note,  174. 

Mohler,  J.  R.,  articles  by,  321,  436,  653;  quoted,  129, 
137. 

Molasses,  as  meat  preservative,  254;  beet,  composition, 
96;  beet,  digestible  nutrients  in  stated  amounts,  116 
beet,  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  106 
digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  102 
feeds,  175;  feeding  to  show  ammals,  153;  feeding 
value,  76;   pulp,  75. 

Moles,  168;  garden,  notes,  35;  mice,  166. 

MoUusks.  notes,  390,  392. 

Moltke  13,  463. 

Monaul  pheasant,  580. 

Mongolian  pheasant,  581. 

Moni;olian  jKiny,  489. 

Monkcv  skin,  306. 

Mont  d'  Or  cheese,  411. 

Montrose  106,  490. 

Moon  blindness,  438. 

Moore  quoted,  131. 

Moore,  John,  quoted,  520. 

Moore,  J.  Puny,  ([uoted,  644. 

Moore,  Veranus  A.,  article  by,  124.  - 

Moose,  2. 

Morgan  Eagle,  506. 

Morgan  funiilv,  606,  606;  horse,  S03,  605,  606;  notes, 
274,  275,  5i)7. 

Morocco,  411. 

Morphine  for  |>oi3oning,  120. 

Morphodites,  24. 

Morris  and   Becar  Shorthorns,  373. 

Morrison,  Alexander,  quoted,  41. 

Morrison,  Wm.,  quoted,  288. 

Morrison,  W.  K.,  article  by,  278;  quoted,  279. 

Morse,  Mrs.  Tyler,  quoted,  388. 

Morton's  Traveller,  505. 

Mosquito  as  an  agent  of  infection,  125. 

Moss  Roses,  371. 

Mouflon,596. 

Mound-birds,  642. 

Mountain  fever,  144. 

Mountain  Hero  II  {Fig.  484).  487. 

Mountain  loin,  167. 

Mouse,  166;  note,  401;  white-footed,  note,  401. 

Mouson,  quoted  372. 

Mousse,  195. 


Mouth,  sore,  in  sheep,  608;  in  swine,  656. 

Mueller  quoted.  284. 

Mule,  507-510;  acres  cultivated  by  one,  II;  diaeaata, 

122-146;   sweating,   23;   militarv,  473;   number  ot, 

7,  10;  notes,  9;  pulse,  436;  value,  10. 
Mule-Foot  hog,  679. 
Muley  cattle,  note,  331. 
Mumford.  Frederick  B.,  articles  by,  28,  44,  302,  4I8; 

quoted,  598. 
Mumford,  H.  W.,  articles  by,  146,  369,  383. 
Munster  cheese.  219;  notes,  220. 
Muntz  quoted,  79. 
Murids,  165. 

Mus  musculuB,  165;  Norvegicus,  165;  rattus,  165. 
Musoatoon  7057,  372. 
Muscovey  duck,  white,  571. 
Muscular  structure,  265. 
Musical  grakle,  523. 
Musk-ox,  2. 

Muskrat,  166;  notes,  396;  skins,  notes,  396,  404. 
Musmon,  596. 
Mussel,  634. 
Mustang,  483,  484. 
Mustard,  wilcl,  tainting  milk,  86. 
Mustela  Americana,  401 ;  Pennauti,  401. 
Mustelids,  168. 
Mute  swan,  585. 
Mutilations,  transniiasion  of,  37. 
Mutton,  characteristics  of  good,  265;  comfrasition  and 

fertiliiing  value,  264,  269;  cutting,  253;  preanng,  252; 

production,  599;  notes,  595;  sheep,  type,  51,  53,  63; 

storing,  258. 
iiytt  arenaria,  634. 
Mycotic  stomatitis,  139,  325. 
Mylton,  Mr.,  quoted,  490. 
Myopia,  notes,  37. 
Mynstin,  177. 
Myrtle  of  Avondale  24942  (Fig.  373),  346. 

Nagana,  140. 

Nail  in  the  heart,'  18;  penetrating,  445. 

Nancy  Hanks,  502,  505. 

Nancy  Lee,  502. 

Nannie  Garrett  472,  491. 

Narragansett  pacer  4V6,  603. 

Nathusius  quoted,  39. 

National  Association  of  Medical   Milk  Commiflsions, 

176. 
National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers  quoted, 

598. 
National  Delaine  sheep,  622. 
Navel-ill,  126. 
Neapolitan,  195. 
Neapolitan  swine,  666,  679. 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station  quoted  319,  320. 
Necklace.  371. 
Necrotic  erysipelas,  133. 
Necrotic  stomatitis,  656. 
Nectar  (4177)  (Fig.  491),  495. 
Needham,  James  G.,  articles  by,  392,  393. 
Negrette  Merino  sheep,  619. 
Negri  bodies,  144. 
Nehring,  quoted,  1. 

Nelson,  Julius,  articles  by,  393,  634,  635,  636,  640,  643. 
Nemours,  M.  Dupont  de,  quoted,  619. 
Neolupparion,  419. 
Ncototna,  166. 

Nether  Craig  Spicy  Sam  (Fig.  362),  335. 
Neufchatel  cheese,  221. 
New  Forest  pony,  487. 

New  International  Encyclopedia  quoted,  272. 
New  Jorney  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  quoted, 

360. 
New  Leicester  sheep.  616. 
New  Mexican  goat.  409. 
New-process  linseed  meal,  76. 
New    York  Agricultural   Experiment  Station  quoted, 

177,  360. 
New  York  Board  of  Health  lactometer,    181. 
New  York  Mills  sale,  371,  373. 
Newfoundland  dog,  516;  seals,  390. 
Newton.  Mr.,  quoted,  194. 
Niger,  469,  460. 


INDEX 


Kigger  (Fig.  479),  482. 

NiiKtliawk,  note,  170,  171. 

Nightingale,  522;  Virginia,  523. 

Nightshade,  121. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  poisoning  cattle,  118. 

Nitrogen -free-ex  tract,  59. 

Nitrogenous  constituents  of  milk,  177. 

Nivemaise  horse,  462. 

Nixon,  C.  D.,  article  by,  337. 

Nocard  quoted,  126,  135. 

Nodular  disease,  604. 

Nonpareil,  524. 

Nora,  374. 

Norfolk  Phenomenon,  450. 

Norfolk  Red  Polled  cattle,  369. 

Norfolk  sheep,  630. 

Norfolk  spaniel,  515. 

Norfolk  Thin  Rind  piga,  662. 

Norfolk  trotter,  451,  466. 

Norman  B.,  505. 

Norman  horses,  480. 

Normandy  boar,  662; 

Normandy  cattle,  381. 

North  African  horse,  449. 

North  American  farm  animals,  273-682. 

North  Star  (460),  372. 

Northern  Kentucky  Importing  (Company,  372. 

Norwegian  horse,  466;  pony,  4:88. 

Norwich  canary,  522. 

Nubian  Milch  gout,  409. 

Numida  raeleagris,  578. 

Nuns  (birds),  524. 

Nuns  (pigeons),  521. 

Nutbearer,  505. 

Nutboy,  505. 

Nuthatch,  170,  173. 

Nutrition,  principles,  68-63,  263. 

Nutritive  mtio,  103,  106,  107. 

Nuts  for  birds,  173. 

Nutwood,  505. 

Oaks,  498. 

Oat-grass  hay,  production  value,  67;  tall,  compositioD, 
94. 

Oats,  available  enefgy  in,  66;  composition,  93;  digesti- 
ble nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100;  di{|eati- 
ble  nutrients  in  stated  amounte,  112;  digestibility, 
97;  feeding  value,  72;  for  beef  cattle,  318-321;  for 
calves,  313;  for  hHfers,  314;  for  horses,  428-432; 
for  show  animals,  153;  notes,  151;  nutritive  ratio 
and  protein-equating  value,  105.  Chaff:  compo- 
sition, 95;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilising  con- 
stituents, 101;  digestibility,  98.  Dust:  composition, 
93;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliiing  constituents, 
100.  Feed  (shorts):  composition,  93;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100.  Fodder: 
composition,  94;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  101 1  digestibility,  98;  nutrient  ratio 
and  protein-equatmg  mcto.r,  104.  Hay;  composition, 
94;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents, 
101 ;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-et^uating  value,  104. 
Hulls,  74;  composition,  93;  digestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  100.  Heal:  composition,  93; 
digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100; 
nutritive  ratio  and  protein -equating  value,  105. 
Straw;  composition,  96;  digestibility,  98;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  101 ;  digestible 
nutrients  in  stated  amounts,  112;  feeding  value,  71; 
for  dairy  cattle,  316;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein- 
equating  value,  105;  production  value,  67 

Oats  and  peas,  9S;  and  vetch,  98. 

O'Connor,  Thomas,  quoted,  379. 

(Esophagostoma.  135:  Columbianum,  135,  604. 

CEstrus  ovis,  605. 

Ohio  Importing  Company  (quoted,  372;     - 

Ohio  ImprovedChester-White swine, 662. 

Ohio  State  Fair  entry  rules,  156. 

Ohio  State  University  quoted,  74, 

Oidium  lactis,  222,  224,  225,  226. 

(Nl-cake,  75;  for  show  animals,  153. 

(Ml-meal,  75;  for  beef  cattle,  318-321;  for  brood  mare, 
431;  for  calves,  313;  for  dairy  cows,  316;  fur  sitow 
animals,  notes,  151. 


Okra  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Olaf  quoted,  586. 

Old  English  Bobtwl  Sheep-dog,  386-388;  note,  383. 

Old  Morrill,  506. 

Old-process  linseed  meal,  76. 

Old  Sliales,  466. 

Oldenburg  cattle,  357. 

Oldenburg  coach  horse,  462-464. 

Olein,  177. 

Olena  18772,  369. 

Oleomargarine  note,  177,  259. 

Oleo-oil,  259. 

{Jlor  buccinator,  686. 

Oltmann  Brothers  quoted,  463. 

Omasum,  IS. 

Omphalophlebitis,  126. 

Onager,  276. 

Onchomys,  166. 

One  Eye,  467,  602. 

Onions,  composition  and  feeding  value,  264;  wild,  120. 

Online,  504. 

Ontario   Agricultural    College    quoted,  332,   377,   044, 

645;  Department  of  Agriculture  quoted,  538. 
Opossum^  163;  skins,  396. 

Opthalmia,  in  cats,  301;  spcci&c,  inheritance  of,  38. 
Orange-breast  Waxbill,  524. 
Oranges,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 
Orchard-grass,    competition,    94;    dif^tible    nutrients 

and  fertilizing  constituents,  101  j  digestibility,  97, 98; 

nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equatioglactor,  104.  Hay: 

nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  104. 
Oreamnos  montanus,  597. 
Or^on  ground-squirrel,  164. 
Oriental  Frills,  521. 
Oriental  horses,  449. 
Oriole,  170,  172,  173. 
Orloff,  Count  Alexis,  quoted,  474;  Counteos,  quoted, 

475. 
Orloff  trotting  horse,  474,  475;  note,  451. 
Ormskirk  Olympian,  384. 
Orohippus,  419. 

Orpington  fowls,  567;  fattening,  539;  note,  529. 
Orr,  T.  E.,  articles  by,  547,  563;  quoted,  372. 
Orville,  490. 
Oryzomys,  166. 

Osbom,  H.  F.,  quoted,  418,  419,  420. 
Osprey,  172. 
Osteoporosis,  438. 
Ostre^  Adriatica,  636,  angulata,  636;  cuculata,  636; 

edulis,  636,  638;  lurida,  636,  638;  Virginiana,  636, 

638. 
Ostrich,    511-514;    egga,    period    of    iocubatioD,    542; 

notes,  33,  542. 
Otter  401;  farming,  404;  notes,  168,    396;    protection, 

Ovaries,  characte's  and  functions,  28. 

Oven-roasting  of  meat,  267. 

Oven  thermometer,  267. 

Ovine  caseous  lymph-adenitis,  132. 

Ovisammon,  596;aries,  592 ;  Canadensis,  597;cervinua, 
597;  Oalli,  597;  montanus,  597;  rousmon,  596; 
Stonei,  597. 

Ovum,  nature  and  function,  29. 

Owen,  Prof.  Richard,  quoted,  297. 

Owens  quoted,  302. 

Owl,  170,  171,;  notes  164,  166;  pigeon,  521. 

Ox-eye  daisy,  digestibility,  98. 

Oxen,  366;  amount  of  blood  in  body,  21;  composition 
of  body,  69;  feeding  standards,  107  108;  nature  of 
stomach,  18^  notes,  9;  number  on  farms,  11;  pulse 
in,  21;  respiration,  21,  437;  rumination  in,  18,20; 
sweating  in,  23;  temperature  in,  2t,  436. 

Oxford  Down  sheep,  624-626. 

Oxford  Shorthorns,  373. 

Oxyhemaglobin,  21. 

Oyster,  636-640;  notes,  393. 

Ozokerite,  259. 

Pablo,  Michael,  quoted,  291,  292. 
Pace,  423;  show,  427. 
Pacing  horse,  Standardbred,  476-478. 
Packing  butter  204;  egcs,  546,  547. 
Page,  George  U.,  quoted,  191. 


700 


INDEX 


Painted  finch,  524;  bunting,  524. 

Paints,  lead,  poisoning  cattle,  118. 

PalaUbility  of  a  ration,  106. 

Paley  quoted,  372. 

Palia  buffalo.  294. 

Pallin  quoted.  139. 

Palm-nut  meal,  93,  101. 

Palmetto  as  honey-plant,  285,  286. 

Palmitin,  177. 

Palms  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Palmyra  Boy,  604. 

Palo  Alto,  504. 

Pan-broiling  meat,  267. 

Pancreaflj  20. 

Pancreatic  juice,  19,  20. 

Pansy  McGregor,  504. 

Pantegras  cheese,  218. 

Paper  as  insulating  material,  237. 

Paper-skin,  606. 

Paraffin  for  candles,  259. 

Paralysis  in  swine,  653. 

Paraplegia,  663. 

Parasitisms,  124. 

Parbold  Paragon,  384. 

Park  animals,  2. 

Parmesan  cheese,  219;  note,  208. 

Paroqueta,  525. 

Parrots,  624,  525j  Cuban.  525;  dwarf,  525. 

Parsnip,  composition,  95;  digestible  nutrientx  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  102. 

Parson's  milk  test,  178. 

Part-bred  horses,  499. 

Parthenogenesis,  280, 

Partridge,  domestication,  576-578. 

Parturition,  31 ;  difficult,  32. 

Pasang,  405,  408. 

Pastes,  322. 

Pasteur  quoted,  130. 

Pasteur  treatment  for  rabies,  144. 

Pasteurization  of  milk   184,  185;  notea,  189. 

Pasteurized  butt«r,  207. 

Pasture,  area  in  United  States,  11.  Orass:  compiowtion, 
94;  cUgestibility,  98;  digestible  nutrients  and  fer- 
tilixing  constituents,  101 ;  supplementing  pasture  with 
Imlanced  rations,  IIS. 

Pat  Qebume,  490. 

Pat  Ryan  of  Red  Qoud  20038  (Fig.  372),  346. 

Patchen  Wilkes,  478. 

Pat«fl,  263. 

Patrick  milk  test,  178. 

Patterson,  John,  quoted,  456. 

Patterson,  John  D.,  quoted,  624. 

Patterson,  Robert,  quoted,  340. 

Paul  D.  Kelly,  604. 

Paul  Pry,  502. 

Paular  Merino  sheep,  619. 

Paunch,  18. 

Pavo  cristatua,  580;  muticus,  580;  nigripennis,  580. 

Pea,  available  energy  in,  66;  diRestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  IQl;  digestible  nutrients  in 
stated  amounts,  113;  dried,  composition  and  fuel- 
value,  264 ;  sugar,  264 ;  factors  affecting  feeding  value, 

■  71 ;  feeding  vSue,  72;  for  colts,  431 ;  hay,  316;  meal, 
composition,  93;  digestibility,  97,  99;  nutritive  ratio 
and  protein-equating  value,  105. 

Peacock,  580. 

Peacock  pheasant,  581. 

Peafowl,  31,  580. 

Peanuts,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264;  feed,  diges- 
tibility, 97;  kernel,  composition,  93;  meal,  compo- 
sition, 93;  meal,  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  101 ;  vines,  composition,  96;  vines, 
digestibility,  98. 

Pea-vine  85,  491. 

Pea-vine,  hay,  composition,  95;  silage,  digestible 
nutrients  in  staled  amiuints,  116;  straw,  digestible 
nutrients  in  stated  amoimts.  111;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fertilizing  constituents,  1U2; 

Pearl,  6()5. 

Pearl  disease,  133. 

Pearl  guhica-fowl,  578. 

Peari  millet,  digestibility,  98. 

Pearlctte,  372. 


Pearson,  R.  A.,  wticlc  by.  176;  quoted,  176. 

Peas   and  barley,  digestible  nutrients  and    fertiliiinc 

constituents     101 ;    digestible    nutrients    in    stated 
amounts,   109;  and  oats,   digestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  101. 
Pebbled  grain  leather,  271. 
Peccary,  163,  646. 

Pedigree  versus  individual  excelloice,  43. 
Peer,  F.  S.,  quoted,  409. 
Peeler,  quoted  409. 
Petan,  401. 
Pekin  duck,  670. 
Pekinese  dog,  517. 
Pelhom.  503. 
Pelts,  shipping,  261. 
Pembroke  cattle,  302. 
Penetrating  nail,  445. 

Penicillium  camemberti,  224;  roqueforti,  221. 
Pennant's  marten,  401. 
Pennisetum  spicatum,  98. 
Pennsylvania    Department  of   Fisheries   quoted,    394: 

Experiment  Station  quoted,  77 ;    State    Agriculturu 

Society  quoted,  388. 
Pennyman,  Sir  James,  quoted,  370. 
Pens  for  show  animals,  156. 
Pepper  notes,  106. 

Pepper-tree  as  honey-plant,  285,  286. 
Pepsin,  17. 
Peptones,  18,  19. 
Pereheron  horse.  478-481. 
Perennial  rye-grass,  compooition,  94, 
Pericarditis,  126. 
Periodic  opnthalmia,  438. 
Peristal  »s,  10. 

Peritonitis,  126;  notes,  125,  150. 
Permanganate  of  potash  for  poisoning,  120,  121. 
PeromyscuB,  166. 
Pereiacot,  632. 
Persian  lamb  fur,  396. 
Persian  sheep  (Fig.  3),  4,  632. 
Persiarino,  632. 

Persimmon  as  honey-plant,  285. 
Perspiration  in  animals,  23. 
Peruvian  cavy,  519. 
Peter  Sterling,  504. 
Peters,  Richard,  quoted,  405,  633. 
Peter's  Halcom,  490. 
Pets,  514-524;  notes,  8. 
Pfan,  (79)  381. 
Phallas,  506. 
Phasianus  colchicus,  581 ;  EUioti,  581 ;  Mongolictis,  581 ; 

Reevesi,  581;  Stemmerringi,  581;  versicolor,  581. 
Pheasant,  2,  579-582. 
Phenolphthalein  test  of  milk,  180. 
Phenomena,  467. 
Phil  Sheridan,  503. 
Philadelphia  broilers,  644. 
Philadelphia  cream,  195. 
Philip,  James,  quotid,  291. 
Phoca  Grsenlandica,  399. 
Phcebe,  171,  173. 
Phtrnix  sylvestris,  286. 
Phthisis,  133. 
Phy,siol<)gy   of   domestic   animals,    15-26;   of   poultry, 

24-26. 
Phytotechny,  273. 
Pi  card  V  draft  horse,  460. 
Pickermg  quoted,  370. 
Pickled  brood,  285. 
Pickrell,  Watson,  article  by,  611. 
Picnic  cheese,  218. 
Pictou  disease  of  the  horse,  127. 
Pierce.  B.  N.,  quoted,  564. 
Pictertje  2nd,  309,  359. 
Pig,  digestion  in.  20;  heredity  in,  37;  mastication  in,  1"; 

nature  of  stomach,  18;  perspiration,  21;  vomitiDg, 

19.    (See  Swine.) 
Pigeons.  582-584;  milk,  24;  period  of  incubation,  31; 

p<'t.  520-522. 
Pigmy  Pouter  pigeons,  620. 
Pike,  392. 
Pills,  .'i22. 
Pilot,  476,  5a3;  familv,  506;  Jr.,  506. 


INDEX 


701 


Pinf^marten,  401. 

Pine-iiioiise,  note,  401. 

Pineapple  cheose,  218. 

Fink  (Fig.  42),  45. 

Pink  eye,  144. 

Pink-foote<l  goose,  576. 

Pioseope,  178. 

Pip  in  fowls,  555. 

Piroplanma  bifceminum,  140,  141;  canis,  139;  of  dogs. 
139;  e(]ui,  140;  ovis,  140. 

Pisces,  390. 

Pifigah.  492. 

Plain  condensed  bulk  milk,  190,  193. 

Plankton,  393;  note.  390,  392. 

Plants,  chemical  basis  of,  S8. 

Pleuritis,  126. 

Pleuro-pneumonia,  e<juine  contagioUB,  128,  129;  in 
cattle,  142;  inoculating  for  immunitv,  14S. 

Plumb,  0.  S.,  articles  bv,  153,  158,  279.  366,  377,  474; 
quoted,  447,  480,  619;  621,  678. 

Plvmlev  quoted,  626. 

PK-moutli  Rock  fowls,  563;  fattening,  539;  notes,  529. 

Pneumonia,  contagious  123;  in  cats,  301 ;  in  hones,  441. 

Pocket  mice,  167. 

Pocket  gopher,  167. 

Poem,  506. 

Pointer,  515. 

Poisoning,  124;  bile  acid.  20;  stock,  118-122. 

Poisonous  weeds  and  their  eradication,  119-122. 

Poisons  for  rodents,  164. 

Poitou  ass,  277,  509. 

Poland-China  swine,  671-'674;  notes,  275,  644,  645. 

Polar  bear,  402;  notes,  403. 

Poliakoff  quoted,  419. 

Polish  bantam,  569;  fowls,  568;  note,  529. 

Polish  mbbit,  619. 

Polish  swan,  585. 

Polkan,  475. 

Poll-e\-Sl,  125.  442. 

Pollard,  Geor^  H.,  article  by,  536. 

Polled,  Aberdeens,  331 ;  cattle,  Dote,  331 ;  Durham  cat- 
tle, 375,  376;  note,  303;  Hereford,  355;  Dot«,  303. 

Polo  ponv,  482,  483. 

Polo  Ponv  Society  quoted,  486,  487. 

Polworth,  Lord,  quoted,  617. 

Polyarthritis,  128. 

Polj-plectron  ehinqiii^,  581. 

Polyps,  393. 

Pomace,  apple.    (See  Applepomaee.) 

Pomarona  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Pomeranian  dog.  517. 

Ponies.  481-489;  cow,  note,  507. 

Pont  L'Eveque  cheese,  225;  notes,  220,  225. 

Ponv  breeds,  note,  420;  of  Iceland,  488;  of  Ireland,  488. 

Poodles.  517. 

Population  as  compared  with  number  of  farm  animals. 

Porcupines,  167. 

Pork,  characteristics  of  good,  265;  eompositioa  and 
fertiliser  value,  264,  269;  cutting,  254;  dry-cured, 
2.56;  production  notes,  644,  645.  646;  Mtlt,  256; 
BtorinK,  258. 

Port  du  Salut  cheese,  225;  notes,  220. 

Porter,  John  F.,  article  bv.  271. 

Porter,  Lieut.  U  U,  quoted,  297,  298. 

Pot  cheese,  221. 

Pot-roasting  meat,  26^. 

Potassium  lodid,  nutee,  106. 

Potato,  available  energy-  in,  6C;  composition  and  feed- 
ing value,  95,  264;  cooking  for  feed,  69;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilising  constituents,  102,  1  lU; 
digeetitnlity,  99;  feeding  value,  71;  nutriti\-e  ratio 
and  protein -e^ I uating  value,  1(^;  production  value, 
67. 

Potted  meats,  263. 

Pouched  mammals,  163. 

Poultry,  525-587;  ailments,  552-556;  br««diuc,  529- 
532;  development,  275;  fatttming,  538;  Ceding, 
533-537  judging,  547 ;  pliyiuoIog>-  of,  24-28 ;  [mxlucts, 
marketing,  544—547;  relation  to  farm  management, 
12;  reproductive  functions,  2.^;  shipping.  261;  tem- 
perature of  bodv.  25;  value,  9. 

Poultry-house  ranatruction,  566-562. 


Pouter  pigeon,  520. 

Powder,  milk-,  194,  195;  notes,  193. 

Powell  Brothers,  495. 

Prairie  chicken,  2. 

Prairie  dog,  164,  165. 

Prairie-grass,  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating 
value.  104. 

Pregnancy,  31. 

Prejvalsky  horse,  419. 

Pre-natal  influences,  41. 

Prentice,  James,  quoted,  372. 

Prepared  cheese,  218. 

Preservatives  for  meat,  254. 

Preserved  products,  notes,  174. 

Pretender,  502. 

Priam  (2452),  371, 

Prickly  comfrev,  96,  102. 

Prince  of  Allrion  (6178),  457. 

Prince  of  Wales  (673),  457. 

Princeaj,  502. 

Princess  of  Wayne,  359. 

Procamelus,  296. 

Procyon  lotor,  402. 

Prodactylisni,  37. 

Prodigal,  505. 

Production  values  of  feeding-stuffs,  66-68. 

Prolificacy,  32,  33. 

Proprietary  feeds,  notes.  74. 

Proteids,  58;  function  in  animal  body,  58;  fuel-value, 
65;  non-,  58;  notes,  17;  when  to  feed,  18. 

Protein  in  foods,  265;  equating  factors,  104,  105;  nature 
and  function,  58,  62,  63. 

Prothero  quoted,  11. 

Protohippus,  419, 

Prototylops  296. 

ProtoK>a,  diseases  caused  by,  139-142;  infection  by, 
124. 

Prowse.  D.  W.,  article  by,  502. 

Prunes,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 

Pseudo-tuberculosis  in  sheep,  132. 

Psoroptes  communis,  606. 

Ptvalm,  17. 

Puberty,  30;  notes,  24. 

Pug  dog,  517. 

Pulmonary  tubercular  affection,  124. 

Pulse,  defined,  21 ;  of  animaLi,  436. 

Puma,  notes,  167. 

Pumpkin,  composition,  96;  digestible  nutrients  and  fer- 
tilizing constituents,  102. 

Punch,  195. 

Putorius  erminea,  400;  vison,  400. 

Pyogenic  bacteria,  125. 

Quack-grass,  digestibilitv,  98. 

Quadrupeds,  wild,  in  refation  to  fanning,  163-169. 

Quagga,  419. 

QuauT domestication,  584,  585;  note,  170. 

Quaker  bird,  524. 

Quarantine,  146;  of  market  slock,  162. 

Quartly  family  quoted,  340. 

Quartly,  Francis,  quoted,  34U. 

Quavle,  Thomas,  quoted,  362.  . 

Quebe^vJersey  cattle,  343. 

Queen  Bess  20335,  369. 

Queen  Dearest  (Fig.  463),  454. 

Queen  of  the  Roses,  457. 

Que%'enne  lactometer,  180. 

Rabbit,    517-519;     fecundity,    33;     heredity    in,    37; 

notes,  396;  period  of  gestation,  31;  protection,  397; 

skinit,  402;  wild,  167. 
Rabies,  144;  immunitv,  145. 
Raccoon  notes,  168,  ^;  skins.  402. 
Rachitis,  655. 
Racing  Calendar,  501. 
Rack,  423,  424,  427,  492. 
Raga-ort,  127. 
Raine  quoted,  372. 

RaisinH,  composition  and  fuel-value.  264. 
Ralph  Wilkes,  504. 

Rambouillet  sheep,  623;  notes,  598,  509. 
Rana  catesbiana,  395;  clamitans.  395;  %-irescens,  305. 
Randall  quoted,  lU. 


702 


INDEX 


Randolph,  John,  quoted,  490. 
Range  etock,  feeding,  317-321. 
Rangifer  lapponicus,  588;  tarandus,  588. 
Ranunculus  acris,  98. 

Rape,  composition,  96;  digestible  nutrienta  and  ferti- 
IiEing  constituenUg,  102;  for  show  animals,  153; 
nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  factor,  104; 
seed,  feeding  value,  73;  tainting  milk,  86;  seed,  cake, 
93,  101 . 
Raspberry,  wild,  as  honey-plant,285. 
Ratj  165;  note,  401;  penod  of  gesUtion,  31;  pet,  520. 

Rations,  computing  balanced,  106-118;  for  dairy 
catUe,  316,  317;  method  of  exact  balancing,  103-105. 

Ravenel  quoted,  144. 

Rawlence,  James,  quoted,  615. 

Ray  fungus,  138. 

Raxorback  swine,  680,  681 ;  note,  646,  667,  675. 

Reality  (665),  467. 

Reaumur  quoted,  278, 

Reciprocal  crosses,  532. 

Records,  butter  207;  cow,  181. 

Redbird,  Virginia,  523. 

Red,  canary,  522;  linnet,  523. 

Red  clover  liav,  available  energy  in,  166; 

Red  fox,  401. 

Red  Polled  cattle,  367-369;  note,  303. 

Red  Rose,  380. 

Redcap  fowls,  567. 

Redfield,  F.  B  .,    quoted,  332. 

Redfield's  theory  of  dynamic  development,  40. 

Redstart,  .\mericanj  170. 

Red-top,  composition,  94;  digestible  nutrients  and 
fcrtibeing  cnnstitucnta,  101;  digestibility^,  97:  hay, 
104;  nutritive  ratio  and  prot«n-equating  [actor, 
104;  notes,  69,  71. 

Reed,  Alex.,  quoted,  622. 

Reeve's  pheasant,  581. 

Refri^ration  of  dairy  products,  232-246;  of  meat,  258. 

Regginao  cheese,  219. 

Reindeer,  588-592,  note,  176. 

Reithrodontomya,  166. 

Remy  quoted,  390. 

Renick,  Abram,  quoted,  372. 

Rcnick,  Felix,  quoted,  372. 

Renick,  George  W.,  quoted,  372. 

Renick  9(Xi,  372. 

Reproductive  functiona  and  processes  of  animala,  23, 
24,  28-34;  of  fowls,  25. 

Respiration,  calorimeter,  notes,  56;  in  animals,  21,  22; 
in  poultry,  25. 

Reticulum,  18. 

Retriever,  515. 

Reversion,  39;  in  fowla,  532. 

Rex  arburklc  1407,  492. 

Reybold,  Clayton,  quoted.  625. 

Rheumatism,  439;  of  fowls,  135. 

Rhinitis,  catarrhal,  656. 

Rhode  Island  Red  fowla,  529,  565. 

Ribbon!^,  show,  158. 

Rice.  James  E.,  artielos  by,  533,  556. 

Rice:  composition  and  feeding  value,  93,  264 ;  digestible 
nutrienta  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100.  Bran,  73; 
comjwsition,  93 ;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  100.  Hulls:  composition,  93;  <iigeMtible 
nutrient.s  and  fertilizing  constituents,  100.  Meal,  73; 
comjxisition,  93;  dipestibility,  97.  Polish  73;  com- 
position, 93;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  con- 
stituents, 100. 

Riee-field  mice,  166. 

Richard  II  quoted,  497. 

Richards,  A.  Kceiie,  quoted,  447. 

Rielmrd--*,  11.  H.,  quoted,  342. 

Richardson  quoted,  3SI . 

RieliariiMiin,  tiir  .I()hn,  <juoted,  400. 

Richnnlson.  \V.  1>..  article  bv,  '2til. 

Riehinoiul  .[iiotwl,  178,  IHl." 

Rickets,  O.W, 

Ricottt-  clieese,  219. 

Ridgeway  quoted,  4'JO,  449,  4.50,  41)7. 

Ridgliii^  delinod,  149. 

Riding,  horse,  427,  428. 

Riding  homes  for  military  pur|K»ses,  474. 

Rigor  niorti^f,  265. 


Rinderpest,  145;  notes,  122,  123,  206. 

Ringbone,  445;  heredity  of,  38. 

Ring-neck  pheasant,  581. 

Ring- worm,  329. 

Ripened  Cottage  cheese,  226. 

Ripening  cream  for  butter,  200,  207;  milk  for  cheeM 

Rivolta  quoted,  139.  t21C 

Roadster  horse,  420;  type,  46,  47. 

Roaring,  22;  inheritance  of,  38. 

Roaaters,  544. 

Robert  Mac^  505. 

Robert  McGregor,  505,  606,  507. 

Robertson  quoted,  370. 

Robertson,  J.  W.,  quoted,  213. 

Robin,  170,  171,172  173. 

Rock  cotton  as  insulating  material,  237,  239. 

Rodents,  163. 

Romane  cheese,  219. 

Romatur  cheese,  226. 

Rommel,  George  H.,  quoted,  374. 

Romney  Marsh  sheep,  632. 

Root,  A.  I.,  quoted,  279. 

Root  crops,  69;  factors  effecting  feeding  value,  71 ;  foi 
dairy  heifer,  314;  for  show  animals,  153;  production 
value,  67. 

Ropy  milk,  188. 

Roquefort  cheese,  221 ;  notes,  220,  411, 

Roquefort  Penicillium,  222. 

Rosabella,  372. 

Rose-apple  as  honey-plant,  286, 

Rose-comb  bantam,  569, 

Rose,  Dr.,  quoted,  629. 

Rose,  Flora,  article  bv,  263., 

Rose  of  Sharon,  272. 

Rosentein  cattle,  357. 

Rosewood  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Ross  goose,  575. 

Rotch  oiioted,  372. 

Rotch,  Francis,  quoted,  629. 

Rouen  duck,  560. 
'  Rouget  immunity,  145. 
Roughage,  69;  composition,  94, 95;  digestibility,  97-09; 

for  dairy  cattle  316. 
Roundworms  in  dogs,  386. 
Roup,  142,  553,  554. 

Rowen,  composition,  94;  digestibility,  97.  98;  dige^ 
tible  nutrienta  and  fertilizing  constituents,  101 ;  hAv, 
nutritive    ratio    and    protein-e<|uating    value,  104. 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  (England)  quoted,  454. 
Roval  Fearnaught,  506. 
Royal  George  9,  502. 
Royal  Gift,  276. 

Royal  Guernsey  .Agricultural     and     Horticultural    So- 
ciety quoted,  349. 
Royaf  Jersey   Agricultural  and   Horticultural  iSociety 

quoted.  362. 
Royal  in  ares,  497. 
Royal  palm  as  honey-plant,  286. 
Rubies,  339, 
Rubner  quoted.  6,5. 
Ruddick,  J,  A.,  article  bv,  208. 
Rufus,  407. 
Rumen,  IS. 

Ruminants,  digestibility  notes,  61. 
Rumination,  IS,  10. 
Rumor,  506. 

Running  horse  type,  46,  47. 
Running-walk,  423,  424,  427,  492. 
Runt  pigeons,  521. 
Rural  .New-Yorker,  The,  quotwl,  33. 
Rus.iell  quoted,  184,  1S5. 
Ru**e!i,  k.  II.,  quoted,  622. 
Rus.-wll,  Thomas,  quoted,  373. 
RuH.-iet  leather,  271. 
Russia  swine,  672,  673. 
Ru.'Mian  deerliound,  516. 
Ru.i.sian  mulberry  for  birds,  172. 
RuH-siun  Orloff  horse.    (S«  Orloff  trotting  horse.) 
Ru.s.siaii  pony,  488. 
Russian  sable  fur,  396. 

Rutabaga.  comi>oailion,  95;  digestible  nutrient.s  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  102;  digestibility,  99;  nulri- 
tivc  ratio  and  protein -equating  value,  105, 


INDEX 


70S 


Rye,  composition,  93;  digestible  nutrienta  uid  fertilis- 
ing constituents,  100,  112;  digestibility,  98;  feeding 
value,  72;  nutritive  ratio  andprotein-equatin^  value, 
105;  production  value,  67.  Bran:  compomtion,  93; 
digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliiing  constituents,  100, 
114;  digestibility,  99;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein- 
equating  \-alue,  105;  production  value,  67.  Flour: 
composition,  93.  Fodder:  composition,  94;  diges- 
tible nutriento  and  ferUlizing  constituents,  101 ;  nutri- 
tive ratio  and  protein-equating  factor,  104.  Heal: 
digestibility,  96.  Silage:  composition,  95.  Shorts: 
composition,  93;  di^>stible  nutrienta  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  ICiO.  Straw:  composition,  96;  digesti- 
bility, 9A;  digestible  nutrienta  and  rertilising  constit- 
uents, 101 ;  feeding  value,  71 ;  as  insulating  material, 
235,  239;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value, 
105;  production  value,  67. 

Rye-grass,  67. 

Sasnen  goat,  White,  410. 

8able,  American,  401 ;  Alaska,  402. 

Sable  island  ponies,  484. 

Saccharomytosis  farciminosus,  139. 

Sacred  cattle,  378. 

Saddle  horee,  American    48ft-492;  horse  type,  46,  47; 

influence  of  Thoroughbred  on,  500;  notes,  34. 
Saddle  horses  for  mountiun  batteries,  471;  note,  420; 

training,  427,  428. 
Saflian,  411. 
SafTron  finch,  524. 
Sage  as  honey-plant,  285. 
Sasc  choose,  218. 

Sainfoin  as  honey-plant,  285,  286;  digestibility,  08. 
Saleratus  as  meat  preservative,  255. 
Salicylic  acid  as  meat  preservative,  254. 
Saliva,  17. 
Salmon  quoted,  131. 
Salmon,  canning,  263. 
Salt,  for  horses,  429;  for  show  animus,  153;  as  meat 

fireservative,  254;  as  a  poison  to  sheep,  118. 
t  hay,  diKOstibihty,  94,  98. 
Salt  pork,  256. 

Saltpeter  as  meat  preservative,  254,  265. 
Saltram  mare,  490. 
Salvator,  499. 
Sampson,  467,  501,  502. 
Sanborn  quoted,  429. 
Sanders,  Frank  R.,  article  by,  341. 
Sanders,  Colonel  Lewiw,  quoted,  372. 
Sanders,  J.  H.,  quoted,  451,  481,  660. 
Sandpiper,  170. 

Sanitarv  milk'production,  181-184. 
Santa  Olaus,  478. 
Sapremia,  124. 
Sapsurker,  red-betlied,  170. 
Sarcoptes  soabioi,  654. 
Sardines,  canning,  263. 
Sarraxin,  Monsieur,  ()Uot<xl,  400. 
Sas-senage  cheese,  411. 
Saturettes,  521. 
Saunderson,  Dr.,  quoted,  38. 

Sausage,  2.57;  canned,  263;  production  notes,  645. 
Saw -pal  motto  aa  honoy-idant.  285. 
Sawdust  as  iiisiilaliiig  material,  235,  237. 
Saxon  Morinii  .shoop,  620. 
Saxon  ram,  nutos,  37, 
Scab,  slioop,  (MJO. 
Scale  carp,  393. 
8caJy-leg,  .5.53. 
Scalloiw,  634. 
ScBinorzc  clieesc,  219. 
Scaii<ltT(>i)ii  pigoonH,  521. 
Scandinavian  [xmy,  488. 
Soarli-t  fever  gornia  in  milk,  188. 
Schniierkase,  221. 
Schiittelius  qiiut<'<l.  133. 
SchutE  quoted,  lis,  129. 
Schwoinewucho,  i:j:j. 
Schweitzt-r  choi'si-,  21S. 
Sciotu  Vallov  Inii>orliiig  Oiinpaiiv,  372. 
Sciuridao,  UU. 

Scorc-cardii,  44-5<'>;  for  the  proihicliuii  of  sanitary 
milk,  1M2-1K4;  note,  330. 


Scoring  fowls,  650. 
Scorpion  mice,  166. 
Scotch  Black-face  sheep,  631. 
Scotch  Cheddars,  208. 
Scotch  dcerhound  516. 
Scotch  Gray  fowls,  529. 
Scotch  greyhound,  note,  383, 
Scott  &  Harris  quoted,  338. 
Scott  County  Importing  Company,  372, 
Scottish  terrier,  616. 
Scott's  Shales,  .501,  602;  (692),  467, 
Scours,  sliccp,  609. 
ScovelI,.M.  A.,  article  by,  361. 
Scrapple,  256. 
Scratches,  444. 
Screech  owl,  173. 
ScreeningSj  73:  composition,  93. 
Scribner,  F.  Lamson,  article  by,  292. 
Scrofula,  133. 

Scrofulous  diseases,  inheritance  of,  3S. 
Sea-otter,  397,  398;  notes,  395. 
Sea-wolves,  399. 
Seal,  398,  .390 ;  notes,  404. 
Sealskins,  Alaska,  note,  395. 
Searclilight,  504. 
Sebaslapooi  goose,  576. 
Sebright  Cochin  fowls,  564. 
Sebright  fowls,  569. 
Sebum,  23. 

Second  Puke  of  Athol,  372. 
S»^lawi  Arabs,  448. 

Selection,    as    applied    to    animal-breeding,    35,    38; 
methodical.  35;  natural,  35,  39. 


Soiling;  stock,  160. 
Senccio  Jacobea,  127. 


Separating  milk,  198. 

Separators,  centrifugal.  190. 

Septicemia,  124,  125;  hemorrhagica,  132. 

Serradella,  composition,  96;  digeatibility,  98. 

Scrvin,  Mrs.  S.  A.  F.,  quoted,  343. 

Settcre,  514. 

Sewell,  B.  D..  quoted,  630. 

Sex  control,  532;  controlling,  of  offspring,  40,  41. 

Shad   gizzard,  392. 

Shadmes,  263. 

Shafor,  W.  A.,  quoted,  409,  625. 

Shafor  and  Clawson  quotcHl,  375. 

Shakers,  Society  of,  quoted,  673. 

Shaler  quote«l,  9. 

Shales,  500,  501,  502. 

ShaloH  (699),  466,  467. 

Sharter  quoted,  370, 

Shavings  as  insulating  material,  235,  237,  239. 

Shaw  (luoted,  677, 

Shaw   K.  L.,  articles  by,  405,  631,  632. 

Shawl  goat,  405. 

Sheep,  592-<)33;  a^e  to  breed,  30;  wlments,  603-609; 
amount  of  blood  in  body,  21 ;  branding,  151 ;  carcasses, 
shipping,  260;  composition  of  body,  59  80;  cost  of 
producing,  13;  determining  age,  603;  development, 
275;  digestibility  notes,  61;  diseases,  122-146;  dis- 
tribution, 11;  dressing,  252;  dry  matter  per  day  for, 
13;  farming,  592-696;  feeding,  600-603;  feeding 
standards,  107,  108;  fitting  and  exhibiting,, 153-1.58; 
increase  in  number,  9  10;  insi>ection,  161 ;  mainten- 
ance  refjuirements,  78;  marketing,  158-162;  nature 
of  Htoniach,  18;  notes,  582;  number  in  relation  to 
Kize  of  farm,  12;  ijclt,  shipping,  261;  period  of  ges- 
tation, 31;  i>cri(>d  of  heat,  30;  poisoning,  120,  121; 
pniiificucy,  13;  proteid  requiremenU,8I ;  puberty,  30; 
\>u\m;  21,  430;  respiration,  21,  4.37;  tem[>eratnre  in, 
21,436;  ty|)cs,  51-53;  value,  10;  wild,  590;  wool- 
prcxhiciion,  10. 

Sho<'ii-<)og.  Old  English  Bobtail,  380-388;  note,  383; 
trials,  ;i88,  389. 

Shoop-tKix,  inoculating  for  immunity,  145. 

Sheepsliea.!,  3!»2. 

Slieci.!iw(K.I,  043. 

Shell-ri.-«li,  2,  634-640. 

Shelter  of  animulH  for  moat- production,  83. 

She[>hcrd  l\  Knapp.  No.  282,  466. 

ShepiierdH'  Pride  '->.  615. 

Sherbet,  19.5. 


704 


INDEX 


Shennan,  503,  S06. 

Sherringham  window,  147. 

Shetland  pony,  484—186;  notes,  34,  35. 

Shetland  Pony  Studbook  Society  quoted,  485. 

Shetland  aheep,  597,  631. 

Shipment,  preparing  cattle  for,  151. 

Shipping  fever,  144. 

Shipping  meat  and  liides,  260.  261. 

Shire  horse,  493,  494;  notes,  274. 

Shire  Horse  Society  quoted,  466. 

Shoat,  647. 

Shoeing  horses,  149. 

Short  two-year-olds,  fattening,  319,  320. 

Shorthorn  cattle,  369-376;  milk,  percentage  of  butter- 
fat  in,  177;  note,  34,  303;  oxen,  366;  period  of  ges- 
tation, 31. 

Shorts,  73;  composition,  93;  for  calves,  313;  for  heifers, 
314;  for  horaes,  431,  432;  for  show  animals,  153. 

Shote,  647. 

Show-ring  rules  and  methods,  157. 

Shrews,  168. 

Shrimp,  640. 

Shrirron'a  cord,  150. 

Shropshire  Down  sheep,  626,  627;  notes,  31,  38,  152. 

Siamese  cat,  300. 

Siamese  Fireback  pheasant,  581. 

Siamese  swine,  679;  note,  658. 

Sierra  cheese,  226. 

Sidney,  478. 

Sidney  quoted,  669. 

Sidney  Dillon,  478. 

Siebold,  Prof.  Von,  quoted,  278. 

Sigmodon  hispidus,  166. 

Signal  Jerseys,  364. 

Silage,  beef  cattle,  318-321;  for  cows,  316;  for  dairy 
heifer,  314;  for  show  animals,  15;  notes,  151,306, 
307,  308;  poisoning  of  stock,  119;  productjoa  value, 
67;  summer,  315. 

Silesian  Merino  sheep,  620. 

Silk  notes,  S. 

Silkies,  569. 

Silkworm,  640-643. 

Klsby  quoted,  372. 

Silver,  L.  B.,  quoted,  662. 

aiver-bill,  524. 

Silver  fox,  401. 

Silver-grey  rabbit,  519. 

Silver  pheasant,  581. 

Silver-spangled  Lizard  canary,  522. 

Silvertail,  501,  502. 

Simmenthal  cattle,  381 ;  oxen,  366. 

Simpson,  George,  quoted,  373. 

Simpson,  John,  quoted,  373. 

Sinclair,  Sir  John,  quoted,  610. 

Single-foot  gait,  423,  492. 

Single-Standard  Polled  Durham  cattle,  375, 

Single  Yellow-headed  parrot,  524. 

Sir  Archy,  498. 

Sir  Lucifer,  387. 

Sir  Teddy,  481,  482. 

Sisson,  L.  P.,  article  by,  339. 

Sketchlev,  Dr.,  quoted,  511. 

Skimmed  cheese,  218. 

Skimmed  milk,  composition,  96;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fertilizing  constituents,  102,  111;  for  calves,  308, 
313,  319;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equating  value, 
105. 

Ski  mmed-m  ilk- powder,  194. 

Skimming  stationa,  226-232;  note,  174. 

Skin  of  animals,  nature  and  function,  23;  treatment  of 
show  animals,  154. 

Skinning  cattle,  251. 

Skunks,  noti-s,  164,  165,  166,  168,  396;  farming,  404; 
skins,  402. 

Skye  terrier  516. 

Skylark,  523. 

Slugs,  634. 

Small  Black  swine,  676;  White  awine,  674,  675;  York- 
shire Mwine,  674,  675. 

Smallpox  immunity,  145. 

Smetanka,  451,  474. 

Smith  quoted,  21,  133,  141    184,  370. 

Smith,  Howard  It.,  article  by.  317. 


Smith,  M.,  quoted,  17. 

Smith,  Samuel,  quoted,  372. 

Smith,  T.,  quoted,  140. 

Smoked  meat,  canned,  262. 

Smoking  meats,  257,  258. 

Smooth  cavy,  520. 

Smuggler,  476. 

Snafme-bit,  422,  423. 

Snails,  634. 

Snakes,  notes,  167,  173. 

Snapping  turtles,  68t,  682. 

Soeeze-wced,  121. 

Snow  geese,  575. 

Snowball  (Fig.  505),  517. 

Snowbird,  note,  170. 

Snowdon  quoted,  370. 

Snowflake,  note,  170. 

SnufHes,  415,  656. 

Soap-making,  259. 

Soap,  poisoning  of  stock,  118. 

Sobemheim  quoted,  130. 

Scemmerrings  pheasant,  581. 

Soft  cheeses,  219-226. 

Soiling,  315. 

Sole-leather,  271. 

Song  thrush,  523. 

Sonnerati  jungle-fowl,  582. 

Soola  clover  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Sore  throat  of  horses,  440;  tongue,  32.'S 

Sorghum,  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  oonstituenta 
101;  fresh,  digestibility,  98.  Bagasse:  compontion, 
96;  di^tibility,  98.  Fodder:  composition,  94; 
digestibility,  98;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein -equating 
factor  104.  Hay:  for  beef  cattle,  319:  for  dairy  cows, 
316.  Seed:  composition,  93;  di^tible  nutrienta  ana 
fertiliiing  constituents,  100.  Silage:  com  portion,  95; 
digestibiUty,  99;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertUiainc 
constituents,  102;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equat- 
ing factor,  104. 

Sorghum-poisoning  of  stock,  119. 

Sorrel  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Sotham,  W.  H.,  quoted,  612. 

Sour  milk,  digestibility,  99. 

Sourwood  as  noney-plant,  285. 

Souse,  256. 

South  sea  seal,  399. 

Southdown  sheep,  627-629;  period  of  gortation,  31. 

Southport  Perfection.  384. 

Sovereign  181,  458. 

Sow,  647;  fecundity,  33;  milk,  composition,  96;  Dote, 
176;  period  of  gestation,  31, 

Soxhlet^s  method  of  testing  milk,  178. 

Soybean,  composition,  93 ;  digestible  nutrients  and  fer- 
tilizing constituents,  101;  feeding  value,  72;  nutritive 
ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  104.  Uay:  com- 
position, 95;  digestibility,  98,  99;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fertilizing  constituetits,  101,  102;  fresh,  95 
nutritive  ratio  and  protein-eouating  value,  105 
production  value,  67.  Meal:  digestibility,  97 
nutritive  ratio  and  protein -equating  value,  105 
Silage:  composition,  95;  digestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  constituents,  102.  Straw:  composition,  95; 
digestibility,  98;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  102;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-equat- 
ing value,  105. 

Spaniels,  514,  515. 

Spanish-flv  blisters,  23. 

Spanish-ifaiteao  goat,  409. 

Sparrow,  170,  171,;  pet  524. 

Spartina  juncca,  98;  »tricta,  var.  glabra,  98. 

Spasm  of  the  diaphragm,  656. 

Spavin,  445;  inheritance  of,  38. 

Spaying,  150. 

Special  Delight  (Fig.  462),  453. 

Specific  infectious  diseaitea,  124,  126,  127. 

Speed  horses,  420. 

Spencer  quoted,  37,  39. 

Spcrmatoxobn,  nature  and  function,  29. 

Spermophiles,  164. 

Spiea3(413),  381. 

Spinach,  composition  and  fuel-value,  264. 

Spitz  dog,  517. 

Splcndens,  364. 


INDEX 


705 


splint,  446:  inheritanrr.  3S. 

Hpotipti,  643.  644 :  notw,  392,  393. 

Spongia  Dioiwipina,  643. 

Spoon-bill  iPalt/odiiii),  392. 

Srx'radic  aphtha>,  325. 

S|v^t^  521. 

S|H(tt«yl  livrr,  135. 

Spottwl  Raw-  rattle,  381. 

S|>rn([iie,  Elizabt-th,  qiiottti,  ^2^Vi. 

Spraying  soliition.><  iwisonmis  to  ciittlr,   US. 

Spnr-winged  gocso,  576. 

Simrry,  comp<>Bition,  96;  digestible  nutrients  and  fcr- 

tilJKiiin  conHtitiicnts  of,  11)2.  * 

Sciiiahs,  .W2-584;  brt.ilors,  .'■.44. 
S.,iiid,  634. 
Stpiirrpls,  ItM:  Hyiiip.  n<»t<«,  33;  notcB,  173'  iK-riiMl  of 

ftnstation.  31  :  iVt,  520;  protection,  397:  skin.",  notes, 

4(W. 
St.  .^iKlrra-sliurK  rntinry,  522, 
St,  ]t<>rnar(l  il'>(t,  516. 
8i.  riair,  476,  .5)13. 
St,  Ilclpna  wav.bill,  524. 
St.  .lulien,  506, 
St,  Lambert  .Irreevs.  3(54. 
St.  Lawrcnre,  4761  503, 
St,  l.eeer,  498. 

St.  Quintiii,  Sir  William,  quoted,  370. 
Stable,  eonstriietion  and  management,  147. 
Stabling  dair>-  stock,  307;  of  show  animals,  155. 
Stag  defined,' 149. 
Staggers,  605. 
Stailion,  feeding,  431. 
Stalls  for  show  animals,  156. 
Statitbonl,  505, 
Standard  milk,  186. 
Standardbred  pacing  liorse,  476-478. 
Standardbrcd  trotting  horse,  500-507;  note,  46»(,  468. 
Standardizml  milk,  186. 
Standards,  feeding,  107. 
Star  Pointer,  477. 
Starch,  as,  59,  75;  notes,  17.    Feed,  75;  eoni]M)sition, 

02,    Refiine:  digestible  nntrientif  and  fertilizing  con- 

.xtituentH.  100.  Test,  for  boiled  milk,  180, 
Starling.  523. 

Starter,  artificial,  200.  207,  210. 
Steam,  for  dairy-house  purposes,  200. 
Steam-eooker,  269. 
Steaifflin,  20. 
Stebler  quoted,  409,  411. 
Steeplc-cl lasers,  470, 
Steer,  defined,  149. 
StcneluH  nigricollis,  586, 
Stephenson  quoted,  370. 
Stepping-pace.  492. 
Stevenson  mare  43,  490, 
Stickleback,  392. 
Stilton  cheese,  223;  notes,  220. 
Stirred-curd  cheese,  218, 
Stoat,  400, 
Stock,    branding   and    marking,    151 ;   care   of    voung, 

.305,   306;   feeding,   58-118;  nmnagenieni,    140-151; 

marketing,  158-162. 
St.)ck-car>i,  158,  159. 
Stock-|K>iaoning,  118-122. 
Stock-yards,  rare  of  market  stuck  at,  IIH). 
Stocking,  W.  .\.,  Jr.,  article  by,  187. 
Stomach-worm  diwa-'ie,  603. 
Stone,  Frederick  William,  ipioted,  373. 
Stone,  ,Iohn  L.,  article  by,  106. 
Stone,  Livingston,  luioted,  390. 
Stone.  R.  J.,  iinolcd,  025. 
Storage  of  meat,  258. 
Storru  Agricultural  Kxixriniciit  Stalioa  quot(.>l,  222, 

359. 
Stracathro  Ralph,  .384. 
Strangles,  123,  128,  442. 
Strathinore  (408j,  .502,  5t>.'>. 
Straw,  available  energy  in,  66;  digestibility,  note's,  01; 

factors  affecting  feci^ing  value,  71 ;  for  ft^etlitig  dairy 

cattle,  316;  for  horses,  430;  notes,   II;  pnxliiction, 

value,  67, 
Strawberrv  tribe  of  .Shorthorns,  371. 
Htreeter,  Si,  U.,  quute<i,  630. 

C45 


Strpptococci,  disca-fps  caused  by,  128.  129. 

StreptococcuB  ec]ui,  12S;  tna.slitis,  12!'. 

Stringy  milk,  188. 

Strongylus  contortus,  603;  filaria,  606;  ovis-pulnfionalis, 
606;*paradoxiis,  655, 

Strntliers  quiited,  37. 

Struthi.s  .\ustralis,  ,511 ;  Camelus,  511. 

Strychnine  for  pests,  164. 

Siubbn  it  Sons,  1),  P..  quoted,  452. 

Stum|>-the-dealer,  490. 

Sturdy.  605. 

Stiirt<'\nril,  v..  Lewis,  ipioltil,  300. 

Stiivvesiint   llieorv  of  sc\  control,  40. 

Succulent  feeils.  ^i,  310. 

Succus  entcricus,  19. 

Sucker.  392. 

Siidbourn  Count  (3257)  (Fig.  4!)0\  -I'.Ci. 

Siiel  for  bin  Is,  173. 

Suffolk  Pown  Sheep,  629,  (i.m 

Suffolk  or  Suffolk  Punch  hortic,  494-4'.HJ. 

Suffolk  Red  Polled  cattle.  369, 

Suffolk  .Studhook,  quoted  49.'». 

Suffolk  swiiie.  075,  676;  note.  66tl. 

Sugar,  58,  59;  feeding  to  show  animals.  153;  as  nieat 
preservative.  2.'>4;  notcf,  17.  Feed,  75;  composition, 
92.  Meal:  digestllsle  nutrients  and  fertilizing  const i- 
Uients.  100. 

Sugar,  milk,  177. 

Sugar-beets,  composition,  95;  digestible  nutrients  and 
fertilizing  cnnstituentSj  102,  110;  digestibility,  99; 
feciiing  value,  72;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein-etiuat- 
ing  value,  105.  Leaves:  com|>osition,  96;  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  102,  116;  nutri- 
tive ratio  and  protein-equating  value,  105.  Puli>: 
digestible  nutrients  in  stated  amounts,  116;  nutri- 
tive ratio  and  protrin-ecjuating  value,  105. 

Sugar-cane  as  honey-plant,  286. 

Sugar-cured  ba<'on.  2.56;  ham,  256. 

Sulfate  of  aluminum  for  poisoning,  120;  of  irou,  uoUw, 
106;  of  soda,  notes,  106. 
.   Sulfur,  notes,  106. 

Sultan,  5t)5. 

Sultana  of  Pa.\tang  8732  (Fig.  375),  350. 

Sultans,  569, 

Sumatra  |x>ny,  489. 

Summer  silage,  315. 

Sunflower  sccil,  comiKisition,  93;  digestible  nutrients 
and  rertilJEidgconstituents,  101 ;  forbirds,  173.  (^ake: 
comiMinltion,  93;  digestible  nutrients  and  fcrtiliKiug 
const  itticn  Is,  101. 

Simol.  .504. 

Snperfecnndalioii.  31. 

Snj>erfa'tation,  31. 

Surface,  II.  A.,  <|uotoil,  172. 

Surra,  140,  290. 

Surti  buffalo.  294. 

Sum  cri  Stat  us,  040;  Indicus,  640;  srrofa,  614,  646. 

Susette,  490. 

Sus,sdorf  quoted,  21, 

Sussex  cattle,  376,  .377;  note,  303;  o\en,  366. 


Sussex  shue^i,  615. 
SussesJ  spaniel,  515. 
Sutton,  Sanuicl,  (iiioteil,  627. 
Suworow  (626),  SVl, 


Swallow,  170,  171.  173. 

Swallow  pigeon,  521. 

.Swallowiiic,  17. 

SwamTnerdain,  Jan,  quoted,  278. 

Swamp  ramas,  121, 

Swuinp-hay  as  insulating  material,  23.5;  digeslilili-  nu- 
trients and  fertilizing  constituent,-*,  101 ;  digestibility, 
98. 

Swiin,  .WS,  .586. 

Swanwick  <iuoted,  Oil. 

Sweating  in  animals,  23. 

Sweci>stakes  l>2.'if),  372. 

.Sweet  clover  us  honey-plant,  285,  280, 

Sw<-et  corn,  digestiljl'e  nutrients  and  fertiliiing  consti- 
tuents, IIM);  digestibililv,  97.  Silage:  digestibility, 
99. 

Swti-I  Marie,  .'Hll. 

.Sweet-oil.  use  on  show  uuiinals,  1.54,  15.>. 

.Sw'eet-|>utulo,  comimsition,  9.5. 


706 


INDEX 


Swelled  head,  of  horsee,  438. 

Swift,  171. 

Swine,  644-681;  aec  to  breed.  30;  ailments,  653-6S7; 
amount  of  blood  in  body,  21;  branding,  151;  com- 
position of  body,  59,  iiO;  cost  of  producing,  13; 
determining  age,  653;  development,  275;  diseases, 
122-146;  notes,  123;  drv  matt«r  per  day  for,  13; 
crvsipelaa,  133;  feeding,  649-653;  feeding 'standards, 
idS;  notes,  82;  fitting  and  exhibiting,  153-158;  in- 
creiu<e  in  number,  9,  10;  inspection,  161 ;  maintenance 
requirements,  78;  marketing,  158-162;  number  in 
relation  to  size  of  farm,  12;  origin,  646,  647;  period 
of  heat,  30;  plague,  133;  poisoning  by  cottonseed 
meal,  119;  prolificacy  of,  13;  proteid  requirements, 
81;  puberty,  30;  temperature,  21;  tuberculosis,  135; 
tv|H^,  54,  55;  value,  10;  value  of  grinding  grain  for, 
69. 

Swinliue's  phco-iant,  5S2. 

Swiss  cliPi^se,  21S. 

Sylvia,  373. 

Syracuse  Farmers'  Club  quoted,  182. 

Tabcr,  G.  V.,  quotwl.  36S. 

Tabes,  133. 

Tacitus  quoted.  331,  357. 

Taenia  cffnurie,  605;  cxpausa,  l>04;  fimbriata,  604. 

Twnts  in  milk,  86. 

Takosia,  129. 

Talabda  buffalo,  uac,  295. 

Talking  minor,  523. 

Tallow,  rendering,  259. 

Tamworth  swine,  676,  677;  notrs,  644,  645. 

Tan  rabbit,  519. 

Tankage  for  show  animals,  153;  note,  174. 

Tanning  hides,  271. 

Tapeworms,  604;  in  dogs,  380. 

Tarpan,  419. 

Tattersali,  492. 

Tattler,  506. 

Taurocholate  of  soila,  19, 

Taurocholic  acid,  19. 

Tea-bone  porterhouse  steak,  200. 

Teak  as  honcv-plant,  286. 

Teats,  chapped,  323. 

Tceswater  cattle,  369;  notew,  335. 

T(«swater  slieep,  616;  note,  617. 

Telegonv,  41. 

Telfor,  W.  B.,  quoted,  373. 

Teller,  Senator,  quoteil,  589. 

Temperature  of  animals,  21,  430;  (if  animal  l>ody  in 
relation  to  feeding,  77;  in  relation  U)  un':i I- produc- 
tion, 82:  in  relation  to  niilk-prodiictiun,  84. 

Terrapin,  681. 

Terrierw,  515. 

'1'es.firr  quoted,  31. 

Tetanus,  138;  ininiunitv,  145;  nconuturuni,  13.S;  note, 
150. 

Texas  fever,  HI ;  inoculating  for  imniunity,  145;  notes, 
123, 

Texas  Longhoni  cattle  38),  382. 

Tcxa-s  stciT,  381 . 

Thaer  quoted,  57. 

Thayer,  A.,  quitted,  613. 

The  .\bbot,  504. 

The  Moor.  492.  .505. 

"The  Original, ''  460. 

TliennomettT,  ovun,  207. 

Thin  Kind  .iwiiie,  667-069. 

Thistles  as  honev-plant.s.  '2Sr>. 

Thoni,  Charles,  articles  by,  21S,  S'O. 

Thompson  quoted,  3711. 

Th'^upsoii,  (1.  v.,  quotcil,  4011. 

Thoinpson,  Joseph  S.,  iiuoteil,  373. 

Thorne,  Samuel,  qmiieil,  373. 

'rhi)roughtired  horse,  490-5'Kl;  hi-reditv  in,  36;  nolo.s, 
420,  450,  45!,  4.'i4,  468,  469,  4711,  17.".,  489,  490,  501; 
ty[M',  40,  47;  for  imiIo  (mnies,  4S2,  4.S3. 

Tlirendwonns  in  dofrs,  IlSfi. 

■Minifsh,  170,  171  ;  song.  523. 

Tliunips  in  liorsos,  440;  i^i  riwine,  656. 

Tick,  sheep,  607, 

Tiger,  notes,  35. 

Tigerstcdt  (|Uolcd,  264. 


Timothy,  composition,  94;  digestible  nutrients  an 
fertilising  constituents,  101,  110:  digestibility,  97,  * 
for  dfUTV  cows,  316 ;  for  horses,  428—4.32 ;  fuel  and  main 
tenance  values,  66;  notes,  69,  71,  76;  nutritive  rati 
and  protein-equating  factor,  104 ;  production  valu 

Timothv  and  clover  hay,  98.  [63 

Tippler'pigeon,  521,  522. 

Tit  Bits  (Fig.  483),  486. 

Ti-to  as  honey-plant,  285. 

Titmice,  170. 

Toda  buffalo,  294. 

Todd,  Isaac,  quoted,  662. 

Todd.  8.  H,,  quotetl,  662. 

Todd's  Improved  Chester- White  swine,  662. 

Toggcnburg  milch  goat,  409. 

Tokishigc  quoted,  139. 

Tom  Hal,  476,  477,  490. 

Tome  de  ch(^vre,  411. 

Tomhave,  W.  H.,  article  by,  200. 

Tongue,  canneil,  262. 

Tonic  f«H.dM,  106,  153. 

Toofv,  Mr.,  quoted,  616.  , 

Topgallant,  502. 

Tormentor  Jersej-s,  364. 

Torquatus  pheasant,  581 . 

Torrance,  A.  H.,  quoted,  612. 

Tortoise,  681. 

Toulouse  geese,  573. 

Townsend,  Capt.  Chas.  H.,  quoted,  638. 

Toxemia,  124. 

Toxins,  124. 

Tragopan  pheasant,  580. 

Training  horses,  424-428;  show  slock,  135. 

Trakehner  horse.  451,  463. 

Transportation  of  show  stock,  156;  of  market  !<tock 
158. 

Traumatic  pericarditis,  327;  notes,  18;  tetanus,  138. 

Triffitt,  Philip,  quoted,  467. 

Trionvx  Japonicus,  682. 

Trojan,  506. 

Troopial.  523. 

Trot,  423,  424,  427,  491;  fox,  427. 

Trotter,  feeding,  430. 

Trotting,  energy  required  for,  87,  88. 

Trotting  and  pacing  horse.  .American  Standardbrci 
500-507;  notes,  36.  38;  tyi»e,  40,  47. 

Trotting  Register,  American,  503. 

Trout,  brook,  392. 

Truckle  cheese.  218. 

True  Briton,  505. 

Trueman,  J.  M.,  article  by,  303. 

Trumpeter  pigeon,  .522. 

Trumpeter  swan,  5S0. 

Trustee,  467. 

Trvpanosoma  wjuinuiu.  140;  Kvausi,  140. 

Tryiwin,  20. 

Tsi'ls^-fly  disease,  140. 

Tuberculin  test,  136. 

Tuberculosis.  133-130;  cITi-et  ou  meat,  note.  24S 
genns  in  milk,  18K;  notes,  123,  181,  182;  qiiarautjnr 
notes,  102. 

Tubers,  factors  affecting  feeding  value,  71. 

Tulip-tree  as  lioney-plant,  285. 

Tumbler  pigeon,  521. 

Tunpnse  deer,  5SK,  589. 

Tuni.s  .sheep,  033,  notes,  599. 

Tu[x>lo  as  lioney-plant,  285. 

Ttirhit  (ligeoii,  521 . 

Tiircomaii,  451 , 

Turk  liorse,  451  ;  note,  497, 

Turkey,  2,  50.>.  .WO,  5S7;  canneil.  263;  feeding,  ■>('>; 
|H'ri(id  of  incuhation,  31  ;  statistics,  527. 

Turnip,  coin  posit  ion,  95;  digestible  nutrients  and  hr- 
(iliiiing  eiinstituents.  102,  lit);  digestibility.!*^*;  fivil- 
ing  value,  71;  nutritive  ratio  and  prolein-equatiiiR 
value,  105;  |>roduction  value,  07;  tainting  nnik.  Mi. 

Turn-sick,  00.'). 

Turtles  and  turtle-fanning.  2.  081,  GS2. 

Twin  Brother  to  Ben  (000),  371. 

Twynhani,  John  T.,  quoU\l,  025. 

Ty|>e,  defined.  421. 

Tvjihoid  fever  germs  in  milk,  182,  1S8. 

Typhoid  fowl,  131, 


INDEX 


707 


Udder,  310. 

Ulcer,  125. 

Unadilta  Vallev  Breeders'  Asaociation  quoted,  357. 

Ungulata,  163." 

United  States  Department  of  Agriciiltwre  qtiotetl,  10, 

222,  224,  264^  269,  645. 
United  States  War  Department  quoted,  471,  • 
University  of  Miisouri  quoted,  44. 
Unripenetl  Inigny  cheese,  225. 
Urea,  22. 
Uric  acid,  22. 
Urine,  22,  26. 

Ursus,  Americanufl  402;  hornhiliii,  402;  moritimufl,  402. 
Urticaria,  437;  awine,  133. 
Urton,  Captain,  quoted,  501, 
UruB,  1,  302. 
Useful  Cub,  501,502. 

Utah  Agrieultural  Experiment  Station  quoteti,  420. 
UteneilB,  care  of  dairy,  182,  206. 
Uterua,  character  and  function,  20. 
Uwharie,  476. 

Vaccinating  animals,  145. 

Valaisan  goat.  Black-necked,  410. 

Van  Hoorebeke,  Dr.  A,  G.,  quoted,  452, 

Van  Home,  Sir  William,  quoted,  34'i. 

Van  Meter's  Waxv,  490. 

Van  Norman,  IT.  E.,  article  by,  105. 

Van  Raub,  B.  H.,  quoted,  409, 

Viin  Slyke's  recipe  for  \'i8cogen,  185;  test  for  boric  acid 
in  milk,  179;  for  coal-tar  dyes,  18(1. 

Variation,  causes  of,  in  animals,  34,  35. 

Variety  in  the  ration,  106. 

Variola  in  animals,  145. 

Vamish-tree  as  honev-plant,  285. 

Veal,  251;  composition  and  fiiel-value,  264,  289;  char- 
acteristics of  good,  265;  cutting,  254;  storing,  258; 
shipping,  260. 

Veldlarker  cattle,  341. 

Ventilation  of  stables,  147,  182. 

Venus  mcrcenaria,  634. 

Vergil  quoted,  278. 

\'erminaii9  bronchitis,  655. 

Vermont  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  quoted, 
506 

Vermont  Black  Hawk,  490. 

Vermont  Hero,  506, 

Vermont  horse-breeding  experiments,  274,  275. 

Vermont  Morgan,  5U6. 

Veraicolor  pheasant,  581. 

Vetch  hay,  comiKjsili<Mi,  95;  digestibility,  98;  note,  71. 

Victor-Heall  Delaine  Mfrinn  aliei-p,  022. 

Victor  Jerscvs,  364. 

Victoria  20tfi.,  372. 

Victoria  swine,  678,  679. 

Villemin  quoted.  134. 

Villiot's  Fircback  pheasant,  581. 

Violet  4th.,  373. 

Vireo,  170,  173. 

Virginia  nightingale,  523;  redUrd,  523. 

Viscogen,  185. 

Voles,  166. 

Volunteer,  505, 

Volunteer  quoted,  ■'>04,  505. 

Vomiting,  19. 

Von  Behring  quoted,  136. 

Von  Homever,  Baron  !•',,  quoted,  624, 

Von  Hrusclika  Major,  quotol,  2.S4. 

Von  Ihering,  quoted  2i». 

Von  Planta,  Dr.,  quoted,  279.  281. 

Von  Vinke  quote<l,  620. 

Vulcan  (4145),  493. 

Vutpes  argentatus,  401;  decussatiis,  401;  fulvus,  401. 

Vulturine  guinea,  578. 

Waile,  William,  quoted,  387. 

Waislell  quilted,  371). 

Walcott  and  Campbell  quoted,  .373. 

Walk,  423,  424,  427. 

Walkcr-Oordon  Laboratoi^  Company  quoted,  175. 

Walking,  energy  required  for,  87,  88, 

Wall  Street  Journal  quoted,  247. 

Wallace  quoted,  293,  275,  370,  453,  466. 


Wallace,  .lohn  Henrv,  quoted,  503,  507. 

Wallace's  Monthly,  "503,  .W7. 

Walnut,  composition  and  fertiliiing  constituents,  264. 

Wapiti,  2. 

Wapsie,  505. 

Warbler,  170. 

Ward  quoted,  131,  142. 

Ward,  Archibald,  quoted,  468. 

Warder,  Dr.,  quoted,  281. 

Warficid,  Benjamin,  quoted,  372. 

Warfield,  William,  quoted,  372. 

Warren  county  hog,  673. 

Warthog,  646. 

Warts,  327. 

Washburn  quoted,  129,  137. 

Washington,  George,  quoted,  276,  490,  508,  616, 

Water-1^,  18,  19. 

Water,  for  animals,  147;  effect  on  health  of  cows,  182; 
function  in  animal  Ixxly,  ■58;  percentage  in  food- 
stuffs, 58;  proportion  in  milk,  177. 

Water-buffalo,  292-296, 

Water-fowl  feeding,  536,  537. 

Watcr-gla.*<3  for  preserving  eggs,  540. 

Water  hemlock,  120. 

Water-ice,  195. 

Water  spaniel,  514. 

Water-supply  for  animals  for  meat-production,  S3; 
for  dairy-house,  205;  for  milk-production,  84. 

Watering  fiorses,  proper  time,  18,  428,  429. 

Watson,  Hugh,  quoted,  331,  370, 

Watt  quoted,  293. 

Watts,  Dr.  Arthur,  quoted,  372. 

Waxbill,  524. 

Wayne,  Maj.  Henrv  C,  quoted,  297,  298. 

Weasels,  168;  notes,  165,  166,  167;  white,  400. 

Webb,  Jonas,  quoted,  615,  628. 

Webb,  Seward,  quoted,  467. 

Webster,  Daniel,  quoted,  665. 

Webster,  Edwin  H.,  article  by,  198. 

Weed,  Clarence  M.,  article  by,  103. 

Weeds,  poisonous,  eradication,  119-122. 

Weismann  quoted,  39,  40. 

Weld  quoted,  480, 

Wellsbourne  Conqueror,  384. 

Welsh  cattle.  Black,  377,  378. 

Welsh  Mountain  sheep,  631. 

Welsh  ponv,  485. 

Welsh  terrier,  510. 

Wensleydale  cheese,  220. 

Wensleydalc  sIuh^),  63^!. 

West-Countrv  Down  sheep,  61.'i. 

West  llighlahd  cattle,  382. 

Western  goose,  576. 

Western,  Lord,  quoted.  660 

Wether  defined,  149. 

Wetherell  quoted,  370. 

Wheat,  composition,  92;  digestible  nutrients  and  fei^ 
tilizing  constituents,  100,  112;  feeding  value,  72; 
for  show  animals,  153;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein- 
equating  value,  105;  production  value,  67.  Bran:  73, 
74;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents, 
100,  113;  digestibility,  96,  99;  nutritive  ratio  and 
protein-equating  value,  Ui5;  production  value,  67. 
Chaff:  as  insulating  material,  23.'">,  239;  composition, 
95;  digestible  nutnents  and  fertilizinj;  constituents, 
101;  digest! biiitv,  98.  Flour:  composition  and  fer- 
tilizing constituents,  264.  MiddUngs:  digestible 
nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents,  1(KI,  113: 
digestibility,  96;  for  calves,  313;  nutritive  ratio  and 
protein -equating  value,  10.5.  Screenings:  compo- 
sition, 93;  digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constitu- 
ents, lOtl.  Shorts:  dij^estibie  nutrients  and  fertilizing 
constituents,  10<>;  digestibility,  iW;  nutritive  ratio 
and  protein-equating  value,  105.  Straw:  as  insulating 
material,  235;  couqiosition,  95;  digestible  nutrients 
and  fertilizing  constituents,  101,  112;  digestibility, 
98;  feeding  value,  71 ;  for  dairy  rattle,  316;  nutritive 
ratio  and  protein -equating  value,  105;  production 
value,  67. 

Whev,  composition,  96;  digestible  nutrients  and  fer- 
tiliziiijg  constituents,  102;  nutritive  ratio  and  protein- 
eciuatiiig  ^'alue,  105. 

Wild  (Catmdian)  gccsc,  574. 


miiiiitg,  1..  I...  i|u<ii«i,  11^1, 
"WliitinK,  Thomas  K..  niiol<^,  3.'7 
WhiitaW.  Mr,  quotpil,  fiW. 
Whvt<-.  Vtr.  uurtUti,  48a. 
WickiifTf.  KoiMTt.  (iiuilcst,  2W1. 
Wilcli-iBraw-.  iliiif<til>Uilv,  118. 

Wilcox  inloI.ll.  4m. 

WilwK.  E.  v.,  arlalf  l.v,  1 1'l. 

Wild  life  fttwl  it«  rfhitii.n  i.i  farmlnf:,  lfi3-173. 

K'ild-nat  gTAA*.  <^inp(Mtilir>H,  94;  lil^mtihillly,  9H. 

Wild  parsnip,  120. 

WiWcai.  4(«;  nolo,  Ifl;. 

WiUUni'l  Itiiwlrm-iirhv,  \:f2. 

Wilkc«lM-rrv.  'ITS. 

Willanl.    iii«  r»ilvfr  anil  Willnnl.) 

Williirij.  J.  T..  anidp  by.  (at. 

Wdiiiiiii-.,  .Ic!-*f,  quoiMt,  aift. 

Willinin*.  R«muH,  i|il.»t<Nl.  ;t72. 

W'Llliiiiglihv  qiinlctl    r,-2H.  ^2\. 

Wilson.  11.'  U  .  *iiior.xi.  :U:i. 

Wilson,  ,Iiuii(?<.  arlirip  by,  274:  (jtinttMl,  1411,  5il. 

WdMiiii.  Pnifi'.-.-nr,  i|t;uli>il,  tSJ7,  0-I3 

Wilt^liinn-litiwi-,  218. 

Wi)t«liire-hiirH«d  slicep.  6H. 

Willaliirt?  itiai-.  rinlp.  ««»,  BOS, 

Wing.  H.  H  .  «rlicl.-«  by,  3)111,  321.  4,^^,  fUO.  IkVI. 

Wind.  .I<i«lil>  i;.,  artirlf-  Itv.  <ll^i. 

WingliH-!.  Itnlaixl.  (iiin1«<H,  3T;t. 

Winiiotka  rhrictoplicr,  3S4. 

WitiH-rinR  iilU'  Uornca,  43<>. 

Winilini))  .Mcinrill,  AtHi. 

Wiiitiiji  liiwjux.'  of  lln-  tiurw,  I'iT. 

Wirt-hairi'il  t'-ix  ti-rriiT.  AI5. 

Wim-'ijii'iit    A^U-ultiirul     Kxprrimifnt    StutioTi    ((iinlt^l, 

i:j,  .V,«l. 
Wi*hnw  Clinker,  384. 

Wiilf.  Ifi7.  4112;  ni^tr  31 ;  wnlf-dnjt  hvliHil,  SlOS. 
Wolf-in-Uif^Uil.  19,  33(). 

Woirr  (juotcd.  TS.  7f1,  MS,  8i>;  slnitdnnl,  85.  U7,  314. 
WtillT-Lpluuaiin  slaudnnl,  S5, 
WoIfiiuunJ,  5Ui. 
Woll,  F.  W..  Mlieir  by.  313. 
Wolvpriniv  an?. 
Wood  <liick.  173,  C7I. 
Wood  lu-k,  5-j:j. 

Woodburrt  ht-nl  of  Rhoriitonui,  373. 
WiMirllmm  pilrii,  ftW. 
WiKwIbun-,  »);t.  iVXl. 
W.xKiflmik,  104,  105. 
Wi"j^ltui-k,  170. 
Woodrn  lonRUP,  I5H. 
Woodford  Sbuubriuo,  502. 


rvrvil,  I  (II,  I  **. 

Wrighl  quolMi.  370. 

Wrifilit.  J.,  quulftl,  42. 

Wnictit,  llMnnius  nrliclv  bv.  JSS3. 

W>-iUKiotlp  fowl".  iXH;  fnCtmiuiu  530;  twU 

Wyoiiiiug   .\gri(>()LtkirtJ     l!x|>vrliiiMii     Hl»iiait 

WEinalth,  475. 

\AnThimn  ranitd^nai^,  121. 

Yank*'*',  fi03- 

Yi'arlKH>k,  Cnnnilii.  qtintiil.  3fY2,  410. 

Vf»rbiK>k,   riiiii-tl  StiiU-*  I K'tmrl iin-ul  «>( 

uuot«il.  3U;2.  4<->0.  410. 
Yelluwbird,  Aiu^ri<-aii,  524. 
Yt'Ilpw-liMtdpil  iiumil,  6*24. 
Yi'ilowwmnl  !»■  l.o3«?y-plaat,  2S5. 

Yni  iiiioti-al.   lOfl. 

Ycirk*liirL-concli  honw,  ■t.>t-4.i.*i;  iufluwiw?  nf ' 

brisi  iiii,  S()((. 
York.-liiri'  r-iiiirh  Huiilboak  quot<"J,  454. 
Yorkuliirc  swiiir,  l^Bncv.  OGSMl?)  .  Mitldlr, 

074.  67A;  notw.  W4,  045.  MA,  fl60. 
York»liir»f  It'iriw.  .Mil. 
Vonntt  ■|ii<»t<'il,  31,  370.  IS7.  4.^.  B7U, 
Yriiiahtiri,  IS". 
Yolirijt,  AMIitir.  qimtwl,  62S. 
Young,  Mjlion.  (|iitilnl,  4P1>. 
Youni;,  Rub<Ti,  i|ii<iu-il,  (IIU. 
Yimiig  AiliitiL-i  470.  4(W. 
Viwng  .\Hma  I  45S,  403. 
Vuiiiig  Aiiifricji  I'lini.f,  218. 
Yomig  H»»liii«,  t'l*!*!. 
Yomig  Marv.  372. 
Young  .Morfill,  aw. 
Young  PhylK  372,  .175. 

Zadnllie,  4fl0. 

ZuKKlidii',  107. 

Zebrn  niuk,  410;  luittw,  0,  419. 

Zebra  n-Kxbill,  524. 

Zcbmia.  419. 

Z«-I)toU-,  419. 

Zi-l)<u>,  37iS;note»,303. 

Zrlii-in.  478. 

Zili-aadi.  4.VI. 

Z'Miiak,  187. 

Ziiritii'lmv,  273. 

Zuntr  ({uiitvd,  TV,  87,  SS,  89. 

Zygudtnus  v-<otwaoau»,  12U. 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF 
AMERICAN  HORTICULTURE 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  of  Cornell  University 
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like,  as  well  as  exact  botanical  infonnation.  .  .  .  The  contributors 
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nomenclature  would  have  been  confusing  to  the  last  degree.  Witli  the  safe  names  here 
given,  there  is  little  liability  to  serious  perplexity.  There  is  a  growing  impatience  with 
much  of  the  controversy  concerning  revision  of  names  of  organisms,  whether  of  plants 
or  animals.  Those  investigators  who  are  busied  with  the  ecological  aspects  of  organ- 
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THE  EVOLUTION    OF  OUR  NATIVE   FRUITS 

By  L.  H.  BAILEY,  Professor  of  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  Universily 

472    PAGES- laS  ILLUSTRATIOHS-W.OO 

I\  this  ontertaJTiing  volume.  Che  urit^'in  and  <j«velopmi^nt  of  the  fruiU  [veculur  Co  North  Araerica  are 
inquired  inL<i,  sind  the  [Hjnumality  of  thoMu  horticuHural  pionfurB  whose  iilmost  forjjotten  labors 
have  given  us  our  iiioBt  valuable  fruits  is  touched  upon.  There  has  k^en  can-fu!  reaearch  into  tlio 
history  of  th«  viiriouti  fruits,  including  inspection  of  the  reoordi*  of  the  great  European  botaniet«  who 
have  given  attention  to  American  economic  botany.  Tht*  eoncUiKlons  reached,  the  information  presented, 
and  the  tsucip^-stions  oa  to  future  dovelnpmentfi,  cannot  but  K-  valuable  to  any  thoughtful  fruit-grower, 
while  the  terse  style  of  the  author  is  at  ita  beat  in  his  treatment  of  the  Kubject. 

LESSONS   WITH    PLANTS 

Suggesttons  for  Seeing  and  Interpreting  Some  of  the  Common  Forms  o(  Vegetinon,  By  L.  H. 
BAILEY.  Professor  ot  Horticulture  in  the  Cornell  University,  with  delineations  from  nature 
by  yp.  S.  HOLDSWORTH,  of  the  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan. 

431  PAGES-446ILLOSTRATI0HS-12MO— CLOTH— ♦I.IO,  MET 

"  1  have  spent  wme  line  in  rno«t  delightful  i^samioatiftn  of  it,  and  thn  longer  I  look,  the  letter  I  like  it.  I  HnrI  it 
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tvonii  to  bv  full  of  ^u^if^titLoiKi  that  help  one  to  learn  the  language  of  plants,  m  they  may  talk  to  him." — DAKWhi  L. 
Baeuwicll.  Super iniendml  qf  SchaoU,  Binghamton. 

THE   SURVIVAL   OF   THE    UNLIKE 

A  Collection  of  Evolution  Essays  Suggested  hy  the  Sludy  ot  Domestic  Plants.    By  L.  H.  BAILEY, 
Professor  of  Horticullure  in  the  Cornell  University. 

515  PAGES  — 22  ILLUSTRATIONS -92.00 

TU  those  interested  in  the  underlying  philosophy  of  plnnt  life,  this  volame,  written  in  a  most 
entertaining  style,  and  fully  illustrated,  will  prove  welcome.  It  treats  of  the  modification  of 
plants  under  cultivation  upon  th^  ^vtjlutioii  theory,  and  its  attitude  on  this  interesting  subject  is 
characterized  by  the  author'"  iveli-known  oritcinality  and  indeiwndence  of  thought,  Incidentally,  there 
i«  stated  much  that  will  be  valuable  and  suggestive  to  the  working  horticatturii«t,  a«  well  as  to  the  man 
or  woman  impelted  by  a  love  of  nature  to  horticultural  pursuits.  It  may  well  be  called,  indeed,  a 
philosophy  of  horticulture^  iti  which  all  interested  may  find  inspiration  and  instruction. 

THE   OUTLOOK  TO   NATURE 

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part  in  tk»  great  work  of  edocatifn."     TororUo  Glolte. 

"They  are  writivn  in  f'roftJMOr  Bailey'i  luual  pk-aaint;  style,  and  will  l«ad  any  thinking  reader  to  a  oloaer  com- 
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BOTANY 

An    Etcmcnlury   Text  for  Sgbools 
355   PAGES— 500  aLDSTRATtONS  — |1.1D,   nST 
"  it  would  bft  hard  to  llnil  n  bettor  manual  for  achoola  or  for  in<iiv]ilua]  iwo."— rA«  Outltok, 


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SOILS 


Their  Formation,  Propenies,  Composition  and  Relations  to  Climate  and  Plant-erowth  in  the  Humtd 
and  Arid  Regions.  By  E.  W.  HILGARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the 
University  of  California  and  Director  of  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

CLOTH— 8V0- $4.00.   HET 


SUMMARY    OF    CHAPTERS 


I.  Origin  and  Formation  of  Soils. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Chapter  1.  Physical  Processes  of  Soil  Formation. 

"       2.  Chemical  Processes  of  Soil  Formation. 

"       3.  Chief  Soil-forming  Minerals. 

"       4.  The  Various  Roclis  as  Soil-Formers. 

"       5.  Minor  Mineral  Ingredients  of  Soil  — 
Mineral   Fertilizers -^  Minerals  In- 
jurious to  Agricalture. 
IT.  Physics  of  Soils. 
Chapter  6.  Physical  Composition  of  Soils. 

"  7.  Density,  Pore  Space,  and  Volume- 
Weight  of  Soils. 

"  8.  Soil  and  Sabsoii  —  Causes  and  Pro- 
cesses of  Differentiation— ^Humua. 

"       9.  Soil  and  Subsoil— Organisms  Influenc- 
ing Soil-Conditions— Bacteria. 
10.  Soil  and  Subsoil  in  Their  Relations  to 
Vegetation. 

"     11.  Water   of    Soils  —  Hygroscopic  and 
Capillary  Moisture. 
12.  Water  of  Soils — Surface,  Hydrostatic, 
and  Ground- Water — Percolation, 

"  13.  Water  of  Soils — Conservation  and  Reg- 
ulation of  Soil  Moisture — Irrigation. 

"  14.  Alisorption  by  Soils  of  Solids  from 
Solutions — Absorption  of  Gases  — 
The  Air  of  Soils. 


Physics  of  Soils,  continued. 
Chapter  15.  Colors  of  Soils. 

16.  Climate. 

17.  Relations  of  Soils  and  Plant  Growth 

to  Heat. 

III.  Chemistry  of  Soils. 
Chapter  18.  Physico- Chemical    Investigation    nf 
Soils  in  Relation  to  Crop  Product  i-m. 

19.  Analysis  of  Virgin  Soils  by  Extrai- 
tion  with  Strong  Acids  and  its  In- 
terpretation. 

20.  Soils  of  Arid  and  Humid  Regions. 

21.  Soils  of  Arid  and  Humid  Rt^gion::. 
Continued. 

22.  Alkali  Soils,  Their  Nature  and  t'l.ri- 
position. 

23.  Utilization  and  Reclamation  of  Alkaii 

Lands. 

IV.  Soils  and  Native  Vegetatio.v. 
Chapter  24.  Recognition  of  the  Character  of  S-k!.- 
from  Their  Native  Vegetation-  Mi.^- 
sissippi. 
"      25.  Recognition  of  the  Character  of  Snils 
from   Their  Native   Vegetation    - 
United  States  at  Large^Europe. 
"       26.  Vegetation     of    Saline    and    Alkali 
Lands, 


HOW   TO    CHOOSE   A    FARM 

With    a    Discussion   of  American    Lands.     By   THOMAS    F.  HUNT,  Professor  of  Agronomy 

in   Cornell    University 

CLOTH  —  12M0  -  |1 .75,    NET 

CONTENTS 

Seeking  an  Investment^.Adaptation  and  Size  of  Farm — Effect  of  Shape  and  Topography  -  Natural  ;iH 
.\rtificial  Aspect— Meteorological  Conditions— Location —  Improvements —When  and  How  w 
Examine  a  Farm — Judging  the  Farm — Some  Factors  in  Farm  Management — A  Farm  Probleni- 
The  \nrth  Atlantic  States-The  South  Atlantic  Stiites— The  North  Central  States— The  Snuin 
Central  States -The  Western  States -The  Outlying  Po3ses.?iong  of  the  United  ?tate.s— Neijrli- 
boring  Lands  of  the  Unit-ed  States — South  American  Lands. 

APPENDIX 

How   to  Secure  Titlt;   to   Public    Lands  -   United      The  Size  of  Farms  in  the  United  States. 


States — Canada. 
Essentials  in  the  Kale  and  Transfer  of  Real  E.state. 
Method  of  Laying  Out  Public  Lands. 
Irrigation  Projects. 

Area  Surveyed  and  Mapped  by  the  Bureuu  of  Soils. 
Value  of  Farm  Property  per  Acre. 


Mean  Elevation  of  the  United  States. 
lncrea.4e  of  Farm  Lands  in  the  Unitetl  States. 
Mileage  of  Railroads  in  the  United  States. 
.Acreage  of  Farms  of  Specified  Tenures. 
The  Production  of  Sanitary  Milk. 
It  ibliography— Index. 


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